CHAPTER 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

This chapter includes the introductory part of the study and all the aspects concerning the

topic. This consists of its background, objectives, significance, framework, scope, and definitions.

1.1 Background of the Study

These days several countries are facing problems regarding proper waste disposal.

Disposing high amount of waste is not an easy task. One of the best and commonly used ways to

solve this issue is through recycling. Turning these wastes into a more useful material will not just

solve the issue on reducing the amount of waste but can also be a source of income or jobs for

others. A small number of people volunteered and turn these wastes into another material by being

creative and innovative.

Ash is become one of our waste problem, especially in restaurant or business that using

charcoal for cooking. Using charcoal for cooking is widely used, so it can produce high amount of

ash in just one day. It is always considered as waste and will disposed. But ash has a property that

cement has because of that ash can replace cement even though just partial replacement. In

construction, high amount of cement is used to build walls, beam, etc. so if there is a way to lessen

the cost while keeping the quality required in the project.

Ash is a residue from burning wood. There are two main types of wood – hardwood, and

softwoods. Hardwoods come from broad leaved trees. These trees have flowers and produce seeds

such as nuts and fruit. Examples are oak, Beech and mahogany. Hardwoods are denser than

softwoods and are stronger and more durable too. They are used for furniture making. Beech is

often used for making toys. Hardwoods are much more expensive than softwoods. Softwoods
come from cone bearing trees. Examples are pine, redwood, and fir. Softwoods can be used for

furniture and doors but are mostly used in construction for roof trusses and stud partitions.

Nowadays, there is manufactured boards or processed timber. They have new and useful

properties. MDF or medium density fibreboard is now widely used. Plywood made up from

alternating layers of thin sheets of wood is strong in all directions. Chipboard made from softwood

chips and sawdust is cheap but only attractive when coated with melamine –used for kitchen

cupboards (carcases).

The researchers wanted to conduct a study to compare the effectiveness of charcoal ash as

partial replacement of cement in mortar

1.1.1 Gathering of Charcoal Ash

To narrow the research, one type of charcoal ash is acceptable. Properties of charcoal ash

vary significantly depending on many factors related to wood species and the incineration process.

Proper characterization of charcoal ash before employing it to partially replace cement. It was

observed that charcoal ash production reduced by 45% when combustion temperature was raised

from 538 °C to 1093 °C. Combustion at higher temperature, above 1000 °C causes decomposition

of carbonates and bicarbonates and therby decreases the alkalinity of the ash due to their reduction

in the charcoal ash.

2
1.2 Objectives of the Study

1.2.1 General Objective

To investigate the physical and mechanical properties of charcoal ash as a partial

replacement of cement in mortar.

1.2.1 Specific Objectives

1. To explore the properties of charcoal ash as a partial replacement of concrete

2. To characterize the strength, toughness, and effectiveness of charcoal ash as a

partial replacement of cement.

3. To process a new concrete mix with charcoal ash that has strength higher than

the normal concrete mix, making it a low-cost material, high-performance, and

lightweight alternatives.

4. To determine the influence of charcoal ash in the weight of mortar.

1.3 Significance of the Study

Nowadays, Ash is a natural waste product in cooking. Almost all restaurant or business

that using charcoal, end up tons of ash every day. Since study in charcoal ash is very few and

always in foreign countries. By just doing this study is a big step, to lessen the waste and by turning

this material to a more useful material. Mortar is similar to concrete in that it contains cement,

water, and aggregate, except that in mortar graded sand is the only aggregate present.

3
 Cement is the number one used material in construction industry. The paste -like substance

resulting from mixing such a powder with water, or the rock like substance that forms when it

dries. The problem with cement is not in its cost, it is in the amount of cement needed in

constructing the project. To lessen the cost while enhancing its strength.

This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of charcoal ash. It also provides notable

information that charcoal can be used as a partial replacement for cement.

4
1.4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

I. PROBLEM PROCES
 Charcoal Ash
II. Knowledge and Concept
 Concrete Mix with charcoal ash to improve its strength and has
become lightweight.
INPUT III. Resources
 Charcoal Ash
 Sand
 Water
 Cement

I. Preparation of Materials
 Gathering of charcoal ash from the supplier
II. Transportation of material to laboratory
 For characterization of charcoal ash
PROCESS III. Sieving of materials
IV. Material test
 Mechanical Test ( Tensile, Compression and Bending)

I. Production of mortar
 By using the new concrete mix with charcoal ash
II. Gathering of data from the material test
III. Charcoal ash properties
 Lighter than cement
IV. Mechanical properties
 better tensile, compression and bending strength
OUTPUT V. Analysis of Results, Forming Conclusion and Further Research
Recommendations

Figure 1-1. Conceptual Framework

5
1.5 Theoretical Framework

1.5.1 Charcoal ash is Lightweight

Since charcoal ash is lighter than cement it is expected to produce a lightweight

mixture. With a higher strength gained than the normal mix it also get a lighter weight.

1.5.3 Compression mechanical properties of the mortar

Compression mechanical properties of mortar with equal or less 20% replacement

of charcoal ash is expected to have higher compressive than the normal.

1.6 Scope and Delimitation

The study focused on design and investigation of the effectiveness of mortar mix, where

partial replacement of cement is charcoal ash.

The material used in the study were locally available. All material used are carefully sieved

in accordance to ASTM. Ratio, tests (Compression, Split Tensile and Flexural) are also in

accordance to ASTM.

For the actual adaptation of this study, the charcoal ash will be used and it can be used as

a low - cost yet a high-performance mortar.

1.7 Definition of Terms

Ash

 the powdery residue of matter that remains after burning

(https://www.dictionary.com/browse/ash)

6
Charcoal

 the carbonaceous material obtained by heating wood or other organic substances

in the absence of air.

(https://www.dictionary.com/browse/charcoal)

Flexural Strength

 The strength of a material in blending, that is, resistance to fracture.

(McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific & Technical Terms, 6E, Copyright © 2003 by The

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.)

Compressive Stress

 The stress which resists the shortening effect of an external compressive force.

(McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Architecture and Construction. Copyright © 2003 by

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.)

Strength

 the capability of the material to resist physical forces imposed on it.

(McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Architecture and Construction. Copyright © 2003 by

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.)

7
Toughness

 A property of a material capable of absorbing energy by plastic deformation; intermediate

between softness and brittleness.

(McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific & Technical Terms, 6E, Copyright © 2003 by The

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.)

Humidity

 Atmospheric water vapor content, expressed in any of several measures, such as relative

humidity.

(McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific & Technical Terms, 6E, Copyright © 2003 by The

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.)

8
 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Concrete

Figure 2-1. Application of Concrete as a construction material for (left) building, and (right)

road pavement

[1]
Concrete is a composite material that is composed necessarily of a binding element, such

as a mixture of cement and water, embedded within of particles or fragments of aggregates,

commonly a combination of fine and coarse aggregates.

The frequent advantages in the widespread utilization of concrete as a construction material

were listed as follows:

 Concrete’s plastic ability that enables it to be cast to any desired shapes and forms

when the materials are mixed and hardens as time passes.

1
Erdoğan T.Y., Materials of Construction, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, 2002

9
  Concrete’s quality in terms of its durability as to be compared to steel, which

corrodes, and to timber, which decays with time

 Concrete is economical: a) because of the abundance and relatively low price of the

aggregates which comprise about 75% of the concrete’s volume, b) semi-skilled

workers can be typically employed and comparatively uncomplicated equipment

used in concrete works, and c) for its low maintenance cost.

 Concrete has adequately high compressive strength.

 Concrete has reasonably high fire resistance to fire as to be compared to that of

steel and timber.

 Concrete has aesthetic attributes since it can be easily produced of any shape and

color with the use of admixtures.

2.1.1 Materials Used to Make Concrete

2.1.1.1. Cement

Figure 2-2. Cement

10
 Cement is a substance is a binder material used in construction that sets, hardens, and

adheres to other constituents (such as fine and coarse aggregates) to bond them together. Cement

mixed with fine aggregate produces mortar which is used in masonry works, or with sand and

gravel which produces concrete.

The most conventional cement, which is Portland Cement and Blended Cement, are

considered to be hydraulic cement mainly because of their property to set and harden to form a

stone-like mass by reacting with water. Cement is manufactured through the combinations of

limestone, marl or oyster shells, shale, clay, and iron ore. The cement is finely ground that most

of it pass a sieve having 40,000 openings per sq. inch (1.6 openings per mm2).

[2]
There are five types of Portland Cement namely Types I, II, III, IV and V, and two types

of Blended Cement which are I-P and I-S. Each cement type is manufactured to obtain certain

physical and chemical requirements for specific purposes.

 TYPE I is a general-purpose cement. It is suitable for all uses when the special

properties of other types are not required.

 TYPE II cement is used when sulfate concentrations in groundwater are higher

than normal. Type II will usually generate less heat at a slower rate than Type I or

Normal cement. Therefore, it may be used in structures of considerable mass, such

as large piers, heavy abutments, and heavy retaining walls. Its use will minimize

temperature rise, which is especially important in weather pours.

2
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  TYPE III is a high-early-strength cement which will develop higher strength at an

earlier age. It is used when early from removal is desired. Richer mixes (higher

cement content) of Types I and II may be used to gain early strength.

 TYPE IV cement is used in massive structures, such dams. This type of cement is

used where the heat generated during hardening is critical.

 TYPE V cement is used in concrete exposed to severe sulfate action and is used

mainly in the western section of the United States.

 TYPE I-P blended cement is a combination of Portland cement and a pozzolan. A

pozzolan, such as fly ash, by itself, has no cementing qualities, but when combined

with moisture and calcium hydroxide (in the Portland cement) it produces a

cementing effect.

 TYPE I-S blended cement is a combination of Portland cement and blast-furnace

slag. The slag constitutes between 25 and 65 percent of the weight of the blended

cement.

Hydraulic cement may be considered to be primarily composed of the following

compounds:

 Tricalcium Silicate 3 CaO.S1O2 = C3 S

Tricalcium Silicate hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely responsible

for initial set and early strength.

 Dicalcium Silicate 2 CaO.S1O2 = C2 S

Dicalcium Silicate hydrates and hardens slowly and contributes to strength

increases at ages beyond one week.

 Tricalcium Aluminate 3 CaO.Al2O3 = C3A

12
 Tricalcium Aluminate causes the concrete to liberate heat during the first

few days of hardening and it contributes slightly to early strength. Cement with low

percentages of this compound is especially resistant to sulfates (Types II and Type

V).

 Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite 4 CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 = C4AF

Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite formation reduces the clinkering temperature,

thereby assisting in the manufacture of cement. It hydrates rapidly but contributes

very little to strength.

2.1.1.2 Mixing Water for Concrete [3]

Almost any natural water that is drinkable is satisfactory as mixing water for making or

curing concrete. However, water suitable for making concrete may not necessarily be fit for

drinking.

The acceptance of acidic or alkaline waters is based on the pH scale which ranges from 0

to 14. The pH of neutral water is 7.0. A pH below 7.0 indicates acidity, and a pH above 7.0

indicates alkalinity. The pH of mixing water should be between 4.5 and 8.5.

Unless approved by tests, water from the following sources should not be used:

1. Water containing inorganic salts such as manganese, tin, zinc, copper, or lead;

2. Industrial wastewaters from tanneries, paint and paper factories, coke plants,

chemical and galvanizing plants, etc.;

3. Waters carrying sanitary sewage or organic silt; and

3
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 4. Waters containing small amounts of sugar, oil, or algae.

Wash water can be reused in the concrete mixture provided it is metered and is 25 percent

or less of the total water. A uniform amount of wash water must be used in consecutive batches,

with subsequent admixture rates adjusted accordingly to produce a workable concrete that

conforms to the specifications. The total water must conform to the acceptance criteria of ASTM

C1602, Tables 1 and 2.

2.1.1.3 Aggregates

Figure 2-3. (LEFT) Coarse aggregates and (RIGHT) fine aggregates

Aggregates are granular materials such as sand gravel, crushed stone, iron-blast furnace

slag which, together with water and Portland cement, are the necessary constituent in the

production of concrete.[4]

4
https://www.cement.org/cement-concrete-applications/concrete-materials/aggregates

14
 Aggregates are being graded by passing it through a series of sieves with gradually smaller

mesh sizes. It is conventionally considered to be fine aggregates when materials passed through

sieve #4 [0.187 in. (4.75 mm) openings], while all the materials that are retained on the #4 sieve

are designated to as coarse aggregates. The properties of concrete are principally determined by

the aggregates which constitute about 75% of the concrete volume.[5]

2.1.1.4 Admixtures

Figure 2-4. Liquid admixtures, from left to right: anti-washout admixture, shrinkage reducer,

water reducer, foaming agent, corrosion inhibitor, and air-entraining admixture.

Admixtures are the ingredients in concrete other than cement, water, and aggregates that

are incorporated into the mixture during or before the process of mixing to attain certain special

5
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology, 10th Edition.

15
properties of concrete. The four frequently used admixtures are: 1) Air-entraining agents, 2) Water-

reducing admixtures, 3) Retarding admixtures, and 4) Color pigments.[6]

2.2 Lightweight Concrete

Lightweight concrete is concrete weighing substantially less than that made using gravel

or crushed stone aggregates. This loose definition is generally agreed to cover a broad spectrum of

concretes ranging in weight from 12 to 120 pounds per cubic foot.[7]

2.2.1 Properties of Lightweight Aggregates

2.2.1.1 Definition

Aggregates with an oven-dry particle density less 2000 kg/m3 or an oven-dry loose bulk

density less than 1200 kg/m3 are called as lightweight aggregates according to EN206-1:2000.

ASTM C330 also defines a maximum limit for the bulk density, which is 1120 kg/m3 and 880

kg/m3 for fine and coarse lightweight aggregate, respectively.

2.2.1.2 Classification

Lightweight concrete is classified into two according to their sources:

A. Natural Lightweight Aggregates

Natural Lightweight Aggregates are acquired from processed volcanic

rocks. It generally composes of 2-5% water. (Mehta & Monteiro, 2006)

6
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology, 10th Edition.
7
The Aberdeen Group. (1981). Structural lightweight concrete

16
 B. Manufactured (Synthetic) Lightweight Aggregates

Synthetic Lightweight Aggregates have developed forms of materials such

as clay, perlite, shale, slate, and vermiculite, which are generated by heat treatment,

usually around 1000 oC.

Figure 2-5. Air-dry densities of lightweight concrete range from 12 to 120 pounds per cubic

foot. Structural lightweight concretes at the right end of the spectrum have strengths of 2500 psi

and above. Adapted from ACI 213R-79, Reference 1.

2.2.1.3 Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of lightweight aggregates is reasonably about 1/3 to 2/3 of normal

weight aggregates. Fine particles of lightweight aggregates have higher specific gravity than

those of coarse aggregates from the same source. The reason behind this is mainly because of the

removal of larger pores during the process of crushing (Neville & Brooks, 2010).

17
2.2.1.4 Bulk Density

Bulk density of lightweight aggregates are quantified in dry-loose form and is essentially

proportional to specific gravity for some grading and particle shape (ACI Committee 213, 2003).

Table 2-1. Maximum dry loose bulk density requirements of lightweight aggregates for

structural concrete (ASTM C330)

2.2.1.5 Grading

ASTM C330 states the necessary modification on the grading requirement in order to fit

the same volumetric distribution of materials retained on each sieve because of the certainty that

specific gravity of lightweight aggregates increases with the decrease in particle size in contrast to

normal weight aggregates.

Table 2-2. Grading requirements for lightweight aggregate for structural concrete (ASTM C330)

18
2.2.1.6 Water Absorption Capacity

ACI Committee 213, 2003 states that the 24-hour water absorption capacity of lightweight

aggregates vary between 5 to 25% by dry mass depending on the pore system of the aggregate,

whereas it is less than 2% for most of the normal weight aggregates. According to Neville and

Brooks, 2010, 15% is the general absorption capacity of lightweight aggregates.

2.2.1.7 Classification of Lightweight Concrete

According to a method of production, lightweight concretes are divided into three (Neville

& Brooks, 2010):

a) Utilizing aggregates with low specific gravity: lightweight aggregate concrete

b) Introducing large voids within concrete or mortar body: aerated, cellular, foamed or gas

concrete

c) Utilizing only coarse aggregates to provide large interstitial voids: no-fines concrete

2.3 Charcoal

Charcoal is the lightweight black carbon and ash residue hydrocarbon produced by removing

water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances through the process

called pyrolysis, which is the heating of wood or other substances in the absence of oxygen.

Figure 2-6. Charcoal

19
2.3.1 Charcoal Properties

[8]
The quality of charcoal is determined by various quality factors, although all are inter-

related to a certain extent, which is measured separately.

2.3.1.1 Moisture Content

Charcoal fresh from an opened kiln contains very little moisture, usually less than 1%.

Absorption of moisture from the humidity of the air itself is rapid and there is, with time, a gain of

moisture which even without any rain wetting can bring the moisture content to about 5-10%, even

in well-burned charcoal. When the charcoal is not properly burned or where pyroligneous acids

and soluble tars have been washed back onto the charcoal by rain, as can happen in pit and mound

burning, the hygroscopicity of the charcoal is increased and the natural or equilibrium moisture

content of the charcoal can rise to 15% or even more.

Quality specifications for charcoal usually limit the moisture content to around 5-15% of

the gross weight of the charcoal. Moisture content is determined by oven drying a weighted sample

of the charcoal. It is expressed as a percentage of the initial wet weight.

There is evidence that charcoal with a high moisture content (10% or more) tends to shatter

and produce fines when heated in the blast furnace, making it undesirable in the production of pig

iron.

2.3.1.2 Volatile Matter other than Water

The volatile matter in charcoal can vary from a high of 40% or more down to 5% or less.

It is measured by heating away from air, a weighed sample of dry charcoal at 900°C to constant

8
Online: www.fao.org/docrep/X5555E/x5555e03.htm#TopOfPage

20
weight. The weight loss is the volatile matter. Volatile matter is usually specified free of the

moisture content, i.e. volatile matter - moisture or (V.M. - moisture)

High volatile charcoal is easy to ignite but may burn with a smoky flame. Low volatile

charcoal is difficult to light and burns very cleanly. A good commercial charcoal can have a net

volatile matter content - (moisture free) of about 30%. High volatile matter charcoal is less friable

than ordinary hard burned low volatile charcoal and so produces fewer fines during transport and

handling. It is also more hygroscopic and thus has a higher natural moisture content.

2.3.1.3 Fixed carbon content

The fixed carbon content of charcoal ranges from a low of about 50% to a high of around

95%. Thus, charcoal consists mainly of carbon. The carbon content is usually estimated as a

"difference", that is to say, all the other constituents are deducted from 100 as percentages and the

remainder is assumed to be the percent of "pure" or "fixed" carbon. The fixed carbon content is

the most important constituent in metallurgy since it is the fixed carbon which is responsible for

reducing the iron oxides of the iron ore to produce metal. But the industrial user must strike a

balance between the friable nature of high fixed carbon charcoal and the greater strength of

charcoal with a lower fixed carbon and higher volatile matter content to obtain optimum blast

furnace operation.[9]

2.3.1.4 Ash content

Ash is determined by heating a weighed sample to red heat with access of air to burn away

all combustible matter. This residue is the ash. It is mineral matter, such as clay, silica and calcium

9
Trossero, M.A. 'Carbonizaciòn de leña: Paràmetros comparative'. Congreso ILAFA-Altos Hornos. Instituto Latinoamericano
del Fierro y el Acero. (In Spanish). 1982

21
and magnesium oxides, etc., both present in the original wood and picked up as contamination

from the earth during processing.

The ash content of charcoal varies from about 0.5% to more than 5% depending on the

species of wood, the amount of bark included with the wood in the kiln and the amount of earth

and sand contamination. Good quality lump charcoal typically has an ash content of about 3%.

Fine charcoal may have a very high ash content but if material less than 4 mm is screened out the

plus 4 mm residue may have an ash content of about 5-10%.

2.3.1.5 Adsorption capacity

As produced, normal wood charcoal is not a very active adsorption material for either

liquids or vapors because its fines structure is blocked by tarry residues. To convert the charcoal

to "activated" this structure must be opened up by removing the tarry residues. The most widely

used method today consists in heating the pulverized raw charcoal in a furnace to low red heat in

an atmosphere of superheated steam. The steam prevents the charcoal from burning away by

excluding oxygen. Meanwhile, the volatile tars can be distilled away and are carried off with the

steam, leaving the pore structure open. The treated charcoal is run off into closed containers and

allowed to cool. Activation furnaces are usually continuous, i.e. the powdered charcoal passes

continuously cascade fashion through the hot furnace in the steam atmosphere.[10]

10
Mantell, C.L. 1968 Carbon and graphite handbook'. Chapt. 13. Adsorbents. Interscience Publishers. New York.

22
2.3.1.6 The chemical composition of charcoal

The table shows the following data derived from work on Australian eucalyptus. [11]

Table 2-3. Volatile Matter and Yield of Charcoal at Various Temperatures

Table 2-4. Inorganic Content of Bark Sapwood and Heartwood

2.3.2 Charcoal Ash

Ash refers to the non-aqueous and non-gaseous residues which remain after a complete

combustion of charcoal or wood. Study shows that about 0.43 to 1.82 percent of the wood’s dry

mass remain as ash residue after the process of combustion. [12] Calcium carbonate contributes for

about 25 to 45 percent of wood ash. Ash is also composed of about 10 percent of potash, and a

11
Humphreys, F.R. & Ironside, G.E. 1981 'Charcoal from NSW species of timber 3rd ed., Forestry Commission of NSW. Sydney.
12
Misra MK, Ragland KW, Baker AJ (1993). "Wood Ash Composition as a Function of Furnace Temperature"

23
percent of phosphate. Heavy metals are also found in the ash which includes iron, manganese,

zinc, and copper.[13]

2.4 Related Studies

Title: The Implementation of wood waste ash as a partial cement replacement material in the

production of structural grade concrete and mortar: An overview

Author/s: Cheah Chee Ban, Mahyuddin Ramli

The widespread usage of wood biomass fuel comes with the abundance of wood waste ash

produced, while the progress of construction industry demands a massive amount of cement as the

main constituent in making concrete. This research study focuses on the utilization of wood waste

ash as a partial cement replacement for concrete production. Recent study (Udoeyo and Dashibil,

2002; Elinwa and Ejeh, 2004; Udoeyo et al., 2006; Naik et al., 2003) was conducted to analyze the

effectiveness of the used of wood waste ash as a partial replacement material for cement in the

production of concrete. This study provides a solution for the waste management problem in wood

waste ash as the results shows that wood waste ash can be appropriately used as constituent

material in producing structural grade concrete with acceptable mechanical and durability

properties.

The following conclusions were drawn from the conducted research study:

 Proper characterization of wood ash is necessary before its application as a

constituent material in the production of concrete mixtures.

 Wood ash is generally abundant in lime and silica compounds.

13
Lerner BR (16 November 2000). "Wood Ash in the Garden". Purdue University, Department of Horticulture and Landscape
Architecture. Retrieved 2008-10-01.

24
  Higher water demand is necessary for the concrete and mortar mixtures with wood

waste ash as constituent.

 Gradual reduction in the bulk density of the concrete and mortar mixture with wood

waste ash as partial cement replacement is observed.

 10% replacement of Ordinary Portland Cement with wood waste ash produced a

structural grade concrete or mortar with acceptable strength properties

Title: Characteristics of Wood Ash/OPC Concrete

Author/s: M. Abdullahi, Civil Engineering Department, Federal University of Technology,

P.M.B. 65, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria, abdulapai@yahoo.com

Compressive property of concrete incorporated with wood ash as partial cement

replacement is investigated in this research study. Chemical properties of wood ash, bulk density,

sieve analysis and specific gravity of wood ash and aggregates, consistency, setting time and

slump test of the fresh paste were conducted to determine the suitability of the materials for

concrete making. The findings show that the chemical properties of wood ash do not meet the

standards of the pozzolana. The specific gravity and bulk density of wood ash were found to be

2.13 and 760 kg/m3, respectively. The results also show that the gradual increase of wood ash in

the mixture requires a higher amount of water. This research study concluded that the optimum

replacement level was 20% as it increased the compressive strength of concrete at 60 days

curing.

25
Title: Potential of Wood Waste Ash as an Additive in Concrete

Author/s: Felix F. Udoeyo, Hilary Inyang, David T. Young, and Edmund E. Oparadu

The massive amount of wood waste ash produced globally lead the researchers of this

study to investigate the potentials of wood waste ash as a constituent in concrete production. The

researchers have concluded that the addition of 5 to 10% of wood waste ash by weight of cement

is the most appropriate amount to produce a concrete which shows a significant difference

between the 28- and 90-day strengths. The result shows that the compressive and flexural

strength of concrete reduces as the amount of incorporation of wood waste ash increases. The

research also manifests that wood waste ash acts more of a filler than a binder. This is because

that as the amount of wood waste ash being added, the surface area of the concrete filler which

the cement will be binding.

26
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1. PROJECT DEVELOPMENT

I. GATHERING OF MATERIALS
Charcoal ash
Cement
Sand
Water

III. DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Chemical content of charcoal ash

II. DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Bulk density of sand
Specific gravity of sand
Specific gravity of cement

VII. PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN (MORTAR)

Mixing dry material, such as cement and different portion of charcoal ash (0%,
5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) replacement of cement
Mixing dry and wet material with 0.60:1 ratio
Curing (7, 14 and 28 days)

VI. DETERMINATION OF MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES
Compressive strength
Flexural strength
Split tensile strength

V. EVALUATION OF RESULT

IV. APPLICATION 27
3.2 PREPARATION OF MATERIALS

3.2.1 CHARCOAL ASH

The charcoal ash as a partial replacement of cement was obtained from roasted chicken’s

stores like Andoks, Sr. Pedro and Baliwag etc. The waste in charcoal is its ash and most of the said

grilling station was considering the ash as waste. The charcoal ash was sieved to meet the size of

cement and tested under chemical determination for the chemical content of charcoal ash to satisfy

the characteristic of cement as a replacer.

Figure 3.1 – Charcoal Ash

3.2.2 CEMENT

The cement used as a binding material is Holcim Excel Type I Ordinary Portland Cement

conforming to ASTM C – 150. Product description of Holcim excel was obtained from the Holcim

Philippines Inc. website. The typical physical properties of Holcim Excel Type I Ordinary Portland

Cement are given in Table 3-1 and the chief constituent of Portland Cement are given in Table 3-

2.

28
 Figure 3.2 – cement

Table 3-1. Physical Properties of Holcim Type I Ordinary Portland Cement

Physical Properties ASTM Type-1 Cement

Typical Compressive Strength (Mpa)

3 days 19 min

7 days 25 min

28 days 32 min

Blaine (m2/kg) 340

Setting Time

Initial Time (mins) 130

Final Time (hrs) 5

29
 Table 3-2. Chemical Constituent of Portland Cement

Lime (CaO) 60 to 67%

Silica (SiO2) 17 to 25%

Alumina (Al2O3) 3 to 8%

Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5 to 6%

Magnesia (MgO) 0.1 to 4%

Sulphur trioxide (SO3) 1 to 3%

Soda and/or Potash (Na2O+K2O) 0.5 to 1.3%

3.2.3 WATER

To provide good bond strength, the water used throughout the study was distilled

water. Distilled water undergoes a filtration process to become pure and free contaminants. The

minerals in the water do not evaporate with it but remain in the original container, while the vapor

is collected to condense in a separate container.

Since distilled water contains only water molecules, its properties are consistent, and it can

be assumed that any changes in an experiment will be a result of the variable and not the water.

30
 3.2.4 SAND

Sand is a granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles.

It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can also refer to a textural

class of soil or soil type; i.e., a soil containing more than 85 percent sand-sized particles by mass.

3.3. DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

3.3.1 BULK DENSITY OF SAND

For determination of bulk density of sand (ASTM C 29/29M-97) *for sand and OPS

only. The data and results are given in Table 3-4.

Materials to be used:

1. Small container

2. Generous amount of sand and OPS

Calculations:

M = (G-T) / V

G = mass of the aggregate plus the measure (kg)

T = mass of the measure (kg)

V = volume of the measure (m3)

31
 3.3.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SAND

For determination of Specific Gravity of sand (ASTM C 128) *for sand and OPS

only. The Data and Result are given in Table 3-5.

Materials to be used:

1. 500g of sand and OPS (lol)

2. Pycnometer

3. Blow dryer

4. Metal tamper

5. Cone-shaped mold

6. Weighing scale

Steps:

1. Oven-dry sample

2. Soak in water

3. Dry the sample to SSD condition (repeatedly tested using Cone test)

4. Observe slump

5. Record the weight of pycnometer

6. Place the sand / OPS to the pycnometer

7. Fill the pycnometer with water (90% of its height)

8. Manually roll, invert and agitate the pycnometer to ensure that any trapped air is

eliminated

9. Add water up to calibration mark

10. Weight the pycnometer with sample and water

32
 3.3.3 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF CEMENT AND CHARCOAL ASH

For determination of Specific Gravity (ASTM C 188). The data and result are

given in table 3-5.

Materials to be used:

1. Kerosene

2. Ordinary Portland Cement

3. Le-Chatelier Flask of 250 mL or Pycnometer of 100mL

4. Weighing scale

Steps:

1. The Flask should be free from the liquid that means it should be fully dry. Weigh the

empty flask. Which is W1?

2. Next, fill the cement on the bottle up to half of the flask around 50gm and weigh with its

stopper. And it is W2.

3. Add Kerosene to the cement up to the top of the bottle. Mix well to remove the air

bubbles in it. Weigh the flask with cement and kerosene. And it is W3.

4. Empty the flask. Fill the bottle with kerosene up to the top and weigh the flask for

counting W4

33
3.4 PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN

3.4.1 DESIGN MIX

Concrete mix design is the process of finding right proportions of cement, sand,

and aggregates for concrete to achieve target strength in structures. The mix ratio of sand, cement,

and water are given in table 3-7.

Table 3-3. Mix Design

Sand – Cement Ratio 1:3

Water – Cement Ratio 0.60: 1

Ash Percentage replacement 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%

Different portion of ash (5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) is used to replace the cement

for three trials per portion replaced. The mixture of cement, sand, and ash which are prepared in

such a manner that a cement concrete 50 mm x 50 mm x 50 mm cube, 160 mm x 40 mm x 40 mm

in rectangular and 100 mm x 50 mm in cylindrical is being cured in 7, 14, and 28 days.

34
 CHAPTER 4

4.1. DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

For partial replacement of Cement, Charcoal ash tested to determine the Chemical
properties which fits the chemical content of cement that meets the requirement as replacer.

Charcoal Ash was tested in Ostrea Mineral Laboratory Inc. – Biñan Laguna. The results of
analysis are given in table 3-3.

Table 4-1. Result of analysis of charcoal ash

Calcium oxide (CaO) 0.15 %

Silica (SiO2) 7%

Alumina (Al2O3)

Iron oxide (Fe2O3)

Soda and/or Potash (Na2O+K2O) 1.16 %

35
4.2 DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

4.2.1 BULK DENSITY OF SAND

Table 4-2. Data and Result of bulk density of sand

Weight of Beaker 220 grams

Weight of sand + beaker 550 grams

Volume of sand 200 mL

Weight of sand 330 g

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 330 𝑔

Bulk Density = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 200 𝑚𝐿 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟓 𝒈/𝒎𝒍

4.2.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SAND

Table 4-3. Data and Result of Specific Gravity of Sand

Weight of specimen + pan 1.29 kg

Weight of pan 243 g

Weight of specimen 786 g

Weight of flask with water 685 g

Weight of flask 190.5 g

36
 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛
Specific gravity = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛−𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑘 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘

786 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
= 685 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠− = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟏
986 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠

4.2.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF CEMENT AND CHARCOAL ASH

Table 4-4. Data and Result of Specific Gravity of Cement

Weight of cement 64.2 g

Final reading of kerosene level (cc) 21.1 cc

Initial reading of kerosene level (cc) 0.1 cc

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 64.2 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠

Specific Gravity = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒−𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 21.1 𝑐𝑐−0.1 𝑐𝑐 = 3.05

Table 4-5. Data and Result of Specific Gravity of Charcoal Ash

Weight of cement 64.3 g

Final reading of kerosene level (cc) 22.7 cc

Initial reading of kerosene level (cc) 0.7 cc

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 64.3 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠

Specific Gravity = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒−𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 22.7 𝑐𝑐−0.7 𝑐𝑐 = 2.15

37
4.3 DETERMINATION OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

4.3.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGHT (ASTM C39)

The testing for compression had to be conducted in accordance with ASTM C39.
The test is intended for determining the relative compressive strength of concrete. The test
method consists of applying a compressive axial load to molded cubes at a rate which is
within a prescribed range until failure occurred.

Figure 4-1 shows the compressive strength of the mortar specimen in 7 days curing. The
graph shows that the highest replacement of cement could be at 10% but as the replacement
increases, the compressive strength decreases. The 10% replacement specimen sustained a
compressive load of 7.64 MPA. This also shows that the possible maximum replacement was 10%
replacement of ash.

Fig. 4-1. Compressive strength (7 days curing)

7 DAYS CURING
base (mm) width (mm) height (mm) weight (g) force (kN) area (sq.mm) strength (mpa) average (mpa)

50.927 50.546 50.292 260 15.7 2574.156142 6.099086121

0 49.53 49.53 57.15 260 17.3 2453.2209 7.051953617 6.655033622
50.8 50.2666 56.9722 270 17.4 2553.54328 6.814061127
50.165 49.8094 55.7022 258 18.6 2498.688551 7.443904921
5 53.7718 51.3334 54.5084 266 19.3 2760.289318 6.992020682 7.17554046
51.308 50.8508 54.737 263 18.5 2609.052846 7.090695777
50.0634 50.673 53.5686 262 18.3 2536.862668 7.213634474
10 50.0126 50.5206 54.5846 264 19.4 2526.66656 7.678100589 7.642312715
49.149 49.1236 55.0418 257 19.4 2414.375816 8.035203082
50.3936 50.3936 55.372 262 16.4 2539.514921 6.457926222
15 50.165 49.5808 54.356 256 15.3 2487.220832 6.151444135 6.163440831
53.34 50.3682 54.8894 260 15.8 2686.639788 5.880952136
50.546 51.2826 54.5338 281 14.6 2592.1303 5.632432908
20 50.038 49.2506 54.9402 277 15.3 2464.401523 6.20840389 5.874535662
50.6222 50.2158 55.3974 284 14.7 2542.034271 5.782770189

38
Figure 4-2 shows the compressive strength of the mortar specimen in 14 days curing. The graph
shows a slightly increase in strength and the highest replacement of cement could be at 10% but
as the replacement increases, the compressive strength decreases. The 10% replacement specimen
sustained a compressive load of 8.48 MPA. This also shows that the possible maximum
replacement was 10% replacement of ash.

Fig. 4-2. Compressive strength (14 days curing)

14 DAYS CURING
base (mm) width (mm) height (mm) weight (g) force (kN) area (sq.mm) strength (mpa) average (mpa)

49.9 50 56.68 256 17.8 2495 7.134268537

0 50 51 55.7 254 16.1 2550 6.31372549 6.464516541
49.83 50.63 56.11 252.5 15 2522.8929 5.945555596
51.9 51.8 54.72 276 19.8 2688.42 7.36492066
5 49 50.64 54.12 250.5 20.3 2481.36 8.180997517 7.809377832
50.37 51.13 54.79 259 20.3 2575.4181 7.882215319
50.2 50 54.52 261.5 21.2 2510 8.446215139
10 51 49.5 54.12 258.5 22.6 2524.5 8.952267776 8.477793423
50.93 50.34 53.33 254.5 20.6 2563.8162 8.034897353
49.8 50 52.4 253 16.4 2490 6.586345382
15 51.86 51 54.5 269.5 17.9 2644.86 6.767844045 6.587150756
50.89 50.91 51.96 253.5 16.6 2590.8099 6.407262841
51.4 50.6 56 289 16.9 2600.84 6.497900678
20 50.1 50.5 56.28 286 15.5 2530.05 6.126361139 6.311083941
51.19 51.4 53.87 282 16.6 2631.166 6.308990007

39
 Figure 4-3 shows the compressive strength of the mortar specimen in 28 days curing. The
graph shows the highest compressive strength attained by mortar. As the result of 28 days curing
the highest compressive strength of mortar is in 10% replacement of cement but as the replacement
increases, the compressive strength decreases. The 10% replacement specimen sustained a
compressive load of 17.03 MPA. This also shows that the possible maximum replacement was
10% replacement of ash.

Fig. 4-3. Compressive strength (28 days curing)

28 DAYS CURING
base (mm) width (mm) height (mm) weight (g) force (kN) area (sq.mm) strength (mpa) average (mpa)

50.9778 51.816 55.372 259 31.7 2641.465685 12.00091305

0 51.0032 51.054 56.5658 255.5 31.1 2603.917373 11.94354334 12.37714027
49.6824 49.6062 55.5752 252 32.5 2464.555071 13.18696441
50.4952 50.5206 54.0512 262 41.9 2551.047801 16.42462363
5 50.6984 51.3842 56.0578 271.5 42.1 2605.096725 16.16062835 16.10403097
50.9524 50.292 54.229 255 40.3 2562.498101 15.72684092
50.7746 50.3682 54.2544 265 42.1 2557.425208 16.46186949
10 49.784 50.0888 54.6608 261.5 42 2493.620819 16.84297776 17.03006313
49.8094 49.5554 55.4736 261 43.9 2468.324741 17.78534213
49.4284 49.3268 54.4576 253 38.6 2438.144801 15.83170941
15 51.816 50.6222 55.3466 259.5 37.4 2623.039915 14.25826568 15.28270653
49.6062 49.1236 54.1528 256.5 38.4 2436.835126 15.75814448
49.53 49.3014 56.2356 279.5 36.3 2441.898342 14.8654837
20 51.2064 50.9778 55.626 288.5 35.5 2610.389618 13.59950245 14.2423488
50.165 50.038 55.245 279 35.8 2510.15627 14.26206027

40
 4.3.2 SPLIT TENSILE STRENGHT (ASTM C496)

A standard test cylinder of mortar specimen will tally between the loading surfaces
of Universal Testing Machine. The compression load was applied diametrically and uniformly
along the cylinder until the failure occurs. To allow the uniform distribution of this applied load
and to reduce the magnitude of the high compressive stresses near the points of application of this
load, strips of plywood were placed between the specimen and loading platens of the testing
machine.

Figure 4-4 shows the split tensile strength of the mortar specimen in 7 days curing. The
graph shows the highest split tensile strength attained is in 5% replacement of cement. As the
replacement increases the split tensile decreases. The 5% replacement sustained a split tensile load
of 8.22 MPA.

41
 Fig. 4-4. Split Tensile (7 days curing)

7 DAYS CURING
diameter (mm) height (mm) weight (g) force (kN) area (sq.mm) strength (mpa) average (mpa)

52.78 99 448 16.4 2187.90597 7.495751751

0 55 102.5 458 15.4 2375.82944 6.481946772 7.156870235
52.79 100.41 455.5 16.4 2188.73511 7.492912182
53 100 414.5 18.4 2206.18344 8.340194952
5 52.4 98.8 402.5 18.3 2156.51486 8.485914161 8.219267477
52.88 99.72 403.5 17.2 2196.20449 7.831693318
53 99.6 408.5 13.3 2206.18344 6.028510482
10 53 99.4 408.5 12.7 2206.18344 5.756547603 6.088485311
52.82 97.76 401.01 14.2 2191.22349 6.480397849
52.9 101.1 409.5 12.1 2197.86607 5.505339993
15 52.9 99.5 407.5 11.9 2197.86607 5.414342638 5.510130814
53.26 98.39 403.5 12.5 2227.88211 5.610709812
52 100 408.5 9.1 2123.71663 4.284940775
20 52 99.83 403 9.8 2123.71663 4.614551604 4.368848624
52.19 101.41 406.5 9 2139.26445 4.207053495

42
 Figure 4-5 shows the split tensile strength of the mortar specimen in 14 days curing. The
graph shows the highest split tensile strength attained is in 5% replacement of cement. As the
replacement increases the split tensile decreases. The 5% replacement sustained a split tensile
load of 9.86 MPA

Fig. 4-5. Split Tensile (7 days curing)

14 DAYS CURING
diameter (mm) height (mm) weight (g) force (kN) area (sq.mm) strength (mpa) average (mpa)

52.6796 99.0346 448 17 2179.59006 7.799631824

0 52.959 101.8286 452 19.8 2202.77142 8.988676633 8.285831875
53.4416 99.187 449 18.1 2243.10078 8.069187168
52.7812 99.1362 416 20.6 2188.00546 9.414967371
5 53.086 100.1268 418 21.4 2213.34894 9.668606525 9.864958931
52.5526 98.9584 412 22.8 2169.09362 10.5113029
52.6796 99.5426 409 13.1 2179.59006 6.010304523
10 52.959 99.5934 409 13.9 2202.77142 6.310232586 6.009336063
52.8066 100.1776 414 12.5 2190.11184 5.707471081
52.7304 100.8888 411 12.7 2183.79573 5.815562239
15 53.2384 98.679 399 12.5 2226.0754 5.615263514 5.700609579
53.1876 101.8032 411 12.6 2221.8292 5.671002984
53.1368 99.7966 403 11.5 2217.58704 5.18581674
20 52.8828 99.3394 402 11.2 2196.43707 5.09916726 5.340515722
52.8828 100.9142 403 12.6 2196.43707 5.736563167

43
 Figure 4-6 shows the split tensile strength of the mortar specimen in 28 days curing. The
graph shows the highest split tensile strength attained by mortar. As the result of 28 days curing
the highest tensile strength of mortar is in 5% replacement of cement but as the replacement
increases, the tensile strength decreases. The 5% replacement specimen sustained a tensile load of
13.22 MPA.

Fig. 4-6. Split Tensile (7 days)

28 DAYS CURING
diameter (mm) height (mm) weight (g) force (kN) area (sq.mm) strength (mpa) average (mpa)

53.0098 99.8728 450 26.2 2206.99939 11.87132182

0 52.9082 100.3046 457 26.8 2198.54751 12.18986622 12.05519688
51.5874 97.4598 443 25.3 2090.14859 12.10440259
52.7812 99.695 417.5 28.9 2188.00546 13.20837656
5 52.705 96.9772 409 29.3 2181.69239 13.42994096 13.22143684
52.5018 96.7994 409.5 28.2 2164.90213 13.025993
52.4002 97.6884 404 21 2156.53132 9.737859948
10 52.2478 95.6818 398.5 22.1 2144.00551 10.30780931 10.0660219
53.2384 98.171 407 22.6 2226.0754 10.15239643
51.6128 98.8822 406.5 14 2092.20734 6.691497404
15 52.7812 98.679 404.5 14.7 2188.00546 6.71844759 6.804334334
52.2224 98.1964 403 15 2141.92143 7.003058008
52.7812 98.5774 400 13.4 2188.00546 6.124299164
20 52.9336 100.3046 406.5 13.2 2200.65896 5.998203381 6.077649784
54.2036 99.5934 404.5 14.1 2307.52356 6.110446807

44
4.3.3 FLEXURAL STRENGHT (ASTM C78)

Flexure tests are generally used to determine the flexural modulus or flexural strength of a
material. A flexure test is more affordable than a tensile test and test results are slightly different.
The material is laid horizontally over two points of contact (lower support span) and then a force
is applied to the top of the material through either one or two points of contact (upper loading span)
until the sample fails. The maximum recorded force is the flexural strength of that particular
sample.

Figure 4-7 shows the flexural strength of the mortar specimen in 7 days curing. The graph
shows the highest flexural strength attained is in 5% replacement of cement. As the replacement
increases the split tensile decreases. The 5% replacement sustained a split tensile load of 1.65
MPA.

Fig. 4-7. Flexural strength (7 days curing)

7 DAYS CURING
length (mm) width (mm) height (mm) weight (g) force (kN) area (sq.mm) strength (mpa) average (mpa)

160.254 39.654 40.154 574.51 9.57 6354.71212 1.505969086

0 161.164 38.256 41.165 579.5 9.84 6165.48998 1.59598021 1.55589574
160.584 38.221 39.265 524.5 9.61 6137.68106 1.565737923
159.24 37.501 38.131 579.9 9.87 5971.65924 1.652806968
5 159.262 36.165 39.165 502.5 9.73 5759.71023 1.689321096 1.645299986
160.24 37.551 40.455 504 9.59 6017.17224 1.593771894
161.564 39.654 41.223 505 9.62 6406.65886 1.501562705
10 160.156 40.215 42.023 510.5 9.43 6440.67354 1.464132585 1.506623708
160.256 38.544 40.132 470 9.6 6176.90726 1.554175834
159.265 39.545 39.655 489 9.48 6298.13443 1.505207631
15 161.658 39.154 39.322 517 9.42 6329.55733 1.488255735 1.456894522
162.655 38.123 40.554 525 8.54 6200.89657 1.377220199
160.2855 37.688 41.256 502 9.21 6040.83992 1.524622423
20 161.245 40.123 39.688 508 9.13 6469.63314 1.411208303 1.429614705
160.546 39.545 39.121 490 8.59 6348.79157 1.353013389

45
 Figure 4-8 shows the flexural strength of the mortar specimen in 14 days curing.
The graph shows the highest flexural strength attained is in 5% replacement of cement.
As the replacement increases the flexural strength decreases. The 5% replacement
sustained a flexural load of 1.60 MPA

Fig. 4-7. Flexural strength (14 days curing)

14 DAYS CURING
length (mm) width (mm) height (mm) weight (g) force (kN) area (sq.mm) strength (mpa) average (mpa)

160.8074 37.8714 40.6146 525 9.85 6090.00137 1.61740522

0 161.5694 41.021 39.9288 559 9.96 6627.73836 1.502775074 1.571608766
159.639 39.243 41.275 563 9.99 6264.71328 1.594646005
160.8074 37.8968 39.7002 500 9.98 6094.08588 1.637653325
5 160.147 38.9636 39.9542 510 9.88 6239.90365 1.583357782 1.598776902
161.29 38.9636 38.989 512 9.9 6284.43904 1.5753196
160.5026 38.4556 141.5542 505 9.68 6172.22378 1.568316435
10 159.893 39.1668 39.4716 510 9.72 6262.49715 1.552096514 1.548993556
162.179 39.624 40.7162 527 9.81 6426.1807 1.526567718
160.5788 40.1066 38.8874 514 9.55 6440.2697 1.482857154
15 159.512 39.6748 40.2336 514 9.54 6328.6067 1.507440809 1.482821493
160.6804 40.5892 41.529 523 9.51 6521.88889 1.458166516
160.8582 41.5798 39.878 518 9.36 6688.45178 1.399426998
20 157.8356 40.3352 38.9128 483 9.31 6366.33049 1.462380882 1.4223864
159.639 41.275 39.878 504 9.26 6589.09973 1.405351321

46
 Figure 4-9 shows the flexural strength of the mortar specimen in 28 days curing. The graph
shows the highest flexural strength attained by mortar. As the result of 28 days curing the highest
flexural strength of mortar is in 5% replacement of cement but as the replacement increases, the
flexural strength decreases. The 5% replacement specimen sustained a flexural load of 1.51 MPA.

Fig. 4-9. Flexural (28 days curing)

28 DAYS CURING
length (mm) width (mm) height (mm) weight (g) force (kN) area (sq.mm) strength (mpa) average (mpa)

161.1122 39.5224 42.3418 525 9.41 6367.54081 1.477807567

0 160.2994 39.5478 42.5196 550.5 9.36 6339.48861 1.476459786 1.460068799
161.0868 40.4876 42.2402 547 9.3 6522.01792 1.425939044
161.4932 39.5986 40.7162 496.5 9.87 6394.90463 1.543416293
5 161.9758 40.2336 41.0718 502.5 9.84 6516.86955 1.509927417 1.511790068
161.2646 41.7576 41.3766 527 9.98 6734.02266 1.482026495
161.8742 40.2336 40.4114 503 9.67 6512.78181 1.484772602
10 161.2646 40.4622 41.529 523.5 8.8 6525.1205 1.348634098 1.446320855
160.7058 40.132 41.5036 523 9.71 6449.44517 1.505555866
167.6908 40.8432 41.5036 527 9.69 6849.02888 1.414799115
15 161.2392 42.291 40.4876 519 9.57 6818.96701 1.403438379 1.406410407
162.8902 41.9354 40.3098 523 9.57 6830.86569 1.400993729
160.3248 42.8244 41.1734 527.5 9.43 6865.81337 1.373471648
20 161.4424 42.1386 40.9448 506 9.29 6802.95672 1.3655827 1.347967489
162.1028 42.2656 40.894 513.5 8.94 6851.3721 1.304848119

47
48
 Chapter 5

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter will provide a summary of the purpose, methodology, and results of this study.

Then, conclusions will be discussed based on researcher insights gained regarding study findings

and limitations. Finally, a set of recommendations is presented for professionals interested in

pursuing additional research to exceed the scope and findings of this study.

5.1 Summary of Findings

The world’s population is continuously increasing especially in many developing

countries. Leaving the waste materials to the environment directly can cause

environmental problem. Hence the reuse of waste material has been emphasized. Waste

can be used to produce new products or can be used as replacement so that natural

resource is used more efficiently, and the environment is protected from waste deposits.

Charcoal ashes are formed after burning charcoal material which is dumped as

waste in land.

This study aims to determine the effectiveness of charcoal ash as a partial replacement for

cement in production of mortar. A critical review study in sieve analysis, consistency, and water

absorption, setting time and slump tests of charcoal ash added to Ordinary Portland Cement

(OPC) will produce significant results to emphasize the detailed study process.

The physical and chemical properties of charcoal ash determined and compared to

cement. The average size of particle of charcoal ash is ______, specific gravity of 2.15, and

water absorption of ____, while the average size of particle of cement is ____, specific gravity of

3.05, and water absorption of ____. Whereas, the results show that charcoal ash and cement have

almost the same characteristics.

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 Charcoal ash is used as a partial replacement of cement with the different portions (5%

10% 15% and 20%) and test with different curing days (7, 14 and 28 days) for its mechanical

strengths. The results obtained show that the addition of charcoal ash improves the grinding time

and setting times of the cement, thus the mechanical characteristics of mortar. As shown in

figure 4-1 to 4-3, compressive strength of 7-, 14- and 28-days curing process increases until it

reaches 10% of replacement then decreases after. In figure 4-4 to 4-9, the tensile and flexural

strength increases until it reaches 5% of replacement then decreases after. The results of the

investigation confirmed the potential use of this waste material to produce stronger mortar.

5.2 Conclusions

Following are the conclusions which have been drawn from this study and a brief

discussion regarding each conclusion:

• The optimum percentage of compressive strength of mortar for different curing days with

10% cement replaced with charcoal ash is found to be given 5% increment in normal cube

strength.

• The optimum percentage of tensile strength of mortar for different curing days with 5%

cement replaced with charcoal ash is found to be given 5% increment in normal cylinder

strength.

• The optimum percentage of flexural strength of mortar for different curing days with 5%

cement replaced with charcoal ash is found to be given 5% increment in normal rectangular

strength.

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 5.3 Recommendations

In line with the significant findings and conclusions of the study, the following are

hereby recommended:

1. To take into consideration the dimension of the panel as well as the limits of the

number of layers of fiber and rubber.

2. To use other natural fibers for further development of the physical, mechanical and

acoustical properties of the composite panel.

3. To take into consideration the concavity of the surface of the panel for aesthetics

and its effect to the sound absorption.

4. To use other type of resin that is compatible with the fiber and rubber.

5. To conduct other investigation on the wall panel such as shrinkage, fire resistivity

and chemical resistance.

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