CHAPTER IV

ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

INTRODUCTION TO PN JUNCTION DIODE

A PN junction is formed by suitably joining a P-type semiconductor and a N- type semiconductor.
A PN junction is shown in fig.

Fig Formation of PN junction Diode

The P- Type semiconductor has more holes and less electrons. The N-type semiconductor has
more electrons and less holes. Therefore at the junction, the electrons in the N-side have tendency to
move towards the P-side. Similarly the holes on the P-side have tendency to move towards the N-side.
According to that, the electrons and holes recombine with each other, to form a region at the junction. It is
called “Depletion Region”. These two charges, on either sides, make a potential across the depletion
region called “barrier potential”.

Working of a PN Junction Diode:

The conduction of any diodes, depends on their biasing. There are two types of biasing, known
as Forward biasing and Reverse biasing.

(i) Forward biasing

In forward biasing, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type and the negative
terminal of the battery is connected to the N-type materials of the diodes, shown in fig.
Under the forward bias condition, the applied positive potential repels the holes in P-type region.
The negative potential repels the electrons in N-type region. Now the electrons in N-type region and the
holes in the P type region move towards the junction. This reduces the width of the depletion region and
also the barrier potential.
 Fig PN junction under forward bias

If the applied potential is greater than barrier potential, the majority carriers on both regions move
towards the junction. It makes current flow through the junction.
The VI characteristics of a PN junction diode under forward bias condition is shown in fig.

Fig Forward characteristics

(ii)Reverse biasing
In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N-type and the negative
terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type materials of the diode, shown in fig.
Under reverse bias condition, the majority carriers with P and N regions are moved towards the
battery respectively. The holes in P-type and the electrons in N type regions move to the negative and
positive terminals of the battery respectively. Hence the width of the depletion region is increased.
 Fig PN junction under reverse bias

When the applied voltage is slowly increased, the minority carriers(electrons) in P-region and the
minority carriers(holes) in N-region makes a small amount of current flow through the junction. This
current is called reverse saturation current shown in fig

Fig Reverse characteristics

4.1 VI Characteristics of a Diode:
The complete VI characteristic of a diode is the combination of its forward as well as reverse
characteristics.

Fig 4.1 VI characteristics of a Diode

In forward characteristics, it is seen initially forward current is small as long as the bias voltage is
less than the barrier potential. At a certain voltage close to barrier potential, current increases rapidly. The
voltage at which diode current starts increasing rapidly is called as cut in voltage. It is denoted by Vγ.
Below this voltage, current is less than 1% of maximum rated value of diode current. The cut in voltage
for germanium is about 0.3V while for silicon it is 0.7V.

It is important to note that the breakdown voltage is much higher and practically diodes are not
operated in the breakdown condition. The voltage at which breakdown occurs is called reverse
breakdown voltage denoted as VBR.

4.1.1 VI CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL Ge AND Si DIODES

The complete Vi characteristics of a typical Ge and Si diodes are shown in fig 4.1.1.,As
mentioned earlier, the barrier potential for germanium (Ge) diode is about 0.3V while for silicon (Si) diode
is about 0.7V.
The reverse saturation current in a germanium diode is higher than reverse saturation current of a
silicon diode. The reverse breakdown voltage for Si diode is higher than that of the Ge diode of a
comparable rating.
 Fig 4.1.1 Characteristic of typical Ge and Si diode

RECTIFIERS:

Definition: The process of a.c to d.c conversion is known as rectification .A circuit which is used for
rectification is called as rectifier.
A rectifier is a circuit which is used to convert a.c voltage into pulsating d.c voltage .It can be classified as
follows.
Rectifier

Half wave Rectifier Full wave Rectifier

Full wave rectifier Bridge rectifier

With centre taped transformer

4.2 Half –wave rectifier:

4.2.1 Definition: In half wave rectification, the rectifier conducts current only during positive half –cycles
of input a.c supply.

4.2.2 Circuit diagram:

The basic circuit diagram of half-wave rectifier is shown in fig.4.2.1
 This circuit contains.
(1) A step down transformer
(2) One diode.
(3) Load resistor RL
A diode D is connected between secondary of transformer and resistor ,R L

Fig 4.2.1 Halfwave Rectifier

4.2.3 Operation of half wave rectifier circuit:

In a.c supply voltage there are two half cycles, one is positive half cycle the other is negative half
cycle.

4.2.4 During positive half-cycle:

Fig 4.2.2 During positive half cycle

 During the positive half cycle of the input signal, terminal A is positive with respect to terminal B.
 Diode D conducts in forward bias so the current flows from terminal A to B through diode D and
load resistor RL.
 It produces the output voltage.

4.2.5 During negative half –cycle:

 During the negative half –cycle of the input signal, terminal B is positive with respect to terminal
A.
 Diode D conducts in reverse bias so no current flows through the diode and load resistor,
 Now the output voltage is zero.
 Fig 4.2.3 During negative half cycle

4.2.6 Waveforms of the half-wave Rectifier:

Fig 4.2.4 Input and Output Waveforms

4.2.7 Analysis of Halfwave Rectifier:

D.C output Current:
Input signal a.c voltage =Vmsin 𝜃
Load resistance=RL
Input signal a.c current=Imsin 𝜃
Hence the output d.c. current

1 2𝜋
Idc= ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0

1 𝜋 1 2𝜋
= ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0
+ ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 𝜋

In the above equation the current that flows through the load is zero during the period from 𝜋 𝑡𝑜 2𝜋.

1 𝜋
Idc= ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0

1 𝜋
= ∫ Im sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0

Im
= [− cos 𝜃]
2𝜋

Im
= [−(cos 𝜋 − cos 0)]
2𝜋

Im
= [−(−1 − 1)]
2𝜋

Im
=
𝜋

Im
Idc =
𝜋

D.C Voltage:

D.C Voltage Vdc = IdcRL V = IR

ImRL
= Vm= Im RL
𝜋

Vm
Vdc =
𝜋

A.C INPUT CURRENT:

1 2𝜋 2
I2rms = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0

1 𝜋 2 1 2𝜋
= ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝜃+ 2𝜋 ∫𝜋 𝑖 2 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0

No current flows during the period from 𝜋 𝑡𝑜 2𝜋

1 2𝜋 2
I2rms = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0
 1 𝜋
= ∫ (Im sin 𝜃)2
2𝜋 0
𝑑𝜃

Im2 𝜋 1−cos 2𝜃
=
2𝜋
∫0 [ 2
] 𝑑𝜃

Im2
= [∫ 𝑑𝜃 − ∫ cos 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃]
4𝜋

Im2 sin 2𝜃 𝜋
= [𝜃 − ]
4𝜋 2 0

Im2 sin 2𝜋 sin 2 𝑋 0

= [(𝜋 − ) − (0 − )]
4𝜋 2 2

Im2
= [𝜋 − 0]
4𝜋

Im2
I2rms =
4

Im
Irms =
2

RMS Load Voltage:

Vrms = IrmsRL

ImRL
= Since Vm= Im RL
2

Vm
Vrms =
2

D.C output power = I2 dcRL we know that P= I2R

Im
= ( )2 RL
𝜋

Im
Pdc =( )2 RL
𝜋

A.C input power = I2rms( rf + RL)

Im2
= ( rf + RL)
4

Im2
Pac = ( rf + RL)
4

Rectifier Efficiency:

Pdc
%𝜂 = x 100%
Pac
 Im 2
( ) RL
𝜋
= Im2
x 100%
( rf + RL)
4
I𝑚2 ×RL ×4
= × 100%
𝜋 ×I2
2
m ×(rf +RL )

4 RL
= ( )%
𝜋2 rf +RL

RL
= 40.6( )%
rf +RL

𝜂 = 40.6%

Ripple Factor:

I 2
Ripple Factor = √( rms) − 1
Idc

Im⁄ 2
= √(Im 2 ) − 1
⁄𝜋

𝜋2
=√ −1
4

= 1.21

Ripple Factor = 1.21

Ripple Frequency:

The frequency of the pulsating load voltage is known as ripple frequency. It is equal to the
frequency of supply voltage in the halfwave rectifier.
f = fs
4.2.8 Advantages:
1.Simple Circuit
2.Low Cost

4.2.9 Disadvantage of Halfwave Rectifier:

1.Low efficiency(41%)
2.High ripple factor (121%)
3.Low dc output voltage and current

4.3 Half Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter

Output of half wave rectifier is not a constant DC voltage. From the output diagram that it’s a
pulsating dc voltage with ac ripples.
 In real life applications, we need a power supply with smooth wave forms. In other words, we
desire a DC power supply with constant output voltage.
A constant output voltage from the DC power supply is very important as it directly impacts the
reliability of the electronic device we connect to the power supply.
The output of half wave rectifier smooth by using a filter (a capacitor filter or an inductor filter)
across the diode.
In some cases an resistor-capacitor coupled filter (RC) is also used. The circuit diagram below
shows a half wave rectifier with capacitor filter.

Fig 4.3.1 Half Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter – Circuit Diagram & Output Waveform

Full-Wave Rectifier (FWR)

Definition: In full wave rectifier circuit current flows through the load in the same direction for both half-
cycles(full wave) of input a.c voltage.

Types of full wave rectifier:

The following two circuits are commonly used for full-wave rectification.
1. Full wave rectifier with center tapped transformer.
2. Full wave bridge rectifier.

4.4 Full wave rectifier with center tapped transformer:

4.4.1 Definition: In full wave rectifier circuit current flows through the load in the same direction for both
half-cycles(full wave) of input a.c voltage.

4.4.2 Circuit diagram:

The circuit diagram of full-wave rectifier is shown in fig.
 This circuits contains
1. Centre tapped transformer
2. Two Diodes (D1 & D2)
3. Load Resistor
Two diode D1 and D2 are used as the switching elements, one diode acts for half cycle and
second diode for another half cycle.

Fig 4.4.1 FWR with center tapped transformer

4.4.3 Operation of the circuit:

In a.c supply voltage, there are two half cycle, one is positive half cycle the other is negative half
cycle.

4.4.4 Duration of Positive half cycle:

Fig 4.4.2 During positive half cycle

 During the positive half cycles of the input voltage, terminal A is positive and B is negative with
respect to terminal O.
 The diode D1 conducts in forward bias and diode D2 conducts in reverse bias.
 The current I1 flows from the terminal A to the load through diode D1.
 No current flows through the diode D2.
4.4.5 Duration of Negative half cycle:

Fig 4.4.3 During Negative Half cycle

 During the negative half cycles of the input voltage, terminal B is positive and A is negative with
respect to terminal O.
 The diode D2 conducts in forward bias and diode D1 conducts in reverse bias.
 The current I2 flows from the terminal B to the load through diode D2.
 No current flows through the diode D1.

4.4.6 Input and Output Waveforms:

Fig 4.4.4 Input and Output Waveforms

4.4.7 Analysis of FWR with Center tapped Rectifier:

D.C output Current:

Input signal a.c voltage =Vmsin 𝜃
Load resistance =RL
Input signal a.c current=Imsin 𝜃
Hence the output d.c. current

1 2𝜋
Idc= ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0

1 𝜋 1 2𝜋
= ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0
+ ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 𝜋

The variation between 0 and 𝜋 is equal to 𝜋 and2𝜋.

1 𝜋 1 𝜋
Idc = ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0
+ ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0

1 𝜋
= × 2[ ∫0 𝑖𝑑𝜃 ]
2𝜋

1 𝜋
= ∫0 Im sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋

Im
= [− cos 𝜃]
𝜋

Im
= [−(cos 𝜋 − cos 0)]
𝜋

Im
= [−(−1 − 1)]
𝜋

2Im
=
𝜋

2Im
Idc =
𝜋

D.C Voltage:

D.C Voltage Vdc = IdcRL using V = IR

2ImRL
= using Vm= Im RL
𝜋
2Vm
Vdc =
𝜋

A.C INPUT CURRENT:

1 2𝜋 2
I2rms = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0

1 𝜋 2 1 2𝜋
= ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝜃+ 2𝜋 ∫𝜋 𝑖 2 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0
The variation between 0 and 𝜋 is equal to 𝜋 and 2𝜋.
1 𝜋 2 1 𝜋
I2rms = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝜃+ 2𝜋 ∫0 𝑖 2 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0

1 𝜋
= × 2 ∫0 𝑖 2 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋

1 𝜋
= ∫0 (Im sin 𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃
𝜋

Im2 𝜋 1−cos 2𝜃
=
𝜋
∫0 [ 2
] 𝑑𝜃

Im2
= [∫ 𝑑𝜃 − ∫ cos 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃]
2𝜋

Im2 sin 2𝜃
= [𝜃 − ]
2𝜋 2

Im2 sin 2𝜋 sin 2 𝑋 0

= [(𝜋 − ) − (0 − )]
2𝜋 2 2

Im2
= [𝜋 − 0]
2𝜋

Im2
I2rms =
2

Im
Irms =
√2

RMS Load Voltage:

Vrms = IrmsRL

ImRL
= Vm= Im RL
2

Vm
Vrms =
√2

D.C output power = I2dcRL P= I2R

2Im 2
=( ) RL
𝜋

4Im2
Pdc = RL
𝜋2

A.C input power = I2rms( rf + RL)

Im2
= ( rf + RL)
2

Im2
Pac = ( rf + RL)
2
Rectifier Efficiency:

Pdc
% 𝜂 = x 100%
Pac

2Im 2
( ) RL
𝜋
= Im2
x 100%
( rf + RL )
2

4×I𝑚2 ×RL ×2
= × 100%
𝜋2 ×I2
m ×(rf +RL )

8 RL
= ( )%
𝜋2 rf +RL

RL
= 81.2( )%
rf +RL
If rf<<RL

𝜂 = 81.2%

Ripple Factor:

I 2
Ripple Factor= √( rms) − 1
Idc

Im 2
⁄
= √(2Im√2) − 1
⁄𝜋

𝜋
=√( )2 − 1
2√2

= 0.483

Ripple Factor= 0.483

Ripple Frequency:

The frequency of the pulsating load voltage is known as ripple frequency. It is equal to the
frequency of supply voltage in the halfwave rectifier.
f = fs

4.4.8 Advantages:
1.The output voltage and transformer efficiency are higher.
2.Low ripple factor
3.High transformer Utilization factor.

4.4.9 Disadvantages:
1.Usage of additional diode and bulky transformer is needed, and hence increase in cost.
2.The peak inverse voltage of diode is high.
4.5 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier:

4.5.1 Definition:In full wave rectifier circuit current flows through the load in the same direction for both
half-cycles(full wave) of input a.c voltage.

4.5.2 Circuit diagram:

The main disadvantage of the centre –tapped transformer full wave rectifier have the high PIV
and ensure of the centre taped transformer.
These can be overcome by using a bridge rectifier.
This circuits contains
1. Centre tapped transformer
2. Four Diodes (D1,D2,D3 & D4)
3. Load Resistor RL
Fig 4.5.1 shows the circuit of full wave bridge rectifier.

Fig 4.5.1 Fullwave Bridge Rectifier

4.5.3 Operation of the circuit:

In a.c supply voltage, there are two half cycle, one is positive half cycle the other is negative half
cycle.

4.5.4 During positive half cycle

Fig 4.5.2 During positive Half cycle

 During the positive cycle of the input signal terminal A is positive with respect terminal B.
  This will provide a forward biasing the diodes D1 and D3 where as diodes D2 and D4 are reverse
biased.
 The current flows through D1,D3 and load resistance RL.
 The diodes D2 and D4 are not conducting.

4.5.5 During Negative half cycle:

Fig 4.5.3 During Negative half cycle

 During Negative half cycle of the input signal terminal B is positive with respect to terminal A.
 This will provide a forward biasing the diodes D2 and D4 where as diodes D1 and D3 are reverse
biased.
 The current flows through D2, D4 and load resistance RL.
 The diodes D1 and D3 are not conducting.
During both half cycles, the current flows through the load resistor R L in same direction.

4.5.6 Input and Output Waveforms:

Fig 4.5.4 Input and Output Waveforms

4.5.7 Analysis of full wave Bridge rectifier:

The analysis of the bridge rectifier is same as for the full wave with centre transformer rectifier
circuit.
The PIV of this circuit is equal to the maximum value of the supply voltage i.e, Vm.
TUF=81.1%
Note: PIV is equal to Vm.

4.5.8 Advantage of full wave Bridge rectifier:

1.This circuit is suitable for high voltage applications because PIV is less ie equal to Vm.
2.Core saturation does not take place.

4.5.9 Disadvantage of full wave Bridge rectifier:

The only disadvantage of this circuit is need of four diodes.

4.6 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier with Capacitor Filter

Output of full wave rectifier is not a constant DC voltage.

You can observe from the output diagram that its a pulsating dc voltage with ac ripples.
In real life applications, we need a power supply with smooth wave forms. In other words, we
desire a DC power supply with constant output voltage.
A constant output voltage from the DC power supply is very important as it directly impacts the
reliability of the electronic device we connect to the power supply.
We can make the output of full wave rectifier smooth by using a filter (a capacitor filter or an
inductor filter) across the diode.
In some cases an resistor-capacitor coupled filter (RC) is also used. The circuit diagram below
shows a half wave rectifier with capacitor filter.

Fig 4.6.1 Full wave Bridge rectifier with capacitor filter

4.7 Comparison of Rectifiers
The comparison of rectifiers according to their characteristics is shown in the table below.
S.No Characteristics Halfwave Rectifier Fullwave rectifier Fullwave Bridge
Rectifier
1. No of diodes used 1 2 4

2. D.C. output current Im 2Im 2Im

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

3. RMS current Im Im Im
2 √2 √2

4. PIV Vm 2Vm Vm

5. Ripple factor 1.21 0.483 0.483

6. TUF 0.287 0.693 0.812

7. Efficiency 40.8% 81.6% 81.6%

4.8 Rectifier Applications

1. DC motor drives.
2. Welding power supplies.
3. Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
4. Industrial systems that require dc voltage.

4.9 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSITOR( BJT):

 Transistor is a semiconductor device.

 A Bipolar junction transistor is a three terminal device whose operation is dependent on the
interaction of both majority and minority carriers hence it is named bipolar device.
 Transistor means transfer resistor i.e, signals are transferred from low resistance (input) to high
resistance (output) circuit.
 Transistor is smaller in size and consumes less power has less weight has longer life.
 It is used in amplifiers, oscillator circuits and digital circuits,

4.9.1 Basic construction of a transistor:

 Transistor consists of three layers and two junctions.

4.9.2 Transistor types:

There are two types of transistors namely (i) NPN transistor, and (ii)PNP transistor.
A transistor in which two layers of N type semiconductor are separated by a thin layer of P type
semiconductor is known as NPN transistor , it is shown in fig.4.7.1
 Fig 4.9.1 Structure of NPN

A transistor in which two layer of P type semiconductor are separated by thin layer of N type
semiconductor is known as PNP transistor it is shown in fig.4.7.2

Fig 4.9.2 Structure of PNP

The transistor has three terminals, namely Emitter Base and collector.
1.Emitter: The region of a transistor that supplies charge carriers (in case NPN transistor
electrons or in case of PNP transistor holes) is called the emitter.
The emitter is always forward biased with respect to base so that it can supply large number of majority
carriers.
2. Base: The middle section of transistor is called base It is very thin and lightly doped
region.The base-emitter junction is forward biased allowing low resistance for the emitter circuit. The base
–collector junction is reverse biased offers high resistance for the collector circuit.
3.Collector : The other side that collects the charges is called the collector.The collector is
always reverse biased. The doping level of collector is between the heavy doping of emitter and light
doping of base.

Fig 4.9.3 Transistor Biasing

4.9.3 Transistor symbols:

Fig 4.9.4 (a) & 4.9.4 (b) shows the symbols of transistor.
Arrow is always placed on the emitter terminal and direction of arrow indicates the direction of current
flow.
Fig 4.9.4(a) Symbol of NPN Fig 4.9.4(b) Symbol of PNP

4.9.4 Unbiased transistor:

 When no external supply is connected to a transistor, the transistor is in unbiased condition.
 Fig shows the depletion region formation of transistor when the transistor is unbiased.
 In this case the diffusion of charge Carriers across the junction produces two depletion regions.
 The width of depletion region is not same on both sides of junction because of different doping
levels of the transistor.
 The depletion region penetrates more in lightly doped regions.
 Therefore penetration of depletion region is less in heavily doped collector and emitter regions
and more in the base region.

4.9.5 Transistor Action:

The method of applying external voltages to a transistor is called transistor biasing. The transistor
operations in three different regions based on the biasing of transistor.

Table 4.9.1
Causes Emitter base Collector base Region of operation
Junction Junction
1. Forward – biased Reverse – biased Active
2. Forward – biased Forward – biased Saturation.
3. Reverse – biased Reverse – biased Cut-off

1.Active Region: In this case the emitter base junction is forward biased and the collector –base junction
is reverse biased . In this region, the transistor is used for amplifications. The collector current is
dependent upon the base current.
2.Saturation Region: In this case, both junction are forward bias In this region of operation, the collector
current becomes independent of the base current. Now the transistor acts like a closed switch.
3. Cut off Region: In this case both junctions are reverse biased ,In this region the transistor has zero
current, because the emitter does not emit charge carriers, into base and no charge carriers are collected
by the collector .Now the transistor acts like a open switch.

4.9.6 Operation of NPN Transistor:

 Fig 4.9.5 Operation of NPN Transistor

 Fig 4.7.5 shows the NPN transistor circuit .

 The emitter base junction is forward biased by the potential VEB.
 The collector base junction is reverse biased by the potential VCB.
 The forward bias potential VEB causes a lot of the electrons from the emitter region to crossover
the base region.
 This base is lightly doped hence few number of electrons from the emitter recombine with the
holes in the base region, producing the base current IB.
 The remaining electrons move towards the collector region, which producing collector current Ic.
 According to the reverse bias voltage(VCB) between the collector and base a small reverse
current flows through the region
 Now collector current consists of majority .and minority carriers, so the transistor is called Bipolar
junction transistor.
IE = IB+Ic.

4.9.7 Operation of PNP Transistor:

Fig 4.9.6 Operation of PNP Transistor

 A PNP transistor is shown in fig, The operation of NPN transistor.

 The current flow depends upon the holes (majority carriers) in the P- type region.
 The forward bias is applied in between base and emitter junction and reverse bias is applied in
between base and collector junction of the transistor as shown in the fig.
 The forward bias causes a lot of holes from the emitter region and constitutes the emitter current
to cross into the base region.
 The base is lightly doped with N-type impurity therefore only a few holes (less than 5%) combine
with the electrons, constitute a base current IB.
 The remaining holes (more than95%) cross into the collector region to constitute the collector
current Ic.
IE = IB + Ic.
Transistor Configurations
When a transistor is to be connected in circuit, one terminal is used as an input, one terminal is
used an output and the third terminal acts as common both the input and the output. Depending upon the
input, output and common terminal, a transistor can be connected in three configurations. They are (i)
Common Emitter (CE) (ii) Common Base (CB)(iii) Common Collector (CC) Configurations.
To determine the input characteristics, the input voltage versus input current will be taken with a
constant variation of output voltage.
Similarly to determine the output characteristics, the output voltage versus output current will be
taken with a constant variation of input current.
From the characteristics

∆Vi
Input impedance = / at constant Vo
∆Ii

∆Vo
Output impedance = / at constant Ii
∆Io

Common Emitter Configuration

Fig CE Configuration

In this configuration, base is an input terminal, collector is an output terminal and emitter is the
common terminal. This is also called Grounded emitter configuration. The circuit of CE configuration, to
find out their characteristics is shown in the fig.

∆VBE
Input impedance =
∆IB
 ∆VCE
Output impedance =
∆IC

(i)Input characteristics
To determine the input characteristics, the reading will be taken between base to emitter voltage
(VBE) and base current (IB) at different constant levels of collector to emitter voltage(V CE). The fig shows
the input characteristics of CE mode.
IB

Fig CE input characteristics

When VCE=0, the emitter base junction is forward biased, and this junction behaves as a forward
biased diode. When VCE is increased, the width of the depletion region at the reverse biased collector-
base junction is increased. Hence the effective width of the base is decreased, which reduces the base
current IB.

(ii) Output characteristics

To determine the output characteristics, the reading will be taken between collector to emitter
voltage(VCE) and collector current (IC),at different constant values of base currents(I B).The fig shows the
output characteristics of CE mode.

Fig CE output characteristics

The output current (IC) is increased, in accordance with the increasing of base current(I B).
Common Base Configuration

In this configuration, emitter is the input terminal, collector is the output terminal and base is the
common terminal. The circuit of CB configuration, to find out their characteristics is shown in the fig

Fig. CB configuration

∆VEB
Input impedance =
∆IE

∆VCB
Output impedance =
∆IC

(i) Input characteristics:

To determine the input characteristics, the reading will be taken between emitter-base voltage
(VEB) and emitter currents (IE), at different constant levels of collector to base (V CB) voltages. The fig sho
ws the input characteristics.
When VCB is zero, the emitter-base junction is working in forward bias of a diode. So emitter
current increases rapidly with an increase of emitter-base voltage. When VCB is increased, the width of
base region is decreased. So the emitter current is also increased.

Fig. Input characteristics

(ii) Output characteristics
To determine the output characteristics, the reading will be taken in between collector to base
voltage(VCB) and collector current (IC), at different constant values of emitter current(IE). The fig shows the
output characteristics of CB mode. The output current(I C) is increased, with an increase of input current.

Fig.Output characteristics of CB configuration

4.10 Transistor As An Amplifier:

The Biasing arrangement, makes the emitter-base junction forward biased and collector-base
junction reverse biased. So that the transistor operates only in the active region. This is achieved by
selecting the operating point (quiescent point or Q-point) properly. The zero signal values of Ic and VCE
are known as the operating point.

Fig 4.10.1 CE Amplifier circuit

A simple CE amplifier circuit using fixed bias arrangement with battery is shown in fig.4.8.1. The
battery VBB is known as bias battery which keeps the emitter-base junction forward biased regardless of
the polarity of the input signal. The capacitors Ci and C0 are used for blocking the dc signal.
 During the positive half cycle of the input signal, the forward bias across the emitter-base junction
is increased. Therefore more collector current flows through R c. However during the negative half cycle of
the input signal, the forward bias across the base-emitter junction is decreased. Therefore less collector
current flows through Rc. Hence an amplified output is obtained across the load (R c).

When no signal is applied, the input circuit is forward biased by the battery V BB. Therefore a DC
collector current flows in the collector circuit. This is called zero signal collector current (ICQ) . For more
signal amplifications, the zero signal collector current (I CQ) is fixed at (1/2) IC (max) level, by choosing
proper bias voltage.

One of the methods can be used to plot the output characteristics and determine the proper
collector current and collector-emitter voltage. However, a more convenient method, known as load line
method can be used to select the proper operating point. This method is quite easy and frequently used
in the analysis of transistor applications. The circuits used for getting the desired and proper operating
point are known as biasing circuits.

4.11 Comparison of CB, CE and CC Configurations

S.No Characteristics CB CE CC
1. Input impedance Low Medium High
2. Output impedance High Medium Low
3. Current gain Low High High
4. Voltage gain High High Unity
5. Power gain Medium High Low
6. Phase reversal No Yes No
7. Application AF amplifiers Voltage and Power Impedance
Amplifiers matching

4.12 HARTLEY OSCILLATOR

The Circuit Diagram of a Hartley oscillator is shown in fig.4.9.1, it is a LC oscillator. This oscillator
contains a CE amplifier, feedback network, and a tank circuit made up of L1, L2 and C. The resistors R1
and R2 provide necessary bias to the amplifier. The capacitors Ci and C0 are used to block the Dc
components. The capacitor CE is a bypass capacitor. The resistor RE provides negative feedback to the
amplifier to improve its stability. The RF choke(RFC) provides a path for collector bias current but offers
high impedance for oscillating signal.

Fig 4.12.1 Hartley Oscillator

4.12.1 Principle of operation:

When the supply is turned ON, the capacitor ‘C’ is charged. When this capacitor is fully charged,
it discharges through the coils L1 and L2, setting up an oscillation. The output voltage of the amplifier
appears across L1 and the feedback voltage appears across L 2. The voltage across L2 is 1800 out of
phase with the output voltage.it is the feedback signal. A phase shift of another 180 0 is produced by CE
amplifier. Hence the total phase shift between input and output is 180 0 + 1800 = 3600. This results in
positive feedback which makes the oscillation as continuous undamped.
The frequency of the oscillation is given by,
1
F=
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

Where, L = L1 + L2

It is used in local oscillators of radio receiver and audio oscillator circuits.

4.13 RC Phase Shift Oscillator:

The LC oscillator have two general drawbacks,

i.) It cannot be used for very low frequencies, because the coil becomes too much bulky,
expensive and noisy.
ii.) The frequency stability and waveform are very low.
The RC oscillator produce good frequency stability signal and also operate at very
Low frequencies.

Fig 4.13 RC Phase Shift Oscillator

The circuit diagram of RC phase shift oscillator is shown in fig. The oscillator consists of three
stages of RC networks (R1C1, R2C2 and R3C3). The resistor R5 provides bias, and RE with CE provides
stabilization. The frequency of the oscillation is given by,
1
F=
2𝜋√6 𝑅𝐶
Where, R = R1 = R2 = R3 and C= C1 = C2 = C3

4.13.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

When the supply is switched ON, the random variations of base current caused by noise
variations in the transistor and voltage variations in the power source produce oscillation. This variation is
amplified by the CE amplifier.
The feedback network consists of three stages of RC networks. The three stages are identical.
The feedback section provides 180o phase shift because each RC network provides 60o phase shift
(3X60o = 180o). The CE amplifier provides another 180o phase shift. Hence the total phase shift is 360o,
which provides positive feedback. Therefore, continuous undamped oscillation is produced.

4.13.2 Advantages:

i.) Does not require transformers and inductors.

ii.) It can produce very low frequency signals.
iii.) The circuit provides good frequency stability.

4.13.3 Disadvantages:

i.) It is difficult to start oscillation.

ii.) It gives low power output.

4.14 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR

Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a unipolar semiconductor device .the flow of current through it is
controlled by an electric field. The flow of current only depends upon the majority carriers (either electrons
or holes), so the FET is called unipolar device.

Fig 4.14.1 Classification of FET

4.14.1 Junction Field Effect Transistor

Fig 4.14.1(a) Construction of N-channel JFET

Fig 4.14.2(b) Symbol of N-channel JFET

The construction of a N-channel JFET is shown in fig.4.14.2(a), it consists of an uniformly doped

N-type semiconductor bar. On both sides of the semiconductor bar, two heavily doped P-type regions are
formed by diffusion. The two P-regions are internally connected, and a single lead is taken out. This
terminal is called “GATE”. Ohmic contacts are made at the two ends of the N-type semi-conductor bar.
One terminal is called “SOURCE” and the other is called “DRAIN”.

The source is a terminal, where majority carriers enter the bar. The drain is a terminal where
majority carriers leave the bar. The region between source and drain is called channel. The majority
carriers move from source to drain through this channel. The gate terminal controls the flow of majority
carriers from source to drain.

4.14.2 Working principle of JFET

The N-channel JFET is normally biased by applying negative potential(V GS) to the gate with
respect to source. A positive potential (VDS) is applied to the drain terminal with respect to source. The
drain characteristics are obtained by taking the readings in between V DS and ID, with a constant variation
of VGS.
 Fig 4.14.2 Operation of N-channel JFET

When VGS=0, the two P-N junctions established a very thin and uniform depletion layer. Thus a
large amount of electrons will flow from drain to source through a wide channel, in between the depletion
region. This constitutes drain current ID.

When the reverse voltage VGS is increased, it increases the width of the depletion region. This
reduces the width of the channel. So the current (I D) flow is also reduced. The channel width is larger in
the source region than the drain region.

Fig 4.14.3 Circuit diagram to determine the characteristics of JFET

Thus the current flowing through the channel is controlled by the reverse potential applied to the
gate terminal. The circuit diagram to determine the characteristics of N-channel JFET is shown in
fig.4.14.3
 Fig 4.14.4 Drain characteristics of N-Channel JFET

This circuit diagram is used to find out the drain and source characteristics of the JFET. The graph
drawn between VDS and ID is known as drain characteristics or output characteristics. Three regions are
formed in the drain characteristics, they are linear region, saturation region and breakdown region.

i.) Linear region:

Initially as the drain to source voltage(VDS) is increased, drain current(ID) also increases.
Such that ID is directly proportional to VGS. This region is called linear region or channel ohmic
region.

ii.) Saturation region:

After a certain drain to source voltage(VDS), the drain current (ID) becomes almost
constant. Now the channel becomes very narrow. Therefore, the variation of drain current(I D)
with the increasing of VDS is constant. This region is called saturation region or pinch-off
region. The minimum voltage, that the JFET produces the current as constant is called pinch-
off voltage.

iii.) Breakdown region:

After a certain increase of VDS, the drain current increases to a very high value, with a
slight increase of VDS. Now the depletion region at the PN junction undergo avalanche
breakdown. This region is known as breakdown region.
The graph between ID and VGS, at constant VDS is called transfer or mutual characteristics.
When VGS =0, the drain current is in higher value. The increasing of V GS, increases the
width of depletion region, also reduces the drain current I D. Once the current ID is equal to
zero , because the increasing depletion region, blocks the channel.
 Fig 4.11.5 Transfer characteristics of N-channel JFET
From the graph,
∆V𝐷𝑆
i.) Drain resistance (rd) = (at constant VGS)
∆𝐼𝐷
∆I𝐷
ii.) Transconductance (gm) = (at constant VDS)
∆𝑉𝐺𝑆
∆V𝐷𝑆
iii.) Ampliflication factor (µ) = (at constant ID)
∆𝑉𝐺𝑆
The relationship between µ, rd and gm is mentioned as,
µ = rd× gm

4.14.3 Applications:

1. It is used as a buffer in measuring instruments.

2. It is used in RF amplifiers of FM tuners and communications equipments.
3. It is used in mixer circuits of FM and TV receivers.
4. It is used in oscillator circuits.

4.15 MOSFET
` The MOSFET is an abbreviation of metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor. In MOSFET,
the gate is insulated from the channel by using SiO2 layer. The input impedance of MOSFET is high,
because the gate current is very small. It is also called insulated Gate FET( IGFET). There are two types
of MOSFETs. They are ,
i.) Enhancement MOSFET (E-MOSFET)
ii.) Depletion MOSFET (DE- MOSFET)

4.15.1 N-Channel Enhancement MOSFET

 Fig 4.15.1 Construction of N-Channel Enhancement MOSFET

Fig 4.15.2 Symbol of N-Channel Enhancement MOSFET

Two heavily doped N type regions are diffused into a highly doped P type substrate. The two N
type regions are source and drain. A thin layer of SiO 2 is grown over its surface. Then a metal contact is
provided at the top of the SiO2layer, acts as gate. The oxide layer provides high input impedance to
MOSFET.

4.15.2 Operation of E-MOSFET:

Fig 4.12.3 Operation of E-MOSFET

A proper biasing of N-channel E-MOSFET is given in fig., The gate is driven by only drain potential
(VGS) with respect to source. The drain is kept positive potential (V DS) with respect to source. When VGS is
equal to zero, the PN junction between drain and substrate is reverse biased. Hence only a small leakage
current (ID) flow through the device.
 When the gate is driven by positive potential, the electrons (minority carriers) in the P-substrate
are moved towards the gate terminal. By the effect of layer SiO 2(insulator) , the electrons induce a N-
channel between drain and source, which improve the conductivity. The minimum gate voltage, which
produces N-channel layer between drain and source is called threshold voltage.

4.12.3 Drain and transfer characteristics:

Fig 4.12.4(a) Transfer Characteristics Fig 4.12.4(b) Drain Characteristics

The drain and transfer characteristics of N-channel E-MOSFET are shown in the fig., From the
figures we understand that the increasing gate voltage(V GS) increase the drain current ID. The amount of
flow of drain current depends upon the width are density of the induced channel, which depends upon
applied gate voltage.
In the transfer characteristics, the drain current is plotted against gate voltage(V GS) at the constant
levels of VDS. At zero VGS level, the current ID is almost zero, because leakage current only flows. Then
the drain current is increased linearly with the increasing of gate voltage.

4.12.4 N-channel depletion MOSFET:

The construction of an N-channel depletion MOSFET is shown in fig., It is similar as

Enhancement MOSFET except that too highly doped N-regions are diffused into the P-Substrate. The
two N-regions are source and drain. Here a lightly doped N-channel is diffused in between the regions
source and drain. A thin layer of SiO 2 is grown over its surface. Then an aluminum layer is formed over
on SiO2, acts as gate.
 Fig 4.12.5: N-channel depletion MOSFET

Fig 4.12.6 Symbol of N channel DE-MOSFET

Operation: The depletion MOSFET can be operated two modes. They are,
i.) Depletion mode
ii.) Enhancement mode
In depletion the gate is maintained at negative potential and the drain is maintained at positive
potential with respect to source. The negative voltage on the gate attracts the holes in the P-type
substrate. Thus the holes are moved towards the gate terminal. Because of the SiO2(insulator) layer, the
holes are induced in the N-channel, which reduces the charge carriers(electrons) in the N-channel. So
the conductivity decreases, the value of drain current also decreases.

Fig 4.12.7 Depletion Mode Operation

In enhancement mode both the gate and drain are maintained at positive potential with respect to
source. The positive gate voltage, induces the charges in the N-Channel. Hence the conductivity
increases and the value of drain current is also increases.

4.12.5 Drain and transfer characteristics:

 The drain and transfer characteristics are shown in the fig. in drain characteristics a valuable drain
current flows through the channel at zero gate potential. The amount of drain current increasing in
enhancement mode is due to the positive gate voltages. Similarly the amount of drain current decreases
in depletion mode, is due to negative gate voltages.

Fig 4.12.8(a) Drain Characteristics Fig 4.12.8(b) Transfer Characteristics

The transfer characteristic represents the flow of drain current with a variation of VGS, at the
constant of VDS potential. The drain current increases in enhancement mode and decreases in depletion
mode.
 TWO MARKS

1. What are PN diode application?

 Rectifiers in d.c. power supplier.
 Clamping circuits used d.c. restorer in TV receivers and voltage multiplier
 PN Diodes in demodulation (detector) circuits
 Switch in digital logic circuits used in computers
 Clipping circuits used as wave shaping circuits used in TV receivers, radio,
 Computers and radars.

2. What is transistor?
Transistor consist of two junctions formed by sandwiching either P-type or N-type Semiconductor
between a pair of opposite types.

3. What are the types of transistor?

 Unipolar junction transistor (UJT)
 Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

4. What are the three terminals in BJT?

 Emitter (E)
 Collector ( C )
 Base (B)

5. What are the types of transistor configuration

There are three types of configuration for the operation of a transistor
 Common base (CB) configuration
 Common emitter (CE) configuration
 Common collector (CC) configuration

6. Define input characteristics for CB Configurations.

The curve drawn between emitter current (IE) and emitter – Base voltage (VEB) for a Given value of
collector – Base (VCB) is known as input characteristics.

7.What are the advantages of transistor over the vaccum tube?

Transistor has the following advantage than the vaccum tube
 Smaller in size
 No filament and no need if power for heating filament
 Low operating voltage
 Higher efficiency

8. What is Rectifier?
The Rectifier converts an AC input voltage into DC pulsating voltage. It consists of transformer,
rectifier, filter and regulator.

9.State applications of rectifier.

i) DC motor drives.
ii)Welding power supplies
iii)Industrial systems that require dc voltage.
10. Define filter.
Filter is a circuit that contains only passive components. It is used to convert pulsating DC signal
into a pure DC signal.

11.Define rectifier efficiency.

Rectifier efficiency: It is define as the ratio between the output DC power and the input AC power
supplied to the circuit.
Pdc
𝜂= × 100%
Pac
12.Define Transistor
A transistor transfers the signal from low resistance side to high resistance side. Hence it is
called “TRANS”fer res”ISTOR”(Transistor).

13.Draw the symbols of NPN and PNP transistors.

14. Mention the three types of transistor configurations.

1.Common Emitter Configuration
2.Common Base Configuration
3.Common Collector Configuration

15. Define Amplifier

Amplifiers are electronic devices which increase the magnitude of the applied input signal
without affecting its frequency and wave shape.

16. Define Oscillator

Oscillator is an electronic device which generates an AC signal with required frequency, required
amplitude and required wave shape.

17.Difference between JFET and MOSFET

S.No JFET MOSFET
1. High input impedance Very high input impedance

2. It can be operated only in It can be operated in both

depletion mode depletion mode and
enhancement mode.
High gate current Low gate current
3.
High drain resistance Low drain resistance
4.
Conductivity is controlled Conductivity is controlled by
5. by the reverse biasing of the carriers induced in the
the gate channel