RELATIVE CLAUSES

A relative clause is a subordinate clause introduced either by a relative pronoun or by a

relative adverb. It can be used to modify a noun or pronoun (i.e. to identify or give more information
about it):
The book is about a boy who is homeless.
That’s the film which I read last week.
Mrs. Black, whose husband died two years ago, took over the company.

Relative Pronouns

relative pronoun use example

Is used as subject or object pronoun for I told you about the woman who lives
who
people. next door.
It can be used as subject or object Do you see the cat which is lying on the
which
pronoun for animals and things. roof?
which Is used to refer to a whole sentence He couldn’t read which surprised me.
Is used for things as well as for people to Do you know the boy whose mother is a
whose
express possession. nurse?
Object pronoun for people, especially in
non-defining relative clauses is very
I was invited by the professor whom I
whom formal and is only used in written
met at the conference.
English. Instead of it who/that can be
used, or it can be completely omitted.
The subject or object pronoun for people,
animals and things in defining relative
clauses (who or which are also possible), I don’t like the table that stands in the
that
it normally follows words like something, kitchen.
anything, everything, nothing, all, and
superlatives.

Subject Pronoun or Object Pronoun?

Subject and object pronouns cannot be distinguished by their forms - who, which, that are used for
subject and object pronouns. We can, however, distinguish them as follows:

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If the relative pronoun is followed by a verb, the relative pronoun is a subject pronoun. Subject
pronouns must always be used.
The apple which is lying on the table
If the relative pronoun is not followed by a verb (but by a noun or pronoun), the relative pronoun is an
object pronoun. Object pronouns can be dropped in defining relative clauses, which are then called
Contact Clauses.
The apple (which) George laid on the table.
The boy (who/whom) we met yesterday is very nice.

Relative Adverbs

A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This often makes
the sentence easier to understand.
This is the shop in which I bought my bike.
→ This is the shop where I bought my bike.

relative adverb meaning use example

when in/on which refers to a time expression The day when we met him
where in/at which refers to a place The place where we met him
why for which refers to a reason The reason why we met him

TYPES OF RELATIVE CLAUSE

There are two types of relative clause: defining and non-defining.

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

This type of relative clause essential information to define or identify the person or thing we are
talking about. Obviously, this is only necessary if there is more than one person or thing involved. It is
not separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
The man who told us about the hotel was very helpful.
In this type of clause that can be used instead of who and which:
This is the boy who/that I told you about.
We stayed in a hotel which/that had an indoor swimming pool.
Relative clauses with who, which, that as subject pronoun can be replaced with a participle.
This makes the sentence shorter and easier to understand.
I told you about the woman who lives next door. – I told you about the woman living next door.

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 Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? – Do you see the cat lying on the roof?
Defining relative clauses are often used in definitions.

Relative pronouns
The following relative pronouns are used in defining relative clauses:
Person Thing Place Time Reason
Subject who/that which/that
Object who/whom/that/ which/that/ø where when why
ø
Possessive whose whose

1. The relative pronoun stands in place of a noun.

This noun usually appears earlier in the sentence:
The woman who/that spoke at the meeting was very
knowledgeable.
Noun, subject of relative pronoun verb + rest of relative verb + rest of main
main clause referring to 'the clause clause
woman', subject of
'spoke'

2. Who, whom and which can be replaced by that. This is very common in spoken English.
3. Whose can be used for things and people.
The man whose car was stolen is my neighbour.
A tree whose leaves have fallen seems very sad.
4. Whom is very formal and is only used in written English. We can use who/that, or omit the pronoun
completely:
The doctor whom/who/that/ø I was hoping to see wasn't on duty.
5. That normally follows words like something, anything, everything, nothing, all, and superlatives.
There's something that you should know.
It was the best film that I've ever seen.

NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

The information in these clauses is not essential. It tells us more about someone or something,
but it does not help us to identify them or it.
Compare:
Elephants that love mice are very unusual. (This tells us which elephants we are talking about).
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 Elephants, which are large and grey, can sometimes be found in zoos. (This gives us some
extra information about elephants - we are talking about all elephants, not just one type or group).
John's mother, who lives in Scotland, has 6 grandchildren. (We know who John's mother is,
and he only has one. The important information is the number of grandchildren, but the fact that she
lives in Scotland might be followed with the words "by the way" - it is additional information).

Non-defining relative clauses are always separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
The commas have a similar function to brackets:
My friend John has just written a best-selling novel. (He went to the same school as me) - My
friend John, who went to the same school as me, has just written a best-selling novel.

Relative pronouns in non-defining clauses

Person Thing Place
Subject who which
Object who/whom which where
Possessive whose

Notes:
1. In non-defining clauses, we cannot use ‘that’ instead of who, whom or which.
2. We cannot leave out the relative pronoun, even when it is the object of the verb in the relative clause:
He gave me the letter, which was in a blue envelope.
He gave me the letter, which I read immediately
3. The preposition in these clauses can go at the end of the clause: This is Stratford-on-Avon, which you
have all heard about.
This pattern is often used in spoken English, but in written or formal English we can also put the
preposition before the pronoun: e.g. Stratford-on-Avon, about which many people have written, is
Shakespeare’s birthplace.
4. Non-defining clauses can be introduced by expressions like all of, many of + relative pronoun:
Person Thing
all of + whom + which
any of + whom + which
(a) few of + whom + which
both of + whom + which
each of + whom + which
either of + whom + which
half of + whom + which

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 many of + whom + which
most of + whom + which
much of + whom + which
none of + whom + which
one of + whom + which
two of etc… + whom + which

There were a lot of people at the party, many of whom I had known for years.
He was carrying his belongings, many of which were broken.
5. The relative pronoun which at the beginning of a non-defining relative clause, can refer to all the
information contained in the previous part of the sentence, rather than to just one word.
Chris did really well in his exams, which was a big surprise. (= the fact that he did well in his
exams was a big surprise).
An elephant and a mouse fell in love, which is most unusual. (= the fact that they fell in love is
unusual).

Bibliography
Joseph Parsalis, Nicholas Stephens, Access to FCE, New Editions, 2002
Bob Obee, Virginia Evans, Upstream Advanced, Student’s book, Express Publishing, 2003
Bob Obee, Virginia Evans, Upstream Upper intermediate, Student’s book, Express Publishing, 2003
www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/relative-clauses
elc.polyu.edu.hk/cill/eap/2004/u6/relativeclauses.htm