Track Compendium

Formation, Permanent Way,

Maintenance, Economics

Bernhard Lichtberger
Track Compendium
Formation, Permanent Way,
Maintenance, Economics

Dr. Bernhard Lichtberger

Eurail
Eu
press
press
 This book is dedicated to my dear late father Wilhelm
and to my mentors,
Mr. Josef Theurer and
Mr. Egon Schubert
who taught me so much.

1st edition 2005, ISBN 3-7771-0320-9

This publication is protected by copyright. It may not be exploited, in whole or in
part, without the approval of the publisher. This applies in particular to any form of
reproduction, translation, microfilming, and incorporation and processing in electronic
systems.
© 2005 Eurailpress Tetzlaff-Hestra GmbH & Co. KG
Postfach 101609, Nordkanalstraße 36, D-20097 Hamburg
Printed in Germany
Production: Verlagsdruckerei Kessler, 86399 Bobingen
Acknowledgements

I want to thank Roland Hogl who helped me to work out the illustrations. My thanks are also due
to Lothar Marx, Rainer Wenty, Helmut Misar, Johann Dumser, Leopold Frühwirt, Alf Lichtberger,
Markus Schnetz, Michael Malacek, Leopold Gruber, Johann Kohel, Jürgen Dehne, Klaus Riess-
berger and many others not mentioned here by name who helped me with their suggestions and
materials.

Special thanks are due to Kornelia Haindl, my partner, who has supported me with great under-
standing and encouragement.

This present voluminous book came into being from my – not quite unselfish – wish to draw up
a compendium in a compressed form containing relevant data concerning track for the railway
engineer. Many ideas, as well as the basis of my comprehension of physical laws relevant for
track and track maintenance, were acquired from my dear friend Egon Schubert, who unfortun-
ately died much too early, and Josef Theurer, for which I am indebted. My work as the head of
the research & development department of Plasser & Theurer has offered and still offers me the
opportunity to deal with research in the field of track behaviour and optimum track maintenance
methods. This knowledge and the rich experience gained on my job during the past eighteen
years have been worked into this book. The present compendium also contains many interesting
facts from relevant publications. I owe thanks and respect also to these numerous authors who
cannot be mentioned here.

This book has been translated with great precision by Ursula Stampfer. I am greatly indebted to
her for this exemplary work.

My colleague Norbert Jurasek has gone to great lengths to check the technical terms used and
the general correctness of the English version. I would like to thank him for his wholehearted
commitment and the many hours spent on this work. The ensuing high standard of the English
version could not have been reached without his assistance.

Compared to the 1st and 2nd German editions, the present English version contains several prin-
cipal amendments and additions. They concern the basis of catenary and catenary construction,
as well as their maintenance, and furthermore, the most recent findings about the development
of head checks and the latest practical results of tests of the resistance of head-hardened rails
to wear have been included.

This English edition also contains the theory of dynamic track stabilising, additional findings on
the capacities of ballast cleaners and the connection between screening quality and degree of
recycling. Furthermore, additions have been made in the chapters “interaction between wheel
and rail” and “economics”.

I hope that this work will be a help and useful reference not only for the present generation of
railway engineers, but also for those in the future.

In this way I hope to have made a small contribution to a successful railway.

Bernhard Lichtberger Linz, im Februar 2005

 Overview

Overview

1 General information ................................................................................ 28

2 The track structure .................................................................................. 32

2.1 Track installation conditions ...................................................................... 33
2.2 Static forces on the track ........................................................................... 42
2.3 Dynamic forces on the track ...................................................................... 46
2.4 Track resistance .......................................................................................... 47
2.5 Track calculation ......................................................................................... 60
2.6 Modern track calculation considering dynamic effects .......................... 71
2.7 Stable track grid support ........................................................................... 72
2.8 The track deformation energy ................................................................... 96
2.9 Conclusions on track maintenance ........................................................... 97
2.10 Maintenance measures .............................................................................. 97

3 The rails ...................................................................................................... 99

3.1 Rail requirements ........................................................................................ 99
3.2 Rail production ............................................................................................ 99
3.3 Types of rails ................................................................................................ 100
3.4 Chemical composition of rail steel ............................................................ 105
3.5 Static hardness test .................................................................................... 105
3.6 Stress-strain diagram ................................................................................. 106
3.7 Rail branding ................................................................................................ 107
3.8 Rail forms ..................................................................................................... 107
3.9 Rail lengths .................................................................................................. 113
3.10 Noise emission of rails ............................................................................... 113
3.11 Rail stress .................................................................................................... 113
3.12 Ultrasonic rail test ....................................................................................... 114
3.13 Quenching and tempering of rails ............................................................. 119
3.14 Rail calculation ............................................................................................ 119
3.15 Wear behaviour of wheel and rail steel ..................................................... 120
3.16 Rail welding ................................................................................................. 123
3.17 Laying, welding and tensioning of rails .................................................... 128
3.18 Rail defects .................................................................................................. 131
3.19 Rail Treatment in the track ......................................................................... 145

4 Rail fastenings .......................................................................................... 147

4.1 The CEN standard on rail fastenings ........................................................ 147
4.2 The purpose of the rail fastenings ............................................................ 147
4.3 The effective forces .................................................................................... 148
4.4 Differences between rigid / elastic rail fastenings .................................. 150
4.5 The rail pads ................................................................................................ 151
4.6 The design of rail fastenings ...................................................................... 153
4.7 Checking the rail connections ................................................................... 166
4.8 Checking rail fastenings by the GRMS track recording car ................... 166

5
Overview

5 The sleepers .............................................................................................. 167

5.1 Comparison between wooden and concrete sleepers ........................... 167
5.2 The purpose of sleepers ............................................................................. 168
5.3 Wooden sleepers ......................................................................................... 168
5.4 Steel sleepers .............................................................................................. 172
5.5 Reinforced concrete sleepers .................................................................... 176
5.6 Sleeper calculation ...................................................................................... 184
5.7 Resistance to lateral and longitudinal displacement .............................. 188

6 Ballast and ballast bed ........................................................................... 189

6.1 Ballast bed requirements ........................................................................... 189
6.2 Physical properties of ballast ..................................................................... 198
6.3 Ballast Cleaning ........................................................................................... 202
6.4 Ballast bed dimensioning ........................................................................... 202
6.5 Restoration of the ballast bed ................................................................... 204
6.6 Conglutination of ballast ............................................................................ 207

7 The track formation ................................................................................. 209

7.1 General information on the bearing capacity of the track ...................... 209
7.2 Drainage of the formation .......................................................................... 210
7.3 Reinforcement of the formation ................................................................ 210

8 The Subsoil ................................................................................................ 232

8.1 Types of soils and their parameters .......................................................... 232
8.2 Properties of soils ....................................................................................... 237
8.3 Defects of the soil formation ..................................................................... 242
8.4 Reasons for damage to the soil formation ............................................... 243
8.5 Consequences of damage to the soil formation ...................................... 243
8.6 Ideal and poor soils ..................................................................................... 244
8.7 Stress on the subsoil and its settlement behaviour ................................ 244
8.8 Subsoil and earth structure deformations ................................................ 248
8.9 Load on the soil formation ......................................................................... 249
8.10 Geometrical requirements for the soil formation .................................... 250
8.11 Soil analyses ................................................................................................ 251
8.12 Soil improvement and compaction ........................................................... 252
8.13 Chemical soil conversion ........................................................................... 254
8.14 Soil drainage ................................................................................................ 255
8.15 Frost sensitivity of the subsoil ................................................................... 258

9 The ballasted track .................................................................................. 260

9.1 Approaches to describe track quality ....................................................... 260
9.2 Properties of track quality .......................................................................... 261
9.3 Properties of the ballasted track ............................................................... 264
9.4 Course of pressure in the substructure below the sleeper .................... 270
9.5 The deformation behaviour of ballasted track ......................................... 272
9.6 Critical vibration speed and dynamic settlement behaviour .................. 280
9.7 The bearing capacity of the ballast bed ................................................... 283

6
 Overview

9.8 The resistance of the ballasted track to lateral displacement ............... 290
9.9 The critical speed of the permanent way ................................................. 290
9.10 Reasons for the development of fines ...................................................... 292
9.11 Distribution of fines in the ballast bed ...................................................... 293
9.12 In search of an optimum track structure .................................................. 294
9.13 How to produce track of highest initial quality ........................................ 297
9.14 Ballasted tracks with cross sleepers ........................................................ 298
9.15 Ballasted track for high-speed lines ......................................................... 299

10 The slab track ........................................................................................... 309

10.1 Requirements of slab track ........................................................................ 309
10.2 The slab track in tunnels ............................................................................ 312
10.3 The slab track on earth structures ............................................................ 312
10.4 Comparison between ballasted track / slab track .................................. 312
10.5 Economic efficiency and cost of the slab track ...................................... 315
10.6 Design types of slab track ......................................................................... 315
10.7 Comparison of overall heights of various designs of slab track ........... 330
10.8 Technical and economic comparison of the slab track designs ............ 331

11 Interaction between wheel and rail .................................................... 333

11.1 Dynamics of vehicle movement ................................................................. 333
11.2 The contact between wheel and rail ......................................................... 339
11.3 The influence of the rail / wheel contact geometry ................................. 342
11.4 Vehicle defects ............................................................................................ 342
11.5 Forces acting on the track due to dynamic wheel loads ........................ 343
11.6 Rail vehicle noise ........................................................................................ 351
11.7 Assessment and measurement of vehicle reactions ............................... 355
11.8 The requirements of the track for the vehicle .......................................... 356
11.9 The optimum vehicle ................................................................................... 356
11.10 Tilting trains ................................................................................................. 360
11.11 Vehicle monitoring ...................................................................................... 361

12 The switches ............................................................................................. 363

12.1 The tasks of switches, crossings and diamond crossings with slips ... 363
12.2 The main types of switches, crossings and diamond crossings
with slips ...................................................................................................... 363
12.3 Designation of switches ............................................................................. 365
12.4 Elements of switches .................................................................................. 366
12.5 The vibration-damped switch with divided long sleepers ...................... 376
12.6 Geometric and structural characteristics of switches ............................ 377
12.7 Schematic representation of switches ..................................................... 379
12.8 Settlement behaviour of switches ............................................................. 379
12.9 Maintenance of switches ........................................................................... 379
12.10 Overlaps of rails .......................................................................................... 381

13 Overhead line system ............................................................................. 385

13.1 Types of traction current ............................................................................ 385
13.2 Direct current systems (DC) ....................................................................... 387

7
Overview

13.3 Alternating current systems (AC) .............................................................. 387

13.4 Catenary ....................................................................................................... 387
13.5 Air distances ................................................................................................ 390
13.6 Various designs of overhead lines ............................................................. 390
13.7 Structure of longitudinal catenary ............................................................. 392
13.8 Return of traction current .......................................................................... 395
13.9 Admissible contact voltage ........................................................................ 396
13.10 Interaction between current collectors and overhead line ..................... 397

14 Fundamentals on guiding and signalling in railway operation .... 398

14.1 Block sections ............................................................................................. 398
14.2 Track circuits ............................................................................................... 398
14.3 Axle counters ............................................................................................... 398
14.4 Intermittent automatic train control .......................................................... 399
14.5 Continuous train control (CTC) .................................................................. 400
14.6 The European rail traffic management system ERTMS .......................... 400
14.7 Automatic train stop ................................................................................... 401
14.8 Hot box detection ........................................................................................ 401

15 Track maintenance .................................................................................. 402

15.1 Typical maintenance cycles ....................................................................... 402
15.2 Standard values for maintenance and danger limits ............................... 402
15.3 Accuracy of acceptance ............................................................................. 405
15.4 Considerations on the track quality .......................................................... 406
15.5 The choice of the optimum duration of track possessions .................... 413
15.6 Correction of track geometry .................................................................... 414
15.7 Correction of rail defects ........................................................................... 501
15.8 Ballast bed treatment ................................................................................. 520
15.9 Subsoil improvement .................................................................................. 556
15.10 Laying and relaying of the track grid ........................................................ 568
15.11 Laying and transportation of switches ..................................................... 574
15.12 Track construction cranes ......................................................................... 576
15.13 Maintenance of overhead lines .................................................................. 577

16 Life cycle costs of railways ................................................................... 585

16.1 UIC-study comparing the LCC of railways ............................................... 585
16.2 Factors forcing up costs ............................................................................ 587
16.3 Cost saving potentials ................................................................................ 588
16.4 Differential LCC ........................................................................................... 589
16.5 Track maintenance costs ........................................................................... 594
16.6 The effect of mechanisation on the economic efficiency
of permanent-way maintenance ................................................................ 594
16.7 Track access charges ................................................................................. 595

Literature .................................................................................................... 597

Keywords ................................................................................................... 624
Advertisers’ Index .................................................................................... 634
8
 Contents

Contents

1 General information ................................................................................ 28

2 The track structure .................................................................................. 32

2.1 Track installation conditions ...................................................................... 33
2.1.1 Circular curve and tangent track ..................................................................... 34
2.1.2 Superelevation ................................................................................................ 34
2.1.3 Laying inclination and nominal track gauge of the rails ................................... 36
2.1.4 Track widening ............................................................................................... 37
2.1.5 Transition Curves ............................................................................................ 37
2.1.6 Superelevation Ramps..................................................................................... 38
2.1.7 Longitudinal inclination and changes in gradient ............................................. 39
2.1.8 Line cross sections on soil formation .............................................................. 39
2.1.9 Track cross sections ....................................................................................... 40
2.1.10 Formation widths ............................................................................................ 40
2.1.11 Critical speeds for heavy permanent way ....................................................... 41
2.1.12 Maximum speed on various railways .............................................................. 41
2.2 Static forces on the track ........................................................................... 42
2.2.1 Vertical forces ................................................................................................. 42
2.2.2 Longitudinal rail forces .................................................................................... 42
2.2.2.1 Acceleration and braking forces ..................................................................... 43
2.2.3 Lateral forces .................................................................................................. 43
2.3 Dynamic forces on the track ...................................................................... 46
2.3.1 Wheel load transfers ....................................................................................... 46
2.3.2 Vibration excitations ....................................................................................... 46
2.3.3 Natural vehicle and track oscillations .............................................................. 46
2.3.3.1 Natural vehicle oscillations .............................................................................. 46
2.3.3.2 Permanent-way natural oscillation .................................................................. 46
2.4 Track resistance .......................................................................................... 47
2.4.1 Bearing capacity ............................................................................................. 47
2.4.2 Coefficient of ballast C and vertical rigidity ...................................................... 48
2.4.3 Longitudinal resistance ................................................................................... 53
2.4.3.1 Fishplate friction resistance ............................................................................. 53
2.4.3.2 Longitudinal displacement resistance ............................................................. 53
2.4.3.3 Creep resistance ............................................................................................ 54
2.4.4 Lateral displacement resistance ...................................................................... 54
2.4.4.1 Methods of lateral displacement resistance measurements ............................ 54
2.4.4.2 Lateral displacement resistance depending on the track structure condition ... 56
2.4.4.3 Parameters influencing lateral displacement resistance .................................. 57
2.4.4.4 Composition of lateral displacement resistance .............................................. 58
2.4.4.5 Lateral displacement resistance of various sleeper types ................................ 59
2.4.4.6 Lateral displacement resistance of various ballast types ................................. 59
2.4.5 The distribution of force from wheel to subsoil ............................................... 59
2.5 Track calculation ......................................................................................... 60
2.5.1 Rail calculation ............................................................................................... 61
2.5.1.1 Calculation of rail foot tension ......................................................................... 62
2.5.1.2 Rail head stress calculation ............................................................................ 66

9
Contents

2.5.1.3 Admissible rail stress when operating permanent-way machinery .................. 67

2.5.2 Sleeper calculation ......................................................................................... 70
2.5.3 Rail fastening calculation ................................................................................ 70
2.5.4 Limit values of ballast loads ............................................................................ 70
2.6 Modern track calculation considering dynamic effects .......................... 71
2.7 Stable track grid support ........................................................................... 72
2.7.1 Curve breathing .............................................................................................. 74
2.7.2 The Prud’homme criterion .............................................................................. 74
2.7.3 Rail temperature versus rail fastening down temperature ................................ 76
2.7.3.1 Long welded rails ........................................................................................... 77
2.7.4 Calculation of horizontal position stability in tangent track .............................. 78
2.7.5 Calculation of horizontal position stability in curves ......................................... 79
2.7.6 Calculation of vertical position stability ............................................................ 80
2.7.7 Longitudinal track stability .............................................................................. 81
2.7.7.1 Longitudinal movements in case of great longitudinal forces .......................... 82
2.7.7.2 Longitudinal movement in case of small longitudinal forces ............................ 82
2.7.8 Natural vibration of bridges ............................................................................. 83
2.7.9 Sliding layer – embankment ............................................................................ 84
2.7.10 Environmental problems caused by tracks ..................................................... 84
2.7.11 Behaviour of natural frequencies ..................................................................... 85
2.7.12 Propagation of oscillation ............................................................................... 89
2.7.13 Influence of railways on the environment ........................................................ 94
2.7.14 Measures to reduce environmental influence .................................................. 95
2.8 The track deformation energy ................................................................... 96
2.9 Conclusions on track maintenance ........................................................... 97
2.10 Maintenance measures .............................................................................. 97

3 The rails ...................................................................................................... 99

3.1 Rail requirements ........................................................................................ 99
3.2 Rail production ............................................................................................ 99
3.3 Types of rails ................................................................................................ 100
3.3.1 “Naturally” hard rails ....................................................................................... 100
3.3.2 Thermally treated rails ..................................................................................... 100
3.3.3 High-alloy rails ................................................................................................ 104
3.3.4 Bainitic rails .................................................................................................... 104
3.4 Chemical composition of rail steel ............................................................ 105
3.5 Static hardness test .................................................................................... 105
3.5.1 Brinell hardness .............................................................................................. 106
3.5.2 Diamond pyramid hardness ............................................................................ 106
3.5.3 Rockwell hardness ......................................................................................... 106
3.6 Stress-strain diagram ................................................................................. 106
3.7 Rail branding ................................................................................................ 107
3.8 Rail forms ..................................................................................................... 107
3.8.1 Unsymmetrical rail profiles in narrow radii ....................................................... 111
3.9 Rail lengths .................................................................................................. 113
3.10 Noise emission of rails ............................................................................... 113
3.11 Rail stress .................................................................................................... 113
3.11.1 Stress by vertical wheel load .......................................................................... 113
3.11.1.1 Rolling contact fatigue on rails ........................................................................ 113

10
 Contents

3.11.1.2 Cracks in the rail head (shells and taches ovales) ........................................... 114
3.11.1.3 Cracks on the rail surface (head checks, spalling and squats) ........................ 114
3.12 Ultrasonic rail test ....................................................................................... 114
3.12.1 Stress caused by guiding forces ..................................................................... 114
3.12.2 Stress caused by dynamic forces ................................................................... 115
3.12.2.1 Wheel flats ...................................................................................................... 115
3.12.2.2 Dynamic forces caused by surface defects .................................................... 115
3.12.3 Longitudinal forces caused by changes in temperature .................................. 115
3.12.4 Longitudinal forces caused by driving and braking forces ............................... 115
3.12.5 Stress in the rail .............................................................................................. 116
3.12.5.1 Internal rail stress ........................................................................................... 116
3.12.5.2 Hertz’ surface pressure .................................................................................. 117
3.12.6 Spring deflection of the rail head .................................................................... 117
3.12.7 Stress caused by permanent-way vehicles ..................................................... 118
3.13 Quenching and tempering of rails ............................................................. 119
3.13.1 Rail hardening ................................................................................................ 119
3.13.2 Rail surface treatment ..................................................................................... 119
3.13.2.1 Laser hardening .............................................................................................. 119
3.13.2.2 Plasma coating ............................................................................................... 119
3.13.2.3 Laser coating ................................................................................................. 119
3.14 Rail calculation ............................................................................................ 119
3.15 Wear behaviour of wheel and rail steel ..................................................... 120
3.15.1 The magic wear rate ....................................................................................... 120
3.15.2 Lateral rail wear .............................................................................................. 122
3.15.3 Vertical rail wear ............................................................................................. 123
3.16 Rail welding ................................................................................................. 123
3.16.1 Aluminothermic welding .................................................................................. 123
3.16.2 Flash-butt welding .......................................................................................... 124
3.16.2.1 The mobile flash-butt welding machine .......................................................... 125
3.16.3 Rail fractures in welds ..................................................................................... 125
3.17 Laying, welding and tensioning of rails .................................................... 128
3.17.1 Neutral temperature ........................................................................................ 128
3.17.2 Production of long welded tracks ................................................................... 129
3.17.3 Temperature increase by linear eddy current brakes ....................................... 131
3.18 Rail defects .................................................................................................. 131
3.18.1 Rolling-contact fatigue and wear .................................................................... 131
3.18.2 Head checks .................................................................................................. 134
3.18.3 Belgrospis ...................................................................................................... 136
3.18.4 Squats ............................................................................................................ 137
3.18.5 Damage to running edges of single-track lines ............................................... 137
3.18.6 Indentations .................................................................................................... 137
3.18.6.1 Periodical indentations .................................................................................... 137
3.18.6.2 Irregular indentations (brown spots) ................................................................ 137
3.18.7 Wheel burns ................................................................................................... 137
3.18.8 Skid marks – short waves .............................................................................. 137
3.18.9 Corrugation .................................................................................................... 138
3.18.9.1 Types of corrugations ..................................................................................... 139
3.18.9.1.1 Heavy haul corrugations ................................................................................. 140
3.18.9.1.2 Light rail corrugations ..................................................................................... 140

11
Contents

3.18.9.1.3 Rolling contact fatigue (RCF) corrugations ...................................................... 140

3.18.9.1.4 Booted sleeper corrugations .......................................................................... 141
3.18.9.1.5 Rutting corrugations ....................................................................................... 141
3.18.9.1.6 Roaring rail corrugation .................................................................................. 141
3.18.9.2 Growth of corrugations ................................................................................... 142
3.18.10 Rolling defects ................................................................................................ 142
3.18.11 Triggers and growth of cracks ........................................................................ 142
3.18.12 Measurement of rail wear ............................................................................... 144
3.19 Rail Treatment in the track ......................................................................... 145
3.19.1 Treatment of low rail joints .............................................................................. 145
3.19.2 Treatment of corrugations and skid marks ...................................................... 145
3.19.2.1 Rail head planing true to profile ...................................................................... 145
3.19.2.2 Grinding by rotating abrasive disks ................................................................. 145
3.19.2.3 Oscillating grinding ......................................................................................... 145

4 Rail fastenings .......................................................................................... 147

4.1 The CEN standard on rail fastenings ........................................................ 147
4.1.1 Rail fastening requirements ............................................................................. 147
4.1.1.1 Rail creep force .............................................................................................. 147
4.1.1.2 Torsional test .................................................................................................. 147
4.1.1.3 Damping of impact loads ............................................................................... 147
4.1.1.4 Permanent load measurement ........................................................................ 147
4.2 The purpose of the rail fastenings ............................................................ 147
4.3 The effective forces .................................................................................... 148
4.3.1 Vertical forces ................................................................................................. 148
4.3.2 Lateral forces (acting across the track) ........................................................... 148
4.3.2.1 Track gauge widening .................................................................................... 148
4.3.3 Forces acting in the longitudinal track direction .............................................. 150
4.4 Differences between rigid / elastic rail fastenings .................................. 150
4.5 The rail pads ................................................................................................ 151
4.6 The design of rail fastenings ...................................................................... 153
4.6.1 Rail fastening to wooden sleepers .................................................................. 153
4.6.1.1 The direct fastening to wooden sleepers ........................................................ 153
4.6.1.2 The indirect fastening to wooden sleepers ..................................................... 154
4.6.1.2.1 Vossloh permanent way KS with Skl12 clip .................................................... 154
4.6.1.2.2 K permanent way ........................................................................................... 154
4.6.2 The rail fastening to steel sleepers .................................................................. 156
4.6.2.1 The direct fastening to steel sleepers ............................................................. 156
4.6.3 The rail fastening to concrete sleepers ........................................................... 156
4.6.3.1 The direct fastening to concrete sleepers ....................................................... 156
4.6.3.1.1 FIST fastening ................................................................................................ 156
4.6.3.1.2 Pandrol fastening ........................................................................................... 156
4.6.3.1.2.1 Pandrol fastclip ............................................................................................... 156
4.6.3.1.2.2 Pandrol e-clip ................................................................................................. 158
4.6.3.1.3 Vossloh fastening ........................................................................................... 158
4.6.3.1.3.1 W14 permanent way with Skl14 clip ............................................................... 158
4.6.3.1.3.2 300 Permanent way with Skl15 clip ................................................................ 158
4.6.3.1.4 Nabla fastening .............................................................................................. 158
4.6.3.1.5 Elastic spike fastening .................................................................................... 160

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 Contents

4.6.3.2 The indirect fastening to concrete sleepers .................................................... 162

4.6.3.3 Anti-creep devices .......................................................................................... 162
4.6.3.4 Sleeper Anchors ............................................................................................. 163
4.6.3.5 Safety caps .................................................................................................... 163
4.6.4 Rail connections ............................................................................................. 163
4.6.4.1 Rail connections, suspended joints ................................................................ 163
4.6.4.2 Rail connections, supported joints .................................................................. 164
4.6.4.3 Rail connections, temporary joints .................................................................. 165
4.7 Checking the rail connections ................................................................... 166
4.8 Checking rail fastenings by the GRMS track recording car ................... 166

5 The sleepers .............................................................................................. 167

5.1 Comparison between wooden and concrete sleepers ........................... 167
5.2 The purpose of sleepers ............................................................................. 168
5.3 Wooden sleepers ......................................................................................... 168
5.3.1 The treatment of wooden sleepers ................................................................. 170
5.3.2 Defects of wooden sleepers ........................................................................... 170
5.3.3 Maintenance of wooden sleepers in the track ................................................ 170
5.3.3.1 Cyclic renewal of individual wooden sleepers (USA) ....................................... 171
5.3.3.2 Total sleeper renewal (Europe) ........................................................................ 171
5.3.4 The experience with wooden sleepers in the USA .......................................... 171
5.3.5 Hardwood and softwood ................................................................................ 172
5.4 Steel sleepers .............................................................................................. 172
5.4.1 Tensile test ..................................................................................................... 172
5.4.2 Bending test ................................................................................................... 172
5.4.3 Y Steel sleepers .............................................................................................. 175
5.5 Reinforced concrete sleepers .................................................................... 176
5.5.1 Approval tests and requirements for concrete sleepers .................................. 177
5.5.1.1 Requirements to be met by concrete ............................................................. 177
5.5.1.2 Sleeper approval tests .................................................................................... 177
5.5.1.2.1 Static bending test ......................................................................................... 177
5.5.1.2.2 Dynamic bending test ..................................................................................... 177
5.5.1.2.3 Fatigue test .................................................................................................... 177
5.5.1.2.4 Electric sleeper resistance .............................................................................. 177
5.5.1.2.5 Further tests ................................................................................................... 178
5.5.2 Experiences in practical application of concrete sleepers ............................... 178
5.5.3 Twin-block sleepers ........................................................................................ 178
5.5.3.1 Twin-block sleepers made of concrete polymer .............................................. 178
5.5.4 Monoblock concrete sleepers ........................................................................ 179
5.5.5 Special forms of concrete sleepers ................................................................. 180
5.5.5.1 Wing sleepers ................................................................................................ 180
5.5.5.2 Frame sleepers ............................................................................................... 182
5.5.5.3 Wide sleepers ................................................................................................. 183
5.5.5.4 The Be19ae concrete sleeper with lateral profile ............................................. 183
5.5.5.5 The “soled” sleeper ........................................................................................ 183
5.6 Sleeper calculation ...................................................................................... 184
5.6.1 Design wheel load .......................................................................................... 184
5.6.2 Calculation of cross sleepers .......................................................................... 185
5.6.3 Calculation of longitudinal sleepers ................................................................. 185

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Contents

5.6.4 Calculation of sleeper plates ........................................................................... 186

5.6.5 Distribution of the wheel load ......................................................................... 186
5.6.6 Sleeper sagging ............................................................................................. 187
5.7 Resistance to lateral and longitudinal displacement .............................. 188
5.7.1 Resistance to lateral displacement ................................................................. 188
5.7.2 Resistance to longitudinal displacement ......................................................... 188

6 Ballast and ballast bed ........................................................................... 189

6.1 Ballast bed requirements ........................................................................... 189
6.1.1 The ballast bed cross-section ......................................................................... 189
6.1.2 Ballast materials ............................................................................................. 190
6.1.2.1 Crushed ballast .............................................................................................. 190
6.1.2.1.1 Grain shapes .................................................................................................. 191
6.1.2.2 Round ballast ................................................................................................. 191
6.1.2.3 Ballast in bags ................................................................................................ 192
6.1.3 Testing of track ballast .................................................................................... 192
6.1.3.1 Los Angeles-test (LA) ..................................................................................... 192
6.1.3.2 Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) ......................................................................... 193
6.1.3.3 The Deval test (DH) ........................................................................................ 194
6.1.3.4 Resistance to impact ...................................................................................... 194
6.1.3.5 Petrographic examination ............................................................................... 194
6.1.3.6 Grain shape .................................................................................................... 194
6.1.3.7 Resistance to weathering ............................................................................... 195
6.1.4 Technical conditions for the supply of ballast track ......................................... 195
6.1.5 Types of ballast contamination ........................................................................ 196
6.1.5.1 Methods of evaluation of the degree of contamination ................................... 197
6.1.5.1.1 The isotope method ....................................................................................... 197
6.1.5.1.2 The track recording car method ..................................................................... 197
6.1.5.1.3 Visual inspection ............................................................................................. 198
6.1.5.1.4 The sampling test ........................................................................................... 198
6.1.5.1.5 The frame test ................................................................................................ 198
6.2 Physical properties of ballast ..................................................................... 198
6.2.1 The shearing behaviour of ballast – the angle of internal friction ..................... 198
6.2.1.1 The static shearing behaviour ......................................................................... 198
6.2.1.2 Static shearing behaviour of contaminated ballast, used ballast,
round gravel and recycled ballast ................................................................... 199
6.2.1.3 Static shearing behaviour with an optimum share of distance grain ................ 200
6.2.1.4 Dynamic shearing behaviour ........................................................................... 201
6.3 Ballast Cleaning ........................................................................................... 202
6.3.1 Cleaning of the ballast bed shoulders ............................................................. 202
6.3.2 Cleaning of the entire ballast bed ................................................................... 202
6.3.3 The performance of cleaning machines .......................................................... 202
6.3.4 Washing of ballast .......................................................................................... 202
6.4 Ballast bed dimensioning ........................................................................... 202
6.4.1 The optimum ballast thickness – load distribution on sleepers ....................... 202
6.4.2 Ballast required for ballast beds of different cross sections ............................. 204
6.5 Restoration of the ballast bed ................................................................... 204
6.5.1 Restoration of track position by machines ...................................................... 204

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6.5.2 Technology of working after ballast cleaning ................................................... 204

6.5.2.1 Track tamping ................................................................................................ 206
6.5.2.2 Spatial ballast consolidation ........................................................................... 206
6.5.2.3 Track stabilising .............................................................................................. 206
6.5.2.4 Homogenising the ballast bed ........................................................................ 206
6.6 Conglutination of ballast ............................................................................ 207

7 The track formation ................................................................................. 209

7.1 General information on the bearing capacity of the track ...................... 209
7.1.1 Measurement of the bearing capacity of the formation ................................... 209
7.1.1.1 Plate load bearing test .................................................................................... 209
7.1.1.2 Dynamic plate load device .............................................................................. 209
7.1.2 Consolidation of the formation – Proctor density ............................................ 209
7.2 Drainage of the formation .......................................................................... 210
7.3 Reinforcement of the formation ................................................................ 210
7.3.1 Reinforcement of the formation by pavements, slabs ..................................... 210
7.3.2 Chemical soil transformation ........................................................................... 211
7.3.3 Increased thickness of the ballast bed ............................................................ 211
7.3.4 PVC sheets .................................................................................................... 212
7.3.5 Insertion of protective layers ........................................................................... 212
7.3.5.1 Dimensioning of the bearing layers ................................................................. 216
7.3.5.1.1 Dimensioning according to the bearing capacity (formation protective layer) .. 216
7.3.5.1.1.1 Modulus of natural deformation ...................................................................... 217
7.3.5.1.1.2 Modulus of deformation of the earth formation ............................................... 217
7.3.5.1.1.3 Dimensioning of the thickness of the formation protective layer ...................... 218
7.3.5.1.1.4 Grading curve for the materials to be applied in the formation protective layer 218
7.3.5.1.1.5 Proof of filter stability of the material applied in the formation protective layer . 218
7.3.5.1.2 Dimensioning with respect to frost protection ................................................. 221
7.3.5.1.3 Frost criterion according to Casagrande ......................................................... 223
7.3.5.1.4 Frost index ...................................................................................................... 224
7.3.5.1.5 Calculation of the frost penetration depth for homogeneous soil .................... 224
7.3.5.1.5.1 Frost protection by thermal insulating slabs .................................................... 226
7.3.5.1.6 Recommended layer thickness ....................................................................... 226
7.3.6 Insertion of geotextiles .................................................................................... 226
7.3.6.1 Geotextiles as separating, filtering and draining elements under
supporting layers ............................................................................................ 228
7.3.6.2 Geotextiles reinforcement elements ................................................................ 228
7.3.6.3 Geotextiles as a reinforcing element with additional separating and
filtering effect .................................................................................................. 229
7.3.6.4 The influence of geotextiles for dimensioning the supporting system .............. 229
7.3.6.5 Long-term behaviour of geotextiles ................................................................ 229
7.3.6.6 Dynamic strain on geotextiles ......................................................................... 229
7.3.6.7 Insertion of geotextiles between ballast and formation .................................... 230
7.3.6.8 Geotextile requirements .................................................................................. 230

8 The Subsoil ................................................................................................ 232

8.1 Types of soils and their parameters .......................................................... 232
8.1.1 Characteristic soil parameters ........................................................................ 232

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8.1.1.1 Degree of irregularity U ................................................................................... 232

8.1.1.2 Share of pores n and pore number e .............................................................. 233
8.1.1.3 Specific gravity ............................................................................................... 233
8.1.1.4 The simple Proctor test .................................................................................. 233
8.1.1.5 The plate load bearing test and the modulus of deformation Ev2 ..................... 234
8.1.1.6 Measurement of bearing capacity with a light drop weight device .................. 234
8.1.1.7 Compaction ratio DPr ...................................................................................... 234
8.1.1.8 Water content w .............................................................................................. 234
8.1.1.9 Liquid limit and plastic limit per water content ................................................ 235
8.1.1.10 Plastic properties ............................................................................................ 235
8.1.1.11 Shear strength ................................................................................................ 236
8.1.2 Parameters of bearing capacity ...................................................................... 236
8.1.2.1 The coefficient of ballast C ............................................................................. 237
8.1.2.2 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) ........................................................................ 237
8.2 Properties of soils ....................................................................................... 237
8.2.1 Moisture and density in dry conditions ........................................................... 237
8.2.2 Plasticity (Atterberg limit – plastic limit) ........................................................... 237
8.2.3 Tensional and expansion behaviour of soils .................................................... 238
8.2.3.1 Effective tension ............................................................................................. 238
8.2.3.2 The influence of pore water pressure .............................................................. 238
8.2.3.3 Capillarity ........................................................................................................ 241
8.2.3.4 Water percolating into the soil ........................................................................ 241
8.2.4 The bearing capacity of soils .......................................................................... 242
8.2.4.1 Bearing capacity and compactibility of sand and gravel ................................. 242
8.2.4.2 Bearing capacity and compactibility of silt and clay ........................................ 242
8.3 Defects of the soil formation ..................................................................... 242
8.4 Reasons for damage to the soil formation ............................................... 243
8.5 Consequences of damage to the soil formation ...................................... 243
8.6 Ideal and poor soils ..................................................................................... 244
8.7 Stress on the subsoil and its settlement behaviour ................................ 244
8.7.1 Ballast bed modulus of multi-layer systems – the theory of Odemark ............. 244
8.7.2 Diffusion of stress in multi-layer systems in the load axis ................................ 245
8.7.2.1 The influence of adjacent sleepers on the compressive strains of the soil ....... 246
8.7.2.2 Dynamic stability ............................................................................................ 247
8.8 Subsoil and earth structure deformations ................................................ 248
8.9 Load on the soil formation ......................................................................... 249
8.10 Geometrical requirements for the soil formation .................................... 250
8.11 Soil analyses ................................................................................................ 251
8.11.1 Seismic method ............................................................................................. 251
8.11.2 Slotted-probe sounding with sampling ........................................................... 251
8.11.3 Subsoil testing machine (UUM) ...................................................................... 251
8.11.4 Evaluation of longitudinal versine values recorded by track recording cars ..... 251
8.11.5 Stiffness measurements ................................................................................. 252
8.11.6 Cone penetration test – manometric capsule ................................................. 252
8.11.7 Dynamic probes ............................................................................................. 252
8.11.8 Prospecting slots ............................................................................................ 252
8.12 Soil improvement and compaction ........................................................... 252
8.12.1 Vibration pressure compaction ....................................................................... 253
8.12.2 Vibration filling method ................................................................................... 253

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8.12.3 Pile-like bearing elements ............................................................................... 253

8.13 Chemical soil conversion ........................................................................... 254
8.13.1 Soil improvement by lime ............................................................................... 254
8.13.2 Soil stabilisation by cement ............................................................................ 254
8.13.3 Soil strengthening according to Joosten ......................................................... 254
8.14 Soil drainage ................................................................................................ 255
8.14.1 Water in the soil .............................................................................................. 255
8.14.2 The influence of water on the soil ................................................................... 255
8.14.2.1 Ice lenses and frost heaps .............................................................................. 255
8.14.3 Draining facilities, drainage ............................................................................. 256
8.14.3.1 Open drainage facilities .................................................................................. 256
8.14.3.2 Enclosed drainage facilities ............................................................................. 257
8.14.3.3 Inspection pits ................................................................................................ 257
8.14.3.4 Maintenance and service of drainage facilities ................................................ 257
8.14.3.5 The flowing off of water .................................................................................. 258
8.15 Frost sensitivity of the subsoil ................................................................... 258
8.15.1 Frost criterion according to Casagrande ......................................................... 258
8.15.2 Protection from frost heaves ........................................................................... 259

9 The ballasted track .................................................................................. 260

9.1 Approaches to describe track quality ....................................................... 260
9.1.1 Linear representation ...................................................................................... 261
9.1.2 Semi-logarithmic representation ..................................................................... 261
9.2 Properties of track quality .......................................................................... 261
9.2.1 Schematic course of track quality ................................................................... 261
9.2.2 Initial quality .................................................................................................... 262
9.2.3 Initial settlement .............................................................................................. 262
9.2.4 Rate of deterioration ....................................................................................... 262
9.2.4.1 Influences on the rate of deterioration ............................................................ 263
9.2.4.1.1 The influence of dynamic force ....................................................................... 263
9.2.4.1.2 Rail surface defects and rail profile ................................................................. 263
9.2.4.1.3 Irregular sleeper spacing ................................................................................ 263
9.2.4.1.4 Different sleeper support ................................................................................ 264
9.2.4.1.5 Irregular ballast settlement .............................................................................. 264
9.2.4.1.6 Irregular settlement of the subsoil ................................................................... 264
9.3 Properties of the ballasted track ............................................................... 264
9.3.1 Measurement of the course of track quality .................................................... 266
9.3.1.1 The “memory” of the track ............................................................................. 267
9.3.2 Improvement by tamping ................................................................................ 269
9.3.3 Pressure distribution in the ballast below the sleepers .................................... 270
9.4 Course of pressure in the substructure below the sleeper .................... 270
9.5 The deformation behaviour of ballasted track ......................................... 272
9.5.1 Track defects in a vertical direction ................................................................. 273
9.5.2 Track defects in a horizontal direction ............................................................. 273
9.5.3 Track defects in cross level direction .............................................................. 274
9.5.4 Ballast settlement behaviour ........................................................................... 274
9.5.4.1 Standard deviation of settlements – defects in the longitudinal level ............... 274
9.5.4.2 Dependence of settlement on the axle load .................................................... 275
9.5.4.3 Settlement and vertical dynamic track stiffness .............................................. 277

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9.5.4.4 The ballast as multi-body system ................................................................... 277

9.5.4.5 Settlement properties of different ballast materials .......................................... 279
9.5.4.6 Settlement behaviour depending on the contamination of the ballast bed ...... 280
9.5.4.7 The course of settlement after tamping according to Shenton ....................... 280
9.6 Critical vibration speed and dynamic settlement behaviour .................. 280
9.7 The bearing capacity of the ballast bed ................................................... 283
9.7.1 Coefficient of ballast ....................................................................................... 283
9.7.2 Connection between the modulus of deformation Ev and
the coefficient of ballast .................................................................................. 284
9.7.2.1 Determination of the coefficient of ballast from settlement measurements ...... 284
9.7.2.2 Determination of the coefficient of ballast from rail tensions ............................ 284
9.7.2.3 Determination of the coefficient of ballast from the length of the
bending wave ................................................................................................. 285
9.7.2.4 Determination of the ballast bed figure from the subsidence of the sleeper .... 285
9.7.3 The spring rate of the permanent way ............................................................ 285
9.7.4 Dynamic track stiffness ................................................................................... 286
9.7.4.1 The dynamic modulus of elasticity .................................................................. 287
9.7.5 The optimal settlement of the sleeper ............................................................. 288
9.8 The resistance of the ballasted track to lateral displacement ............... 290
9.9 The critical speed of the permanent way ................................................. 290
9.9.1 Shearing wave speed for the isotropic half-space .......................................... 292
9.10 Reasons for the development of fines ...................................................... 292
9.10.1 Fines in cleaned ballast – new ballast ............................................................. 292
9.10.2 Fines developing by tamping and traffic load .................................................. 292
9.10.3 Fines developing due to sediments from the air ............................................. 292
9.10.4 Fines developing during transportation ........................................................... 293
9.11 Distribution of fines in the ballast bed ...................................................... 293
9.12 In search of an optimum track structure .................................................. 294
9.12.1 The JR Central model ..................................................................................... 294
9.12.1.1 Explanation of convergence of the required quality level ................................. 294
9.12.1.2 Model of the rate of deterioration ................................................................... 295
9.12.2 The Delft University model .............................................................................. 296
9.12.3 Dynamic track models .................................................................................... 296
9.13 How to produce track of highest initial quality ........................................ 297
9.14 Ballasted tracks with cross sleepers ........................................................ 298
9.15 Ballasted track for high-speed lines ......................................................... 299
9.15.1 Required properties for a ballasted track on high-speed lines ........................ 299
9.15.2 Further development of the ballasted track ..................................................... 301
9.15.2.1 The Frame Sleeper Track ................................................................................ 302
9.15.2.2 The Ladder Sleeper ........................................................................................ 304
9.15.2.3 The Broad Sleeper ......................................................................................... 306
9.15.2.4 The soled sleeper ........................................................................................... 306
9.15.2.5 Softer rail pads with broader rails ................................................................... 306
9.15.2.6 Sleepers with larger supporting surfaces ........................................................ 307
9.15.2.7 Insertion of matting below the ballast ............................................................. 307
9.15.2.8 Highly elastic rail fastenings ............................................................................ 308

10 The slab track ........................................................................................... 309

10.1 Requirements of slab track ........................................................................ 309

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10.1.1 Non-settling subsoil ........................................................................................ 309

10.1.2 Precise construction and strength of the upper bound bearing layers ............ 309
10.1.2.1 Concrete bearing layer ................................................................................... 309
10.1.2.2 Asphalt bearing layer ...................................................................................... 310
10.1.2.3 Hydraulically bonded bearing layer ................................................................. 310
10.1.3 Precise construction and strength of the lower unbound bearing layers ......... 310
10.1.3.1 Frost protective layer ...................................................................................... 310
10.1.3.2 Subsoil ........................................................................................................... 310
10.1.3.3 Sound protection requirements ...................................................................... 311
10.1.3.4 Transition from slab track to ballasted track .................................................... 311
10.1.3.5 Requirements for the signalling systems ......................................................... 311
10.1.3.6 Electro-technical requirements ........................................................................ 311
10.2 The slab track in tunnels ............................................................................ 312
10.3 The slab track on earth structures ............................................................ 312
10.4 Comparison between ballasted track / slab track .................................. 312
10.4.1 Advantages of slab track ................................................................................ 313
10.4.2 Disadvantages of slab track ........................................................................... 313
10.5 Economic efficiency and cost of the slab track ...................................... 315
10.6 Design types of slab track ......................................................................... 315
10.6.1 Inserted design types on support points with sleeper ..................................... 316
10.6.1.1 The Rheda design .......................................................................................... 316
10.6.1.2 Rheda-Berlin Design ....................................................................................... 317
10.6.1.3 Rheda 2000 Design ........................................................................................ 318
10.6.1.4 Heitkamp design ............................................................................................ 318
10.6.1.5 Züblin Design ................................................................................................. 318
10.6.2 Laid-on design ............................................................................................... 320
10.6.2.1 SATO design .................................................................................................. 321
10.6.2.2 FFYS design ................................................................................................... 321
10.6.2.3 ATD design ..................................................................................................... 322
10.6.2.4 BTD design .................................................................................................... 322
10.6.2.5 GETRAC design ............................................................................................. 323
10.6.3 Monolithic designs on supporting points without sleeper ................................ 323
10.6.3.1 Lawn track design for long-distance railways ................................................. 323
10.6.3.2 FFC design ..................................................................................................... 324
10.6.4 Pre-fabricated designs on supporting points without sleeper ......................... 325
10.6.4.1 Bögl design .................................................................................................... 325
10.6.4.2 ÖBB-Porr design ............................................................................................ 326
10.6.4.3 Plate track in Japan ........................................................................................ 326
10.6.5 Continuous support with sealed rail ................................................................ 327
10.6.5.1 INFUNDO design ............................................................................................ 327
10.6.6 Continous support with squeezed rail ............................................................. 329
10.6.6.1 SFF design ..................................................................................................... 329
10.6.6.2 SAARGUMMI design ...................................................................................... 329
10.7 Comparison of overall heights of various designs of slab track ........... 330
10.8 Technical and economic comparison of the slab track designs ............ 331

11 Interaction between wheel and rail .................................................... 333

11.1 Dynamics of vehicle movement ................................................................. 333
11.1.1 Starting forces ................................................................................................ 333

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11.1.2 The starting resistance wa .............................................................................. 333

11.1.3 Gradient resistance ws .................................................................................... 333
11.1.4 Curvature resistance wk .................................................................................. 334
11.1.5 Running resistance wt of vehicles ................................................................... 335
11.1.6 Air resistance .................................................................................................. 335
11.1.7 Running resistance of trains according to Strahl wv ........................................ 335
11.1.8 Acceleration resistance wa .............................................................................. 335
11.1.9 Equivalent conicity .......................................................................................... 336
11.2 The contact between wheel and rail ......................................................... 339
11.2.1 The Hertz surface pressure ............................................................................. 340
11.2.2 Contact mechanics ........................................................................................ 340
11.2.2.1 Kalker coefficients ........................................................................................... 340
11.2.2.2 Frictional connection ...................................................................................... 341
11.3 The influence of the rail / wheel contact geometry ................................. 342
11.4 Vehicle defects ............................................................................................ 342
11.4.1 Noncircular wheels ......................................................................................... 342
11.5 Forces acting on the track due to dynamic wheel loads ........................ 343
11.5.1 Interaction of the vehicle and defects in track geometry ................................. 344
11.5.1.1 Types of vehicle vibration ................................................................................ 344
11.5.2 Dynamic vehicle forces occurring through individual defects .......................... 346
11.5.2.1 Flats on the wheel .......................................................................................... 346
11.5.2.2 Dynamic stress in rail joints ............................................................................ 346
11.5.2.3 Dynamic strain in mud joints ........................................................................... 347
11.5.3 Vertical sleeper gap when a train passes sleepers in a defective position ....... 349
11.5.3.1 Strains by noncircular wheels ......................................................................... 350
11.6 Rail vehicle noise ........................................................................................ 351
11.6.1 Reason for the sound ..................................................................................... 351
11.6.2 Consequences of coarse rail surfaces ............................................................ 352
11.6.3 Consequences of coarse wheels .................................................................... 353
11.7 Assessment and measurement of vehicle reactions ............................... 355
11.7.1 The “SR” method of the DB AG ..................................................................... 356
11.7.2 The “VRA” system of the NS .......................................................................... 356
11.8 The requirements of the track for the vehicle .......................................... 356
11.9 The optimum vehicle ................................................................................... 356
11.9.1 The track geometry – a mathematical description as a basis for
vehicle design ................................................................................................. 357
11.9.2 Synthesis of a classified track from density spectra of track unevenness ....... 360
11.9.3 Analysis of vehicle responses by means of classified tracks ........................... 360
11.9.4 Possibilities of improvement of running gears ................................................. 360
11.10 Tilting trains ................................................................................................. 360
11.10.1 Tilting trains with active control system ........................................................... 361
11.10.2 Tilting trains with passive control systems ...................................................... 361
11.11 Vehicle monitoring ...................................................................................... 361

12 The switches ............................................................................................. 363

12.1 The tasks of switches, crossings and diamond crossings with slips ... 363
12.2 The main types of switches, crossings and diamond crossings
with slips ...................................................................................................... 363
12.2.1 Single switches .............................................................................................. 363

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12.2.2 Double switches ............................................................................................. 364

12.2.3 Crossings and diamond crossings with slips .................................................. 364
12.2.4 Curved points ................................................................................................. 365
12.2.5 Vertex clothoid switches ................................................................................. 365
12.3 Designation of switches ............................................................................. 365
12.4 Elements of switches .................................................................................. 366
12.4.1 The blade ....................................................................................................... 366
12.4.1.1 Design types of blades ................................................................................... 366
12.4.1.1.1 Loose heels .................................................................................................... 366
12.4.1.1.2 Flexing blades ................................................................................................ 367
12.4.1.2 Spring switch blades ...................................................................................... 367
12.4.1.3 Flexing blades without switch rail plates ......................................................... 368
12.4.2 Switch-blade rolling device ............................................................................. 368
12.4.3 Optimisation of the running edge .................................................................... 369
12.4.4 The stock rail .................................................................................................. 369
12.4.5 The switch diamond ....................................................................................... 370
12.4.5.1 Design of built-up common diamonds ............................................................ 370
12.4.5.1.1 Cast-steel diamonds ...................................................................................... 371
12.4.5.2 Built-up diamonds .......................................................................................... 371
12.4.5.3 Built-up rail diamonds ..................................................................................... 371
12.4.5.4 Filled section rail diamonds ............................................................................. 372
12.4.5.5 Profiled monoblock diamonds ........................................................................ 372
12.4.5.6 Diamonds with movable tips .......................................................................... 373
12.4.6 The wing rails ................................................................................................. 373
12.4.7 The check rail ................................................................................................. 373
12.4.8 Switch locks ................................................................................................... 373
12.4.9 Hydraulic switch drive ..................................................................................... 374
12.4.10 Switch heating ................................................................................................ 374
12.4.11 Groove width, dimension for point protection and distance between
guiding surfaces ............................................................................................. 374
12.4.12 Switch diagnosis systems .............................................................................. 374
12.5 The vibration-damped switch with divided long sleepers ...................... 376
12.6 Geometric and structural characteristics of switches ............................ 377
12.6.1 The switch radius ........................................................................................... 377
12.6.1.1 The lateral acceleration ................................................................................... 377
12.6.1.2 The change in lateral acceleration (the jerk) .................................................... 378
12.6.1.3 The switch inclination ..................................................................................... 378
12.7 Schematic representation of switches ..................................................... 379
12.8 Settlement behaviour of switches ............................................................. 379
12.9 Maintenance of switches ........................................................................... 379
12.9.1 Inspection of sleepers .................................................................................... 379
12.9.2 Preparatory works .......................................................................................... 379
12.10 Overlaps of rails .......................................................................................... 381

13 Overhead line system ............................................................................. 385

13.1 Types of traction current ............................................................................ 385
13.2 Direct current systems (DC) ....................................................................... 387
13.3 Alternating current systems (AC) .............................................................. 387
13.4 Catenary ....................................................................................................... 387

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13.5 Air distances ................................................................................................ 390

13.6 Various designs of overhead lines ............................................................. 390
13.7 Structure of longitudinal catenary ............................................................. 392
13.8 Return of traction current .......................................................................... 395
13.9 Admissible contact voltage ........................................................................ 396
13.10 Interaction between current collectors and overhead line ..................... 397

14 Fundamentals on guiding and signalling in railway operation .... 398

14.1 Block sections ............................................................................................. 398
14.2 Track circuits ............................................................................................... 398
14.2.1 Insulated rails ................................................................................................. 398
14.2.2 Insulating joints ............................................................................................... 398
14.3 Axle counters ............................................................................................... 398
14.4 Intermittent automatic train control .......................................................... 399
14.4.1 Inductive train control ..................................................................................... 400
14.5 Continuous train control (CTC) .................................................................. 400
14.5.1 Track conductors ........................................................................................... 400
14.6 The European rail traffic management system ERTMS .......................... 400
14.7 Automatic train stop ................................................................................... 401
14.8 Hot box detection ........................................................................................ 401

15 Track maintenance .................................................................................. 402

15.1 Typical maintenance cycles ....................................................................... 402
15.2 Standard values for maintenance and danger limits ............................... 402
15.2.1 Standard values for maintenance and danger limits concerning the
track position .................................................................................................. 403
15.2.2 Standard maintenance values for defects on the rail surface .......................... 404
15.2.3 Standard maintenance values – cross profile of the rail head ......................... 405
15.3 Accuracy of acceptance ............................................................................. 405
15.4 Considerations on the track quality .......................................................... 406
15.4.1 Course of track quality ................................................................................... 406
15.4.2 Cumulative curve of track defects .................................................................. 412
15.5 The choice of the optimum duration of track possessions .................... 413
15.6 Correction of track geometry .................................................................... 414
15.6.1 Track geometry measurement ........................................................................ 414
15.6.1.1 Manual measurement ..................................................................................... 415
15.6.1.1.1 Moving-chord measurement ........................................................................... 415
15.6.1.1.2 Calculation of the location from symmetric versine values .............................. 415
15.6.1.1.2.1 Transfer function ............................................................................................. 416
15.6.1.1.3 Requirements of track geometry .................................................................... 419
15.6.1.1.4 Recording car requirements ........................................................................... 420
15.6.1.1.5 Multifunctional recording cars ......................................................................... 420
15.6.1.1.6 Measured parameters and marginal conditions .............................................. 421
15.6.1.1.6.1 Track geometry parameters ............................................................................ 421
15.6.1.1.6.2 Subsoil parameters ........................................................................................ 422
15.6.1.1.6.3 Ballast parameters .......................................................................................... 422
15.6.1.1.6.4 Rail measurement ........................................................................................... 422
15.6.1.1.6.5 Measurement of the overhead line .................................................................. 424
15.6.1.1.6.6 Measurement of the track surroundings and track inspection ......................... 425

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15.6.1.1.7 Vehicle dynamics ............................................................................................ 427

15.6.1.1.8 The multifunctional recording car UFM160 ...................................................... 428
15.6.1.2 Small devices for track geometry measurement ............................................. 429
15.6.1.3 3D Recording by helicopters .......................................................................... 429
15.6.2 Surveyed track – measurement and calculation of track correction values ..... 430
15.6.2.1 Manual fixed-point measurement..................................................................... 431
15.6.2.2 Versine and level measurement device ........................................................... 431
15.6.2.3 Track surveying car EMSAT ............................................................................ 431
15.6.2.3.1 Description of the Fixed-point Measurement Device ....................................... 433
15.6.2.3.2 Use of the EMSAT for track and switch renewal ............................................. 435
15.6.2.3.3 Measurement evaluation and decision on necessary measures ...................... 435
15.6.2.3.4 Transmission and storage of measurement documentation ............................ 435
15.6.2.3.5 Combination of EMSAT and GPS ................................................................... 436
15.6.2.3.6 The GPS satellite measurement technique for the measurement
of surveyed tracks .......................................................................................... 436
15.6.2.3.6.1 Phase measurement error ␴␾ ......................................................................... 436
15.6.2.3.7 State of realisation .......................................................................................... 438
15.6.2.3.8 Application of the combined EMSAT – GPS system ....................................... 439
15.6.2.3.9 The combination of the EMSAT with a Ballast Profile Measurement System .. 440
15.6.2.4 The PALAS system ......................................................................................... 441
15.6.2.5 Automatic guiding computer WINALC for tamping machines ......................... 441
15.6.2.5.1 Functions of the WINALC ............................................................................... 442
15.6.2.5.1.1 Entry of target geometry data ......................................................................... 442
15.6.2.5.1.2 Electronic versine compensation and track geometry optimisation ................. 442
15.6.2.5.1.3 Determination of correction values from versine differences ............................ 444
15.6.2.6 Track measuring run and guiding of the tamping Machine
by Combined Level-alignment Laser .............................................................. 444
15.6.2.7 Track measuring run and guidance of the tamping machine
by Curve Laser CAL ....................................................................................... 446
15.6.2.8 Measurement and machine guiding via complete measuring station .............. 447
15.6.2.9 Correction of track geometry – tamping ......................................................... 448
15.6.2.9.1 Preparatory track works ................................................................................. 448
15.6.2.9.1.1 Preparation of rail fastenings .......................................................................... 449
15.6.2.9.1.2 Track gauge correction ................................................................................... 449
15.6.2.9.1.3 Treatment by welding ..................................................................................... 449
15.6.2.9.1.4 Correction of minor defects ............................................................................ 449
15.6.2.9.1.5 Preparation of switches .................................................................................. 449
15.6.2.10 The track position correction (track lining, track lifting) .................................... 450
15.6.2.10.1 Compensation lining method .......................................................................... 450
15.6.2.10.1.1 The electronic versine compensation .............................................................. 451
15.6.2.10.1.2 4-Point-lining method ..................................................................................... 451
15.6.2.10.2 Precision lining and levelling method .............................................................. 452
15.6.2.10.3 Tamping ......................................................................................................... 454
15.6.2.10.4 Asynchronous Equal-Pressure Tamping ......................................................... 454
15.6.2.10.5 Tamping parameters ....................................................................................... 455
15.6.2.10.6 Optimum lifting ............................................................................................... 458
15.6.2.10.7 Controlled “Design Overlift”.............................................................................. 458
15.6.2.10.8 Plain-line tamping machines ........................................................................... 460
15.6.2.10.8.1 Admissible lifting values for tamping machines ............................................... 461

23
Contents

15.6.2.10.8.2 Continuous-action tamping machines ............................................................ 461

15.6.2.10.8.3 Equipment of tamping machines .................................................................... 462
15.6.2.10.8.4 09-3x Dynamic Tamping Express ................................................................... 463
15.6.2.10.8.5 Mechanised elimination of individual defects .................................................. 465
15.6.2.10.9 Switch tamping machines .............................................................................. 471
15.6.2.10.9.1 Synchronous Three-Rail Lifting and Four-Rail Tamping ................................... 471
15.6.2.10.9.2 Proof of the reduced stress on switches by calculation using
the Finite Element Method (FEM) .................................................................... 475
15.6.2.10.9.3 Results of the FEM Calculation ....................................................................... 476
15.6.2.10.9.4 Practical proof of the effectiveness of 3-Point lifting ........................................ 477
15.6.2.10.9.5 Laser controlled 3-Point lifting ........................................................................ 477
15.6.2.10.10 Stone blowing ................................................................................................ 479
15.6.2.10.11 The Dynamic Track Stabiliser DTS .................................................................. 482
15.6.2.10.11.1 Parameters influencing the track stabilisation ................................................. 482
15.6.2.10.11.2 The influence of the stabilising frequency ....................................................... 483
15.6.2.10.11.3 The influence of vertical static load ................................................................. 483
15.6.2.10.11.4 The influence of working speed ...................................................................... 485
15.6.2.10.11.5 The influence of the dynamic power of impact ............................................... 485
15.6.2.10.11.6 Connection between lifting and settlement by the DTS .................................. 486
15.6.2.10.11.7 Connection between settlement and gain in lateral resistance ........................ 487
15.6.2.10.11.8 Empiric stabiliser formula ................................................................................ 488
15.6.2.10.11.9 Deep action of the DTS .................................................................................. 488
15.6.2.10.11.10 Increased resistance to lateral displacement achieved by the DTS ................. 488
15.6.2.10.11.11 The continuous dynamic measurement of lateral track resistance .................. 488
15.6.2.10.11.12 Longer maintenance cycles achieved by the DTS .......................................... 490
15.6.2.10.11.13 Increased track quality reserve by homogenizing with
layer-by-layer stabilisation ............................................................................... 491
15.6.2.10.11.14 Increased durability of long-wave defects by the DTS .................................... 492
15.6.2.10.11.15 Spatial compaction by the DTS ....................................................................... 492
15.6.2.10.11.16 Influence of the DTS on subsoil and vertical elasticity ..................................... 496
15.6.2.10.11.17 Reduction of local rail tensions by the DTS .................................................... 496
15.6.2.10.11.18 Influence of the DTS on structures ................................................................. 498
15.6.2.10.11.19 Measured acceleration of the DTS ................................................................. 498
15.6.2.10.11.20 Economic efficiency of the DTS ....................................................................... 500
15.6.2.10.12 The sleeper crib consolidator ......................................................................... 501
15.6.2.10.13 The shoulder consolidator .............................................................................. 501
15.6.2.10.14 Sleeper end consolidator ................................................................................ 501
15.7 Correction of rail defects ........................................................................... 501
15.7.1 Rail measurement ........................................................................................... 501
15.7.1.1 Rail profile measurement ................................................................................ 501
15.7.1.1.1 Contact scanning of the rail profile ................................................................. 501
15.7.1.1.2 Optic rail profile measurement ........................................................................ 501
15.7.1.2 Corrugation measurement .............................................................................. 502
15.7.1.2.1 Manual corrugation measurement .................................................................. 502
15.7.1.2.2 Inertial corrugation measurement device ........................................................ 503
15.7.1.2.3 Corrugation measurement device on versine basis ......................................... 504
15.7.1.2.4 Corrugation measurement device based on acceleration measurement ......... 505
15.7.2 Correction of rail defects ................................................................................ 505
15.7.2.1 Rail grinding ................................................................................................... 506

24
 Contents

15.7.2.1.1 Preventive grinding of new rails ...................................................................... 506

15.7.2.1.2 Noise grinding ................................................................................................ 507
15.7.2.1.3 Special Grinding ............................................................................................. 509
15.7.2.1.4 Grinding by rotating grinding stones ............................................................... 509
15.7.2.2 Mobile small-scale rail grinding devices .......................................................... 509
15.7.2.2.1 Grinding with oscillating stones ...................................................................... 509
15.7.2.3 Rail planing ..................................................................................................... 512
15.7.2.3.1 Reprofiling of rails by planing .......................................................................... 514
15.7.2.4 Rail milling ...................................................................................................... 515
15.7.2.5 Rail straightening – STRAIT ............................................................................ 515
15.7.2.6 Rail welding .................................................................................................... 516
15.7.2.6.1 Thermite welding ............................................................................................ 516
15.7.2.6.2 Mobile flash-butt welding ................................................................................ 517
15.8 Ballast bed treatment ................................................................................. 520
15.8.1 Measurement of the ballast bed profile ........................................................... 520
15.8.2 Ballast bed cleaning ....................................................................................... 521
15.8.2.1 Longitudinal cutting ........................................................................................ 523
15.8.2.1.1 Longitudinal machine guidance via a laser reference plane ............................. 523
15.8.2.2 The cross-fall of the track formation ............................................................... 525
15.8.2.3 The excavation capacity of the excavation chain ............................................ 525
15.8.2.4 Throughput, recovery and screening quality ................................................... 528
15.8.2.5 Dependence of the screen performance on the moisture contained in
the excavated material ................................................................................... 531
15.8.2.6 Performance of ballast cleaning machines ...................................................... 532
15.8.2.7 Screen surface dimension and screen performance ....................................... 532
15.8.2.8 Screen charging ............................................................................................. 534
15.8.2.9 Screen calculation .......................................................................................... 534
15.8.2.10 Ballasting ........................................................................................................ 536
15.8.2.11 Excavation Width ............................................................................................ 537
15.8.2.12 Excavation depth ............................................................................................ 538
15.8.2.13 Modern cleaning machines ............................................................................. 539
15.8.2.13.1 Cleaning machines of the RM80 / RM90 Series ............................................. 539
15.8.2.13.2 High-performance cleaning machines of the RM800 / RM900 series ............. 540
15.8.2.13.2.1 High-performance cleaning machine RM800................................................... 542
15.8.2.13.2.2 High-performance cleaning machine RM801................................................... 542
15.8.2.13.2.3 High-performance cleaning machine RM802................................................... 542
15.8.2.13.2.4 High-performance cleaning machine of the RM900 series .............................. 543
15.8.2.13.3 Modern measurement and control systems for high-performance
cleaning machines .......................................................................................... 544
15.8.2.13.4 Excavation chain control and lifting control ..................................................... 544
15.8.2.14 Lining control on cleaning machines ............................................................... 545
15.8.2.14.1 Lining by using the target geometry ............................................................... 545
15.8.2.14.2 Lining on the basis of a position image derived from symmetrical
versine values ................................................................................................. 545
15.8.3 Vegetation control ........................................................................................... 546
15.8.3.1 Spraying trains ............................................................................................... 546
15.8.3.2 Thermal infrared control TIC ........................................................................... 546
15.8.3.3 Vegetation cutting ........................................................................................... 546
15.8.4 Vacuum excavating method ........................................................................... 547

25
Contents

15.8.4.1 Shoulder cleaning machines ........................................................................... 547

15.8.5 Ballast distribution and conveying systems ..................................................... 548
15.8.5.1 MFS System ................................................................................................... 548
15.8.6 Ballast distributing and regulating machines ................................................... 549
15.8.6.1 Universal ballast distributing and regulating machines .................................... 552
15.8.6.1.1 Universal ballast distributing and regulating machines of the USP series ........ 552
15.8.6.1.2 Plain-line ballast regulating and profiling machine, SSP series ........................ 552
15.8.7 Ballast Distribution System ............................................................................. 554
15.9 Subsoil improvement .................................................................................. 556
15.9.1 Measurement of the subsoil conditions .......................................................... 556
15.9.1.1 Georadar ........................................................................................................ 556
15.9.1.2 Subsoil examination machine ......................................................................... 556
15.9.2 Insertion of formation protective layers ........................................................... 559
15.9.2.1 Traditional method .......................................................................................... 560
15.9.2.2 Insertion of track formation protective layers using ballast cleaning machines 560
15.9.2.3 Formation rehabilitation machine SVV100........................................................ 562
15.9.2.4 Formation rehabilitation machine PM200-2R .................................................. 564
15.9.2.5 Formation rehabilitation machine AHM800R ................................................... 564
15.9.2.6 Formation rehabilitation machine RPM2002..................................................... 566
15.9.3 Methods of soil upgrading .............................................................................. 566
15.9.3.1 Traditional methods ........................................................................................ 567
15.9.3.1.1 Improvement by adding cement according to the
cutting-mixing-injection method ...................................................................... 567
15.9.3.1.2 Soil replacement ............................................................................................. 567
15.9.3.1.2.1 Box-soil replacement method ......................................................................... 567
15.9.3.1.2.2 Moving pre-structure with integrated soil upgrading unit (WARAN) ................. 567
15.9.3.2 Soil and formation upgrading according to the PUSCAL method ................... 567
15.9.3.3 Formation upgrading machine PM150FS ....................................................... 567
15.10 Laying and relaying of the track grid ........................................................ 568
15.10.1 Historical outline ............................................................................................. 568
15.10.2 The track relaying train ................................................................................... 570
15.10.2.1 Preparatory work ............................................................................................ 572
15.10.2.2 Track relaying train SUZ500UVR ..................................................................... 572
15.10.3 Rail pulling and pushing device ...................................................................... 572
15.11 Laying and transportation of switches ..................................................... 574
15.11.1 Plug-in switches ............................................................................................. 574
15.11.2 Switch transporting wagon, WTW series ........................................................ 574
15.11.3 Switch relaying machine, WM series .............................................................. 575
15.11.4 Switch relaying by cranes ............................................................................... 575
15.11.5 Switch relaying with the UWG ........................................................................ 576
15.12 Track construction cranes ......................................................................... 576
15.13 Maintenance of overhead lines .................................................................. 577
15.13.1 Disassembly of existing catenary .................................................................... 577
15.13.1.1 Motor Platform Wagon MGW ......................................................................... 578
15.13.1.2 Motor Tower Wagon MTW ............................................................................. 579
15.13.1.3 Overhead Line Drum Wagon FWW ................................................................. 580
15.13.1.4 Mast Erecting Device MAGE75........................................................................ 580
15.13.2 Assembly of new catenary .............................................................................. 581
15.13.2.1 Overhead Line Relaying Machine FUM ........................................................... 582

26
 Contents

15.13.2.2 Assembly Car A10........................................................................................... 583

15.13.3 Assembly of the line feeder and the return line ............................................... 583

16 Life cycle costs of railways ................................................................... 585

16.1 UIC-study comparing the LCC of railways ............................................... 585
16.1.1 Results of the LCC cost comparison for railways ........................................... 585
16.2 Factors forcing up costs ............................................................................ 587
16.3 Cost saving potentials ................................................................................ 588
16.4 Differential LCC ........................................................................................... 589
16.4.1 Net present value method and internal rate of interest .................................... 589
16.4.2 Standard kilometers ....................................................................................... 590
16.4.3 Composition of the annual costs .................................................................... 590
16.4.4 Results of the differential LCC calculation ....................................................... 591
16.4.4.1 Speed restrictions at the end of the lifetime .................................................... 591
16.4.4.2 Maintenance strategies for lines on poor substructures .................................. 591
16.4.4.3 Heavy or innovative permanent way ............................................................... 592
16.4.4.4 Combination of tamping and grinding ............................................................. 592
16.4.4.5 Maintenance cycles increased by dynamic track stabilisation ......................... 594
16.5 Track maintenance costs ........................................................................... 594
16.6 The effect of mechanisation on the economic efficiency
of permanent-way maintenance ................................................................ 594
16.7 Track access charges ................................................................................. 595

Literature .................................................................................................... 597

Keywords ................................................................................................... 624

Advertisers’ Index .................................................................................... 634

27
1 General information

1 General information

This track manual is intended to make clear that the track consists not only of individual components
viewed separately, but the “railway wheel-track” system as a whole.
The track must:
• guide vehicles without risk of derailment,
• take up vertical and horizontal vehicle forces,
• off-load these forces via the track grid and ballast bed into the subsoil,
• ensure high passenger comfort and
• high availability for train traffic
The railway wheel transmits vertical and horizontal forces onto the track. Furthermore, the long weld-
ed railway track is subject to the influence of longitudinal forces arising because of changes in tem-
perature. The track is stressed by quasi-static (low-frequency) and dynamic force components of
higher frequency. Figure 1 schematically represents the Wheel-Track system.

S
y vehicle body
z

czs kzs czs kzs secondary suspension

S
y bogie
z

czp kzp czp kzp primary suspension

S
y wheelset
z Y+DY Q+DQ

czo kzo czo kzo permanent way

z

czu kzu czu kzu substructure

ballast

spring damping system

subsoil subsoil
y
Figure 1: Schematic representation of the Wheel-Track system

28
1 General information

The individual parts of this system are linked by components exerting elastic and damping effects.
The elastic and damping elements between vehicle body and bogie, as well as between bogie and
wheelset, are very well known and their behaviour can be very well expressed mathematically.
The track itself with its elasto-plastic properties cannot be expressed by an exact analysis because
of the inhomogeneous behaviour of the ballast bed, the protective layer of the formation and the sub-
soil. Empiric parameters and connections found out by experiments are used for this purpose.
The strength of these forces is a function of the axle load, of changes in wheel loads when driving
on curves or in case of unequal loading, of braking and starting, and the rolling of ovalized unbal-
anced wheels on a defective track.
The track grid has to distribute these forces in such a way, that the maximum admissible values for
ballast compression below the sleeper and the admissible compressive strain on the soil will not be
exceeded.
Figure 2 shows the increase of wheelset loads and speeds in the course of railway history. It is
remarkable how the wheelset loads for goods wagons have steadily risen to today’s value of 22.5
tons – in the future it will be 25 tons. The speed of passenger trains has also increased: 250 to 300
km/h on new tracks. Trains in general run at a higher speed nowadays, even on the rest of the rail-
way network.

22 22,5
[t] 20
19
20
14 15
10 12
10
4
4
0
40 1850 60 70 80 90 1900 10 20 30 40 1950 60 70 80 90

Development of wheelset loads for passenger and goods trains

v [km/h]
320 300

280 250
= passenger trains
240
= goods trains 200
200 160
160 160
160 140 140
120 140 120
120 100 100
90 80
80 75 65 60 65
60 55 55
40 35 45
40 25 25
0
40 1850 60 70 80 90 1900 10 20 30 40 1950 60 70 80 90 2000

year
Figure 2: Chronological development of wheelset loads and train speeds, for passenger
and goods trains [1]

30
 1 General information

The theoretical comments and practical experience stated in the following are intended to explain
how to fulfil these higher requirements which, undoubtedly, will rise even further in the future.
Permanent way for high-density lines, which, according to modern knowledge, requires only a little
maintenance, consists of the following elements:
• heavy-profile rail UIC60,
• hard-wearing rails in curves (head-hardened or high-alloy),
• concrete sleepers of optimized quality for track and switches (soled sleepers, broad sleepers,
frame sleepers, ladder sleeper track, etc.),
• torsion-resistant and elastic rail fastenings (optimization of elasticity and damping is necessary),
• permanently stable ballast bed and
• permanently stable, frost resistant track formation (by the insertion of protective layers and geo-
textiles).

31
 6.1 Ballast bed requirements

6 Ballast and ballast bed

The track grid is carried in the track bed on a “floating” support. This causes the track geometry to
deteriorate under the influence of dynamic forces, however, it has the advantage that this deteriora-
tion may be remedied at low cost by fully automated permanent-way machines.

6.1 Ballast bed requirements

The ballast bed has to provide the following functions:
• to transmit the sleeper pressure to the subsoil as evenly as possible,
• to have high resistance to longitudinal and lateral sleeper displacement,
• to easily re-establish the track position after it has been changed (tamping and lining),
• to have good air and water permeability to maintain the bearing capacity of the subsoil,
• to ensure the track elasticity in order to minimize dynamic forces, and
• to enable corrective actions in the track (tamping and lining).
These requirements may be met in the following ways through:
• choice of the ballast bed thickness,
• choice of the ballast bed cross section,
• choice of the ballast quality, and
• quality of ballast consolidation.
The following factors may have an adverse influence on these properties:
• operational load: due to the wheels rolling over the track the sleeper is lifted off and rebounds on
the ballast, the dynamic forces may overstress the ballast and lead to shelling, grain shifting and
abrasion,
• maintenance work – wear by tamping or cleaning,
• material rising from the subsoil, if there are no formation protection layers or if they are defective,
and
• ballast contamination by lost cargo (coal, ore, sand, etc.), remainders of vegetation and other envi-
ronmental influences (frost, fluctuation of temperature, moisture, etc.).

6.1.1 The ballast bed cross-section

The ballast thickness – this is the distance between the lower surface of the sleeper and the subsoil
– should be as large as possible ([189], [190]). The pressure distribution lines should intersect, oth-
erwise the subsoil would be pressed up between the sleepers.
• The required ballast bed thickness depends on:
• the sleeper spacing,
• the sleeper width, and
• the angle of friction of the ballast.
The thickness of the ballast bed should be at least 30 cm for axle loads of 220 kN, a sleeper spac-
ing of 60cm and a sleeper width of 28 cm. For high-speed lines a thickness of 40 cm is advisable.
It is important to provide 45 to 50 cm of ballast at the sleeper ends. This guarantees a significant
resistance to lateral displacement.

189
6 Ballast and ballast bed

The ballast bed cross section should have the following target dimensions:
ballast width at the sleeper ends:
• 0.4 m at v ) 160 km/h,
• 0.5 m at v > 160 km/h, and
• 0.45 m for B75 sleepers (sleeper length: 2.8 m), and
• ballasting up to the upper edge of the sleeper.
Inclination of the ballast shoulder:
• 1:1.5 designed,
• 1:1.25 implemented, and
• a cross fall of the formation of 1:20
Minimum ballast bed thickness below the lower sleeper edge (measured below the low rail)
• 0.3 m for existing lines, and
• 0.35 m or 0.40 m, respectively, for new lines.
This means that the thickness of the ballast bed increases adequately below the superelevated rail,
furthermore, the formation has to be broadened correspondingly.
It is advisable to provide ballast of high compactness and tension. This can be reached by inserting
and compacting the ballast in layers. The best way to insert the ballast in layers is with the help of a
tamping machine, sleeper end consolidators and a dynamic track stabiliser.

6.1.2 Ballast materials

The raw material for permanent-way ballast has to meet the following requirements [191]:
• resistance to weather influences (to be determined by the freeze-thaw test),
• high toughness (determined in the rotary drum grinder),
• high resistance to pressure (determined by pressure and impact tests),
• no loam or earth content, and
• the rocks should break into sharp-edged cubes.
The most suitable materials are hard ballast (basalt, diabase, granite) which meet the above require-
ments. Soft rocks (limestone, dolomite, sedimentary rocks) are usually less suitable.

6.1.2.1 Crushed ballast

The following ballast parameters should correspond to the intended purpose:
• grain size and grain size distribution according to the screen analysis,
• grain shape (cubic, sheet-shaped, oblong),
• undersize and oversize (5% is usually tolerated).
It is common practice to use crushed ballast of 25–60 mm for main-line tracks and of 15–30 mm for
secondary tracks. The use of smaller ballast sizes in shunting tracks helps to avoid accidents [192].
The granulometric properties of the ballast grains should be the following:
• grain size 22.4 / 63 mm with grain size distribution according to figure 97, where the undersize part
< 22.4 mm must not exceed 3% when samples are taken in the factory and 5% when sampled
on site,
• at the moment of delivery the ballast has to be clean and free from organic substances.

190
 6.1 Ballast bed requirements

Admissible range of grain size in the material supplied 22,4 / 63 mm

100

90

80

70
68
65
undersize in mass %

60

50

40
35

30
25 30

20

10
3
0
16 22,5 31,5 40 50 63 80
size of mesh mm
range admissible
for the time being

Figure 97: Admissible range of grain size analysis for new ballast

6.1.2.1.1 Grain shapes

The ballast bed mainly consists of skeleton grain, and, depending on the service life and permanent-
way conditions, of distance and filler grain.
Grain size as well as grain shape changes, as material shells and is rubbed off under operational
loads. A new ballast bed consists almost entirely of skeleton grain. Larger particles come off under
load, until the contact surfaces are numerous enough to divert the required loads via the ballast. The
developing distance grain improves the resistance to shearing (a distance grain percentage of up to
15%, size 15–30 mm, would be the optimum). The percentage of the distance grain, however,
increases in the course of time, and additionally finer material, the filler grain, develops, which begins
to enclose the skeleton grain. That is why the angle of internal friction of the material diminishes and
its resistance to shearing and bearing capacity is reduced. If the shearing strain becomes too high,
a soil fracture might occur.

6.1.2.2 Round ballast

Round ballast (gravel), partly crushed, is used in countries with poor rock deposits. It is not indent-
ed and therefore gives only low resistance to lateral displacement; furthermore, major grain
rearrangements often occur in this kind of ballast, therefore, settlement values are higher than in
tracks with crushed ballast. The resistance to shearing of round ballast approximately corresponds
to the value of contaminated standard ballast.

191
6 Ballast and ballast bed

clean new
ballast

skeleton grain

distance grain

filler grain

fouled ballast
ballast after operational (fines)
load (shells)
Figure 98: Schematic representation of skeleton grain, distance grain and filler grain

6.1.2.3 Ballast in bags

Experiments, where fine gravel was filled into plastic bags (the so-called bag permanent-way) and
compressed, have shown that the settlement of these fillings (particularly of fine material of a size of
5–7 mm) was comparatively high [193]. Furthermore it is difficult to correct the track position. There-
fore, further experiments were abandoned.

6.1.3 Testing of track ballast

For economical reasons railways usually buy their ballast directly from quarries producing road bal-
last. Therefore, they usually acknowledge the existing experience and test methods and only slight-
ly change the grain size of the ballast.
Major railways have their own test specifications and have the tests carried out by material testing
bodies.

6.1.3.1 Los Angeles-test (LA)

This test serves to determine the breaking strength of natural stone. A specimen of about 10 kg in a
cylinder, together with several steel balls, is revolved 1000 times around its axis at a speed of 33 rpm
[194]. After the test the specimen is screened on a 1.6 mm screen. The Los-Angeles value is deter-
mined according to the following formula:
m
LA = –– · 100 [%]
M
m ... weight of the screened fraction
M ... specimen weight

192