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You should familiarise yourself with all those formulae that are needed for the Engineering
Mathematics modules that you are taking. The formula sheet will be provided in examinations.
SECTION I
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
2. sin( A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B cos( A ± B) = cos A cos B m sin A sin B
1
4. sin A cos B = 2 [sin( A + B) + sin( A − B)]
1
cos A cos B = 2 [cos( A + B) + cos( A − B)]
1
sin A sin B = − 2 [cos( A + B) − cos( A − B)]
∴ y = e ln y and ln e x = x
i.e. exp and ln are inverse functions. NB ln y is defined only for y > 0.
-2-
Laws of Logarithms: ln ab = ln a + ln b ln a n = n ln a
F a I = ln a − ln b F 1 I = − ln a
ln
H bK ln
H aK
NB a x = e x ln a for a > 0 .
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
cosh x =
1
2 de x
i
+ e− x , sinh x =
1
2 de x
− e− x i
sinh x 1 1
tanh = sechx = cosech x =
cosh x cosh x sinh x
Identities
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Argand Diagram
Cartesian Form
z = x + iy , x = Re z , y = Im z
z = x − iy (complex conjugate)
Polar Form
x = r cos θ y = r sin θ
∴ z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) = re iθ
z = r = x 2 + y2 (modulus)
y
θ = arg z where tan θ =
x
[NB check that θ is in the correct quadrant with − π < θ ≤ π (principal value)]
-3-
Powers: z n = r n e inθ = [ r (cos θ + i sin θ )]n = r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ) (de Moivre's theorem)
1 1
Roots: n
z=z n = r n e i(θ + 2 πk )/ n , k = 0, ±1, ±2,...
cos θ =
1 iθ
2
d i
e + e − iθ = cosh(iθ ) , sin θ =
2i
d
1 iθ
i 1
e − e −iθ = sinh(iθ )
i
dy
y = f (x ) = f ′( x )
dx
xn nx n−1
x n+1
(n ≠ −1) xn
n +1
sin x cos x
cos x − sin x
tan x sec 2 x
ex ex
1
ln x
x
sinh x cosh x
cosh x sinh x
tanh x sech 2 x
NB The indefinite integrals in the left-hand column each require an arbitrary constant
e.g.
z 1
x
dx = ln x + C .
-4-
dy
y = f (x ) = f ′( x )
dx
cot x −cosec 2 x
F xI 1
arcsin
H aK a − x2
2
arcsinhF I
x 1
H aK a2 + x 2
arccoshF I
x 1
H aK x − a2
2
arc tanF I
1 x 1
a H aK a + x2
2
arc tanhF I
1 x 1
a H aK a − x2
2
dy dy du
= (change of variable)
dx du dx
d df dy
Implicit Differentiation: use the chain rule [ f ( y )] =
dx dy dx
dy dy / dt
=
dx dx / dt
Newton-Raphson Method
xn+1 = xn −
b g
f xn
b g
f ′ xn
Methods of Integration
Logarithmic integral: z f ′( x )
f ( x)
dx = ln f ( x ) + C
Integration by parts: z u
dv
dx
du
dx = uv − v dx
dx z
Numerical Integration
z
a+ h
h
Trapezium rule: f ( x )dx ≈ [ f (a) + f (a + h)]
a
2
b−a
Repeat for n strips of equal width h =
n
with ordinates fk = f xk b g
z
b
f ( x )dx ≈
h
2
b
f0 + 2 f1 + f2 +...+ fn −1 + fn g
a
z
a+2 h
h
f ( x )dx ≈ [ f ( a) + 4 f (a + h) + f ( a + 2 h)]
a
3
b−a
Repeat for an even number n of strips of equal width h =
n
z
b
f ( x )dx ≈
h
3
b g b
f0 + 4 f1 + f3 +... + 2 f2 + f4 +... + fn g
a
-6-
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
Partial Derivatives
If u( x , y ) is a function of x and y
∂u
= ux = derivative of u with respect to x (y kept constant)
∂x
∂u
= uy = derivative of u with respect to y (x kept constant)
∂y
If x = x ( s, t ) , y = y ( s, t ) then f ( x , y ) becomes F( s, t ) :
∂F ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y ∂F ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y
= + = + .
∂s ∂x ∂s ∂y ∂s ∂t ∂x ∂t ∂y ∂t
SERIES
1 1
Sn = a + ( a + d ) + ( a + 2 d )+.... +[ a + (n − 1)d ] = 2 n[2 a + ( n − 1) d ] = 2 n( a + l )
Sn = a + ar + ar +...+ ar
2 n−1
=
d
a 1− rn i (sum of 'n' terms)
1− r
∞
a
S∞ = ∑ ar n −1 = if r <1 (sum to infinity)
n =1 1− r
Taylor Series:
( x − a )2 ( x − a )3
f ( x ) = f ( a) + ( x − a) f ′( a) + f ′′ ( a ) + f ′′′( a) +...
2! 3!
expresses f(x) as a power series about the point x = a . (See Section II for the truncated Taylor
series and remainder term.)
-7-
Maclaurin Series:
x2 x3
f ( x ) = f ( 0 ) + x f ′(0 ) + f ′′( 0 ) + f ′′′ (0 ) +...
2! 3!
This is the special case of the Taylor series when a = 0 i.e. a power series expansion for f(x) about
the origin. The following are examples of Maclaurin series.
Binomial Series:
n( n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)( n − 2 ) 3
(1 + x )n = 1 + nx + x + x +...
2! 3!
If n is a positive integer, the series terminates and is valid for all x. The coefficient of x r is then
n
=
FG IJ n!
the usual Binomial coefficient
r HK
r !( n − r )!
.
x2 x3 x4
Logarithmic series: ln(1 + x ) = x − + − + ... (valid for −1 < x ≤ 1).
2 3 4
VECTORS
Components
b
a = a1i + a2 j + a3k = a1, a2 , a3 g
a = a12 + a22 + a32
-8-
Scalar Product
π
If θ = , the vectors are perpendicular
2
or orthogonal and a ⋅ b = 0 .
Vector Product
i j k
a × b = a b sin θn = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
CONIC SECTIONS
x 2 y2
Ellipse: + =1
a2 b2
x 2 y2
Hyperbola: − =1
a2 b2
b
with asymptotes y = ± x
a
-9-
Rectangular hyperbola: xy = c
Parabola: y 2 = 4 ax
x = at 2
parametric equations
y = 2 at
LMF b I 2 F b 2 − 4ac I OP
+ bx + c = a G x + J − G
MNH 2a K H 4a2 JK PQ
2
ax
- 10 -
SECTION II
Vector Dynamics
d d $
r$ = θ&θ$ θ = −θ&r$
dt dt
M = d×F
v = ω ×d
velocity & θ$
v = r& = r&$r + rθθ
acceleration d i d iθ$
a = &&r = r&& − rθ& 2 r$ + 2 r&θ& + rθ&&
d
= && i d iθ$
r − rθ& 2 r$ +
1 d 2&
r dt
r θ
velocity v = V+ω ×r
acceleration a = A + 2ω
ω × V + ω& × r + ω × (ω × r )
gradφ = ∇φ = i
FG ∂ + j ∂ + k ∂ IJ φ = i ∂φ + j ∂φ + k ∂φ
H ∂x ∂y ∂z K ∂x ∂y ∂z
Divergence of a vector field V( x , y, z ) = V1i + V2 j + V3k :
divV = ∇ ⋅ V = i
FG ∂ + j ∂ + k ∂ IJ ⋅ bV i + V j + V kg = ∂V + ∂V + ∂V
H ∂x ∂y ∂z K
1 2 3
1 2 3
∂x ∂y ∂z
SERIES
Taylor Series for a function of one variable (See Section I for elementary Taylor series)
( x − a )2 ( x − a )n−1 (n−1)
f ( x ) = f ( a ) + ( x − a ) f ′( a ) + f ′′ ( a )+... + f ( a ) + Rn
2! (n − 1)!
( x − a ) n (n )
Rn = f (ξ)
n!
Fourier Series
a0 ∞ F
+ ∑ an cos
nπx nπx I
f (x) =
2 n=1 H L
+ bn sin
L K
where
z z
L L
1 nπ x 1 nπx
an = f ( x ) cos dx bn = f ( x )sin dx .
L −L L L −L L
- 12 -
f ( x , y ) = f ( a, b ) + ( x − a ) f x + ( y − b ) fy
+
1
2!
n
( x − a)2 fxx + 2( x − a)( y − b) f xy + ( y − b)2 fyy s
+
1
3!
n s
( x − a)3 fxxx + 3( x − a )2 ( y − b) f xxy + 3( x − a)( y − b)2 f xyy + ( y − b)3 f yyy +...
∂f ∂f ∂2 f
where f x = , f y = , fxy = , ... are all evaluated at the point ( x , y ) = ( a, b ) .
∂x ∂y ∂x∂y
∂f ∂f
=0 and =0 at ( a, b )
∂x ∂y
I. Maximum/Minimum Point
d i
f xx fyy < fxy
2
III. If
d i
f xx fyy = f xy
2
y ′ = f ( x, y) , b g
y x0 = y0
Euler Method:
'k'-notation
b
yn +1 = yn + hf xn , yn g yn+1 = yn + k b
k = hf xn , yn g
Improved Euler Method
b
ynp+1 = yn + hf xn , yn g ynp+1 = yn + k1 b g
k1 = hf xn , yn
yn +1 = yn +
h
b g e
f x n , yn + f x n+1 , ynp+1 j k2 = hf e x , y j
n +1
p
n+1
2 1
b
yn+1 = yn + 2 k1 + k2 g
2. The above methods can be extended to the pair of first-order equations
y ′ = f ( x, y, z ) , b g
y x0 = y0 ,
z ′ = g( x, y, z ) , b g
z x 0 = z0 .
ynp+1 = yn + k1 b g
k1 = hf x n , yn , zn
znp+1 = zn + l1 l = hgb x , y , z g
1 n n n
1
yn+1 = yn + 2 k1 + k2b g k = hf e x , y , z j
2 n +1
p
n+1
p
n+1
zn +1 = zn + 2
1
bl + l g
1 2 l = hge x , y , z j
2 n+1
p
n +1
p
n+1
y ′′ = g( x, y, y ′ ) , b g
y x0 = y0 , b g
y ′ x 0 = y0′
Let y ′ = z , y ′′ = z ′ and write as the pair of first-order equations [and use (2) with f ( x , y, z ) = z ]
y′ = z , b g
y x0 = y0 ,
z ′ = g( x , y, z ) , b g
z x0 = y0′ .
- 14 -
LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
z
∞
k p
F(s ) = e − st f (t )dt = L f (t )
0
L
f (t ) → F ( s)
←
−1
L
1 1
s
t 1
s2
n!
t n n = 1, 2, 3,...
s n+1
1
e at
s−a
a
sin at
s2 + a 2
s
cos at
s + a2
2
a
sinh at
s − a2
2
s
cosh at
s − a2
2
δ(t ) 1
δ(t − a ) e −as
H (t − a ) e −as
s
- 15 -
{ }
at
2. First shift theorem: L e f (t ) = F ( s − a )
3. Derivatives: L{ f ′(t )} = sF (s ) − f (0 )
2
L{ f ′′(t )] = s F(s ) − sf (0) − f ′(0)
RS f (u)duUV = F(s)
Tz
t
4. Integral: L
0 W s
dF ( s)
5. Multiplication by t: L{t f (t )} = −
ds
− as
6. Second shift theorem: L{H (t − a) f (t − a )} = e F(s)
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- 16 -
[October 1996]