HVAC Design Protocols

HVAC design is more than ACCA Manual J. Most HVAC contractors, home energy raters, contractors and
others in the residential construction field know about Manual J. Many non-builders even know about Manual
D, which describes how to design the duct system. Not as many, however, know about the missing links -
Manual S and Manual T. For a properly designed heating & cooling system, the designer must go through the
whole process contained in all four protocols: J, S, T, and D.

Here's a brief description of each manual.

Manual J (Load Calculation)

This manual is for determining how much heat the house loses in winter and gains in summer. Manual J is both
a whole house and a room-by-room calculation, which allows you to determine how much conditioned air each
room needs for both heating and cooling.

It factors in all the surfaces of the building envelope, with separate areas and insulation levels for each type of
assembly. Each wall is given its proper orientation, because windows and doors are attached to them. Other
important data include the location and tightness of the duct system, the infiltration rate of the house, the
internal loads (appliances and people), and where the house is located.

The results specify the BTUs of heat lost by each room in the winter and gained in the summer. The heat gain is
split into two parts: sensible (related to temperature) and latent (related to humidity). The heat gained or lost in a
room then determines how much conditioned air that room needs in cubic feet per minute (cfm).

 Whole House (Block) HVAC Load Calculations

Whole House or Block HVAC Load Calculations provide the heating and cooling loads for the entire
home. This type of load calculation is used when there is no need to design or modify an existing duct
system. Whole house load calculations are commonly used to determine the correct HVAC equipment
size and match-up that is required when replacing the HVAC system in an existing home.
 Room-by-Room Load Calculations
Room-by-Room Load Calculations provide the heating and cooling loads for each individual room
within the home. In addition to the information produced by a block load calculation, the Room-by-
Room method also determines the amount of air that is required to heat and cool each individual room.
This information is critical when determining the individual duct sizes as well as the size and overall
layout of the duct system.

Manual S (Equipment Selection)

Once the amount of conditioned air (cfm) necessary for each room is known, the designer reviews and selects a
right-sized piece of equipment. Which air conditioner, heat pump, furnace, or boiler is a good fit for the
calculated loads? With forced-air cooling systems, this selection is critical because every piece of equipment
has different characteristics - sensible and latent capacities, the amount of air moved (cfm), and the static
pressure delivered are the key attributes applied to the design in the next stages.

 Once a Manual J load calculation has been completed, the HVAC designer will have the information
required to accurately select the proper HVAC equipment. The equipment selection is based on
performance criteria such as the equipment’s total capacity to remove heat and moisture from the air as
 well as how much total air, and at what pressure, the system can produce. This is important to note
because one manufacturer’s 3 ton HVAC system can perform significantly different than another
manufacturer’s 3 ton system. In addition, a 3 ton system that is installed in Maryland is going to perform
differently than the identical 3 ton system would perform if it was installed in Houston.

Manual T

With the room-by-room cfm requirements, the designer will determine how to distribute the air in the room to
deliver enough to meet the needs (the higher of the heating and cooling cfm requirements from Manual J).

The questions answered here are: Where will the supply registers, diffusers, or grilles be located? Where will
the return grilles be located? What type of register, diffuser, or grille will be used? How big does it need to be?

Good choices at this step eliminate drafts or inadequate mixing. It's possible to provide enough conditioned air
to a room but still have comfort issues because of poor velocity at the register, which results in poor mixing or
drafts from poor register placement.
Manual D (Duct Design)

Finally, with all the data, the cfm needed for each room, the selected equipment, and how the air is distributed
in the room, you can design the duct system.

At this stage the designer evaluates the path with the greatest friction, which may not be the longest path, by
evaluating the ducts lengths, how many fittings and turns in the route, and how much air needs to be delivered.

The type of duct has a big impact on the results, as sheet metal ducts have a lower friction rate than flex duct or
rigid fiberglass duct board.

The underlying principle of Manual D is to design a duct system which delivers the correct cfm to each room
against the friction created by the ducts and fittings with the static pressure available from the blower.

 Manual D is the ACCA method used to determine the overall duct lay-out including the individual duct
sizes. To design a duct system, the HVAC system designer must have completed a Room-by-Room
Manual J load calculation as well as a Manual S equipment selection. All to often, duct systems are
created using rule-of-thumb methods in lieu of using Manual J, Manual S and Manual D. This practice is
the predominant reason for complaints of temperature differentials throughout a home as well as
complaints of excessive noise caused by air velocity that exceeds the maximum allowed by Manual D.

Pulling It All Together

Most states require that the overall energy efficiency of a residential construction project must be calculated and
reported in order to qualify for the appropriate construction permits. In addition, most state energy codes require
that an ACCA Manual J heat load calculation be performed on the construction project, and that the heating and
cooling equipment must be sized per ACCA Manual S.

While energy codes vary from state to state, in general there are 2 different paths that can be followed to
determine if a construction project meets your state’s energy codes.

 Prescriptive Method
The Prescriptive Method has pre-assigned minimum values such as; thermal resistance (R-value),
thermal transmittance (u-value) and solar transmittance (shgc), for each component of the building. This
approach is quick and easy to use, but many users find it somewhat restrictive because the requirements
are typically based on worst-case assumptions and all requirements must be met exactly as specified.
Energy code compliance using the prescriptive method is usually not the most cost effective path to
follow to achieve energy code compliance.
 Performance Method
The Performance Method allows more flexibility by allowing one energy saving measure to be traded
for another. Each energy saving measure is assigned points or credits. The total points/credits for each
area must meet the minimum total points required to qualify for the building permit. Typically, this
method is less restrictive than prescriptive approaches because components that exceed the requirements
can compensate for those that do not meet the code.

Even the best HVAC design in the world, if it's not installed as designed, will perform poorly. It's a good idea to
have every new system tested and commissioned.
Gas Piping

A properly designed gas piping system will insure that the system will provide sufficient gas to meet the
maximum demand of the gas equipment and that it will supply enough fuel for all appliances to operate at the
same time.

When designing a gas piping system, one must consider:

 Loss of pressure from point of delivery to appliance

 Max gas demand
 Length of piping and number of fittings
 Specific gravity of the gas
 Diversity factor

Gas piping systems are designed based on the gas pressure at the point of delivery (gas meter).
The three most common pressures that are used in residential gas piping systems are:

 Low Pressure
6 to 7 inches water column (equivalent to 4 ounces or ¼ pound) is the standard pressure supplied by
natural gas utilities in the USA and Canada.
 Medium Pressure
1/2 PSI (12 to 14 inches water column) is available from many natural gas utilities as an alternate
pressure supply. The increase in pressure provides for reductions in pipe size and does not require a
pressure regulator. Most natural gas appliances manufactured for use in the US and Canada are designed
to operate up to a maximum of 14 inches water column.
 Elevated Pressure
2 PSI is the highest natural gas pressure usually supplied within residential buildings in North America.
This pressure always requires the installation of a gas pressure regulator between the gas meter set and
the appliances.

Propane (LP Gas) is also used in residential gas piping systems. Propane is typically supplied to residential
buildings at 11–13 inches of water column. For 2 PSI propane elevated pressure piping systems, use a line gas
pressure regulator that is set for 11 inches water column outlet pressure.

PRESSURE CONVERSION CHART

1/4 PSI = 7″ w.c. = 4 oz.
1/2 PSI = 14″ w.c. = 8 oz.
1 PSI = 28″ w.c. = 16 oz.
2 PSI = 56″ w.c. = 32 oz.

Hybrid Gas Piping Systems

Flexible gas pipe and rigid black pipe (galvanized pipe if near the coast) combinations.
It is often advantageous to use both corrugated stainless steel tubing (flexible gas pipe) and rigid pipe in the
same system when elevated gas pressure is available. Using this type of system can often give you a distinct
advantage over your competition.
Heat load or heat gain
A building or room gains heat from many sources. Inside occupants, computers, copiers, machinery, and lighting all
produce heat. Warm air from outside enters through open doors and windows, or as ‘leakage’ though the structure.
However the biggest source of heat is solar radiation from the sun, beating down on the roof and walls, and pouring
through the windows, heating internal surfaces.

The sum of all these heat sources is know as the heat gain (or heat load) of the building, and is expressed either in BTU
(British Thermal Units) or Kw (Kilowatts).

For an air conditioner to cool a room or building its output must be greater than the heat gain. It is important before
purchasing an air conditioner that a heat load calculation is performed to ensure it is big enough for the intended
application.

Heat load calculations

There are several different methods of calculating the heat load for a given area:

Quick calculation for offices

For offices with average insulation and lighting, 2/3 occupants and 3/4 personal computers and a photocopier, the
following calculations will suffice:

Heat load (BTU) = Length (ft.) x Width (ft.) x Height (ft.) x 4

Heat load (BTU) = Length (m) x Width (m) x Height (m) x 141

For every additional occupant add 500 BTU.

If there are any additional significant sources of heat, for instance floor to ceiling south facing windows, or equipment
that produces lots of heat, the above method will underestimate the heat load. In which case the following method
should be used instead.

A more accurate heat load calculation for any type of room or building

The heat gain of a room or building depends on:

The size of the area being cooled

The size and position of windows, and whether they have shading
The number of occupants
Heat generated by equipment and machinery
Heat generated by lighting

By calculating the heat gain from each individual item and adding them together, an accurate heat load figure can be
determined.
Step One
Calculate the area in square feet of the space to be cooled, and multiply by 31.25

Area BTU = length (ft.) x width (ft.) x 31.25

Step Two

Calculate the heat gain through the windows. If the windows don’t have shading multiply the result by 1.4

North window BTU = Area of North facing windows (m. sq.) x 164

If no shading, North window BTU = North window BTU x 1.4

South window BTU = Area of South facing windows (m. sq.) x 868

If no shading, South window BTU = South window BTU x 1.4

Add the results together.

Total window BTU = North window + South window

Step Three

Calculate the heat generated by occupants, allow 600 BTU per person.

Occupant BTU = number of people x 600

Step Four

Calculate the heat generated by each item of machinery - copiers, computers, ovens etc. Find the power in watts for
each item, add them together and multiply by 3.4

Equipment BTU = total equipment watts x 3.4

Step Five

Calculate the heat generated by lighting. Find the total wattage for all lighting and multiply by 4.25

Lighting BTU = total lighting watts x 4.25

Step Six

Add the above together to find the total heat load.

Total heat load BTU = Area BTU + Total Window BTU + Occupant BTU + Equipment BTU + Lighting BTU
Step Seven

Divide the heat load by the cooling capacity of the air conditioning unit in BTU, to determine how many air conditioners
are needed.

Number of a/c units required = Total heat load BTU / Cooling capacity BTU

** Disclaimer.
The above methods of calculation are simplified; factors such as insulation levels and building construction have been
ignored. The above should be considered as an approximate method of calculation only. W. Tombling Ltd. accepts no
liability or claim arising from their use.
Cooling your workplace
Workers are most comfortable when the temperature in the workplace is between 22 and 25.5C (72 – 78F)
above this they start to feel uncomfortable, tempers shorten, and mistakes are made.

In the United Kingdom cooling the workplace is often not considered until the summer when it turns very hot.
This is understandable because during the average British summer there are only a few days when temperatures
become unbearable, and most businesses are prepared to ‘sweat it out’.

In 2003 the UK experienced an exceptionally hot summer, the effects of global warming led to record
temperatures throughout the UK. It seems inevitable that British summers are going to become much
hotter!

Factors affecting your choice of cooling

Speed - As noted above, most businesses don’t consider summer cooling until it turns hot, so the most
important factor is speed. Workers won’t wait for several weeks while cooling systems are installed. Portable
cooling equipment that doesn’t need any installation is the solution, just wheel it in position, plug in and turn on
for instant relief from the summer heat.

Cost - The second consideration is cost, because uncomfortably high temperatures don’t last very long in a
typical British summer, most businesses don’t want to spend thousands of pounds on equipment that will only
be used for a few weeks or months a year. Again portable equipment offers a solution, because there are no
installation costs, the overall price is much lower than fixed equipment.

Flexibility - The need for cooling is rarely confined to one place, several parts of a building may need cooling,
but not necessarily at the same time. Portable air conditioners, fans, etc are easily and quickly moved from place
to place as required. There’s need to install expensive fixed systems throughout your premises, only to have to
duplicate them in each area, or leave them behind when you move.

Types of cooling

Portable cooling falls into three categories, each of which has their own advantages and
drawbacks:

Portable fans – The most inexpensive and flexible type of cooling.

Fans work anywhere; indoors in offices, workshops, factories etc. and outdoors. They are
available in different sizes to suit any application.

When buying a fan, always select one with variable speeds, so that it can be adjusted to suit your needs. Don’t
choose a fan on its physical size; many big fans built in the Far East are inefficient and noisy. A smaller higher
quality fan may well move more air with less noise, and will last a lot longer too!

Portable air conditioners – Are suited to sealed spaces, where doors and windows can be kept closed, such as
offices, small workshops, etc. Because of high purchase and running costs portable air conditioners are rarely
used in large areas.
When buying an air conditioner is it very important to calculate the size of unit needed, (normally expressed in
BTU or Kw). Too small a unit will run continuously but will not lower the temperature.

You also need to consider how the heat it removes from the room will be dissipated. Two types of portable air
conditioner are available – air-cooled, which have an exhaust duct (like a tumble dryer) that needs to be fed
outdoors. Or water-cooled, which have a separate radiator that goes outside.

Again low cost units from the Far East, tend to have low outputs, typically 9000 – 12,000 BTU, and are unlikely
to be built to high enough standards to withstand day-to-day use in the average workplace.

Evaporative coolers – The least common type of cooling currently used in the UK,
although they are now starting to become more popular. Evaporative coolers are less
expensive than air conditioners to purchase and run, and are suited to large well-ventilated
spaces, such as factories and workshops and for use outdoors.

Evaporative coolers produce high volumes of cool, filtered air. They work best when
situated outside, using flexible ducting to deliver cool air into the space being cooled. To
prevent high humidity and condensation it is important that doors and windows are kept
open. We don’ t recommend evaporative cooling is used in small rooms, offices, etc.

Portable cooling in the workplace

Portable cooling provides businesses with inexpensive, flexible and rapid cooling for their workplaces. Portable
fans remain the most popular choice combining low cost, reliability and flexibility in an easy to use package.
Portable air conditioning is ideal for offices and small to medium sizes rooms, as long as doors and windows are
kept shut. Evaporative coolers are used in well-ventilated open spaces such as factories and workshops, and
outdoors.

Whatever type of cooling is required it is important to choose equipment that is sturdy enough for daily use in
the business environment. Equipment made in the Far East is often of an inferior quality and gives sub standard
performance. All Activair fans and evaporative coolers are built in the EU or USA to the highest standards, and
designed to give years of trouble free operation in the toughest workplace.
How to calculate the heat loss for a structure

To calculate the size of heater(s) required to heat a structure, we need to know:

 The temperature to be maintained within the structure.

 The lowest ambient (outside temperature) which can be expected for the area.
 The direct heat loss from the overall surface area of the structure.
 Heat loss through natural or mechanical ventilation.

The difference between the ambient and internal temperatures gives the temperature lift required.

Temperature lift = Internal temp. - ambient temp.

The heat loss for a structure is calculated by taking each surface in turn, calculating its overall area and
multiplying by its thermal transmittance co-efficient or ‘U - value’ (see table)

Heat loss through surface = width(m) x length(m) x U value

Note the area of windows and doors should be calculated and deducted from the area of the surface they are in,
and their heat loss should be calculated separately.

The total surface heat loss for the structure is the sum of all surface heat losses.

Total surface heat loss = loss for walls + loss for roof + loss for floor + loss for windows + loss for doors

An allowance should be made for heat loss through ventilation, which also includes leaks of air through badly
fitting doors, windows, damage to the structures surface etc. Putting a value on this can be very difficult, figures
range from 20% to 66% depending on the type and condition of the structure.

Total heat loss = total surface heat loss x allowance for heat loss through ventilation

Finally to calculate the heater size needed, the total heat loss is multiplied by the temperature lift.

Heater size required = total heat loss x temperature lift

Example heat loss calculation (see diagram)

Temperature lift = 20 - (-5) = 25 deg. C

Area of roof = 2 x 5.09 x 30 = 305.4 m2

Area of walls = (2x2x30) + 10(2+3) = 180 m2
Area of floor = 30 x 10 = 300 m2

Heat loss through roof = 305.4 x 5.7 = 1740 W

Heat loss through walls = 180 x 2.6 = 468 W
Heat loss through floor = 300 x 0.7 = 210 W

Total surface heat loss = 2418 W

Assuming 20% for heat loss through ventilation
Total heat loss = 1.2 x 2418 = 2901 W

Heater size required = total heat loss x temperature lift = 2901 x 25 = 72525 W

In this example 4 - 20kW Activair Ace electric fan heaters , 5 - 15kW Activair portable heaters or 4- 21kW
Activair wall mounted electric heaters are needed.

Calculating heater running costs per hour

Calculating the running cost per hour for an electric heater is straightforward. Electricity is sold by the unit
(kWh), multiply this by the heater size in kW.

Running cost per hour = heater size (kW) x unit cost of electricity (kWh)

Estimating annual heater running costs

Annual running costs will be greatly affected by physical and geographical location and prevailing weather
conditions from year to year. To calculate approximate running costs heating degree day tables are available for
most areas, based on average ambient temperatures over a number of years. (contact your local meteorological
office or search the internet for ‘heating degree day table’) Consult the heating degree day table to find the
annual figure for the temperature the structure is to be maintained at.

Estimated annual energy requirement (kWh)= total heat loss x 86400 x figure from degree table/3600000

Finally to calculate the annual running cost multiply the estimated annual energy requirement by the unit cost of
your electricity.

Annual running cost = annual energy requirement x unit cost of electricity

Disclaimer. The above example is greatly simplified. U values of building materials vary and are affected by
numerous conditions including the position of the structure, i.e. sheltered, normal or exposed. The above should
be considered as an approximate method of calculating heater size and running costs. W. Tombling Ltd. accepts
no liability or claim arising from use of this information.
'U' values
'U' values for commonly used building materials. Normal exposure conditions. (W/m2deg.C).

Basic materials
Glass 5.7
Corrugated Asbestos 5.7
Sheet Asbestos 6.5
Wood 25mm 5.0
Brick (unplastered) 228mm 2.6
Concrete 100mm solid 4.0
Earth floor 1.9
Concrete floor 0.7
Windows
Single glazed wood 4.3
Single glazed metal 5.6
Double glazed wood 2.5
Double glazed metal 3.2
Composite materials
Insulation block 140mm rendered both sides 1.1
Corrugated double cladding with 25mm glassfibre over polythene vapour barrier 1.4
70mm extruded polystyrene bonded to 6mm fibre cement each side 0.43
40mm glassfibre over polyethylene vapour barrier and 3mm fibre cement 0.5
60mm glassfibre over polyethylene vapour barrier and 3mm fibre cement 0.4
140mm thick concrete block rendered outside, lined inside with timber battens, 40mm extruded
0.44
polystyrene and flat fibre cement sheet
Plywood exterior cladding, 40mm extruded polystyrene, fibre lining 0.46