1/8

Plate Tectonics
1 The lithosphere (uppermost mantle + crust) which behaves as a strong rigid layer, is
broken up into pieces called called plates.
2 These plates move on the asthenosphere (which is weak and able to slowly flow in
response to uneven distribution of heat deep within the earth)

Diagram 1
Himilayan Mountain
Range

East Pacific Rise Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Diagram 2
 2/8

What Drives Plate Tectonics?

(I) Thermal Comvection Currents
1 Although the driving motion of plate tectonics is not known for certain, scientists believe
the mechanism is related to thermal convection in the Earth's mantle.
2 Thermal convection is a process in which hot material within the mantle rises toward the
surface due to buoyancy (it is hotter and therefore less dense).
3 As it rises, it cools and spreads. When it cools enough, it begins to sink.
4 This convection forms thermal cells that act as conveyor belts, moving the plates along.
5 Therefore convection currents drag and move the lithospheric plates above the
asthenosphere.
6 Divergent plates form at the rising portions of these cells, while convergent
(subduction) zones occur where the cells sink.
7 Cells may be confined to the aesthenosphere (Diagram 2(a)), or may involve the entire
mantle (Diagram 2(b)), or may be more complex, with thermal plumes rising from the
core-mantle boundary.
8 Mantle rock is constantly moved upwards to the surface by the high temperatures below
and then sinks by cooling.
9 This convection cycle takes millions of years.
10 Each plate moves in different directions and at different speeds ranging from about 2 -10
cm/yr.
11 Because each plate moves at a different direction and speed, the plates themselves are
commonly geologically quiet, but regions where plate meets plate (boundaries) are areas
of intense geologic activity.
(a) Upper mantle convection cells.
(II) Slab-pull or ridge-push (Diagram
4 and Diagram 5)
1 Another force that might be at
work is called slab-pull or ridge-
push.
2 In slab-pull, subducting slabs are
pulled down because of their
greater density.
3 They take the rest of the plate
along with it.
4 In ridge-push, the upwelling
(b) Full-mantle convection cells.

magma pushes the extending crustal

plates out of the way as it extrudes.

Diagram 3

Diagram 4
 3/8

Conclusion: It appears that all three of these forces (in (I) and (II)) are at work in plate motion,
but the contribution of each is currently unclear.

Types of Plate Boundaries

1. There are three main types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent and
transform.

Divergent boundary Convergent boundary

Diagram 5 (a)

Divergent Plate Boundary (constructive margin)

Oceanic ridges and seafloor spreading

(i) This is a boundary where plates are moving apart from each other, with new
crust created from mantle material upwelling into the gap to create new
seafloor
(ii) The force is also known as the ridge-push as the upwelling magma pushes the
extending crustal plates out of the way as it extrudes.
 4/8

(ii) E.g. Mid-Atlantic Ridge and East Pacific Rise (see Diagram 2)

Continental Rifting
(i) Divergent plate boundary can also develop within a continent, splitting it
into two or more smaller segments, forming a riftt (E.g. East African Rift
Valley)

1. Tensional forces stretch and

thin the continental crust.
2. Molten rock ascends from the
Asthenosphere and initiates
volcanic activity at the surface

3. As the crust is pulled apart, large

slabs of rock sink, forming a rift
valley.

4. Further spreading generates a

narrow sea.

5. Eventually, an expansive ocean

basin and a ridge system
are created.

Diagram 6

(b) Convergent Boundary (destructive margin)

(i) This is a boundary in which plates are converging on each other
(ii) Continent-continent convergent boundary.
 When two light continental plates converge collide and crunch together the
crust is deformed to form mountain ranges.
 E.g. The Indian plate is colliding with the Eurasian plate to form the
Himalayan mountain range (See Diagram 2)
 5/8

Diagram 7 : Continent-continent convergent boundary

(iii) Ocean-continental convergent boundary.

Diagram 8 : Ocean-continent convergent boundary



The thinner, denser plate oceanic plate dives (subducts) underneath the thicker,
less dense continental plate.
 As it descends and dips into the mantle, creating a trench at the plate
boundary on the ocean floor, it heats up as well.
 At a depth of about 100 km, the descending cool oceanic lithosphere
plate causes the wedge of hot asthenosphere that lies above it to melt,
releasing magma and volatiles (water from the oceonic crust) into the
overlying crust.
 If this magma reaches the surface, it often erupts as andesitic lava.
Otherwise, it may form intrusive magma bodies.
 This volcanic activity is focussed about 100 km inward of the plate
boundary.
 6/8

 E.g. The Andes mountain range is produced by the subduction of the

Nazca plate beneath the South American continental plate (see Diagram
2)

(iv) Ocean-ocean plate convergent boundary

Diagram 9 : Ocean-ocean convergent boundary

 When two oceanic plates converge, the denser plate descends beneath
the lighter one.
 Similar to the mechanism in Ocean-continental convergent boundary,
the subducting oceanic plate triggers melting in the hot wedge of mantle
rock that lies above it, causing volcanoes to grow up from the ocean
floor.

(c) Transform fault boundary (conservative margin)

 Two adjacent plates grind past each other without the production or destruction of
lithosphere.

Diagram 10 : Transform fault boundary

 7/8

Conclusion from Plate Tectonic Theory:

1. The plate tectonic theory suggests that:
o continents can move across the surface of the globe
o patterns of volcanism can change and shift across the globe as plates and their
boundaries evolve and move
o new oceans may grow
o oceans basins close and are deformed to produce mountains

Continental drift:
1 Todays continents once formed a single landmass, which he named Pangaea (Greek for
"all land").
2 It broke into pieces due to the weaknesses in the earth's crust as they were made up of
less dense materials, which drifted centimeter by centimeter over millions of years until
they arrived at where they are now.
3 Figure 12 shows how the Pangaea split up into plates and drifted over the millions of
years.
4 The drift of the plates across the surface of the earth has been going on over millions of
years, which still changes the outward appearance of the earth.
5 When you look at the map of the world, you see how well the east coast of North and
South America fits into the west coast of Europe and Africa.
6 Over millions of years these continents have slowly drifted apart. (continental drift).

Diagram 11: Pangea, 250 million years ago

 8/8

Diagram 12: Continental Drift