Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Unit - 1
Accounting – Defination – According for historical function and
managerial function – Scope of accounting – Financial accounting and
Management accounting – Managerial uses – Differences.
Unit-2
Double entry system of accounting - Accounting books –
Preapartion of journal and ledger, subsidiary books - Errors and
rectification – Preparation of trial balance and final accounts.
Unit - 3
Financial Statement Analysis - Financial statements - Nature of
financial statements - Limitations of financial statements - Analysis of
interpretation -Types of analysis -- External vs Internal analysis -
Horizontal vs Vertical analysis - Tools of analysis - Trend analysis -
Common size statements -Comparative statements.
Unit-5
Budgeting and Budgetary Control: Preparation of various types
of budgets - Classification of budgets - Budgetary control system -
Mechanism -Master budget.
Unit-6
Capital Budgeting System - Importance - Methods of capital
expenditure appraisal - Payback period method - ARR method - DCF
methods - NPV and
IRR methods - Their rationale - Capital rationing.
FINANCIAL AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
LESSON TITLE
1. Accounting an Introduction
2. Management Accounting
3. Theory Base of Accounting - Accounting Standards
4. Practical Base of Accounting - Origin and Analysis of
Business Transactions
5. Financial Statements of Profit-making Entities
Manufacturing-cum-Trading Organisations
6. Financial Statements of Non-Profit-making Entities
7. Errors Management
8. Accounts from Incomplete Records - Single Entry System
9. Financial Statement Analysis
10. Ratio Analysis
11. Fund Flow Analysis
12. Cash Flow Analysis
13. Budgeting and Budgetary Control
14. Capital Budgeting
15. Case Study
LESSON - 1
ACCOUNTING: AN INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Accounting discipline deals with measurement of economic
activities affecting inflow and outflow of economic resources to develop
useful information for decision making. At household level information
about outflow and inflow of cash resources helps -.0 assess financial
position and plan household activities. At Government level,
information about inflow from taxes (direct as well as indirect) and
expenditure on various activities (developmental and non
developmental) is needed for planning and budgeting. Although
accounting can be discipline has universal applicability, but its
growth is closely associated with the developments in the business
world. Thus to understand accounting as a field of study for universal
application, it is best identified with recording of business transaction
and thereby creating economic information about business enterprises
to facilitate decision making.
NATURE OF ACCOUNTING:
1.2 Accounting
i. is man-made;
ii. has evolved over a period of time;
iii. is practiced in a social system;
iv. is a systematic exercise;
v. is judgmentat at times;
vi. follows flexible, not a rigid approach;
vii.is essentially a language;
viii. as a language, has a very well defined syntax of its own; and
ix. Communicates financial information for decision making.
BRANCHES OF ACCOUNTING
Financial Accounting:
2. Classifying:
3. Summarizing:
OBJECTIVES OF ACCOUNTING
Constitution of ASB :
The consistitution of ASB gives adequate representation to all
interested parties and, at present, it consists of members of the
council and representatives to industry, banks, Company Law Board,
Central Board of Direct Taxes and the Comptroller and Auditor
General of India, Security Exchange Board of India etc,
Functions of ASB :
The main function of ASB is to fomralate accounting standards. While
formulating accounting standards, ASB takes into consideration the
applicable laws, customs, usage and business environment. The
Institute is the member of International Accounting Standards
Committee (IASC) and has agreed to support the objectives of IASC.
While formulating standards, it gives due consideration to the
International Accounting Standards (IAS) issued by IASC and tries to
integrate them, to the extent possible, in the light of conditions and
practices prevailing in India. It also reviews the accounting standards
at periodical intervals.
e) Lastly, the council of the institute considers the final draft of the
proposed standard, and if found necessary, modifies the same
in consultation with ASB. The accounting standard on the
relevant subject is then issued under the authority of the
council.
The cash flow statement should report cash flows coring the
period classified by operating, investing and financing activities. An
enterprise should report cash Hows from operating activities using
either (a) direct method; or (b) indirect method. The inflow and outflow
from the investing and financing activities should be shown
separately. Investing and financing transactions that do not require
the use of the cash or cash equivalents and should present a
reconciliation of the amounts in its cash flow statement with the
equivalent items reported in the balance sheet. The enterprise should
also disclose the amount of significant cash and cash equivalents
balances that are not available for use by it.
AS-5 (Revised) Net Profit or Loss for the Period, Prior hems and
Changes in Accounting Policies :
the seller of goods has transferred the property in goods tci the
buyer along with significant risks and rewards of the ownership
;
and seller has no effective control over goods transferred;
no significant uncertainty exists regarding the amount of the
consideration that will be derived from the sale.
Fixed asset is an asset held with the intention of being used for
the purpose of producing or providing goods or services and is not he!
d for :he sais in the notarial course of business. The gross book vaiue
of a fixed asset shoulo be either historical cost or a revalued amount.
The cost of a fixed asset should normally comprise of its purchase
price and other attributable cost of bringing the asset to its working
condition for its intended use. Financing costs relating to deferred
credits or to borrowed funds attributable to construction or
acquisition of fixed assets for the period up to the completion of
construction or acquisition of fixed assets should also be included in
the gross book value of the asset to which it relates. When a fixed
asset is acquired in exchange or in part exchange for another asset,
the cost of the asset required should be recorded either at fair market
value or at the net book value of the asset given up, adjusted for any
balancing; payment or receipt of cash or other consideration.
Subsequent expenditures related to an item of fixed asset should be
added to its book value only if they increase the future benefits from
the existing asset beyond its previously assessed standards of
performance. Material items retired from active use and held for
disposal should be stated at the lower of their net book value and; net
49haracteri value. Losses arising from the disposal of fixed asset
carried at cost should be 49haracteri in the profit and loss account.
Rs. 5,00,000 cash and furniture worth Rs. 20, 000 invested by
the owner in the business.
Introduction of Rs.5,00,000 cash increases business cash by
Rs. 5,00,000 and it creates analysis obligation to pay Rs. 5,00,000 to
the owner which is recorded as capital. In terms of accounting
equation its effect is as
follows:
ASSETS = LIABILITIES + CAPITAL
Cash (Rs.5,00,000) =__ + capital (Rs.5,00,000)
Further, if furniture worth Rs.20,000 is provided by the
proprietor, the accounting equation appears as under:
Cash + Furniture = Capital
(Rs.5,00,000) (Rs.20,000) - +(5,00,000 + 20,000
)
Rs. 5,20,000 Rs.5,20,000
-7,10,000 = Rs.7,10,000
1) Assets Account
2) Liability Account
3) Capital Account
- 10,000 - - - +2,00,000 + - -
1,90,000
3. 4,90,000 - - 20,000 2,00,000 = 1,90,000 - 5,20,000
- +3,00,000 - - - - - -
3,00,000
4. 1,90,000 3,00,000 - 20,000 20,000 = 1,90,000 - 5,20,000
- -1,90,000 - - - - - -
1,90,000
5. 1,90,000 1,10,000 - 20,000 20,000 = - - 5,20,000
Illustration:
Prepare a statement showing analysis of transactions,
title and nature of affected accounts, relevant rule of recording and
the account to be debited and credited on the basis of transactions of
Mr. X for the month of December,1998. Transactions for the month of
December, 1998, were as
follows
Rs.
1. Received cash form debtors 20,000
2. Deposited cash in bank 4,000
3. Payment to creditors by 4,000
cheque
4. Machine purchased for 10,000
5. Traveling Expenses 5,000
debtors asset
Deposited Increase Bank – Debit Debit bank
hand increase
asset
Payment to Decreases Debit Debit
Rs.4,000 creditors
balance asset
purchased asset
cash in Credit
hand decrease in
asset
Expenses Traveling Debit
cash in (Expense)
decreases decrease in
asset
Analysis of Valuation of Assets and Liabilities
Financial accounting is basically historical in nature and
business transactions are accounted at their value on the date of the
transactions. As a result asset and liabilities also appear at historical
value. To portray true and fair fianancial position in balance sheet
some of the assets and liabilities need revaluation to show these items
at realistic, and not historical, level in the balance sheet. To achieve
this objective without changing asset and liabilities balances in
accounting records, valuation records, valuation accounts are opened
to account for increase or decrease in historical value of these items.
2. Valuation of Liabilities:
Like provision for discount on debtors, Provision for
discount on creditors account is created. As per conservation
principle, it should not be provided because anticipated gains are not
taken into account. But it is analysts accepted accounting practice to
make provision for discount on creditors. It results in decrease in
liabilities. As decrease in liabilities are debited, valuation accounts
recording decrease in liabilities are debited. Conversely, valuation
account recording in increase in liabilities are credited. This rule is as
follows:
Traditional Approach
Both accounting equation approach and traditional
approach record dual aspect of business transactions. But in
accounting literature, generally, traditional approach is referred to as
double entry system. For analysis and recording of transactions,
traditionally all ledger accounts are divided as follows.
Personal Accounts:
Real Accounts:
Real Accounts relate to properties of a business enterprise
which can be tangible or intangible.
1. Tangible real accounts:
Nominal Accounts:
bank cash
cash
Building Building Building – Real Debit what Debit
paid
Payment of Service of Salary – Debit all Debit salary
employee employee
service
utilized
Rent of Building Rent – Nominal Debit all Debit Rent
the
period is
payable
1. Scientific System:
Double entry system records, classifies and summarizes
business transactions in a systematic manner and thus, produce
useful information for decision-makers. It is more scientific as
compared to single entry system of book-keeping.
2. Complete record of business transactions:
It maintains complete record of a business transaction. It
records both debit and credit aspect with explanation for the
transactions.
Purchase of goods increases goods held for resale and sale of goods
decreases goods. Goods in hand are called Stock or Inventory.
Suppose goods costing Rs.5,000 are purchased and goods costing
Rs.4,000 are sold for Rs.6,500. theoretically effect of these
transactions can be analyzed as follows:
The gross profit along with other incomes is compared with indirect
expenses to find out net profit ( or loss) during an accounting period.
Then net profit ( or loss) is transferred to capital account Assuming
there are no expenses, net profit is equal to Rs.2,500. ( i.e. sales
(6500) - cost of sales (4000)). The entry for transfer of net profit to
capital account is as follows:
Rs.
Debit profit and loss (nominal 2,500
Account)
Credit capital (capital Account) 2,500
Industries Ltd
Rs. Rs.
Debit Cash 180 (Real A/C) Debit purchases 195 (Revenue A/C)
Debit 15 (Expenses Credit cash 180
Discount A/C)
Allowed
Credit sales 195 (Revenue Credit Discount 15
A/C) Received
Rs.
Debit bank 5,000 (Personal Account)
Credit P 5,000 (Personal Account)
But if cheque is deposited on, say 5.2,1999, the entries are as follows:
On 31.1.1999
Debit bank (Real Account)
Credit P (Account)
On 5.2.1999
Debit bank (Personal Account)
Credit cash (Real Account)
Above mentioned traditional approach for cheques received is
followed when:
1. Cheques received are currently due. Post - dated cheques should
not be recorded in cash book.
2. Cheques received are not crossed 'Account Payee '. Crossed
cheques are recorded in bank column directly.
5. Bad debts:
Bad debts refer to the amount of debt that cannot be
recovered form the credit customers. At the time when business
enterprise becomes definite about the non-recovery of assets certain
sum from debts, the amount receivable is reduced by crediting
debtors account. As the amount non-recoverable is a loss, it is debited
to a new account, called bad debts account and, at the end of the
accounting period, it is transferred to profit and loss account. Thus,
entry for recording bad debts is as under.
Debit Bad debts (Nominal / Temporary Capital A/C)
Credit Debtors(Group personal / Asset A/C)
LESSON - 5
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS OF PROFIT-MAKING ENTITIES
MANUFACTURING-CUM-TRADING ORGANISATIONS
The 'Direct Costs' are those which do not lose their existence in
the final product. Indirect costs are those which are not direct costs.
Hence, for the manufacture of furniture, cost in incurred on wood is a
'Direct Material Cost' whereas cost incurred on nails and fevicol used
is a 'indirect Material cost'. The reason is that whereas wood has not
lost its existence in the final furniture made,
nails and fevicol have lost it. Similarly, the cost paid to person who is
actually making the furniture (also called carpenter) is called 'Direct
labour Cost' whereas cost paid to a person who is supervising many
carpenters Is an example of Indirect Labour Cost'. '
However, this profit is not realised unless goods are sold to the
ultimate customer by the trading division. Hence if finished goods
remain unsold at the end of the accounting period it leads to valuation
of the finished goods at a price which is more than the cost of these
goods to the business as a whole. The excess represents the
'Unrealised profit' contained in the value of the stock. This valuation
of inventory violates the principle of 'Lower of cost or market value' as
inventory value advocated by AS-2 on valuation of inventories. It also
violates 'Conservatism' principle by recognising a profit which is not
realised (anticipated gains) by transferring goods from one of business
department to another department.
Unit Rs.
Opening Stock - Raw Material 1,000 10,000
Purchase of Raw Material 10,000 1,10,000
Closing Stock 500 ?
Freight – Inward 10,000
Freight – Outward 15,000
Direct Wages 85,000
Indirect Wages
Factory 40,000
Office 50,000
Other Factory Oveheads 30,000
Opening Stock – Work in Purchase (40% complete) 1,500 15,000
Closing Stock – Work in Process (30% complete) 3,000 ?
Dr. Manufacturing Account Cr.
Particulars Unit Amount Particulars Unit Amount
1,000 10,000 By Closing Stock -
Raw Material 500 6,000
To Purchases - By Closing Stock 3,000 27,000
Raw Matertial 10,000 1,10,000 - WIP (3)
To Freight - 10,000 By Trading A/c 9,000 2,67,000
Inward [cost of finished
goods transferred to
trading account (3)
(b.f.)]
To Direct Wages 85,000
To Factory
Overheads (2) 70,000
To Opening Stock 1,500 15,000
- WIP
12,500 3,00,000 12,500 3,00,000
Working Notes:
1. Calculation of closing stock of raw material (based on FIFO)
Cost= of Purchase + Freight (Inward)
Average pncs of Purchase made during the year
No. of units purchase
= (1,10,000 + 10,000)
10,000
= Rs. 12
2. Factory Overheads
Indirect Factory wages = 40,000
Other Factory overheads = 30,000.
70,000
3. Calculation of closing stock of work in process and finished
goods transferred to trading department.
units
process
Value of finished goods = [Opening stock of WIP + Cost of
2,25,000
= Rs. 2,67,000
* Opening stock at the beginning of the year was 40% complete and
hence % completed during the year was remaining 60%.
** Total finished goods transferred during the year is 9,000. Since
1,500 units are from the opening stock of WIP, the remaining (7,500
units) must be those which were started and finished during the year
on the basis of cost flow assumption of FIFO.
*** 10,000 (Opening stock +RM) + 1,10,000 (Purchases) - 6,000
(Closing Stock) +1 0,000 (Freight) = Rs. 1,24,000.
LESSON - 6
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS OF NON-PROFIT-MAKING ENTITIES
To Income A/c
For income received in advance
Income A/c Dr.
To Income Received in Advance A/c
98) Supplied
Salaries 2,00,000 Miscllanoues 12,000
Receipts
Stationery 15,000 Annual Government 1,40,000
Grant
General Expenses 8,000 Donations Received 25,000
Investments
8,00,000 8,00,000
Additional Information;
1) Tuition fees receivable for the year 1998 amounted to Rs.
10,000.
2) Salaries payable for the year 1998 amounted to Rs. 12,000
3) Furniture costing Rs. 10,000 was purchased on 1 -7-1998.
depreciation on furniture @ 10% p. a.
4) Depreciate building by 5% and library books by 20%.
Dr. Income and Expenditure Account for the year ending December 31, 1998 Cr.
To Salaries 2,00,000 By Tution Fees 2,00,000
Add 12,000 2,12,000 Add 10,000 2,10,000
Outstanding Outstanding
To Stationery 15,000 By Annual 1,40,000
Goverenment
Grant
To Annual 6,000
Sports Expenses
To General 8,000 By Admission 5,000
Expenses Fees
To Depreciation By Rent of Hall 4,000
on Furniture
On 10,000 (for 500 By 12,000
½ year) Miscellanoues
Receipts
On 30,000 (for 1 3,000 3,500 By Interest on 8,000
year) Investment
To Deprecitation 12,500
on Building
To Depreciation 12,000 Add Accured 24,000 32,000
on Library Interest
Books
To Excess of 1,34,000
Income over
Expenditure
4,03,000 4,03,000
Salary
Creditors for 6,000 Bank 20,000
Books
Supplied
Donation for 25,000 Tution Fees 10,000
Interest on
Investment
On 1-1-98 4,00,000 Investments 20,000
Add Surplus 1,34,000 5,34,000 Furniture on 1- 30,000
1-98
Add purchased 10,000
on 1-7-1998
40,000
Less 3,500 36,500
Depreciation
Library Books 60,000
Less 12,000 48,000
Deprcaition
Building 2,50,000
Less 12,500 2,37,500
Depreciation
5,77,000 5,77,000
debit side and incomes and gains on side and outflow of cash on credit
bank.
6) Itlis closed at the end of the year It is balanced at the end of the
and balance figure of the account is year and the balance carried
only irrespective of their effect on flow and revenue nature provided they
cash is affected.
BALANCE SHEET
Outstanding
Capital Fund 1,59,000 Bank 40,000
(Balancing figure) Outstanding 2,000
Subscription
Furniture 20,000
Building 1,00,000
1,63,000 1,63,000
Outstanding
Capital fund Bank 20,000
On 1-1-98 1,59,000 Outstanding 3,000
Subscription
Add 4,500 1,63,000 Investments 30,000
Surplus
Add Accrued 600 30,600
Interest
Furniture 20,000
on 1-1-98
Less sold 5,000 15,000
Building 1,00,000
Less 5,000 95,000
Depreciation
1,64,500 1,64,500
Hence it is amply clear that the financial statements of a non-profit
institution comprises of four basic statements, namely:-
i) A balance sheet at the start of the period (i.e., opening
balance sheet);
iv) A balance sheet at the end of the period {i.e., closing balance
sheet)
7) When balance sheet at the beginning and at the end along with
additional information is given, and Receipts and Payments
account and Income and Expenditure account for the year are
required;
8) When raw information is given, and all the basic statements are
to be prepared;
consideration.
Case III: When in receipts and Payments account the balance of bank
is given as per pass book.
Case IV: When trial balance along with additional information is given
and few basic statements are to prepared.
It has already been emphasized that accounts of non-profit making
entities are not materially different from the accounts of a profit-
making entity. Hence, if information is given in the form of trial
balance it does not poses a special problem (See Illustration 1), All
account have to be analysed to find out whether they result in
generation of deficit/surplus or are accounts of assets / liabilities. The
statements are prepared in the usual manner.
Case VI: When both Receipt and Payment Account and Income and
Expenditure Account along with additional information are given, and
balance sheet in the beginning and at the end are required.
Case VII: When balance sheet at the beginning and at the end of the
period along with additional information are given, and receipts and
payments account or income and expenditure account for the year are
required:
Case VIII: When raw information is given and basic statements are to
be prepared: When raw information is given, it virtually involves the
writing of entire books of accounts of non-profit organisations, Due
care mast be taken In recording transactions in these books. All
receipts and payments should be recorded in the receipts and
payments account. All expenses and incomes should be posted to
income and expenditure account keeping in mind the whole
discussion we had so far. Hence, recurring items will find their way to
income and expenditure account and non-recurring would be taken to
balance sheet., the assets and liabilities at the end of the year are
enumerated in the closing balance sheet. The opening balance sheet is
normally prepared to find out the missing figure of capital fund in the
beginning of the year.
Type of Errors
1. Errors of Omission : It refers to omission of a transaction at
the time of recording in subsidiary books or posting to ledger.
When a transaction is not recorded in the books of original
entry, agreement of trial balance is not affected because both
(debit as well as credit) aspects of a transaction are not
recorded. However, if omission takes place at the time of posting
into ledger accounts, agreement of trial balance is disturbed as
either debit or credit aspect of the transaction is ignored. For
example, omission of credit purchase transaction at the time of
recording in purchases book does not affect the agreement of
trial balance, as posting to purchases book does not affect the
agreement of trial balance, as posting to purchases amount and
supplier's account is not done. However, omission at the time of
posting to supplier's account affects the agreement of trial
balance as posting to purchases account takes place.
ERROR MANAGEMENT
The whole idea of error management can be executed in three steps,
namely:-
i. Prevention of errors,
The best way to manage the errors is to prevent them from occurring
in the accounts prepared by the business concern. As is said,
"Prevention is better than cure". It is the responsibility of the
management to prevent errors. The management can prevent the
errors in the nature of fraud by exercising an effective internal control
system. It should also curb its own tendencies to window dress the
accounts in order to present their report card in a colourful manner. It
should not allow the prejudice and bias to enter the accounts where it
is avoidable.
The errors other than fraud are caused by the following reasons:
Despite the best of the efforts of the management, some errors may
still remain in the accounts. However, the rectification of error is
possible only when an error is detected. From the point of view of
detection of errors, all errors can be broadly classified in two
categories:
i) If stil! the error is not detected, recheck all the entries in the
genera! journal for any possible omission, ' commission,
principle and self compensating errors.
(C) Rectification of Errors
Once error is detected, the need for its rectification arises. The
rectification of error should always be done with the help of a journal
entry and not by cutting, pasting or overwriting at the place of error.
Rectification of error depends upon the type of error and the time of
its rectification. Accordingly, the topic of rectification of error can be
broadly discussed as under;
4) Rs. 5,000 goods purchased on credit from Mr. Anil wrongly posted
to the debit side of Anil's account and purchases book total Rs.
25,000 posted to debit side of purchases account as Rs. 15,000.
3) Rs. 1,000 cash received from X has not heen posted to his
account : This amount should have been posted to credit side of X
account. To rectify the mistake of non-posting, X's account should be
credited by Rs. 1,000- To complete double entry, suspense account is
debited by the same account. The journal entry required to rectify the
error is as under;
4) Sales return from V Rs. 700 has been posted to Y's account as
Rs. 70 :
Rs. 700 should have been credited to Y's account. As the amount
actually credited is just Rs. 70, Rs. 630 more should be credited to Y's
account. To complete double entry, suspense accouni is debited by
Rs. 630 as follows:
To Suspense Account
8,000
Above entries are posted to suspense account as follows;
Dr Suspense Account
Cr.
To Difference in 7,870 By Purchase A/c 500
trial balance By Sales A/c 1,000
(balancing figure) By Creditors 8,000
To X 1,000
To Y 630
Errors and Profit : Errors will effect profit only when nominal
accounts recorded in income statement are affected. Effect of
abovementioned errors and their effect on profit is explained as
follows:
a) Wrong credit to sales account increase reported profit by
Rs. 70,000. Correct profit can be calculated by
rectification of this error. Rectification reduces sales
account balance and thus, profit by Rs. 70,000.
Effect on profit
Errors (a), (b), (c) and (d) do not affect nominal accounts and
therefore, have no effect on profits.
Error (f) reduces rent account balance by Rs. 2,000 and thus
increases net profit by Rs. 2,000 . Rectification of this error reduces
net profit figure by Rs. 2,000 to report correct net profit figure.
ii) Rent paid of Rs. 2,000 debited to landlord account and included in
the list of
debtors:
Rectification entry if it is done in the accounting period of the error itself
Rent Account Dr.
2,000
To Debtors Account
2,000
iv) Cash received of Rs. 4,000 from X shown on the debit of Y's
account: Rectification entry if if is done in the accounting period of the
error itself.
Suspense Account Dr.
8,000
To X Account
4,000
Note that the entry is same in both the cases. The basic reason is
jthat the account affected is not a nominal account.
Illustration 1;
A book keeper while preparing his trial balance finds that the
debit exceeds by Rs. 7,250. Being required to prepare the final
account he places the difference to a suspense account. In the next
year the following mistakes were discovered:
a) A sale of Rs. 4,000 has been passed through the purchase
day book. The entry in the customer's account has been
correctly recorded;
Draft the joyrnal entries for rectifying the above mistakes and prepare
the suspense account and profit and loss adjustment account,
Journal
a) Suspense A/c Dr. 8,000
To Profit & Loss Adjustment A/c 8,000
(Being wrong recording of sales as
purchase last year rectified)
b) Drawings A/c Dr. 2,500
To Profit & Loss Adjustment A/c 2,500
(Being Drawings made last year
inadvertently shown as repairs now
rectified)
c) Krishna A/c Dr. 1,300
To Bills Receivable A/c 1,300
(Being bill dishonoured last year now
recorded in the books)
SALIENT FEATURES
expenses
Unearned income Bills receivable
Loans Stock
Capital (Balancing Prepaid expenses
figure)
Accrued income
Fixed assets
year
Less: capital in the beginning of the year
Profit (or loss) for the year
adjustment as shown in
Debts
To Interest on Capital
To Net Profit transferred to
Capital Account
Conversion Method
debtors)
To Sales A/c To Bills receivable A/c
(Credit sales) (Bills drawn on debtors)
To Bills receivable A/c By Sales Return A/c
(Bill dishonoured) By Discount Allowed A/c
By Bad Debts A/c
By balance c/d
(Debtors at the end of the
year)
(B/R dishonoured)
By balance c/d
(B/R at the end)
Gross Profit Ratio: Sometimes, gross profit ratio (i.e. Gross profit /
Net sales x 100) is given in the question. In that, case, the amount of
gross profit figure in trading account, calculation of missing
information about any one of the items recorded in trading account
can take place. Items recorded in trading account are opening stock,
purchases, direct expenses and closing stock.
Illustration 1: Find out the amount of direct expenses from the
following
details:
Rs.
Stock on 1-4-98 17,000
Stock on 31-3-999 12,000
Purchases during 1998-99 000
Sales during 1998-99 1,28,000
Gross profit ratio 25%
Dr. Trading Account for the year ended March 31, 1999
Cr.
1,28,000)
1,40,000 1,40,000
Illustration 2:
Assets and liabilities at the beginning and at the end of the period
have given below:
1-1-1998 31-12-1998
Stock 20,000 15,000
Bank Balance 8,000 12,000
Cash in hand 300 400
Debtors 14,000 20,000
Creditors 27,300 30,000
Investments 50,000 50,000
During the year, cash amounting to Rs. 20,000 was stolen from
the till, ucods worth Rs. 24,000 were withdrawn from private use. No
record has been kept of amounts taken from cash for personal use
and a difference in cahs amounting to Rs. 7,300 is treated as private
expenses.
A/c
By Rent& Rates A/c 2,000
By Lighting A/c 1,000
By General Exp. A/c 4,600
By balance c/d 400
3,92,300 3,92,300
Dr. Bank A/c Cr.
To balance b/d 8,000 By drawings A/c 26,000
To Cash A/c 1,50,000 By Business Payment 1,22,000
A/c
To Capital A/c 59,700 By Purcahse A/c 57,700
(Dividend)
(balancing figure)
By balance c/d 12,000
2,17,000 2,17,000
figure)
1,62,000 1,62,000
figure)
30,000 30,000
Balance Sheet as at 1-1-98
Liabilities Amount Assets Amount
Creditors 27,300 Stock 20,000
Capital (Balancing figure) 65,000 Bank 8,000
Cash 300
Debtors 14,000
Investments 50,000
92,300 92,300
Trading & Profit & Loss A/c for the year ended 31-12-98
To Opening Stock 20,000 By Sales :
A/c
To Wages 97,700 Cash 2,50,000
To Purchaes : Credit 1,48,000
Cash 1,60,000 By closing Stock 15,000
A/c
Credit 2,700
1,62,000
Less Drawings 24,000 1,38,700
To Gross Profit 1,56,600
4,13,000 4,13,000
A/c
To Rent & Rates A/c 2,000
To Lighting A/c 1,000
To General Expenses 4,600
A/c
To delivery Expenses A/c 7,000
To Defalcation A/c 20,000
1,56,600 1,56,600
)
Creditors 30,000 Cash 400
97,400 97,400
1. Income Statement
2. Balance Sheet
3. Statement of Retained earnings
4. Funds flow statement
5. Cash flow statement.
6. Schedules.
3. The net income disclosed by the profit and toss account is not
absolute but only relative.
5. The profit and loss account does not disclose factors like quality
of product, efficiency of the management etc.,
6. There are certain assets and liabilities which are not disclosed
by the balance sheet. For example the most tangible asset of a
company is its management force and a dissatisfied labour force
is its liability which are not disclosed by the balance sheet.
7. The book value of assets is shown as original cost less
depreciation. But in practice, the value of the assets may differ
depending upon the technological and economic changes.
12. The financial statements are generally prepared from the point
of view of shareholders and their use is limited in decfsion
making by the management, investors and creditors.
Income Statement :
There is no legal format for the profit and loss A/C. Therefore, it
can be presented in the traditional T form, or vertically, in statement
form. An example of the two formats is given as under.
Dr Cr
Particulars Rs. Particualrs Rs.
To opening stock By cost of finished Goods Xxxx
c/d
Raw materials xxx By closing stock
Work in progress xxx Raw materials xxx
Work in progress xxx
To purchases of raw xxx
materials
To manufacturing wages xxx
To carriage inwards xxx
To other Factory Expenses xxx
xxx xxx
By sales xxx
To opening stock of xxx By closing stock of xxx
finished finished
goods goods
To cost of Finished goods xxx By Gross Loss c/d xxx
b/d
To Gross Profit c/d xxx
xxx xxx
To Gross Loss b/d xxx By Gross profit b/d xxx
To office and Admn. xxx By Miscellaneous Receipts xxx
Expense
To Interest and financial xxx By Net Loss c/d xxx
expenses
To provision for Income-tax xxx
To Net Profit c/d xxx
xxx xxx
To net loss b/d xxx By Balance b/d xxx
To general reserve xxx (from previous year)
To Dividend xxx By Net profit b/d xxx
To Balance c/f xxx
xxx xxx
(2)
xxxx
Gross Profit (1) – (2) xxx
Less: Operating Expenses
Office and Administration Expenses
Selling and Distribution Expenses xxx
xxx xxx
Operating Profit Xxxx
Add: Non-operating Income Xxx
Less: Non-oprating Expenses (including Interest) xxxx
Profit before Tax xxx
xxxx
Less : Tax xxx
Profit After Tax xxxx
Appropriations
Transfer to reserves
Dividend declared /paid xxxx
Surplus carried to Balance sheet xxx
xxx
xxxx
Balance Sheet
or
Fixed Deposits xxx adjusted) xxx
Short-term loans and xxx
advances
Current Liabilities and 1. Preliminary expenses xxx
shares
and debentures
A. Current Liabilites 3. Underwriting Commssion xxx
1. Bills Payable xxx
2. Sudnry Creditors xxx Profit and Loss account
(Loss),
3. Income received in xxx if any
advance
4. unclaimed Dividends xxx
5. Other Liabilities xxx
B. Provisions
6. Provisions for Taxation xxx
7. Proposed Dividends xxx
8. Proposed funds & xxx
pension
fund contingent liabilities
not
Provided for
xxx xxx
(ii) Vertical Form:
Balance sheet of ………………………. as on …………………
year Year
I. Source of funds
1. Share holders funds
a. capital xxxx xxxx
b. Reserves and surplus xxxx xxxx
2. Loans funds
a. Secured Loans xxxx xxxx
b. Unsecured Loans xxxx xxxx
Total
II. Application of funds
1. Fixed Assets
a. Gross Block xxxx xxxx
b. less Deprciation xxxx xxxx
c. Net block xxxx xxxx
d. Capital work in progress xxxx xxxx
Particulars Rs.
ASSETS
Current Assets
Cash and Bank Balances xxxx
Debtors xxxx
Stock xxxx
Other Current Assets xxxx
(1) xxxx
Reserves balance
To Dividend xxx By Current Year’s net xxx
profit (Transferred
from profit and loss
A/C)
To Dividend proposed xxx
To surplus carried to xxx By Excess provisions xxx
Balance sheet (which are no longer
required)
By Reserves
withdrawn
(if any) xxx
xxx xxxx
Illustration: 1
From the following information, prepare a vertical
Income
Statement.
Sales 2,00,000
Opening stock 10,000
Closing stock 15,000
Purchases 40,000
Operating Expenses 12,000
Solution:
Income Statement
Particulars Rs. Rs.
Sales 2,00,000
Less : cost of goods sold:
Opening stock 10,000
Add: Pruchases 40,000
50,000
Less: closing Stock 15,000
35,000
Gross Profit 1,65,000
Less: operating expenses 12,000
Operating profit 1,53,000
Less: non-operating expenses 4,000
Profit before tax 1,49,000
Less: Income tax (50%) 74,500
Net profit after tax 74,500
Illustration: 2
From the following particulars, pertaining to Mohan Ltd.,
you are required to prepare a comparative Income Statement and
interpret the changes.
Rs. Rs.
Sales 58,000 65,200
Less Returns 2,000 1,200
Net sales 56,000 64,000
Less: Cost of Goods sold 47,600 49,200
Gross Profit (A) 8,400 14,800
Less: Operating expenses
Administration expenses 1,016 1,000
Selling expenses 1,840 1,920
Total operating expenses (B) 2,856 2,920
Operating profit (A)-(B) 5,544 11,880
Add: non - operating incomes 96 644
Less: non- operating expenses 5,640 12,524
140 155
Net profit before tax 5,500 12,369
Less: Tax 2,406 5,411
Net profit after Tax 3094 6,958
The first three topics are covered in this chapter and the rest
are discussed in the subsequent chapters in detail.
Comparative Financial Statements
Comparative financial statements are statements pf financial
position of a business designed to provide time perspective to the
consideration of various elements of financial position embodied in
such statements. Comparative Statements reveal the following: .
i. Absolute data (money values or rupee amounts)
ii. Increase or reduction in absolute data (in terms of moiwy
values)
iii. Increase or reduction in absolute data (in terms of percentages)
iv. Comparison (in terms of ratios)
v. Percentage of totals.
Advantages:
Comparative statements vidicate trends in sales, cost of
production, profits etc., and help the analyst to evaluate the
performance of the company.
Weaknesses:
Inter-firm comparison can be misleading if the firms are not
identical in size and age and when they follow different accounting
procedures with regard to depreciation, inventory valuation etc.,
Illustration 3:
The following is the profit and loss account of Ashok Ltd., for
the years 2000 and 2001. Prepare comparative Income Statement and
comment on the profitability of the undertaking.
Particulars 2000 2001 Particulars 2000 2001
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
To Cost of 2,31,625 2,41,950 By Sales 3,60,728 4,17,125
goods sold
To Office 23,266 27,068 Less 5,794 6,952
expenses Returns
expenses
To Loss on 627 1,750 By Other
sale of incomes :
fixed
To Income 21,519 40,195 By Discount 2,125 1,896
Tax on purchase
To Net 35,371 44,425 By Profit on 1,500
,379
Solution:
ASHOK LTD.
Comparative Income Statement for the years ending 2000 and 2001
Amount Percentages
(Rs.)
Sales 3,60,728 4,17,125 +56,397 +15.63
Less: Sales returns 5,794 6,952 +1.158 +19.98
3,54,934 4,10,173 +55,239 +15.56
Less: Cost of goods 2,31,625 2,41,950 + 10,325 +4.46
sold
Gross Profit 1,23,309 1,68,223 +44.914 +36.42
Operating Expenses:
Office 23,266 27,068 +3,802 + 16.34
expenses
Selling 45,912 57,816 +11,904 +25.93
expenses
Total operating 69,178 84,884 +15,706 +22.70
expenses
Operating profit 54,131 83,339 +29,208 +53.96
Add: Other incomes 5,523 3,206 -2,317 -41.95
59,654 86,545 +26.891 +45.08
Less: Other 2,764 1,925 -839 -30.35
expenses
Profit before tax 56,890 84,620 +27,730 +48.74
Less: Income tax 21,519 40,195 +18,676 +86.79
Net Profit after tax 35,371 44,425 +9,054 +25.60
Illustration: 4
The following are the Balance Sheets of Gokul Ltd., for the years
ending 31s1 December, 2000,2001.
Particulars 2000 2001
Rs. Rs.
Liabilities
Equity share capital 2,00,000 3,30,000
Preference share capital 1,00,000 1,50,000
Reserves 20,000 30,000
Profit and Loss a/c 15,000 20,000
Bank overdraft 50,000 50,000
Creditors 40,000 50,000
Provision for taxation 20,000 25,000
Proposed Dividend 15,000 25,000
Total 4,60,000 6,80,000
Fixed Assets
Current Assets:
Cash at bank and in 50,000 83,000 +33,000 +66
Liabilities
Capital and Reserve:
Equity share capital 2,00,000 3,30,000 +1,30,000 +65
Preference share 1,00,000 1,50,000 +50,000 +50
capital
Reserves 20,000 30,000 +10,000 +50
Profit and Loss a/c 15,000 20,000 +5,000 +33.33
3,35,000 5,30,000 +1,95,000 +58.21
Total Liabilities 4,60,000 6,80,000 +2,20,000 +47.83
Interpretation:
1. The above comparative Balance sheet reveaJs the current
assets has been increased to 50%, while current liabilities
increase to 20% only. Cash increased to Rs.33,000 (i.e. 66%),
There is an improvement in liquidity position.
2. The fixed assets purchased was for Rs, 1,10,000. As there are
no long-term funds, it should have been purchased partly from
Share Capital.
3. Reserves and Profit and Loss a/c increased by 50% and 33.33%
respectively. The company may issue bonus shares in near
future.
Illustration: 5
Common Size Income Statement of XYZ Ltd., for the year ended
31st March, 2001.
Particulars Amount (Rs.) % to Sales
(B)
Less: Administrative 1,10,000 7.9
expenses
Selling and distribution 80,000 5.7
expenses
Operating Profit 2,80,000 20.0
Add: Non-operative income 40,000 2.9
3,20,000 22.9
Less: Non-operating 60,000 43
expenses
Profit before tax 2,60,000 18.6
Less: Income tax 80,000 5.7
ASSETS
Fixed Assets
Current Assets :
Inventory
Raw materials 80,000 8.5
Current Liabilities
9,40,000 100.0
llustration: 6
From the following P&L A/c prepare a Common Size Income
Statement-
Particulars 2000 2001 Particulars 2000 2001
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
To Cost of goods 12,000 1 5,000 By Net Sales 16,000 20,000
sold
To Administrative 400 400
expenses
To Selling 600 800
expenses
To Net Profit 3,000 3,800
16,000 20,000 16,000 20,000
Profit
Less: Operating
expenses
Administration 400 2.50 400 2.00
expenses
Selling expenses 600 3.75 800 4.00
Total Operating 1,000 6.25 1,200 6.00
expenses
Net Profit 3,000 18.75 3,800 19.00
Illustration: 7
Following are Balance sheet of Vinay Ltd. for the year ended 31 st
December 2000 and 2001.
for taxation
Proposed 7,500 12,500
dividends
2,30,000 3,40,000 2,30,000 3,40,000
Solution;
Interpretation :
(1) In 2001 Current Assets were increased from 47.83% to 48.53%.
Cash balance increased by Rs. 16,500.
(3) Fixed Assets were increased from Rs. 3,20,000 in 2000 to Rs.
1,75,000 in 2001. These were purchased from the additional
share capital issued.
(4) So, the ove.all financial position is satisfactory.
TREND ANALYSIS
Illustration: 8
From the following data, calculate trend percentage taking 1999
as base.
Rs.
Rs. Rs. Rs. 1999 2000 2001
Purchases 40,000 60,000 72,000 100 150 180
Expenses 5,000 8,000 15,000 100 160 300
Profit 5,000 7,000 13,000 100 140 260
Sales 50,000 75,000 1,00,000 100 150 200
Illustration: 9
From the following data, calculate trend percentages (1999 as
base)
Assets
Total Current 1,650 2,140 2,260 100 130 137
Assets
Fixed Assets:
Land 800 1,000 1,000 100 125 125
Buildings 1,600 2,000 2,400 100 125 150
INTRODUCTION
CATEGORIES OF RATIOS
The ratio analysis is made under six broad categories as follows:
1. Debt-Equity Ratio:
The use of debt capital has direct implications for the profit
accruing to the ordinary shareholders, and expansion is often
financed in this manner with the objective of increasing the
shareholders' rate of return. This objective is achieved only if the rate
earned on the additional funds raised exceeds that payable to the
providers of the loan.
Shareholders Equity
The ratio compares long-term debt to the net worth of the firm
i.e., the capital and free reserves less intangible assets. This ratio is
finer than the debt-equity ratio and includes capital which is invested
in fictitious assets like deferred expenditure and carried forward
tosses. This ratio would be of more interest to the contributories of
long-term finance to the firm, as the ratio gives a S factual idea of the
assets available to meet the long-term liabilities.
Fixed Assets
6. Proprietor Ratio :
It express the relationship between net worth and total asset
Net worth
Total Assets
7. Interest Cover:
Profil before interest depreciationand tax
Interest
8. Dividend Cover :
Net Profit after tax
Dividend
Current Liabilities
1. Inventory :
Sales
Average Inventory
The higher the stock turn over rate the lower the stock turnover
period the better, although the ratios will vary between companies.
For example, the stock turnover rate in a food retailing company must
be higher than the rate in a manufacturing concern. The level of
inventory in a company may be assessed by the use of the inventory
ratio, which measures how much has been tied up in inventory.
Inventory Ratio = Inventory
X 100
Current Assets
2. Debtors :
The three main debtor ratios are as follows:
3. Creditors:
(i) Creditors Turnover Period
Credit purchases
Average creditors
Profitability Ratios
It will be seen from the above formula that ROI can be improved
by increasing one or both of its components viz., the profit margin and
the investment turnover in any of the following ways:
The obvious generalisations that can be made about the ROI formula
are that any action is beneficial provided that it:
Boosts sales
Reduces invested capital
Reduces costs (while holding the other two factors constant)
Table-1: Computation of Capital Employed
Share capital of the company xxx
Reserves and surplus xxx
Loans (secured/ unsecured) xxx
xxx
Less: (a) Capital-in-progress xxx
(b) Investment outside the business xxx
A/c
Capital employed xxx
EPS is one of the most important ratios which measures the net
profit earned per share. EPS is one of the major factors affecting the
dividend policy of the firm and the market prices of the company.
Growth in EPS is more relevant for pricing of shares from absolute
EPS. A steady growth in EPS year after year indicates a good track of
profitability.
The ratio measures the gross profit margin on the total net sales
made by the company. The grosi, profit represents the excess of sales
proceeds during the 1 period under observation over their
cost, before taking into account administration, selling and
distribution and financing charges. The ratio . measures the
efficiency of the company's operations and this can also be ; compared
with the previous years results to ascertain the efficiency partners
with respect to the previous years.
(i) Price cuts: A company need to reduce its selling price to achieve
the desired increase in sales.
(ii) Cost increases: The price which a company pay its suppliers
during period of inflation, is likely to rise and this reduces the
gross profit margin unless an appropriate adjustment is made to
the selling price.
This ratio reflects nt: profit margin on the total sales after
deducting all expenses but before deducting interest and taxation.
This ratio measures the efficiency of operation of the company. The
net profit is arrived at from gross profit after deducting
administration, selling and distribution expenses. The non-operating
incomes and expenses are ignored in computation of net profit before
tax, depreciation and interest
7. Return on Assets :
This ratio is calculated as follows:
Net profit after tax X 100
Total assets
The profitability, of the firm is measured by establishing relation
of net profit with the total assets of the organisation. This ratio
indicates the efficiency of utilisation of assets in generating revenue.
Operating Ratios
The ratios of all operating expenses (i.e. materials used, labour,
factory-overheads, administration and selling expenses) to sales is the
operating ratio. A comparison of the operating ratio would indicate
whether the cost content is high or low in the figure of sales. If the
annual comparison shows that the sales has increased the
management would be naturally interested and concerned to know as
to which element of the cost has gone up. It is not necessary that the
management should be concerned only when the operating ratio goes
up. If the operating ratio has fallen, though the unit selling price has
remained the same, still the position needs analysis as it may be the
sum total of efficiency in certain departments and inefficiency in
others, A dynamic management should be interested in making a
complete analysis.
It is, therefore, necessary to break-up the operating ratio into
various cost ratios. The major components of cost are: Material,
labour and overheads. Therefore, it is worthwhile to classify the cost
ratio as:
The market test ratios relates the firm's stock price to its
earnings and book value per share. These ratios give management an
indication of what investors think of the company's past performance
and future prospectus. If firm's profitability, solvency and turnover
ratios are good, then the market test ratios will be high and its share
price is also expected to be high. The market test ratios are as follows:
-
3. Book value
4. Price/Earnings ratio
2. Dividend Yield
Dividend per share
X 100
Market price
3. Book Value:
This ratio indicates the net worth per equity share. The book
value is a reflection of the past earnings and the distribution policy of
the company. A high book value indicates that a company has huge
reserves and is a potential bonus candidate. A low book value signifies
liberal distribution policy of bonus and dividends, or alternatively, a
poor track record of profitability. Book value is considered less
relevant for the m^ker price as compared to EPS, as it reflects the past
record whereas the market discounts the future prospects.
Solution:
(a) Debt-equity ratio = Outsiders Funds
Shareholders Funds
Funds
Secured Loans 80,000 Share Capital 1,00,000
Creditors 50,000 Reserves 20,000
Provisions for taxation 20,000 Profit and Loss a/c 30,000
1,50,000 1,50,000
1,30,000 = 1.08:1
account
Creditors 1,04,000 Cash 1, 60,000
Bills payable 2,00,000 Debtors
3,60,000
bad debts
40,000
Other Current 20,000 Stock 4,80,000
liabilities
Prepaid Insurance 12,000
16,92,000 16,92,000
Solution:
Liabilities
Prepaid insurance 12,000
9,72,000 3,24,000
3,20,000
4,80,000
X 100
= 30,80,000 + 6,80,000 + 40,00,000 = 94%
40,00,000
Illustration 3: The following are the Trading and P&L A/c for the year
ended 31st December 2001 and the Balance Sheet as on that date of
K. Ltd.
Trading and P & L A/c
Expenses
To Selling Expenses 3,000 By Interest 300
To Financial Expenses 1,500 By Profit on sale 600
of shares
To Loss on sale of assets 400
To Net Profit 15,000
34,900 34,900
Balance Sheet
Liabilities Rs. Assets Rs.
Share Capital 20,000 Land and Buildings 15,000
Reserves 9,000 Plant & Machinery 8,000
Current Liabilities 13,000 Stock 14,900
P&LA/c 6,000 Debtors 7,1000
Cash at Bank 3,000
48,000 48,000
Solution:
(a) Current ratio = Current Assets
Current Liabilities
Illustration 4; The following is the Trading and Profit and Loss a/c
and Balance Sheet of a firm.
To Interest 3,000
To Selling Expenses 12,000
To Net Profit 20,000
50,000 50,000
Balance Sheet
Liabilities Rs. Assets Rs.
Capital 1,00,000 Land and Buildings 50,000
Profit and Loss a/c 20,000 Plant & Machinery 30,000
Creditors 25,000 Stock 15,000
Bills Payable 15,000 Debtors 15,000
Bills receivable 12,500
Cash at Bank 17,500
Furniture 20,000
1,60,000 1,60,000
= 20,000 = 20%
1,00,000
(A) / (B) x 1 00
Analysis: Basing on the return on capital employed, B Ltd., is the
best performer as compared to A Ltd. and C Ltd.
Illustration 7: Calculate the P/E ratio from the following:
(Rs.)
Equity Share Capital (Rs. 20 each) 50,00,000
Reserves and Surplus 5,00,000
Secured Loans at 15% 25,00,000
Unsecured Loans at 12.5% 10,00,000
Fixed Assets 30,00,000
Investments 5,00,000
Income-taxRate50% (Rs.)
Additional information:
Profit after tax at 50% Rs. 15,00,000
Deprication Rs. 6,00,000
Equity dividend paid 10%
Market price per equity share Rs. 200
Solution:
= Rs.200 = 14 times
Rs. 14.29
INTRODUCTION
The Profit and Loss account and Balance Sheet statements are
the common important accounting statements of a business
organisation. The Profit and Loss account provides financial
information relating to only a limited range of financial transactions
entered into during an accounting period and which have impact on
the profits to be reported. The Balance Sheet contains information
relating to capital or debt raised or assets purchased. But both the
above two statements do not contain sufficiently wide range of
information to make assessment of organization by the end user of the
information.
The Funds flow statement contain all the details of the financial
resources which have became available during an accounting period
and the ways in which those resources have been used up. This
statement discloses the amounts raised from various sources of
finance during a period and. then explains how that finance has been
used in the business. This statement is valuable in interpretation of
the accounts.
It is a very useful tool in analysis of finrncial statements which
analyses the changes taking place between two balance sheet dates.
The statement analyses the change between the opening and closing
balance sheets for the period.
Concept of'Fund’
Concept of Flow
Rs.
Fund from Operations xxx
Issue of Share Capital xxx
Raising of long-term loans xxx
Receipts from partly paid shares, called up xxx
Sales of non-current (fixed) assets xxx
Non-trading receipts, such as dividends received xxx
Sale of Investments (long-term) xxx
Decrease in Working Capital (as per schedule of xxx
changes in w.c)
Total xxx
changes in w.c)
Total xxx
capital
Issue of Debentures xxx Redemption of Debentures: xxx
Raising of long-term xxx Repayment of long-term loans xxx
loans
Receipts from partly paid xxx Purchase of non-current (fixed) xxx
Investments
Net Decrease in Working xxx Payment of tax* xxx
Capital
Net Increase in Working Capital xxx
xxx xxx
The relation between Stage I and Stage II is given below in the figure:
Stage I : List the sources from which capital has been derived
during the accounting period, and the ways in which
working capital has been used up, i.e. list the
transactions which cause working capital to increase or
decrease
SOURCES OF FUNDS
The funds inflow into the organisation will come from the following
sources:
The provision for tax made in the profit and loss account is to
be added back to the reported profit The actual amount paid as
tax is to be shown as the' application of funds in the funds flow
statement. The provision for tax, if it' is shown in the balance
sheet, need not be considered for calculation of funds! generated
fro operations.
The long-term funds injected into the business during the year
by issue of new shares or debentures and by raising long-term loans.
If any premium is collected, that is also form part of funds raised from
the above said sources of finance.
Sale of Fixed Assets and Long-term Investments
APPLICATION OF FUNDS
Additional Information
1) Tax Paid during the year 2000 – 2001 Rs.
2,500
2) Dividends paid for the period 2000- 2001 Rs. 1,000
year)
[bal.fig.]
17,500 17,500
current
11,000 11,000
A/c
To proposed Dividend 6,000 By Funds from 43,500
Operations
(bal. fig.)
To Balance c/d 80,000
(closing balance
93,500 93,500
Illustration 5: The following information has been extracted from the Balance
Sheets of a company
Particulars 31st Dec. 2000 31st Dec. 2001
Machinery 80,000 2,00,000
Accumulated Depreciation 30,000 35,000
Profit and Loss Account 25,000 40,000
(balancing figure)
40,000 40,000
Machinery A/c
depreciation
To Cash-Purchases 1,15,000 By Adjusted P & L A/c 3,000
Depreciation A/c
To Machinery A/c (Loss 3,000 By Funds from 28,000
53,000 53,000
of the year
Provision for Depreciation on Plant at the end of the 61,000
year
(Depn.
of sold Machine)
To Closing balance c/d 4,11,000 By Adjusted P&L A/c 27,000
4,51,000 4,51,000
Illustration 8 :
Extracts from Balance Sheets
Particulars As on 31st As on 31st March
March, 2001
2000
Rs. Rs.
Equity from Balance Sheets 4,00,000 5,00,000
8% Preference Share Capital 2,00,000 1,50,000
Additional Information :
(i) Equity shares were issued during the year against purchase
of machinery for Rs.50,000.
(ii) 8% Preference shares worth Rs. 1,00,000 were redeemed
during the year.
(Depn.
of sold Machine)
To Closing balance c/d 4,11,000 By Adjusted P&L A/c 27,000
4,51,000 4,51,000
figure)
5,00,000 5,00,000
figure)
2,50,000 2,50,000
Illustration 9 :
Prepare a statement showing changes in working capital
Particulars 2000 2001
Assets
Cash 60,000 94,000
Debtors 2,40,000 2,30,000
Stock 1,60,000 1,80,000
Land 1,00,000 1,32,000
Total 5,60,000 6,36,000
Capital & Liabilities
Share Capital 4,00,000 5,00,000
Creditors 1,40,000 90,000
Retained earnings 20,000 46,000
Total 5,60,000 6,36,000
(+) (-)
Current Assets
Cash 60,000 94,000 34,000
Debtors 2,40,000 2,30,000 10,000
Stock 1,60,000 1,80,000 20,000
4,60,000 5,04,000
Current Liabilities
Creditors 1,40,000 90,000 50,000
Working Capital (CA- 3,20,000 4,14,000
CL)
Net increase in 94,000 94,000
Working Capital
4,14,000 4,14,000 1,04,000 1,04,000
Illustration 10 : Following are summerised Balance Sheets ‘X’ Ltd. as
on 31st December, 2000 and 2001. You are required to prepare a
Funds Statement for the year ended 31st December, 2001.
(Long-term)
Creditors 75,000 - Debtors 40,000 32,100
Provision for Tax 15,000 17,500 Bank - 4,000
Cash 250 300
2,65,250 2,55,400 2,65,250 2,55,400
Additional Information:
(i) Dividend of Rs. 11,500 was paid.
(ii) Depreciation written off on plant Rs.7,000 and on buildings
Rs.5,000.
(iii) Provision for tax was made during the year Rs. 16,500.
e (-)
(+)
Current Assets
Cash 250 300 50
Bank - 4,000 4,000
Debtors 40,000 32,100 7,900
Stock 50,000 37,000 13,000
90,250 73,400
Current Liabilities
Creditors Working 75,000 - 75,000 -
Capital
73,400 73,400 79,050 79,050
operations
Issue of Shares 25,000 Income tax paid 14,000
Hank Loan 32,600 Dividend paid 11,500
Goodwill paid 2,500
Net increase in 58,150
Working Capital
1,02,650 1,02,650
Working Notes:
Share Capital A/c
Particulars Rs. Particulars Rs
To Balance c/d 1,25,000 By Balance b/d 1,00,000
By Bank a/c 25,000
1,25,000 1,25,000
1,00,000 1,00,000
Plant A/c
(P&L a/c)
91,500 91,500
Goodwill A/c
Particulars Rs. Particulars Rs.
To Bank 2,500 By Balance c/d 2,500
2,500 2,500
P&L a/c:
General reserve 5,000
Provision for tax 16,500
Dividends paid 11,500
Depreciation:
On Buildings 5,000
On Plant 7,000 45,000
60,300
Less: Balance of P&L a/c (2000) 15,250
Funds from Operations 45,050
receivable
Provision for 800 1,200 Debtors 36,000 3 8,000
doubtful debts
balances
3,11,200 3,11,600 3,11,200 3,11,600
Additional Information:
(i) Depreciation provided on plant was Rs.8,000 and on
Buildings Rs.8,000
(ii) Provision for taxation made during the year Rs.38,000
(iii) Interim dividend paid during the year Rs. 16,000.
Statement showing Changes in Working Capital
Increase Decrease
Particulars 2000 2001
in W.C. in W.C.
Current Assets
Cash & Bank 13,200 30,400 17200
Balances
Debtors 36,000 38,000 2,000
Bills Receivable 4,000 6,400 2,400
Stock 60,000 46,800 13,200
1,13,200 1,21,600
Current Liabilities
Provision for 800 1,200 400
doubtful debts
Bills Payable 2,400 1,600 800
Creditors Working 16,000 10,800 5,200
Capital
1,08,000 1,08,000 27,600 27,600
Funds Flow Statement
Sources Rs. Application Rs.
Funds from 72,000 Purchase of Plant 6,000
operations
Tax paid 34,000
Purchase of investments 2,000
Interim dividend paid 16,000
Increase in Working Capital 14,000
72,000 72,000
Working Notes:
Provision for Taxation A/c
Particulars Rs. Particulars Rs:
Plant A/c
Buildings A/c
Investments A/c
Particulars Rs. Particulars Rs.
To Balance b/d 20,000 By Balance c/d 22,000
To Bank (Purchase) 2,000
22,000 22,000
Buildings
General 80,000 1,40,000 Machinery 3,60,000 2,60,000
Reserve
P&L A/c 64,000 78,000 Stock 2,00,000 2,52,000
Bank Loan 3,20,000 80,000 Debtors 1,60,000 1,28,000
(Long term)
Creditors 3,00,000 2,60,000 Cash at Bank 1,04,000 18,000
Taxation
12,24,000 11,38,000 12,24,000 11,38,000
Additional Information :
(i) During the year ended 31st December 200 dividend of
Rs.84,000 was paid.
W.C. in W.C.
Current Assets
Cash at Bank 1,04,000 18,000 86,000
Debtors 1,60,000 1,28,000 32,000
Stock 2,00,000 2,52,000 52,000
4,64,000 3,98,000
Current Liabilities
Creditors Working 3,00,000 2,60,000 40,000
Capital
1,64,000 1,38,000
1,64,000 1,38,000
Decrease in working 26,000 26,000
capital
1,64,000 1,64,000 1,18,000 1,18,000
Funds Flow Statement for the year ending 31st Dec. 2001
Buildings
Sale of Machinery 76,000 Bank Loan paid 2,40,000
Funds from 3,17,000 Dividend paid 84,000
operations
Decrease in 26,000 Income-tax paid 70,000
Working Capital
4,69,000 4,69,000
Working Notes:
Provision for Taxation A/c
Particulars Rs. Particulars Rs.
To Cash 70,000 By Balance b/d 60,000
To Balance b/d 80,000 By Adj. P&L a/c 90,000
1,50,000 1,50,000
Machinery A/c
Land and Buildings A/c
Particulars Rs. Particulars Rs.
To Balance b/d 3,60,000 By Adj. P&L a/c 24,000
By Sale of Machinery 76,000
By Balance c/d 2,60,000
3,60,000 3,60,000
Buildings Operations
To Provision for 90,000
tax
To General 60,000
Reserve
To Dividends paid 84,000
To Closing 78,000
balance
3,81,000 3,81,000
For instance, when shares are issued for cash, the same is shown in
funds flow statement as a source of funds whereas in profit and loss account
it is now shown as income.
New items are not disclosed: The funds flow statement does
not disclose any new or original items which affect the financial
position of the business. The funds flow statement simply
rearranges the data given in conventional financial statements
and schedules.
INTRODUCTION
xxx
Less: Increase in Current Assets xxx
(excluding cash & bank balance)
Decrease in Current Liabilities xxx xxx
(excluding bank overdraft)
Profit and Loss Account : The profit and loss account of the
current period enables to determine the amount of cash
provided by or used in operations during the accounting period
after making adjustments for non-cash, current assets and
current liabilities.
Cash Flow Statement of XYZ Ltd. for the year ending 31" March
2001
Preference Shares
Cash from Operations XXX Redemption of Debentures XXX
Issue of Shares XXX Repayment of Loans XXX
Raising of Long Term Non Operating Expenses XXX
Loans/Debentures XXX Closing Balances XXX
Sale of Fixed Assets XXX Cash XXX
and Investments
Non Trading Receipts XXX Bank XXX
XXX XXX
Note : The Cash Flow Statement can also be presented in the vertical
form. However, the horizontal form given above is convenient and is
more commonly used.
Illustration: 1
From the following information, you are required to ascertain cash
flow operation
Illustration: 2
From the following balances, you are required to calculate cash from
operations:
31 2000 31 2001
Debtors 50,000 47,000
Bill Receivable 10,000 12,500
Creditors 20,000 25,000
Bills Payable 8,000 6,000
Outstanding Expenses 1,000 1200
Prepaid Expenses 800 700
Accrued Income 600 750
Income Received in Advance 300 250
Profit made during the year - 1,30,000
Illustration: 4
From the following balance sheets of Sulekha Ltd. you are required to
prepare a cash flow statement
Creditors
Cash Operating Profit 19,500 Closing balance 70,500
Illustration: 5
From the following balance sheets of Zindal Ltd/prepare cashflow
statement.
1. Plant Account
on 1-1-2001
To Purchases-cash 2,60,000 By closing balance 4,00,000
on 31-12-2001
4,20,000 4,20,000
on 1-1-2001
By cash (sales-
balancing figure)
By closing balance on 3,40,000
31-12-2001
4,00,000 4,00,000
1-1-2001
To closing balance 1,00,000 By P&L Account 90,000
1,70,000 1,70,000
2001:
Less: Balance of P&L A/c on 1-1-2001: 60,000 36,000
Add: Profit used for reserves &
provisions:
Proposed dividend 1,00,000
Interim dividend 40,000
Provisions for taxation 90,000
Transfer to general reserve 60,000 2,90,000
3,26,000
Add : Profit used for writing off non-
cash A/c:
Goodwill 50,000
Depreciation:
Plant 20,000
Land & Building 40,000
1,10,000
4,36,000
Add: increase in creditors 56,000
Funds from operations 4,92,000
Less: Increase in current assets:
Debtors 80,000
Stock 64,000
Bills Receivable 20,000 1,64,000
3,28,000
Less: Decrease in current liabilities:
Bills Payable 8,000
Cash from Operations 3,20,000
dividend
Add: Cash inflows: Income-tax paid 70,000
Operations 3,20,000 Redemption of Pref. 1,00
Shares
Sale of land & bldg. 20,000 1,00,000
Issue of shares 2,00,000
5,54,000
Closing balance on
31-12-2001
Cash in hand 20,000
Cash in bank 16,000
5,90,000 5,90,000
Illustration: 6
From the following information you are required to prepare a Cash
Flow Statement of Shanti Stores Ltd for the year ended 31" December,
2001
Balance Sheets
Machinery
Secured Loans Inventory 15,000 40,000
Repayable (2001) 40,000 Debtors 5,000 20,000
Creditors 14,000 39,000 Cash 20,000 7,000
Tax payable 1,000 3,000 Prepaid 2,000 4,000
General Exp.
P&L A/c 7,000 10,000
92,000 1,62,000 92,000 1,62,000
Profit & Loss A/c for the year ended 31" December, 2001
Rs.
Funds from Operations 16,000
Add: Increase in Creditors 25,000
41,000
Less: Increase in Debtors 15,000
Increase in Inventory 25,000
Increase in Prepaid General Expenses 2,000 42,000
Cash lost in Operations 1,000
Illustration: 7
The following are the balance Sheets of X Ltd. For the year ending 31 st
December 2000 and 2001
Particulars 2000 2001
Liabilities Rs. Rs.
Share Capital 2,00,000 3,00,000
Profit and Loss Account 1,20,000 1,60,000
Sundry creditors 60,000 50,000
Provision for taxation 40,000 50,000
Proposed Dividend 20,000 30,000
4,40,000 5,90,000
Additional information:
1) Taxes Rs. 44,000 and dividend Rs. 24,000 were paid during the
year 2001
2) The net profit for the year 2001 before depreciation Rs. 1,34,000
Cash
(1-1-2001) 30,000 Purchase of fixed assets 60,000
Cash inflows: Taxes paid 44,000
Issue of share capital 1,00,000 Dividend paid 24,000
Cash from operations 1,34,000 Purchase of investments 8,000
Increase in Stock 58,000
Increase in debtors 20,000
Decrease in creditors 10,000
Closing balance of cash 40,000
2,64,000 2,64,000
Working Notes:
Fixed Assets a/c
Particulars Rs. Particulars Rs.
To Balance 2,00,000 By Balance c/d 2,60,090
To Bank a/c 60,000
2,60,000 2,60,000
Investments a/c
Illustration: 8
From the following Balance Sheets of Exe. Ltd. Make out the
statement of sources and uses of cash:
Liabilities 2000 2001 Assets 2000 2001
Capital
8% Redeemable 1,50,000 1,00,000 Land and 2,00,000 1,70,000
Capital
General Reserve 40,000 70,000 Plant 80,000 2,00,000
Account
Proposed 42.000 50,000 Stock 77,000 1,09,000
Dividend
Creditors 55,000 83,000 Bills 20,000 30,000
Receivable
Bill Payable 20,000 16,000 Cash in Hand 15,000 10,000
Taxation
6,77,000 8,17,000 6,77,000 8,17,000
Additional information:
a) Depreciation of Rs. 10,000 and Rs. 20,000 have been charged
on Plant and Land and Building respectively in 2001.
Working Notes:
plant
To Depreciation 20,000 By Funds from 2,18,000
to buildings operations
(balancing figure)
To Goodwill written off 25,000
To Provision of 45,000
taxation
To Interim dividend 20,000
To Dividend proposed 50,000
To Transfer to 30,000
General Reserve
To Balance c/d 48,000
2,48,000 2,48,000
2,10,000 2,10,000
1-2001
Cash in hand 1 5,000 Redemption of 50,000
Redeemable
Cash at bank 10,000 Preference share 20,000
Add: Inflows of cash: Payments of interim 42,000
dividend
Issue of Shares 1,00,000 Payment of tax 35,000
Sale of Land and 10,000 Purchase of Plant 1,30,000
Building
Funds from operations 2,18,000 Decrease in bills payable 4,000
Increase in creditors 28,000 Increase in debtors 40,000
Increase in stock 32,000
Increase in B/R 10,000
Cash Balance as on 31-
12-2001
Cash in hand 10,000
Cash at bank 8,000
3,81,000 3,81,000
Illustration: 9
Balance Sheets of XYZ Ltd. as on 1-1-2000 and 31-12-2001 was as
follows:
Liabilities 1-1-2001 31-12-2001
Capital 1,25,000 1,53,000
Creditors 1,40,000 1,44,000
Bank loan 65,000 50,000
Bills Payable 20,000 30,000
3,50,000 3,77,000
Assets:
Cash 20,000 17,000
Debtors 30,000 80,000
Stock 45,000 35,000
Machinery 80,000 65,000
Land 90,000 80,000
Buildings 65,000 70,000
Goodwill 20,000 30,000
3,50,000 3,77,000
Machinery a/c
Sources Rs. Applications Rs.
To Balance b/d 1,15,000 By Bank (Sale) 7,000
To Bank (Purchase) 12,000 By Provisions for depreciation 4,000
a/c
By P & L a/c (Loss on sale) 1,000
By Balance c/d 1,15,000
1,27,000 1,27,000
Land a/c
Particulars Rs. Particulars Rs.
To Balance b/d 90,000 By Bank (Purchase) 10,000
By Balance c/d 80,000
90,000 90,000
Buildings a/c
Particulars Rs. Particulars Rs.
To Balance b/d 65,000 By Balance c/d 70,000
To Bank (Purchases) 5,000
70,000 70,000
Goodwill a/c
Particulars Rs. Particulars Rs.
To Balance b/d 20,000 By Balance c/d 30,000
To Bank 10,000
30,000 30,000
Capital a/c
Particulars Rs. Particulars Rs.
To Drawings 27,000 By Balance b/d 1,25,000
(Balancing figure)
To Balance c/d 1,53,000 By Net Profit 55,000
1,80,000 1,80,000
Despite the above limitations, cash flow statement is a very useful tool
of financial analysis. It discloses the volume and speed at which cash
flows in various segments of the business and the amount of capital
tied-up in a particular segment.
LESSON- 13
BUDGETING AND BUDGETARY CONTROL
BUDGET
BUDGETING
BUDGETARY CONTROL
Advantages of Budgeting
Budgetary control establishes a basis for internal audit by
regularly evaluating departmental results.
People are made responsible for items of cost and revenue, i.e.
areas of responsibility are clearly delineatea.
Problems in Budgeting
Budgets are perceived by the work force as pressure devices
imposed by top management. This can have an adverse effect on
labour relations.
BUDGETING PROCESS
The method by which the annual budget is prepared will differ from
organisation to organisation. In some organisations budgeting may be
a well organised, well documented procedures while in others the
budget may be prepared in a rather ad hoc and disorganised manner.
The budget process is shown in the following figure. The steps in
budgeting process representative to all organisations is given below:
PREPARATION OF BUDGETS
1. Production Budget
The direct labour budget will ensure that the plan will make the
required number of employees of relevant grades and suitable skills
available at the right times. It specifies the direct labour requirement,
of various products as envisaged in the production budget. The direct
labour budget will be developed for both direct labour hours and
direct labour cost. After the labour requirements relating to different
grades are finalized, estimated rate per hour and labour cost per unit
is arrived at:
Illustration 1:
Product 1 2 3
Operation
1 18 42 30
2 - 12 24
3 9 9 -
The factory works 8 hours per day, 6 days in a week. The budget
quarter is taken as 13 weeks and during a quarter, lost hours due to
leave and holidays and other causes are estimated to be 124.
(a) Production budget, (b) Direct labour hours for each product
operation-wise, (c) Number of workers required for each operation.
be built up
Total 10,000 15,000 14,000
Less: Carry-over (opening) - 5,000 4,000
stock
Budgeted 10,000 10,000 10,000
Production
Operation II
Particulars Product 1 Product 2 . Product 3
Direct labour hrs. per unit - 12 24
(minutes)
Budget Production (units) 10,000 10,000 10,000
-
Direct labour hrs. required: 10,000 x 12 10,000 x 24
60 60
Operation III
Particulars Product 1 Product 2 . Product 3
Direct labour hrs. per unit 9 6 -
(minutes)
Budget Production (units) 10,000 10,000 10,000
-
Direct labour hrs. required: 10,000 x 9 10,000 x 6
60 60
Manpower Requirement:
Total direct labour hrs./ Total available hours required per man
a. Operation I = 15,000/500 = 30 men
b. Operation II = 6,000/500 = 12 men
c. Operation III = 2,500/500 = 5 men
Now, manpower budget for the quarter can be prepared for the three
products and for each operation. The same is given below:
Hr. No. of
Operation Product I Product II Product 3 Total
rate workers
Illustration 2:
It is anticipated that:
(a) There will be no work-in-progress at the end of any month;
(b) Finished units equal to half the anticipated sales for the next
month will be in stock at the end of each month (including
June 2001).
The budgeted production and production costs for the year ending 31 st
June, 2001 are as follows:
product
(units)
Particulars Jan. Feb. March April May June
Product X
Closing Stock 300 400 500 600 600 500
Sales 500 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,200
800 1,000 1,300 1,600 1,800 1,700
Less: Opening Stock 250 300 400 500 600 600
Production (in units) 550 700 900 1,100 1,200 1,100
Product Y
Cost
Direct materials 12 66,600 19 1,20,650
Direct wages 5 27,750 7 44,450
Manufacturing 3 16,650 4 25,400
charges
Total 20 1,11,000 30 1,90,500
Negotiation of Budgets :
After the master budget is accepted and agreed upon by all the
levels of organisational hierarchy, it will be passed on for
implementation. It is essential that each manager responsible for
implementing the budget policy be informed as to his responsibility.
Budget Monitoring:
Illustration 3:
Prepare a cash budget for the three months ending 30 th June,
2001 from the information given below:
a. (Rs.)
Month Sales Materials Wages Overheads
b. Credit Terms:
Sales/ Debtor - 10% sales are on cash, 50% of the credit sales are
collected next month and the balance in the following month.
FLEXIBLE BUDGETING
Steps in Preparation
The steps involved in preparation of flexible budget are as
follows:
Specify the time period that is used.
Classify all costs into fixed, variable and semi-variable
categories.
Determine the types of standards that are to be used.
Analyse cost behaviour patterns in response to past levels of
activity.
Build up the appropriate flexible budget for specified levels of
activity.
Importance
Disadvantages
Illustration 4:
Costs:
Variable cost (@ Rs.3) 18,000 21,000 24,000
Semi-variable cost
Fixed component 6,000 6,000 6,000
Variable component (@ Re.0.50 per unit) 3,000 3,500 4,000
(Rs.)
Capacity Levels 60% 70% 80%
Sales (@ Rs.9) 54,000 63,000 72,000
Less: Total cost 47,000 50,500 58,000
Profit 7,000 12,500 14,000
(Rs.)
Present Profit 13,000
Add: Fixed cost (Rs.20,000 + Rs.6,000) 26,000
Desired Contribution 39,000
Required Output
Desired Contribution
= Contribution per unit
Rs.39,000
= Rs.5.50 = 7,091 units
The funds involved in capital expenditure are not only large but
more or less permanently blocked also in long-term investment. The
longer the time, the greater the risk involved. Greater the risk
involved, greater is the need for careful planning of capital
expenditure, i.e. capital budgeting. The long-term commitment of
funds increases the financial risk involved in the investment decision.
Firm's decision to invest in long-term assets has a decisive influence
on the rate and direction of its growth. An unsound investment
decision may prove to, be fatal to the very existence of the firm. Hence
a careful planning is essential:
(3) Irreversible in Nature :
Last but not the least important step in the capital budgeting
process is an evaluation of the performance of the project, after it has
been fully implemented. It is the duty of the top management or
executive committee to ensure that funds are spent in accordance
with the allocation made in the capital budget. A control over such
capital expenditure is very much essential and for that purpose a
monthly report showing the amount allocated, amount spent, amount
approved but not spent should be prepared and submitted to the
controller. The evaluation is made through post completion audit by
way of comparison of actual expenditure on the project with the
budgeted one, and also by comparing the actual return from the
investment with the anticipated return. The unfavourable variances, if
any, should be looked into and the causes of the same be identified so
that corrective action may be taken in future.
The funds available with the firm are always limited and it is
not possible to invest funds in all the proposals at a time. Therefore,
it is very essential to select from amongst the various competing
proposals, those which give the highest benefit. A firm may face a
situation where more investment proposals may be poor- The
management has to select the most profitable project or to take up the
most profitable project first. There are many considerations, economic
as well as non-economic, which influence the capital budgeting
decisions. Because of the utmost importance of the capital budgeting
decision, a sound appraisal method should be adopted to measure the
economic worth of each investment project. Capital expenditures
represent long-term commitment in the sense that current investment
yields benefits in future. The capital expenditure decisions assume
great importance for the future development of the concern. The
important factor that influences the capital budgeting decision is the
profitability of the prospective investment. The risk involved in the
proposal cannot be ignored because profitability and risk are directly
related, that is, higher the profitability, the greater because
profitability and risk are directly related, that is, higher the
profitability, the greater the risk and vice-versa. The goal of financial
management of a firm is the worth maximisation of the firm, and in
order to achieve this goal, the management must select those projects
which deserve first priority in terms of their profitability. While
evaluating, two basic principles are kept in mind, namely, the bigger
benefits are always preferable to small ones and that early benefits are
always better than the deferred ones. The essential property of sound
evaluation technique is that it should maximise the shareholders'
wealth. The following other characteristic should also be possessed by
a sound investment evaluation criterion:
TRADITIONAL METHODS
(1) Pay-back Period Method
If the annual cash inflows are constant, the pay-back period can
be computed by dividing cash outlay (original investment) by annual
cash inflows. For instance, if a project requires Rs. 10,000 as initial
investment and it will generate an annual cash inflow of Rs.2,500 for
ten years, the pay-back period will be 4 years, calculated as follows:
Initial Investment
Pay - back Period = Annual Cash Inflow
Rs. 10,000
= Rs. 2,500 = 4 years
Inflows Inflow
Rs. Rs.
1 3,000 3,000
2 4,000 7,000
3 2,500 9,500
4 2,000 11,500
5 2,000 13,500
= 3.25 years
Machine M Machine N
Estimated life of machine 4 years 5 years
Cost of machine Rs.9,000 Rs. 18,000
Estimated savings in scrap Rs.500 Rs.800
Estimated savings in direct wages Rs. 6,000 Rs. 8,000
Additional cost of maintenance Rs.800 Rs. 1,000
Additional cost of supervision Rs. 1,200 Rs. 1,800
Solution:
Statement showing annual cash inflows
Rs.
Estimated savings in scrap 500 800
Estimated savings in direct wages 6,000 8,000
Total savings (A) 6,500 8,800
Additional cost of maintenance 800 1,000
Additional cost of supervision 1,200 1,800
Total additional cost (B) 2,000 2,800
New cash inflow (A) - (B) 4,500 6,000
Original Investment
Pay-back Period = Annual Average Cash Inflow
Rs.9,000 Rs.18,000
= Rs.4,500 = 2 years Rs.6,000 = 3 years
(1) It does not take into account the cash inflows earned after the
pay-back period and hence the true profitability of the project
cannot be correctly assessed.
(2) This method does not consider the amount of profit earned on
investment after the recovery of cost of investment.
(3) It does not take into consideration the cost of capital which is a
very important factor in making a sound investment decisions.
(8) It doe not take into account the life of the project, depreciation,
scrap-value, interest factor etc. Because, a rupee tomorrow is
worthless than a rupee today.
Project X Project Y
Cost (Rs.) 1,40,000 1,40,000
Economic Life (in years) 10 10
Estimated Scrap (in Rs.) 10,000 14,000
Annual Savings 25,000 20,000
Rs.
Cost of the project 50,000
Operating Savings:
1st year 5,000
2nd year 20,000
3rd year 30,000
4th year 30,000
5th year 10,000
= 2 years 10 months
(ii) Discounted Pay-back period at 10% interest factor
Discounted Cumulative
Years Savings PV Factor
Savings Discounted Savings
Rs. Rs. Rs.
1 5,000 0.9091 4,546 4,546
2 20,000 0.8265 16,530 21,076
3 30,000 0.7513 22,539 43,615
4 30,000 0.6830 20,490 64,105,
= 3 years 4 months
Project giving a higher rate of return will be preferred over those giving
lower rate of return.
Total Profit
Return per unit of Investment = Net Investment x 100
Solution:
Project A Project B
Rs. Rs.
Total profit, after interest, 6,000 10,000
Machine I Machine II
Life Estimated 3 years 3 years
Rs. Rs.
Capital Cost 10,000 10,000
Net earning after tax:
1st year 8,000 2,000
2nd year 6,000 7,000
3rd year 4,000 10,000
Solution:
Calculation of Net Present Value (10%)
Machine I Machine II
Year PV Factor Cash Present Cash Present
=14.45%
Solution:
Calculation of Profitability Index
50,000 = 1.1235
CAPITAL RATIONING
Solution :
Computation of profit after tax
Machine A Machine B
Average profit Rs. 42,000 Rs. 45,000
Investment
wages:
Employees not required 150 200
Wages per employee 600 600
Solution:
Profitability Statement
Model X Model Y (Rs)
(Rs)
Estimated saving per 10,000 15,000
year scrap
(200x600)
materials 6,000
Cost of Maintenance
1,50,000 » 5
Net Increase in 7,500 8,333
earnings
Pay-back period: 1,50,000 2,50,000
5%
Automatic Ordinary
Machine Machine
The annual sales and Rs. Rs.
costs
are estimated as follows:
Sales 1,50,000 1,50,000
Costs:
Materials 50,000 50,000
Labour 12,000 60,000
Variable Overhead 24,000 20,000
Solution:
Automatic Machine Ordinary Machine
Rs. Rs.
50,000
Labour 60,000
12,000
Overheads 24,000 86,000 20,000 1,30,000
Marginal Profit 64,000
20,000
64,000 5 2 32 yrs.)
= Rs. 1,28,000 = Rs. 1,00,000
Total 726.40
Less: Cash Outlay 500.00
Net Present Value 226.40
Project I Project II
Rs. Rs.
End of year 1 48,000 20,000
2 32,000 24,000
3 20,000 36,000
4 Nil 48,000
5 24,000 16,000
6 12,000 8,000
Solution:
Calculation of Net Present Value
Year Project I Project II PV PV of PV of
Profit X Profit Y
Rs. Rs.
Initial Investment 20,000 30,000
Estimated Life 5 years 5 years
Scrap Value 1,000 2,000
Profits before depreciation and after
taxes are as follows:
Inflow Inflow
Rs. Rs.
1 15,000 5,000
2 20,000 1 5,000
3 25,000 20,000
4 15,000 30,000
5 10,000 20,000
discount
1 0.909
2 0.826
3 0.751
4 0.683
5 0.621
Solution:
Year Cash Inflow Cumulative Cash Inflow
Rs. Rs.
1 15,000 15,000
2 20,000 35,000
3 25,000 60,000
4 15,000 75,000
5 10,000 85,000
15,000
Pay-back Period = 2+ 25,000 = 2.6 years
(b) Machine B
Year Cash Inflow Cumulative Cash Inflow
Rs. Rs.
1 5,000 5,000
2 15,000 20,000
3 20,000 40,000
4 30,000 70,000
5 20,000 90,000
17,000
Average Rate of Return = 50,000 x 100 = 34%
Machine B
Total Returns = Rs.90,000
Average Return = Rs.90,000 » 5 = Rs.18,000
18,000
Average Rate of Return = 50,000 x 100 = 36%
Probability Index
64,865
Machine B = 50,000 = 1.297
ADAMS COMPANY
Balance Sheet
July 31,19
Assets $ Liabilities & Owner's $
Equity
Cash 4,800 Liabilities:
Accounts 9,600 Notes payable (due in 62,400
receivable 60 days)
Land 36,000 Accounts payable 43,200
BAKER COMPANY
Balance Sheet
July 31,19 ___
receivable days)
Land 7,200 Accounts payable 9,600
92,400 92,400
Questions :
(1) Assume that you are a banker and that each company has
applied to you for a 90-day loan of $ 12,000. Which would you
consider to be the more favourable prospect?
CASE- 2
BUSINESS DECISION
Richard Fell, a college student with several summers' experience
as a guide on canoe camping trips, decided to go into business for
himself. To start his own guide service, Fell estimated that at least $
4,800 cash would be needed. On June 1, he borrowed $ 3,200 from
his father and signed a three-year note payable which stated that no
interest would be charged. He deposited this borrowed money along
with $ 1,600 of his own savings in a business bank account to begin a
business known as Birchbark Canoe Trails. The $ '3,200 note payable
is a liability of the business entity. Also on June I, Birchbark Canoe
Trails carried out the following transactions:
(i) Bought a number of canoes at a total cost of $ 6,400, paid $
1,600 cash and agreed to pay the balance within 60 days.
(ii) Bought camping equipment at a cost of $ 3,200 payable in
60 days,
(iii) Bought supplies for cash, $ 800.
Questions :
PACIFIC CORPORATION
Comparative Balance Sheets
As of May 31
(in thousands of dollars)
$ $ $
Current assets 3,960 2,610 3,600
Plant and equipment (net of 21,240 19,890 14,400
depreciation)
Total assets 25,200 22,500 18,000
Liabilities & Stockholder's Equity
Current liabilities 2,214 2,052 1,800
Long-term liabilities 4,716 3,708 3,600
Capital stock ($10 par) 12,600 12,600 8,100
Retained earnings 5,670 4,140 4,500
Total liabilities & stockholder's 25,200 22,500 18,000
equity
PACIFIC CORPORATION
Comparative Income Statements
For Years May 31
(in thousands of dollars)
$ $ $
Net sales 90,000 75,000 60,000
Cost of goods sold 58,500 46,500 36,000
Gross Profit on sales 31,500 28,500 24,000
Operating expenses 28,170 25,275 21,240
Income before income taxes 3,330 3,225 2,760
Income taxes 1,530 1,500 1,260
Net income 1,800 1,725 1,500
Cash dividends paid (plus 20% in 270 465 405
stock in Year 2)
Cash dividends per share 063 1.11 1.50
Questions ;
1. Prepare a three-year comparative balance sheet in percentages
rather than dollars, using Year 1 as the base year.
CASE-4
BUSINESS DECISION
volume
Decrease in manufacturing 10% 5%
Questions:
1. Which of the two proposals should management select?
(Dr.) Cr.)
Building 2,50,000 Admission Fees 5,000
Furniture 40,000 Tuition Fees 2,00,000
Library Books 60,000 Rent of Hall 4,000
16% Investments 2,00,000 Creditors for Books 6,000
(1-1-98) Supplied
Salaries 2,00,000 Miscellaneous Receipts 12,000
rant
General Expenses 8,000 Donations Received for 25,000
library books
Annual Sports Expense 6,000 Capital Fund 4,00,000
Cash 1,000
Bank 20,000 Interest on Investments 8,000
8,00,000 8,00,000
Additional Information:
1) Tuition fees receivable for the year 1998 amounted to Rs.
10,000.
2) Salaries payable for the year 1998 amounted to Rs. 12,000
3) Furniture costing Rs. 10,000 was purchased on 1-7-1998.
Charge depreciation on furniture @ 10% p.a.
4) Depreciate building by 5% and library books by 20%.
8. A book keeper while preparing his trial balance finds that the
debit exceeds by Rs. 7,250. Being required to prepare the final
account he places the difference to a suspense account. In the
next year the following mistakes were discovered:
Draft the journal entries for rectifying the above mistakes and prepare
the suspense account and profit and loss adjustment account
Journal
a) Suspense A/c Dr. 8,000
year rectified)
b) Drawings A/c Dr. 2,500
the books)
d) To Profit & Loss Adjustment A/c 650 650
Dr.
now rectified)
PART - B (4 x 15 = 60 marks)
Answer any Four questions.
Question No. 15 is compulsory
1-1-1998 31-12-1998
Stock 20,000 15,000
Bank Balance 8,000 12,000
Cash in hand 300 400
Debtors 14,000 20,000
Creditors 27,300 30,000
Investments 50,000 50,000
Other transactions are as follows:
Cash paid in bank 1,50,000
Private dividends paid into bank 59,700
Private payments out of bank 26,000
Business payments for goods out of bank 1,22,000
Cash takings 2,50,000
Payment for goods by cash and cheque 1,60,000
Wages 97,700
Delivery Expenses 7,000
Rent and rates 2,000
Lighting 1,000
General Expenses 4,600
During the year, cash amounting to Rs. 20,000 was stolen from the
till. Goods worth Rs. 24,000 were withdrawn from private use. No
record has been kept of amounts taken from cash for personal use
and a difference in calls amounting to Rs. 7,300 is treated as private
expenses.
Reserve
P&L A/c 15,250 15,300 Plant 75,000 84,500
Bank Loan 35,000 67,600 Stock- 50,000 37,000
(Long-term)
Creditors 75,000 - Debtors 40,000 32,100
Provision for 15,000 17,500 Bank - 4,000
Tax
Cash 250 300
2,65,250 2,55,400 2,65,250 2,55,400
Additional Information:
(i) Dividend of Rs.11,500 was paid.
(ii) Depreciation written off on plar.t Rs. 7,000 and on buildings
Rs. 5,000.
(iii) Provision for tax was made during the year Rs. 16,500.
11. From the following Balance Sheets of Exe. Ltd. Make out the
statement of sources and uses of cash:
Capital
8% Redeemable 1.50.000 1,00,000 Land and 2,00,000 1,70,000
Capital
General Reserve 40,000 70,000 Plant 80,000 2,00,000
Profit & Loss 30,000 48,00 Debtors 1,60,000 2,00,000
Account
Proposed 42,000 50,000 Stock 77,000 1,09,000
Dividend
Creditors 55,000 83,000. Bills 20,000 30,000
Receivable
Bill Payable 20,000 16,000 Cash in 15,000 10,000
Hand
Provision for 40,000 50,000 Cash at 10,000 8,000
Taxation Bank
6,77,000 8,17,000 6,77,000 8,17,000
Additional info
(a) Depreciation of Rs. 10,000 and Rs. 20,000 have been charged
on Plant and Land and Building respectively in 2001.
(b) An interim dividend of Rs. 20,000 has been paid in 2000,
(c) Rs. 35,000 Income-tax was paid during the year 2001.
2. Gama Engineering Company Limited manufacturers two
Products X and Y. An estimate of the number of units expected
to be sold in the firs; seven months of 2001 is given below:
It is anticipated that:
The budgeted production and production costs for the year ending 3l rt
June, 2001 are as follows:
Particulars Product X Product Y
Production (Units) 11,000 12,000
Direct materials per unit (Rs.) 12 19
Direct wages per unit (Rs.) 5 7
Other manufacturing charges (Rs.) 33,000 48,000
product
Inflow Inflow
Rs. Rs.
1 15,000 5,000
2 20,000 15,000
3 25,000 20,000
4 15,000 30,000
5 10,000 20,000
discount
1 0.909
2 0.826
3 0.751
4 0.683
5 0.621
(Net)
Pref. Capital 50,000 75,000 Stock 20,000 25,000
Reserves 10,000 15,000 Debtors 50,000 62,500
P&L A/c 7,500 10,000 Bills 10,000 30,000
receivable
Creditors 20,000 25,000 Cash at 20,000 26,500
Bank
Provision for 10,000 12,500 Cash in 5,000 15,000
taxation hand
Proposed dividends 7,500 12,500
2,30,000 3,40(000 2,30,000 3,40,000
Prepare a common size balance sheet and interpret the same.
15. Attempt the following Case:
PACIFIC CORPORATION
Comparative Balance Sheets
As of May 31
(in thousands of dollars)
depreciation)
Total assets 25,200 22,500 18,000
Liabilities & Stockholder's Equity
Current liabilities 2,214 2,052 1,800
Long-term liabilities 4,716 3,708 3,600
Capital stock ($10 par) 12,600 12,600 8,100
Retained earnings 5,670 4,140 4,500
Total liabilities & stockholder's 25,200 22,500 18,000
equity
PACIFIC CORPORATION
Comparative Income Statements
For Years May 31
(in thousands of dollars)
stock in Year 2)
Cash dividends per share 0.63 1.11 1.50
Questions: