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ABSTRACT

This thesis investigates the effectiveness of Orthogonal Frequency Division


Multiplexing (OFDM) as a modulation technique for wireless radio
applications. The main aim was to assess the suitability of OFDM as a
modulation technique for a fixed wireless phone system for rural areas of
Australia. However, its suitability for more general wireless applications is
also assessed. Most third generation mobile phone systems are proposing to
use Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) as their modulation
technique.. It was found that OFDM performs extremely well compared
with CDMA, providing a very high tolerance to multipath delay spread, peak
power clipping, and channel noise. In addition to this it provides a high
spectral efficiency. Orthogonal FDM's (OFDM) spread spectrum technique
distributes the data over a large number of carriers that are spaced apart at
precise frequencies. This spacing provides the "orthogonality" in this
technique, which prevents the demodulators from seeing frequencies other
than their own. The benefits of OFDM are high spectral efficiency,
resiliency to RF interference, and lower multi-path distortion. This is useful
because in a typical terrestrial broadcasting scenario there are multipath-
channels (i.e. the transmitted signal arrives at the receiver using various
paths of different length). Since multiple versions of the signal interfere with
each other (inter symbol interference (ISI)) it becomes very hard to extract
the original information. Orthogonal FDM deals with this multipath problem
by splitting carriers into smaller sub carriers, and then broadcasting those
simultaneously. This reduces multipath distortion and reduces RF
interference (a mathematical formula is used to ensure the sub carriers'
specific frequencies are "orthogonal," or non-interfering, to each other),
allowing for greater throughput. The only main weak point that was found
with using OFDM, was that it is very sensitive to frequency, and phase
errors between the transmitter and receiver. The main sources of these errors
are frequency stability problems; phase noise of the transmitter; and any
frequency offset errors between the transmitter and receiver. This problem
can be mostly overcome by synchronizing the clocks between the transmitter
and receiver, by designing the system appropriately
INDEX
Page No.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION 2

CHAPTER 2

2.1 WHAT IS OFDM 4

2.2 QUALITATIVE DESCRIPTION OF OFDM 4

2.3 IMPORTANCE OF ORTHOGANILITY 10

2.4 MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION OF OFDM 11

2.5 IMPLEMENTATION OF OFDM 13

2.6 BLOCK DIAGRAM 21

CHAPTER 3: ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES 22

CHAPTER 4: FUTURE DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION

REFERENCE
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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

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INTRODUCTION

OFDM stands for Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing and is an up


and coming modulation technique for transmitting large amounts of digital
data over a radio wave. W-OFDM stands for Wideband OFDM.

OFDM is conceptually simple, but the devil is in the details! The


implementation relies on very high speed digital signal processing. OFDM is
conceptually simple, but the devil is in the details! The implementation
relies on very high speed digital signal processing and this has only recently
become available at a price that makes OFDM a competitive technology in
the marketplace. OK, so what is the simple concept behind OFDM? Take
one carrier and modulate it using Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
where each symbol encodes 2 bits. Modulation theory tells us that the
spectrum of such a modulated signal will have a sin (x)/x shape with nulls
spaced by the bit rate. In OFDM, the carriers are spaced at the bit rate, so
that the carriers fit in the fit in the nulls of the other carriers. Another view of
Orthogonal Another view of Orthogonal is that each carrier has an integer
number of sine wave cycles in one bit period

The problem with the simple-minded approach is that it takes lots of local
oscillators each locked to the others so that the frequencies are the exact
multiples that they should be. This is difficult and expensive. DSP to the
rescue! Each of the oscillators can be a digital representation of the sine
carrier wave that can be modulated in the numerical domain. This can
happen simultaneously for all of the carriers. The resulting output of each
channel is added and then blocked. Since we have a representation of the
signal in the frequency domain but need to modulate an actual carrier in the
time domain, we just perform an Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) to
convert the block of frequency data to a block of time data that modulates
the carrier. The receiver acquires the signal, digitizes it, and performs an
FFT on it to get back to the frequency domain. From there, it is relatively
easy to recover the modulation on each of the carriers.

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CHAPTER 2
SUBJECT DETALING

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2.1 WHAT IS OFDM

OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) is a method of using


many carrier waves instead of only one, and using each carrier wave for only
part of the message. OFDM is also called multicarriermodulation (MCM) or
DiscreteMulti-Tone (DMT). It is important to stress that OFDM is not really
a modulation scheme since it does not conflict with other modulation
schemes. It is more a coding scheme or a transportscheme. Orthogonal
Frequency Division is where the spacing between carriers is equal to the
speed (bit rate) of the message.

A multiplex was primarily used to allow many users to share a


communications medium like a phone trunk between two telephone central
offices. In OFDM, it typical to assign all carriers to a single user; hence
multiplexing is not used with its generic meaning.
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing is then the concept of typically
establishing a communications link using a multitude of carriers each
carrying an amount of information identical to the separation between the
carriers.

2.2 QUALITATIVE DESCRIPTION OF OFDM

Figure 0.4 shows structure of a multicarrier system.

th e general
Figure 0.4: Basic structure of a multicarrier system

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The original data stream of rate R is multiplexed into N parallel data streams
of rate each of the data streams is modulated with a

different frequency and the resulting signals are transmitted together in the
same band. Correspondingly the receiver consists of N parallel receiver
paths. Due to the prolonged distance in between transmitted symbols the ISI
for each sub system reduces to

In the case of DVB-T we have N=8192 leading to an ISI of

Such little ISI can often be tolerated and no extra counter measure such as an
equalizer is needed. Alas as far as the complexity of a receiver is concerned
a system with 8192 parallel paths still isn't feasible. This asks for a slight
modification of the approach which leads us to the concept of OFDM.

In OFDM, each carrier is orthogonal to all other carriers. However, this


condition is not always maintained in MCM. OFDM is an optimal version of
multicarrier transmission. In OFDM, each carrier is orthogonal to all other
carriers. However, this condition is not always maintained in MCM. OFDM
is an optimal version of multicarrier transmission Schemes.

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Fig. 3 The effect of adopting a multicarrier system. For a given overall data
rate, increasing the number of carriers reduces the data rate that each
individual carrier must convey, and hence (for a given modulation system)
lengthens the symbol period. This means that the intersymbol interference
affects a smaller percentage of each symbol as the

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In OFDM, the data is divided among large number of closely spaced
carriers. This accounts for the “frequency division multiplex” part of the
name. This is not a multiple access technique, since there is no common
medium to be shared
Instead of transmitting in serial way, data is transferred in a parallel way.
Only a small amount of the data is carried on each carrier, and by this
lowering of the bit rate per carrier (not the total bit rate), the influence of
intersymbol interference is significantly reduced. In principle, many
modulation schemes could be used to modulate the data at a low bit rate onto
each carrier.

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing: A method for multiplexing


signals, which divides the available bandwidth into a series of frequencies
known as tones. Modulation on each tone is usually quardature amplitude
modulation. As shown in figure

Orthogonal tones do not interfere with each other because the bandwidth of
a modulated carrier sinc shape (sinx/x) with nulls spaced by the bit rate. In
OFDM, the carriers fit in the nulls of the other carriers.
.

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All frequencies fade but the rapid switching, frequency-hopping technique


is intended to allow more robust data service. Because of the orthogonal of
the signals, establish overlap in frequency without interfering with each
other, thus reducing the system bandwidth

Ofdm frequency domaine shown in figure

.
SO OFDM can be simply defined as a form of multicarrier modulation
where its carrier spacing is carefully selected so that each subcarrier is
orthogonal to the other sub carriers

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OFDM can be simply defined as a form of multicarrier modulation where its


carrier spacing is carefully selected so that each subcarrier is orthogonal to
the other sub carriers

2.3 The importance of orthogonality

The “orthogonal” part of the OFDM name indicates that there is a precise
mathematical relationship between the frequencies of the carriers in the
system. In a normal FDM system, the many carriers are spaced apart in such
way that the signals can be received using conventional filters and
demodulators. In such receivers, guard bands have to be introduced between
the different carriers and the lowering of the spectrum Efficiency. It is
possible, however, to arrange the carriers in an OFDM signal so that the
sidebands of the individual carriers overlap and the signals can still be
received without adjacent carrier interference. In order to do this the carriers
must be mathematically orthogonal. The receiver acts as a bank of
demodulators, translating each carrier down to DC, the resulting signal then
being integrated over symbol period to recover the raw data. If the other
carriers all beat down to frequencies which, in thtime domain, have a whole
number of cycles in the symbol period (t), then the integration process
results in zero contribution from all these carriers. Thus the carriers are
linearly independent (i.e. orthogonal) if the carrier spacing is a multiple of
1/t. Mathematically, suppose we have a set of signals y , where y p is the p-
th element in the set

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2.4 Mathematical description of OFDM

After the qualitative description of the system, it is valuable to discuss the


mathematical definition of the modulation system. This allows us to see how
the signal is generated and how receiver must operate, and transmission
channel. As noted above, OFDM transmits a large number of narrowband
carriers, closely spaced in the frequency domain.

Mathematically, each carrier can be described as a complex wave:

The real signal is the real part of sc(t). Both Ac (t) and sc(t), the amplitude
and phase of the carrier, can vary on a symbol by symbol basis. The values
of the parameters are constant over the symbol duration period t. OFDM
consists of many carriers. Thus the complex signals s (t)) is represented

This is of course a continuous signal. If we consider the waveforms of each


component of the signal overcome symbol period, then the variables Ac (t)
and fc(t) take on fixed values, which depend on the frequency of that
particular carrier, and so can be rewritten:

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If the signal is sampled using a sampling frequency of 1/T, then the resulting
signal is represented by:

At this point, we have restricted the time over which we analyse the signal to
N samples. It is convenient to sample over the period of one data symbol.
Thus we have a relationship=NT
If we now simplify eqn. 3, without a loss of generality by letting w0=0, then
the signal becomes:

Now Eq. 4 can be compared with the general form of the inverse Fourier
transform:
In eq. 4, the

is no more than a definition of the signal in the sampled frequency domain,


and s (kT) is the time domain representation. Eqns. 4 and 5 are equivalent if:

This is the same condition that was required for orthogonality

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2.5 Implementation of ofdm


If ofdm is implemented through multicarrier system
Then the receiver and transmitter is as shown in figure

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Above figures shows that generation of a number of carriers using separate


local oscillators. This was inefficient and costly (though increased the data
rate). . DSP to the rescue

2.6 The use of the FFT in OFDM


The main reason that the OFDM technique has taken a long time to become
a prominence has been practical. It has been difficult to generate such signal,
and even harder to receive and demodulate the demodulators, was somewhat
impractical for use in the civil systems. The ability to define the signal in the
frequency domain, in software onVLSI processors, and to generate the
signal using the inverse Fourier transform is the key to its current popularity.
The use of the reverse process in the receiver is essential if cheap and
reliable. Although the original proposals were made a long time ago [5], it
has taken at the transmitter; the signal is defined in the frequency domain. It
is spectrum exists only at discrete frequencies. Each OFDM carrier
corresponds to one element of this discrete Fourier spectrum. The amplitudes
and phases of the carriers depend on the data to be transmitted. The data
transitions are synchronized at the carriers, and can be processed together,
symbol by symbol

The definition of the (N-point) discrete Fourier transform (DFT) is:

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and the (N-point) inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT):

A natural consequence of this method is that it allows us to generate carriers


that are orthogonal. The members of an orthogonal set are linearly
independent. Consider a data sequence (d0, d1, d2, … , dN-1), where each
dn is a complex number dn=an+jbn. (an, bn=±1 for QPSK, an, bn=±1, ±3 for
16QAM,)

Where fn=n/(NDT), tk=kDt and Dt is an arbitrarily chosen symbol duration


of the serial data sequence dn. The real part of the vector D has components

If thesecomponents are applied to a low-pass filter at time intervals Dt, a


signal is obtained that closely approximates the frequency division
multiplexed signal

The incoming serial data is first converted form serial to parallel and
grouped into x bits each to form a complex number. The number determines
the signal constellation of the corresponding subcarrier, such as 16 QAM or

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32QAM. The complex numbers are modulated in the base band by the
inverse FFT (IFFT) and converted back to serial data for transmission. A
guard interval is inserted between symbols to avoid intersymbol interference
(ISI) caused by multipath distortion. The discrete symbols are converted to
analog and low-pass filtered for RF up conversion. The receiver performs
the inverse process of the transmitter. One-tap equalizer issued to correct
channel distortion. The tap-coefficients of the filter are calculated based on
the channel information.

Fig 4a shows the spectrum of an OFDM sub channel and Fig. 4b and Fig. 6
present compositeOFDM spectrum. By carefully selecting the carrier
spacing, the OFDM signal spectrum can be made flat and the orthogonality
among the sub channels can be guaranteed.

If the signal is passed through a time-dispersive channel, by appending a


cyclic prefix at the front of every OFDM symbol. The cyclic prefix is a copy
of the last part of the OFDM symbol of length equal to or greater than the
maximum delay spread of the channel

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2.7 Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

In practice, some of the carriers are used for channel estimation and there are
extra bits added for error detection and correction. Doing this is called
Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (COFDM). Coding is
now so common that many people drop the "C", as unnecessary, assuming
that coding is used.

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2.8

When the radio signals travel from one location to another, they
maybounceoffsurrounding objects (Figure 1), resulting in multiple paths
between transmitter and receiver. This is analogous to echoes or reflections
causing multiple copies of the message to arrive at the receiver at different
times. The combination of all Modulated message signal to be distorted. A
simple example is where there are only two paths, the line of sight path and
reflected path from the ground. If message is sent at the right speed, then the
second (reflected) copy of the Message may arrive exactly one bit time later
than the first (direct) copy. The Receiver will then receive two different bits
mixed together, thus distorting the Original message bit (Figure 1). Wireless

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communication systems have to be designed to cope with this so-
calledmultipath distortion.
Figure 1

The main idea of using OFDM is to avoid problems caused by


multipathreflections by sending the message bits slowly enough so that any
delayed copies (reflections) are late by only a small fraction of a bit time. To
maintain high bit rate, multiple carriers are used to send many low speed
messages at the same time which can be combined at the receiver to make
up one high speed message. In this way, we avoid the distortion
caused by reflections.

2.8.2 ofdm act as a antinode for inter- symbol interference

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2.9 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF OFDM

3.1 Advantages of OFDM

Spectral efficiency
{The orthogonal sub channels are spaced 1/T Hz apartandoverlap in
frequency)

Simple implementation
{IFFT/FFT pair
ADC/DAC pair)

Mitigation of ISI
{Cyclic prefix/suffix guard interval)
3.2 The disadvantages of the OFDM

OFDM signal is contaminated by non-linear distortion of transmitter power


amplifier, because it is a combined amplitude-frequency modulation (it is
necessary to maintain linearity)

OFDM is very sensitive to carrier frequency offset caused by the jitter of


carrier wave and Doppler effect caused by moving of the mobile terminal.

At the receiver, it is very difficult to decide the starting time of the FFT symbolOFDM
stands for Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing and is an up and

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coming modulation technique for transmitting large amounts of digital data
over a radio wave

OFDM is currently a very popular choice for future wireless applications,


including wireless LANs, cellular and PCS data, and possibly 4G systems.

Hopefully, inexpensive products that provide high-speed communications to


individuals and appliances around the globe.

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Conclusions

OFDM/COFDM has long been studied and implemented to combat


transmission channel impairments. Its applications have been extended from
high frequency radio communications to telephone networks, digital audio
broadcasting and terrestrial broadcasting of digital television. The
advantages of COFDM, especially in the multipath propagation, interference
and fading environment, make the technology a promising alternative in
digital communications including mobile multimedia.

Dept. of Electronics & Communication College of Engg. K i d a n g o o r


6.REFERENCE

[1] R. Prasad, “An overview of millimetre waves for future personal wireless
communication systems”,
Proc. IEEE First symposium. on communications and vehicular technology
in the Benelux, K3, Delft,
Netherlands, Oct. 27-28. 1993.

[2] Ministerie van Verkeer and Waterstaat, Hoofddirectie Telecommunicatie


en Post, Frequency
allocations in the Netherlands, 2nd edition, Groningen, 1993.

[3] R.W. Chang, ”Synthesis of Band-Limited Orthogonal Signals for


Multichannel Data Transmission”,
Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol.45, pp. 1775-1796, Dec. 1966.

[4]B.R. Salzberg, “Performance of an efficient parallel data transmission


system”, IEEE Trans.
Commun. Technol., vol. COM-15, pp. 805-813, Dec. 1967.

[5]S.B. Weinstein and P.M. Ebert, “Data transmission by frequency-division


multiplexing using the
discrete Fourier transform”, IEEE Trans. Commun. Technol., vol. COM-19,
pp. 628-634, Oct. 1971.

[6]A.W.M. van den Enden and N.A.M. Verhoeckx, Discrete-time signal


processing: an introduction.
London: Prentice Hall Int., 1989., ISBN 0-13-216763-8

[7]A.V. Oppenheim and R.W. Schaffer, Discrete -time signal processing,


Prentice-Hall International,
1989., ISBN 0-13-216771-9

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