II.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

.The present ergonomic study aimed at improving the existing

working conditions, work methods, occupational safety and health,

efficiency and productivity of the manual metal arc <MMA>

welders, operators of the electric overhead travelling cranes and

drivers of the fork-lift and platform trucks in the shop-floors

of heavy engineering factories so as to reduce the large number

of reportable and non-reportable accidents in an attempt to

minimize their collosal direct and indirect costs :

i) by developing different types of new, ergonomically designed

low-cost implements and personal protective devices for use

after due consideration of the appropriate anthropometric

dimensions of the workers, and also

ii) by recommending implementation of some low-cost ergonomic

solutions of the hazardous problems faced by the above

mentioned workers in their daily working life.

PART I: ERGONOMICS STUDY ON THE WORKERS

INVOLVED IN MANUAL METAL ARC HELPING

A. INTRODUCTION

1. General Melding Process

Welding is one of the most important metal joining processes

in engineering industries. It is the process by which two pieces

of metal are united, under the influence of heat, so that the

junction should be as nearly homogeneous as possible (40). It is

an efficient, dependable and economical means of joining metal in

practically all metal fabricating operations and also one of the

principal means in repairing metal products (41)

At present, there exists a large number of different types

of welding processes. One of the most widely used is the arc

welding process.

S. Arc Melding Process

The fusion of metals by an electric arc is commonly known as

an arc welding process (4E).

3. Short History of Arc Melding

The history of modern metal joining, i.e., welding, began in

the late nineteenth century (43). But a number of metal joining

processes were known for centuries. Soldering and the hammer

welding of gold, used for making ornaments, appear to had been

known during the Bronze Age (3000 BC) (44, 45).

The most simple ancient form of welding was the process used

by the blacksmiths (46). In this process, two pieces of iron,

previously heated in the Smith's fire until plastic, were joined

by hammering or forging (40, 47, 48). The first welded iron joint

appears in a headrest from the tomb of Tutenkhamun (1350 BC>

which was probably a gift from Syria (44, 49).

At present, there exist several types of metal joining

processes according to the needs. Bat these modern forms of

welding had been developed through a number of steps of evolution

from the most simple ancient form of welding (50).

3.1 Discovery of electric arc

The discovery of electric arc, in the early 1800's by Sir

Humphry Davy of England, was a very important phenomenon (43). By

using this electric arc, later on one of the most important

welding process, i.e., arc welding , was developed (51). During

an experiment with a battery system in the Royal Institute in

London, Sir Humphry Davy and his associates accidentally

discovered that electricity could be conducted across an air gap

between two carbon electrodes forming an arc. This process

developed a high temperature which was mainly dissipated at the

electrodes. Because of its arch like shape, Davy referred it by

the term 'electric arch' which eventually became the term

'electric arc'.

3.3 Development of arc welding

After the discovery of the electric arc, scientists and

engineers were trying to use its high temperature in joining

metals. In the year 1874, Werdermann tried to use the flame gases

of an electric arc, blown by a jet of air, for joining metals

 18

(52, 40). Later on, in the year 1881, de Heriten's experimental

work showed the pathways of arc welding process, now so largely

used in a variety of structural operations (40, 53, 54). In this

work, Meriten had to join together certain parts of electric

storage batteries. He placed the battery on a table and connected

its positive pole to a source of current having the capacity of

maintaining an electric arc. The negative pole was connected to a

carbon rod. At first, the carbon rod was made to have contact

with the work-piece and then was separated to strike an arc. The

heat of the arc melted the metallic lead of the battery pole and

joined it to the plate (50, 55).

3.3 Use of carbon electrodes

Four years later in 1885 (43, 56), in his experiment,

Bernardos struck an arc between a carbon cathode and a metal

anode and observed that a small localized casting was formed,

which could be used to join two pieces of metal together. The

required current was supplied by a direct current (DC) generator.

Bernardos named this method 'carbon-electrode process' (40) and

recommended that additional metal should be supplied to fill the

gap between the plates by a filler rod dipped into a molten weld

pool.

3.4 Use of metal electrodes

In Bernardos' "Carbon-electrode process", a considerable

proportion of heat was lost to the carbon cathode and a part of

the heat was used in melting the filler rod. In 1892 (40, 43,
54), Slavianoff realised the problem and tried to solve it. He

followed Bernardos method but used a metal rod (filler) as the

cathode and named it as "metallic-electrode process" (43, 57).

This resulted in an easy melting of the filler rod, entry of a

large proportion of heat into the weld and addition of extra

metal to fill the weld gap. But at the high arc temperature the

molten metal reacted with oxygen and nitrogen of the surrounding

air and formed a brittle and porous weld with very poor

mechanical properties. In this process, arc stability was also a

problem.

3.5 Coated electrodes

Scientists and engineers, dealing with electrical arc

welding, now try to overcome the above mentioned problems by

controlling the gas-metal reactions. After a large number of

trials and experiments, it was found out that rusty wires or

wires, contaminated with certain types of drawing lubricants or

wires dipped in a lime wash, gave a more stable arc than a clean

wire (43). This phenomenon led to the idea of using the

protective coatings to the electrodes.

By 1907, the beginning of the flux covered electrodes came

with Oscar Kjellberg's patent (57, 58). As a first step, in

Britain, asbestos cloth was wrapped around the core wire for a

better protection against contamination. During the first World

War, cotton cloth, soaked in aquous sodium silicate was used

successfully in USA, which not only provided a protective

atmosphere for the molten metal and the slag, but also stabilized
 20

th^ * arc, which was one of the main advantages of a modern

electrode coating (43, 45).

Further development took place in the 1930's (43) by the

\

discovery of more improved electrode coating which gave adequate

protection not only during the transfer of metal across the arc

but also in the molten weld pool. It also provided a more

improved stabilized arc.

Progress in the development of arc welding took place

largely in response to military requirements mainly during the

First World War. At that time, productivity and thus the speed of

welding were of prime importance. In the mean time, all types of

electrical inventions and innovations were taking place and

improvements of electric power, i.e., generators, transformers,

motors, etc., further contributed to improved weld quality (51).

4. Metal Arc Welding

Due to the use of metal coated electrodes, this type of

welding was named as the metal arc welding. Three classes of

metal arc processes are in use today : manual, semi-automatic and

fully automatic, of which manual metal arc welding is now used

for the welding of greater tonnage of metal than any other

welding processes (40).

5. Manual Metal Arc Uelding

Manual metal arc (MMA) welding is the most versatile and

widely applied welding process.

5.1 The welding circuit

In addition to the source of current (either direct or

alternating), the welding circuit consists of the work, the

welding cables, the electrode holder and the electrode.

The work to be welded is connected to the one side of an

electric circuit through the ground cable and the ground clamp.

The metal, electrode, held by one end in a specially designed

electrode-holder, is connected to the other side through a heavy-

duty cable, which is flexible to allow free movement.

5.2 Production of arc

During welding, the arc is developed by momentarily touching

the electrode-tip on to the workplate and then quickly

withdrawing it to about 3 to 4 mm away from the plate. When the

electrode touches the plate, the circuit is completed and the

current continues to flow. But when the electrode is withdrawn

from the plate, the current continues to flow in the form of a

'spark' across the very small gap. This causes the aii—gap to

become ionized and therefore, makes it conducting. As a result,

current is able to flow across the gap in the form of an

arc (59).

5.3 Fusion of the work pieces

During welding, the welder moves the electrode along the

weld line maintaining a constant length of arc and speed of

movement. The high temperature of the arc, about AOOO°C (AO),

 22

melts the electrode and also the work plate (parent metal) to

form a weld pool. Metals from the electrodes deposit and thereby,

fuse the edges of the work pieces (60).

5.4 Ancillary equipment / implements used

5.4.1 Uelding machines

A great variety of welding machines are available for use.by

the MMA welders. (

Single phase alternating current (AC) transformers are

considered to be the cheapest, lightest and the Smallest one

(46). It takes power directly from a power supply and transforms

it into the voltage required for welding.

Motor generators are designed to produce direct current (DC)

in either straight or reverse polarity.

Rectifiers are essentially transformers containing an

electrical device which changes AC into DC.

The primary current input to a welding machine is either 220

or 440 volts. But the actual voltage used to provide welding

current is low (18 - 36 volts), whereas high amperage is

necessary to produce the heat required for welding.

When the welding machine is running and no welding is being

done, the voltage varies from 50 to 100. This is known as open

circuit voltage. When the arc is developed, the voltage drops in

between 18 to 36 volts. This is known as the working voltage

(41). To strike an arc, a higher voltage is required than to

 23

maintain it, the minimum for safety reasons being 100 volts.

5.4.8 Melding cables

The especially designed welding cables are flexible, so that

the welder is able to freely manipulate the electrode holder. To

achieve this flexibility, a large number of small-diameter wires

are encased in a tough flexible rubber sheath.

The size of the cable depends on the capacity of the machine

and the distance from the work to the machine. The welding cables

are of large enough size to carry the necessary current to the

work and to the electrode-holder without overheating (40, 42).

5.4.3 Electrode holder

It is a mechanical device at the end of the welding cable,

which clamps the electrode tightly in the desired position. It

provides an insulated handle, with which the operator can

manipulate the electrode. There are different types and sizes of

electrode-holders depending on the work and the amperage which is

required to be carried by the electrode (42).

Most widely used electrode-holders (Fig. 1) grip the

electrodes between its two jaws by means of the pressure exerted

by a powerful spring. In another type, the gripping pressure is

provided by a screw and cam action. A third type of holder

eliminates the jaws by having the electrode inserted in a hole,

where it is held in place by the screw action to insure good

electrical contact (54).

 24

5.4.4 Electrodes

Electrodes are available commercially in a wide variety of

length and diameters with a wide variety of coatings for specific

job applications.

During welding, current passes through its entire length and

the heating effect is proportional to the resistance as well as

the square of the current and the time during which the

current flows (40),..

5.4.5 Cleaning tools

A steel brush is used for cleaning the surface of the metals

from all foreign matters, such as, rust, oil and paint.

After a bead is deposited on the metal, the slag, which

covers the weld, is removed with a chipping hammer.

The chipping operation is followed by additional wire-

brushing. The complete removal of slag is specially important

when several passes or welding must be made over a joint (41).

5.4.6 Welder’s personal protective devices

a) Welding screens

During welding, to protect their eyes, face, neck and part

of the top of the head, from the ultraviolet <uv> and the

thermal radiations, from toxic fumes and also from the spattering

hot metals, coming from the arc, the welders use different kinds

of protective devices (61) fitted with the specified filter

plates to screen out over 99*/. of the harmful rays (42 5 .

i) Goggles

Welders, particularly the helpers, use two types of goggles:

* Cup-type goggles are consisting of two eye-pieces

adjustably connected across the nose.

* Box-type goggles provide total enclosure of both the eyes.

Goggles are worn over the eyes and held in place by a head-

band.

ii) Hand held screens

These are the protective devices mainly used by the MMA

welders. Welders protect their eyes and faces by moving the

screen in front of their faces by holding it in the left hand

(Fig.2,3 5 continuously throughout the welding period.

It consists of an opaque body, a filter arrangement near the

top at the front and a handle attached to the bottom of the back

side, by which it is held in hand. In front of the body, there is

a window with a filter and two filter-covers of specified sizes

(105 mm x 80 mm), which allow the welder to see the welding

operations, yet prevent the harmful uv radiations falling on the

eyes.

b) Helmets

These are another types of protective devices

suitable headgear to be supported on the head to

 26

falling objects.

c) Welder’s protective clothings

MMA welders generally use full-sleeve work clothing, a pair

of hand gloves and safety shoes to protect themselves from the uv

and thermal radiations and also from the flying sparks and

spattering hot metals coming from the arcs.

5.5 Costs of MMA welding operation

The total costs of an MMA welding operation (60) are the

summation of the i) cost for labour charge for welding, ii) cost

for associated labour by helpers, iii) overhead charges, iv) cost

of consumables, such as, electrodes, etc., and v) plant and

maintenance costs.
 27

B. LITERATURE REVIEW

From the very beginning of the discovery of the manual metal

arc (MMA) Melding, most of the attentions had been given mainly

to improve the quality of physical and chemical aspects of arc

welding to make it one of the main metal joining process in the

engineering industries in the world to-day. Very little care had

been taken to improve the working conditions, work methods,

implements, safely and occupational health of the (IMA welders

with special reference to the application of ergonomic

principles.

In India, practically no such studies (intensive or

extensive) had yet been undertaken on the MMA welders. In abroad,

a few studies were undertaken to evaluate and improve the working

conditions, work methods, implements, safety and occupational

health of the MMA welders. But, so far, a very few ergonomic

studies had been undertaken on these aspects. Some of the

important studies, related to the present study, are discussed

below:

1. Ergonomics Studies on Welders

As a first step to introduce ergonomics or human factors to

welding, in 1958, Seminara and Peters (62) had tried to expose

original equipment manufacturers in the welding industry to the

theory and objectives of human factors engineering with a view

toward improving their products and providing uses with better

welding equipment. Later on, in 1971, Eyestone (63) had

considered human factor engineering in welding machine design. By

 28

considering the human factors, he had made some modifications on

the existing 'E4-station dial index welding machine' which is at

present very easy to maintain and keep in operation.

Bockholt (64), in 1977, had shown how the ergonomist can

contribute to improve the welder's conditions of work. He had

observed that the present tendency is to increase the arcing time

factor with a view to rationally using the equipment. This

resulted in a greater exposure of the welders to fumes,

radiation, etc. Apart from the accelerated work rhythm, welders

also complained about physical and mental stress, bad working

posture, etc. According to the study, some of the ergonomic

solutions were : i) choice of appropriate electrodes to limit

fume emissions, ii) use of lighter or suspended welding guns,

mechanization and automation through welding robots, calculation

of air renewal rates as a function of the volume of fume

released.

In the next year, an intensive ergonomic study on the spot

welders was carried out by Corlett and Bishop (65). In this

study, from performance, discomfort and machine design analyses,

desirable modifications to the workplace were deduced and

implemented. The study revealed that the relationship between the

operator and the machine, however, has received less attention.

This was partly because the operators did not have access to

machine designers, thus providing little feedback for careful

analysis of the design criteria and partly because tradition and

the market did not suggest that any changes were desirable.
 29

2- The Job of the Welder

From the questionnaire studies, direct observations and

literature survey, it had been revealed by Cary in 1975 (66) that

the work done by the people called welders in different

industries, different countries and in different geographical

locations varied tremendously.

The Dictionary of Occupational Titles (67) published by the

Manpower Administration of the US, Department of Labour, listed

approximately 22,000 jobs being performed in the United States.

According to this document, the code number of MMA welders was

810.884 and the job was to weld metal parts together as specified

by layout, diagram, work order or oral instructions, using

electric arc welding equipment (66). The job of an MMA welder was

as follows:

i) The welder first turned the knobs on the welding unit to the

desired amperage and then selected specified electrodes based on

bead, type and thickness of metal.

ii) He then inserted electrode into the electrode holder,

connected cables from the welding unit to the workpiece to obtain

desired polarity, started power supply to produce electric

current and then striked an arc which generated heat to melt and

deposit metal from electrode to work- piece and fuse the edge of

workpiece.
iii) The welder had to guide the electrode along the weld line,

maintain length of arc and speed of movement to form specified

depth of fusions and bead-, as judged from the colour of metal and

size of the molten puddle.

iv) He had also to examine the weld for size of bead and

penetration.

v) He had also to clean or degrease the workpiece, using wire

brush, portable grinder or chemical bath.

vi) He had also to repair the broken or cracked parts, fill

holes and increase the size of metal pores and chip or grind off

excess weld, slag or splatter.

vii) Sometimes, the welder had to position and clamp workpieces

together or assemble them in a jig or fixture and may tack

assemble together.

viii) The welder had to weld along vertical, horizontal and

overhead weld lines.

3. Activity and Productivity Study

For estimating the work content and measuring productivity

Wolfram (68) had applied Pre-determined Motion Time Study(PMTS)

on the welders. Every single movement, necessary -to perform each

task in the fabrication process, was listed and the time to

perform each movement was obtained from a bank of standard data.

The times for all the movements were considered separately and

were summed to find out the total time for the process.
 31

Wolfram (68) had also developed a new method of calculating

the work content and productivity, which could be used in a

variety of circumstances and which would produce quick estimates

of the values required. The method was based on a simple

statistical analysis of the times spent on various types of

joints (fillet and butt welds) and the combination of data from

each type of joint to produce a nett time or cost for a structure

made with the various joints of given lengths.

Another activity study by Challen and Gerhardsson in 197A

(69) revealed that E5 welders consume approximately 261 kg

electrodes daily and approximately 31 kg electrodes hourly

indicating the extent of work done by the MMA welders.

A. Aptitude Testing for Perspective Welders

According to Carry (70), general learning ability, special

aptitude, form perception, motor co-ordination and manual

dexterity were among the six tests that were found important for

perspective welders. Motor co-ordination was a test of smoothness

of muscle response to brain direction. It was necessary for

accurate guidance of electrode during welding and also for set-up

of equipment for welding. Finger dexterity test was to determine

the precision in movement and speed. Manual dexterity was a

measure of precision in movement and speed necessary for set-up

of equipment and in guiding of electrode during welding.

 32

5. Accident Analysis

In 1972, Raines (71) recommended that the investigation of

accidents and injuries, reporting them for statistical purpose,

identification and classification of the key facts were the

important steps in the prevention of future accidents and

injuries. Rames (71) also suggested that if these could be. done

properly and regularly, the statistics of welding accidents would

be made comparable on an international level arid thereby would

provide more information on how often welding accidents happened

and their real causes. As a result, the prevention of welder's

injuries would be easier and more effective.

A statistical analysis on face injuries was carried out by

Bureau of Labour Statistics (72) in several industries in

selected States in USA. The accident analysis consisted of nature

and sources of injuries, part of the face involved, age, sex and

occupation of the persons injured, type of accidents,

characteristics of flying or falling objects, types of protection

the workers had, face protection practices and policies, etc. Of

the 774 face injuries studied, 44*/. resulted from flying or

falling objects, 20*/. from swinging objects and 15*/. from objects

or tools pulled into face. One of the findings was that the

existing protective devices were not suitable to save the

workers. They needed better protection.

Later on, a safety survey by He Hi 1lan (73) on 328 welders

at the shipyards of the British Royal Navy showed that 21*/. of the

welders had at least one incident of arc eye in the year

 33

preceding the survey, half of them requiring medical attention.

The incidence of ray burns was 21.6V. for the skins and ankles,

18% for the front of the neck, while less elsewhere. Burns from

sparks or slag were common - the feet (42.4%) and the forearms

(37.2V.) being most commonly affected. Therefore, the MMA welders

needed better protection from the ray-burns and other injuries.

£>. Musculo—skeletal Disorders due to Repetitive Hand Movements

with the Welding Screen

In 1972, a study by Welch (74) to detect the causes of

tenosynovitis in Industrial workers showed that the poorly

designed hand tools, implements, etc., required excessive forces

from the hand and arm in order to be used. There were also a

large number of complaints of repetitive motion disorders, due to

continuous repetitive hand movements with the poorly designed

hand tools. If the repetition frequency was high, inadequate

recovery time may increase the potential for disorders. Again,

the higher number of repetitions per work shift increased the

chances of fatigue and inflammation in the muscles and joints.

Hadler, in 1977 (75) revealed that although the energy

demands were usually quite low, the repetitive use of small

muscle groups and rotation around the wrist, elbow and shoulder

joints might be associated with the symptoms of inflammation and

soreness, collectively grouped as repetitive motion disorders.

Bursitis and other inflammatory joint problems were common with

the elbow and shoulder complaints where repetitive abduction and

rotation of the joints were required throughout the shift, as in

working above chest height or with extended forward reaches.

The same conclusion have also been made by Armstrong in 1983

(76). He had pointed out that the number of repetitions of a

movement within a given time-period (frequency) and over the

total work shift is associated with the risk of developing

repetitive-motion disorders. The repetitive movement with the

heavy welding screen leads to fatigue and inflammation in the

muscles and joints.

7. Working Posture — Muscle Fatigue and Body Pain

Page, in 1971 (77), had pointed out that in most of the

cases, the welders have to carry extra cables throughout the

working period. This extra load resulted in unnecessary muscle

fatigue and body pain. If the welding booth is a large one,

suspending the cable on a small boom or column will lessen

operator's fatigue a great deal.

In 1976 an experiment was carried out on 10 experienced and

10 inexperienced welders by Kaderfors et al. (78). Four

electrodes were welded in a natural working place in each of 3

positions - low vertical, high vertical and overhead, and EMG was

recorded in each position. It was observed that local muscle

fatigue was common in prolonged overhead work among

inexperienced welders, whereas, experienced welders showed signs

of fatigue in the supraspinatus only. All welders showed a

progressive increase in muscular reaction with the melting of

several electrodes in the overhead position.

 35

Postural analysis of the welders by Corlett and Bishop (65)

suggested that both performance and health were at risk due to

continuous work in bad working postures. Recommendations had been

given for better ergonomic design of spot welding machines.

Dul and Hilderbandt in 1987 (79) had indicated the

usefulness of common ergonomics guidelines for preventing low

back pains at the workplaces.. They also suggested that age,

strength, fitness, psychosocial factors and history of backpain

should also be considered for this purpose. In the same year, a

questionnaire survey was carried out in 216 companies in Japan by

the Safety and Health Committee and the Japan Welding Engineering

Society C80). One of the 4 cases of low-back pain was diagnosed

to be most probably due to the working posture of the welders.

Schuldt et al. (81) revealed that in a sitting posture, with

the whole spine flexed, elbow support might be more efficient

than arm suspension. Again, arm suspension might be more

efficient when the trunk is inclined slightly backward.

Two years later, another study was carried out by Svabova

et al. (82) on 319 welders regarding their case history and their

working positions, in particular, that of the arm's position when

welding under various conditions. Seventy one welders, having

welding for more than 10 years, had reported muscolo-skeletal

disorders. The results showed that in arc welding, the position

of the arm, holding the electrode, was unfavourable for the

generation of static force necessary to maintain electrode holder

in position, mainly at the beginning of welding, either in the

 36

sitting or standing positions. Welders, who were clinically

examined, complained of a number of troubles, especially back

pains of vertebral origin and pains in the elbow joints, wrists

and arms.

For the identification of occupational risk factors for low-

back injuries in sedentary and manual work, Hyytianinen and

Saarela (83) had followed four methods : i) analysis of

occupational accident reports, ii) interviews in connection with

reported incidents, iii) questionnaire on risk factors and iv)

observational safety analysis.

More recently in 1990, Ayoub (84) had studied the

relationship between the pain or discomfort and a poorly designed

work, place or poorly structural job. The study revealed that as

the human body has a great capacity for adopting to a poorly

designed work place or structural job, an ergonomically deficient

work place may not cause immediate pain, but ultimately, it would

surpass the body's coping mechanisms, causing the inevitable

physical symptoms, emotional stress, low productivity and poor

quality of work.

8. Welding Screens

In 1971, according to the study of the British American

Optical Company, UK (85), at least one million days a year were

being lost in production time to British industry as a result of

injuries to the eyes of the welders. As one of the steps, to

reduce this large number of eye injuries, this Company had

introduced a new type of anti-mist goggles, weighing just over

 37

three ounces, coated with "Durafon", a hydrophillic process which

was similar to the technique used to prevent misting up of the

windows of the Apollo moonship. Durafon goggles also had immense

resistance to impact breakage.

In Italy, a new type of anti-flash welding mask for the

welders was developed, which could be incorporated either in a

head mask or shoulder supported mask (86). As soon as the arc was

struck, an electric signal passed to an electronic unit and

immediately caused the protective filtei—window of the mask to

descend which until then was open. During the 1/10 second,

required to close the window, or if the window does not

completely closed, the welding current remains cut. The window

did not open immediately when the arc was extinguished. In order

to protect the operator's eyes from infra-red radiation coming

from the welding pool, the time lag could be adjusted according

to the size of the pool. But this type of welding screen is very

costly. Developing countries needed low-cost alternatives.

In 1978, the Planet Group of Companies of Sweden (87) had

developed an automatically darkening helmet filter-window for the

arc welders. The filter—window of the helmet contained an

electrically triggered liquid crystal cell sensitive to uv

radiation. This model provided a clear vision through the welding

filter when the arc was off and automatically triggered darkening

as soon as the arc was strucked. The unit was powered by a small

standard battery which gave 400-500 hours of working life. But

this type of helmet was also too costly to be used by the welders
 38

of the developing countries.

Another type of electro-optically controlled welder's helmet

was designed by the Hornell Speedglass Inc., USA <88) in 1987. In

this design, three photoe1ectric cells controlled a protective

filter which darken the welder's field of view from full

brightness to the selected protection level (10, 11/12 or 13)

within 100th of a second. There was thus no possibility that the

welder would be dazzled so that he could give his full attention

to his work.

Electro-optical filters, along with the acceptable starting

time to avoid glare and the related eye damage, the effects of

temperature and the supply voltage on their switching time, etc.,

were studied on 13 models of welder's face-shields available in

the French market by Sutter and Moller (89). They also studied

thoroughly (90) seven commercially available welder's goggles

including their switching times, temperature dependence and fail­

safe features. It was observed that most of these models lacked

certain qualities that might be expected of them. This might be

due to the fact that they were new products and were still in the

development process.

During the welding process, raising the traditional welding

helmet and nodding it down could seriously strained the welder's

neck muscles if practiced too frequently. To overcame this

problem, the AGA Welding Ltd, Middlesex (91), had developed a

helmet where the welders were able to see clearly with the

minimum head movements. The helmet's clear view strip was

 39

protected by a blackened light deflector and situated above the

main dark filter, which meant that there were no mode change

delays and no possibility of failure in its protective function.

To protect the welders from the hazardous fumes coming from

the arc, prototypes of several experimental designs of the arc

welder's face shields were made by Nikiforov et al. (9E) having

3 different types of air distributors. But none produced an air

distribution within the face-shield that would prevent harmful

gases or fumes from reaching the welder's breathing zone.

Petrova and Denisenko in 1983 <935 had developed new goggles

to protect the eyes of the operators of the spectroscopy. These

goggles had special type of glass lenses mounted in vinyl frames.

The Emm thick lenses passed 85.90*/. of incident visible light, but

absorbed most of the incident uv light and also showed very

little luminescence themselves.

Another type of gold-coated "Omni-view" filter glass, made

of polycarbonate resin, was developed by the Karger

Verfahrenstechnik KG of Frankfurt (94) for better vision during

welding. Everything could be seen in its natural colours, even

the tip of the electrodes. The weld could be followed without any

difficulty and this improved the standard of the work done and

reduced fatigue. The high reflectivity of thermal radiations kept

the face coaler. In addition to this, the material was only about

one-third the weight of the conventional filter glass.

The Chr. Kraus GmbH &. Co. K. G., Furth (95) have designed a

new type of leather made protective mask for welding to provide a

 40

light-tight seal. It also protected the neck from the heat

radiations and had replaceable flip-up lenses. In this design,

the protective glass can be filpped up by opening the mouth;

For better fume elimination, another special type of hand­

held, double-walled screen with filter glass for the welders was

fabricated by Bohmiller (96). The wall facing the workplace, had

exhaust slots connected to a ventilation system in the hollow

handle. Because of the direct fume elimination there is

relatively little air to evacuate.

To had an idea on the extent of the protection from

the respiratory and ocular damage afforded to persons engaged in

the welding operation, a questionnaire survey was carried out in

different factories and workshops throughout Japan by the Safety

and Health Committee of the Japan Welding Engineering

Society(80). The questionnaire was completed by S16 companies - a

response rate of 65.5%. It had been observed that approximately

85% of the companies required their welders to wear masks either

during all operations or during welding only. Approximately 76%

of the companies used filter type masks with built-in fitness-

checkers .

From this questionnaire survey it had been concluded that

the welders needed better designed welding screens. They required

a reduction in the weight of the screen placed on the face, a

diminution of interference from the welding screens and goggles,

a decrease in size, increase of operator's visual field, greater

ease of putting on and removals, improvement of materials used so

 41

as to prevent excessive perspiration and contact dermatitis,

prevention of misting up of eye-pieces, improved heat resistance,

lower price and ultimately better comfort.

9. Protective Clothings

In 1976, a study was carried out by the Welding Institute,

U.K. (97), to access the relative performance of suitable

materials and also to detect the design criteria for welders'

clothings. It was observed that most of the clothing materials

used do not breathe well and are poor conductors of heat. It was

suggested that vents must be incorporated in the design to allow

free passage of air around the welder's body. Studies also

included details of collar and cuff designs. It was also observed

that the suit with black Neoprene coating in selected areas will

offer protection against uv radiation, heat and spatter.

Bvozdenko and Kuzina in 1982 (98) had observed that although

protective clothing blocked shorter wave-length light, the

absorbed energy can be reradiated at infra-red wavelengths, which

makes the clothing a secondary radiation source. They recommended

that not only the welders, but also all the persons in the

vicinity of welding arc must make use of the appropriate

protective clothing. McMillan (73) pointed out that only 39.9*/. of

the welders wore some kind of leather clothings for protection

against thermal and uv radiations. A study by Huck in 1988 (99)

to evaluate presently available protective clothing system

indicated significant differences in restriction to body movement

between the designs of protective clothing and equipment

 42

configuration tested. Nunneley in 1989 (100) observed that

profuse sweating wetted the clothing and therefore, altered its

heat transfer characteristics. Task related movements also

altered the air exchange rates through the clothing. Sweat

retention in clothing increased skin wettedness. Therefore, the

workers needed better protective clothings mainly in the tropical

countries.

According to Bruflodt (101), overprotection is a waste, but

underprotection is dangerous and no compromisation should be done

regarding the comfort of the welders. He recommended that welding

jackets should have reinforced collars, cuffs, snaps and inside

pockets. Cape sleeves provided the total arm and shoulder

protection. The spots and leggings should have reinforced seams

for extended wear life and flared design for comfort and safety.

Sleeves should have adjustable straps, bartacked tops and durable

material overall.

A safety cuff provided adequate protection for lighter

duties, while the gauntlet design was good for added protection

and safety. Moreover, aprons must be chosen for comfortable wear

and protection. Regarding the selection of the gloves, Bruflodt

(101) had suggested that when executing precision welding, light

weight and soft gloves, preferably made of deer or light weight

grain cowhide or pigskin, should be used for better result.

Straight thumb glove is better for general dexterity while the

wing thumb design was Ideal for extended tool handling. Maximum

protection against spatter was provided by gloves with a

continuous seamless back.

 43

10. Protection of Other Uorkers

From the very beginning of the arc welding process (102), it

was urged that when the operators were using electric arc in an

open shop or where other men were working, it was essential to

provide light portable screens so that the light of the arc will

not interfere with the other men working in the vicinity.

Later on, a number of devices had been designed and

developed to protect the workers, working in the vicinity of

welding operations. A new type of flexible vinyl curtains, made

of .016 inches thick material, was developed by Lovendahl in 1971

(103) for this purpose. The colour selected was a dark shade of

green because of its ability to cancel approximately 89% of the

chromatic light rays. The curtain was fire-proof and would not

melt if it was exposed to high heat or flame.

In Japan (80), in order to protect workers in the vicinity

of the welding operation from the effect of glare, 78% of the

companies erected screens, 43.5% enforceed the wearing of

glare-protection goggles with side-shields. In over 10% of the

companies, the goggles used were not fitted with the side-

shields .

More recently, mobile welding screens are available fitted

with the bronze PVC welding strip, which incorporates a specially

formulated uv absorber claimed to prevent 99.9% of uv light

transmission (104). The bronze strip was not cpaque and

therefore, the work going on beyond the strip could be observed

 44

and the welder is not isolated from the rest of the work force.

These two metre mobile screens could also be moved around a

factory or site as welding operations require. These screens can

also be butted together at any angle to form welding booths.

11. Occupational Health and Safety

Regarding the occupational health and safety of the arc

welders, most of the attention have been given to the

carcinogenic effects of the different hazardous fumes coming from

the arc. Most of the other hazardous effects have been neglected.

Some of the occupational health and safety studies on these

aspects are discussed below t

11.1 Effects of hazardous fumes and some remedies

In 1966-67, an investigation (105) was carried out on 156

welders and 152 control subjects at the Rigs hospital in

Copenhagen, Denmark, to have an idea whether the health of the

welders is poorer than that of the other people. Medical

investigation showed that there was no statistically significant

difference between the group of the welders and the control

subjects as regards respiratory symptoms. Investigation on the

working conditions revealed that confined spaces which are

difficult to ventilate should have an effective air extraction

system or should have a forced ventilation system.

In the Czechoslovakian, industrial plants, radiological

examinations and lung function tests were carried out by Slepick

et al. (106) on a total of 522 arc welders of average work

experience of 39.9 years and average duration of exposure for

15.6 years. The incidence of pneumd'coniosis was in direct

proportion to the duration of exposure. The syndrome of chronic

bronchitis was found in 50.7*/. of the subjects examined compared

to 26.8*/. among the non-expected control. Obstructive respiratory

disorders were found among 36.5*/. of the welders compared to 24.7*/.

among the controls. This study also established a relation

between respiratory and ventilatory disorders and duration of

exposure.

In 1974, another study by Wiehe et al. (107) recommended a

new smoke exhaust equipment consisting of a especially designed

welding gun, a filter system and vacuum pump or blower. The

system removed the smoke at the point of origin before it can

reach the operator, filtered the smoke to remove all visibly

particulate matter and returned the air to the work area visible

clear of any foreign matter. In 1975, Mellenbergh (108) described

different practical measures to eliminate the fumes and aerosols

given off during welding, and also to keep the exposure of the

workers within tolerable limits. Some of the main measures

suggested to be taken were : general ventilation of the premises

when welding was carried on and local exhaust for removal of

fumes.

To have an idea about the welders* respiratory system (i.e.,

siderosis, asbestosis, fume fever and pneumoconiosis) a study

(109) was carried out over a six-year period on 926 arc welders

having engineering and ship-building experience, compared to 755

other workers except boiler makers. Examinations revealed

generally only minor deviations in apparent health, which wars

often underestimated, long-term effects are still difficult to

assess.

In the year 1979, a number of review work was carried out on

: the effects of toxic fumes, flammable gases, metal dusts and

metal aerosols of the welding fumes on respiratory systems (110,

111, 112)| injuries and burns due to ultraviolet, visible and

infra-red radiations and their ergonomics considerations (112,

113); work-place environment, occupational health and safety in

the welding industries for identifying, measuring and eliminating

health risks to welders u114), and also on the practical means

for the removal of the welding fumes (111, 115, 116). Torricelli

(115) recommended a portable device which can exhaust the welding

fumes and also purifies the polluted air in the welding booth for

better occupational health and safety. Haddrill (116) recommended

i) to employ local exhaust extraction to remove the fumes before

these reached the welder and the general shop-atmosphere, ii) to

supply fresh air in the immediate vicinity of welding to dilute

the fumes that are emitted, and iii) direct personal protection

for the welder and also for other persons, in the form of

respirators, ventilated helmets or similar devices. A study by

Stern (117) on occupational health and safety showed that at

least 3,00,000 welders in European community are subjected to

excessive exposure of and at least 50,000 are exposed to

suspected carcinogens. According to this study, the levels of

most toxic substances, e.g., Ni, Cr, Ozone and N0g and of total

respirable fumes, depend on the technology used and the

 47

workplace. On th^ basis of an occupational health and safety

survey, carried out on gas and electric arc welders, 3aker (118)

had suggested a health questionnaire and a medical examination to

be administered before the beginning of employment and also at

regular periods during the employment.

Bemst (119) had suggested some preventive measures, based on

local exhaust ventilation and on workshop layout, to protect the

non-welding personnel. Gollar and Park (120) revealed that the

fume concentration in the actual breathing zone, inside the

helmet, depended on the types of welding and the welder's working

posture.

A questionnaire survey in 216 companies in Japan (80) showed

that in 82.5% of these companies, there are no complaints from

the welders regarding the various physical effects caused by

welding fumes and gases. The most common complaint was of

headaches (20 cases) followed by sore throats (12 cases) and

nausea (10 cases). There was also one case of 'discomfort of the

throat' and one of slight transient illness.

In 1988, in a literature review, Flechsig (121) covered all

the known respiratory symptoms, such as, siderosis, chronic

bronchitis, fibrosis of the lung, asthma, lung cancer and

diseases of the upper respiratory tract, which can occur in

welders. Another review by Ebihara (122) revealed 21

epidemiological studies on cancer incidence among the welders.

Almost all of these epidemiological studies cemonstrated

statistically significant increased risks for lung cancer among

 48

the male workers. Kennebeck ..( 123) recommended that the person

doing the job, must also be aware of potentially hazardous

situations in the welding environment, e.g., fumes and gases,

radiations, electric shocks, fire, etc.

In a recent study Mur et al. (12*t) have studied the

respiratory health of 138 arc welders and 106 control subjects

(workers of the same company not exposed to any known pulmonary

risk) in 1981 and in 1986. The welders and the controls in the

analysis had not changed their professional activity nor their

smoking habits during this five year period. The examination

consisted of a questionnaire on respiratory symptoms, a thoracic

auscultation, a chest x-ray and lung-function tests, e.g., flow-

volume curve and steady state co-transfer test. The examinations

in 1986 confirmed the risk of non-specific radiological

impairment (pulmonary—reticulo-micronodulation) and of

obstruction in the small bronchioles which had already been

observed in 1981 in the arc welders in this company. * These

impairements did not seem to have evolved more than in the

controls but do, however, justify regular survei1 lance of the

respiratory health of arc welders.

11.2 Effects of the radiations on the eye and skin

The rays of an electric arc has a high degree of intensity

(102).Therefore, the naked eyes or skin must not be exposed to

the arc within 20 feet from the point at which the arc is in

operation.
 49

Later on, a number of studies . have been done on the

hazardous effects of uv radiations on the welder's eyes and skin.

The results of some of the most important studies are mentioned

below :

In 1964, a study (125) was carried out by the International

Institute of Welding (IIW), on the basis of which a number of

recommendations have been made on the health and safety during

gas shielded arc welding and cutting. The study revealed that

radiations with a wave length of 2500 to 3000 Angstrom caused arc

flash conjunctivitis and burns the skin and therefore, the

welders need individual protection, such as, clothing, gloves,

helmets and shields, respiratory equipment, etc. The study also

suggested that when two or more welders are working in the close

proximity, they must be protected against strong radiations by

the provision of screens cr mobile partitions.

One of the detailed studies was carried out by Ross (126) on

926 MMA welders, with heavy engineering and ship building

experience, over a period of six years, to collect information on

welder's health, including details of incidence of their eye

diseases. It has been observed that arc eye (flash), resulting

from the exposure of the unprotected eyes to strong uv

radiations, affects many welders at sometime during their working

careers. The significant differences between the age-groups were

observed and the most affected being the age-group 30-39 years

and the least affected being the 40-49 years age-groups. Vision

tests, for both distance and near vision, were carried out on the
 50

welders and on a control group of 755 MMA welders. The results

showed that there were no long-term effects on the vision. During

arc welding, sometimes the hot metal spatters enter the eye

covering (conjunctiva) and on very rare occasions, the eye

itself, resulting in serious eye injuries. This study also

revealed that significantly most commonly affected group was 30-

39 years, followed closely by the 20-29 year age-group, the

oldest group, i.e., 50-59 years was least affected.

Ross (126) also observed that exposure to intense uv

radiations gave rise to superficial skin burns, known as ray

burns, on the welder’s exposed skin. The uv radiation can even

pass through nylon or thin cotton to cause burns. He has also

observed that the most common sites for ray burn are the front

and sides of the neck. Corlett and Bishop (65) had observed that

during spot welding, the sparks can damage the operator’s skin

and clothing and thereby necessitate the use of a protective

apron and gloves.

A group of studies by Stenback (127), Parrish et al. (128)

and Wan ejfcaK, (129) showed that the erythema or skin reddening

may occur on sites exposed to uv radiations. It is caused by an

increased vascularity within the dermis. The uv radiation also

causes thickening of stratum corneum as a result of the uv

induced increased cellular proliferation within the epidermis

(130). This, as a protective function, reduces the amount of uv

radiation reaching the basal cell layer and underlying dermis. On

the basis of an up-to-date survey, on safe welding practices,

Butler (131) had recommended to wear protective clothings to get

rid of the hazards of uv radiations.

 51

A 'series o-f comprehensive opthalmologic examinations were

carried out by Carino et al. (13H) on ISO arc welders with an

average welding experience of 15.8 years and on ISO controls. The

most significant difference observed was the prevalence of

cortical opacities in the eyes of the SI welders (17.5*/.) against

1 (0.8*/.) in the control group. A questionnaire study was also

undertaken to have information on the working hours, wearing of

corrective lenses and other information relating to the arc

welding.

In 1984, a group of 58 welders was examined by Dvorak et al.

(133) for possible chronic or permanent eye lesions due to

electric arc. But no signs of permanent damage to the

conjunctiva, cornea or lens caused by uv radiations were

observed. In 1988, similar studies were carried out by Sutter and

Holler (89) to find out the relationship between exposures to

electric welding arc and the resulted eye damages.

An experiment by Kondo (134) on the rabbit was carried out

to elucidate the effects of arc welding light on the cornea

covered by contact lenses. In this experiments rabbit corneas

covered by several kinds of contact, lenses were exposed to arc

welding light and the thermal changes of the corneal surface and

the corneal tissues were studied histopathologically. It has been

observed that there is an immediate rise of superficial

temperature after exposure causing dehydration which in turn led

to more severe epithelial damage of corneas.

 52

The US Government report (135) had pointed out that 7*/. of

the annually reported approximately 90,000 eye injuries were

caused by intense light or radiating substances and 95*/. of these

were identified as welder's flash.

Recently, it has been observed by Reesal et ,al.. (136) that

during 1985 welders submitted SI*/, of all claims for eye injuries

received by the Worker's Compensation Board of Alberta, USA. A

descriptive study was done on the welder's eye-injury claims and

it revealed that 55*/ of the workers return to work in less than

two days and 95*/. in less than seven days. The results of the

study stressed the importance of wearing eye protector constantly

while working with metal pieces and in metal industries. Goggles

should not be removed upon extinguishing the welding torch.

11.3 Other occupational hazards

Ross (126) had observed that 11*/. of the 926 welders,

compared with 1*/. of the 755 controls were suffering from fingers

going white or blue in the cold weather associated at times with

numbness, tingling or pain in the affected fingers. This

condition was known as 'Raynaud's phenomenon’ and its

development, may be associated with the use of vibratory tools.

In the latter case it was also called "Vibratory White .Finger" or

"White Finger Disease". In the welders, this condition could be

associated with the chipper hammer used to de-slag the welds. It

had also been observed that there are significant differences

between the age group : 3.49*/. in the 20-29 years old to 25.6*/. in

the 40-49 years age-group.

 53

A contractor of the deeip skin tissues of the palm (palmer

aponeurosis), which resulted in a paramount retraction of one or

more fingers, was also found by Ross in.38 welders (4%) out of

926, compared with four of the 755 controls (126). It was

significantly more common in older welders : those aged 40-49

years being most affected.

12. Fire Prevention

Buhrer (137) had observed that some of the fires arising

from welding and allied processes can be prevented easily. He had

suggested to place the electrode stubs in a sand-box or in a

bucket filled with water.

13 Melding and I1lumination

It had been suggested by Challen and Gerhardsson (69) that

the welder's comfort and efficiency were enhanced by the

provision of high levels of general illuminations and by ensuring

that the screens, booths or workshop walls were painted in light

pastel colours, provided that the paints had a matt finish and

chemical base of zinc or titanium oxide.

14. Anthropometric Study

Practically no anthropometric study, so far, had been done

on the MMA welders. In 1978, Corlett and Bishop (65) had carried

out an anthropometric survey on 60 operators of the spot welding

machine (25 males and 35 female operators). A total of seven body

dimensions were only measured.

C. MATERIALS AND METHODS

The following materials and methods were used in the present

study :

1- Selection of the Subjects

After several long discussions, the management of a heavy

engineering factory agreed that out of 60 manual metal arc (MMA)

welders employed in the factory, they would provide only £A male,

Co-operative, experienced, typical MMA welders, working in the

Wagon and Girder workshops, to act as volunteers for the present

study.

Out of these £A MMA welders, £0 (83.3A*/.) responded to the

activity study, whereas during the postural analysis all of them

responded.

Though all the 60 MMA welders were approached for the

questionnaire study, 5A (90*/.) responded to questionnaire an

occupational safety and hazards, and A5 (75*/.) to questionnaire on

postural problems.

1.1 Distribution of the subjects

The distribution of these 8A MMA welders, according to the

different units of the Wagon and Girder workshops was given in

Table-1. Out of the total 17 welders of the Wagon-shop, 6 were

taken from "Body-end welding unit", 5 from "Roof (air-pocket)

welding unit" and 3 each were taken from "Floor-running" and

"Under-frame welding unit". The remaining 7 MMA welders were

selected from the "Railway slipper welding unit" of the Girder-

shop
 55

Table - 1

Distribution of the Selected Workers (N : 24) According to the

Different Units of the Wagon and Girder Work-shops in a Heavy
Engineering Factory.

Work-shop Units No. of Workers

1 . Floor-running 3

Wagon 2. Undei—frame welding 3

3. Roof (air-pocket)-welding 5

4. Body-end 6

Girder 1 . Railways slipper welding 7

 56

1.8 Physical characteristics of the subjects and the personal

protective devices used by them

The physical characteristics, i.e., age, body weight, body

height, years of experience, etc., of each of the selected 24 MMA

welders were recorded. Beside this, the personal protective

devices used by each of them were also noted.

2. Accident Analysis

Both the reportable and non-reportable accidents of a heavy

metal engineering factory were analysed in detail. According to

the Factory Acts (14) an accident was considered to be reportable

only when the injured worker's absence from work immediately

following the accident was for a period of 48 hours or more, the

other accidents were considered to be non-reportable.

2.1 Reportable accident analysis

From the Form Nos. 15 and 16,reportable accidents of the MMA

welders were analysed in detail (30) for the period of 3 years 5

months and 2 days (from 11.11.83 to 14.03.87) as available from

the Labour Office of the factory. The critical incidents were

also studied (138) for collecting useful information in solving

the practical problems.

2.2 Non-reportable accident analysis

From the First-aid registers, available in the Medical

Department of the factory, the non-reportable accidents and

injuries were analysed in detail (30) for only one year (1986).

It took long time to sort out the specific non-reportable

accidents as distinct from the reportable ones from the huge

number of different types of sickness and diseases, as no

separate and systematic recordings had been made in the First-aid

registers.

In both the types of reportable and nan-reportable

accidents the details with regards to the nature of injuries,

body parts involved and the causes of such accidents were

analysed with a view to formulating the design criteria and the

requirements for development and fabrication of ergonomically

designed improved prototypes of the equipment and implements, to

be used by the MMA welders, for better occupational health,

safety and productivity.

3. Questionnaire and Interview Techniques

After accident analysis, a preliminary study was carried out

by using a set of open questions about the problems, faced by the

MMA welders, as estimated from the literature review. On the

basis of this preliminary study, a multiple-choice type

questionnaire was constructed (139, 140) for enlisting and

elaborating the occupational safety and health problems along

with the other hazards faced by the MMA welders of the different

shop-floors during their daily work with the existing methods,

equipment and implements. The full questionnaire is given in

Appendix - B.
 58

Each and every selected MMA welders were interviewed

separately so that they can express their opinions freely and no

one can interfere or influence the others. It was also promised

that their answers should be kept strictly confidential.

The results of the questionnaire and interview techniques

and accident analysis, lead to the work study and activity

recording of the MMA welders.

4. Detail Activity Recording and Task Analysis

In order to cross-check the data gathered from the

questionnaires and interviews and also to collect the necessary

information and data with special reference to their normal daily

work, the detailed activities of the selected 24 MMA welders were

recorded and their tasks were also analysed (141). In absence of

any sophisticated instruments, stop-watches and tal1y-counters

were only used.

The recorded activities for each MMA welder were - 1) time

of actual work in eight hours' duty ; ii) total arcing time per

day per shift, iii) total length of welding done per day per

shift, iv) number of electrodes used per day per shift; v) types

of electrodes used; vi) types of electrode-holders used; vii)

arcing time per electrode in each worker; viii) the total number

of 'left-hand movements' with the welding screen per electrode

and per day per shift; iv) the total length of electrode wastage;

x) protective devices used, etc.

 59

5. Postural Analysis

A detailed postural analysis was also done on tie selected

24 MMA welders. Different postures, adopted by each welder

during welding with each electrode, were sketched as stick

diagram on papers continuously throughout his total arcing

periods for that day. Ergonomically good and bad working

postures were identified (142). A questionnaire (given in the

Appendix - 2) was also done on a selected group of 45 MMA welders

regarding pains felt at the different parts of their body (143)

due to awkward working postures.

6- Anthropometric Study

From the questionnaire survey, work study and activity

recording done on the MMA welders, it was observed that none of

the existing protective screens, electrode holders, safety shoes,

hand gloves and work clothing, etc., were made or designed

according to the appropriate dimensions of the human body,

thereby resulting in a number of serious hazardous problems for

the arc welders. For the generation of a data-base, after the

standardization of the measurements of some of the static and

dynamic body dimensions of the Indian population, required for

the designing of the above mentioned items for the MMA welders,

an anthropometric study was carried out.

6.1 Location of the studies

To have a cross sectional representation of the Indian

population regardless of different occupations and inhabitants,

 60
four cosmopolitan city areas from West, North, East and South,

e.g., Ahmedabad, Delhi-Agra, Calcutta-Howrah and Bangalore, and

three specific locations from South-West coast and North-East

hills, e.g., Hosur, Dwarka and Darjeeling, were selected as the

study sites.

6.8 Instruments and equipment used

For static and dynamic anthropometric measurements, the

following instruments and equipment were used :

i) Martin type anthropometer,

i i) Anthropometric steel tape,

iii) Sliding calipers,

iv) Spreading calipers,

v) Weighing scale,

vi ) Anthropometric stool,

vi i ) Anthropometric board (while measuring in laboratory)

vi i i ) Camera with accessories and other general field study

requirements.

6.3 Selection of the subjects

A total of 337 male subjects were selected at random, having

age-group between 20 to 78 years, from the above mentioned

different study sites. Subjects were selected from the different

occupations, e.g., manual workers, i.e., labourers, mill and

factory workers, motor vehicle drivers, agricultural workers,

office workers and students, etc., depending on the availability

in the respective field regions.

 61

6.4 Measurement procedures

The study was organized into recording direct measurements

in the data-sheets and analysis of the data.

During measurement, subjects were allowed to wear their

normal garment, as less as possible, to keep the clothing factor

minimum.

The definitions of each of the anthropometric measurements

were given in the Appendices - 6, 7 and S.

7. Fabrication of New, Ergonomically Designed Different Types

of Models and Preliminary Prototypes of Arc Melding Electrode

Holder and Personal Protective Devices

From the results of the above mentioned studies, it was

observed that to improve the existing working conditions,

efficiency and productivity of the MMA welders, it is essential

to solve the problems of using the existing welding screens,

electrode holders, protective clothings, safety shoes, etc., by

ergonomic modifications and fabrication of new designs of

prototypes.

As a result, several models and preliminary prototypes of

the welding screens, electrode holders, protective clothing and

safety shoes were fabricated on the basis of ergonomic principles

for improvement. The standardized anthropometric dimensions form

the basis of the designs of these prototypes.

 62

8. Follow-up Studies (User Trials) and Finalization of the

Design

With each of the above mentioned prototypes of the electrode

holder and personal protective devices, laboratory and field

trials were carried out on the selected MMA welders regarding the

efficacy of the prototypes. Subjective assessments were

performed through questionnaire (given in the Appendix - 3 )

studies to find out its demerits, if any, from the workers

responses, reactions and feedback.

On the basis of the follow-up studies, further modifications

were made on the above mentioned different prototypes to finalise

the design of the electrode holder, welding screen, working

clothing and safety shoes.

D RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

1. Physical Characteristics of the Subjects and the Personal

Protective Devices Used by Them

The physical characteristics, i.e., age, body weight, body

height and years of experience of each of the 24 manual metal arc

(MMA) welders are presented in Table - 2.

The average age of the selected MMA welders was 36.1+7.41

years with a range of 25.4 to 50.0 years as shown in Table - 2.

The selected workers can be classified in to three age groups

20 to 30 years, 30 to 40 years and 40 to 50 years having 4, 13

and 7 welders respectively. The average years of experience of

these selected workers was 12.6+6.29 years with a range of 5 to

24 years. According to the years of experience, the selected

welders can again be classified into three groups - less than 10

years, 10 to 15 years and more than 15 years of experience, with

8, 10 and 6 welders respectively. So the selection of the

workers was done in such a way that welders of different age

groups having different years of experience were included in each

group.

The average body weight of the selected MMA welders was

58.28+5.8 Kg with a range of 49.0 to 69.5 Kg and the average

body height was 165.26 + 3.38 cm with a range of 159.5 to 171.0

cm as shown in Table - 2. These average body weight and average

body height of the 24 selected MMA welders were very much close

to the average body weight (50.5+11.72 Kg and the average body

height (165.3+7.31 cm, as shown in Table - 3) of the 337 male

 Table - 2

Physical Characteristics of Each of the Selected MMA Welders.

Serial Age Body Height Body Weight Experience

Number (yr s ) (cm) (Kg) (yr s )

1. 25.4 168.5 60.0 7.5

2. E5.7 165.8 58.5 5

3. S7.E 164.6 59.5 6

4. E7.5 159.5 49.0 6

5. 30.5 168.8 66.0 11

6. 31.5 167.5 60.0 5

7. 31.5 160. E . 51 .5 ■ 9

8. 31.5 16E.5 54.0 8

9. 33.0 163.6 58.5 10

10. 33.5 167.0 6E.5 10

11 . 33.8 164.5 53.5 10

IE. 34. E 171.0 68.0 13

13. 34.6 16S.7 54.5 9. E

14. 35.4 160.8 53.0 IE

15. 35.6 171 .0 69.5 12

16. 36.4 166.5 58.0 IE

17. 37.0 16E.S 53.5 IE

18. 40.5 170.0 ‘ 6E.5 11

19. 41.6 16E.3 50.5 16
E0. 47.0 167.6 65.5 E3
El . 47.0 163.7 59. E E3.6
SS. 48.0 16E.7 54.5 E4
E3. 48.0 164.5 53.0 24
24. 50.0 168.8 65.0 E3

Mean+go 36.1 ■+■

tH O

165.3 + 3.38 . 58.3 + 5.80 IE. 6 + 6.E9-

•

Range (49.0 - 69.5) (5.0 - E4.0)

o
i

(E5.4 - (159.5 - 171.0)

n

*
 65

subjects, respectively, selected from all over India for their

anthropometric measurements.

The different types of clothings, shoes, hand gloves and

electrode holders used by the 24 MMA welders were presented in

Table - 4. It showed that out of 24 workers, 87.5’/. were using

their usual boiler suits and 83.4*/. safety shoes (ammunition

boots) provided by the factory, whereas, 12.5*/. were using their

ordinary trousers and full shirts and 16.654 were using ordinary

rubber chappals (Fig. .4). Use of ordinary trousers/full shirts,

made of terricotton or terriline, increased the chances of fire

hazards. Use of hawai-chappals also increased heat-burns,

abrasions and other foot injuries.

None of these welders was using safety helmets, even in

areas where heavy loads were always being carried by the electric

overhead travelling (EOT) cranes. Severe accidents may be caused

due to sudden fall of strray loads from the EOT cranes. It was

also noticed that 95.8*/. of the welders were using gloves in the

right hand only increasing the chances of a large number of heat-

burns and other injuries of the hands and fingers. As all of

them are right-handed, most of them use gloves on the right hand

only. Actually, they feel more comfortable with no gloves on the

left hand. This also helps them to make manipulation of the

cable much easier with the left hand without the gloves.

Out of 24 MMA welders, 66.6*/. were using tong-type and 33.4*/.

were using spring-type electrode holders as provided by the

factory. Use of both the two types of electrode holders resulted

in a large number of serious problems to the welders.

 66

Table - 3

The Physical Characteristics of the Subjects Whose Anthropometric

measurements were Taken in the Present Study.

Subject Sex Body Weight Body Height

No. ( kg ) < cm)

337 Male 58.5 + 11.72 165.3 + 7.31

*34.0 - 118.0) (139.6 - 195.0)

Values : Mean + SD
Figures in the parentheses indicate the range.

Table - 4

Different Types of Clothings, Safety Shoes, Hand-gloves and Electrode

holders Used by the Manual Metal Arc Welders (N = 24).

Electrode
Clothings Shoes Hand Gloves Holders

Boiler Ordinary Ammunition Rubber Right Both T ong Spring

Sui t Shirts, Boots Chappals Hand Hands Type Type
Trousers

87.5*/. 12.5*/. 83.3*/. 16.7% 95.87. 4.2*/. 66.6*/. 33.4'/.

 67

It was also noted that.all the MMA welders used harfd-held

welding screens, provided by the factory, to protect themselves

from the UV and thermal radiations, but all of them had a number
/

of complaints regarding the welding screens.

2. Accident Analysis

2.1 Reportable accident analysis

It was revealed from Table - 5 that 3.4*/., i.e. 46 of the

total 1344 accidents for the last three and half years, were only

due to the manual metal arc (MMA) welding. The number of report-

able accidents per 1000 MMA welders per year was 50.

2.1.1 Causes of accidents

Table - 6 showed that the majority (35.7*/.) of the total 46

reportable accidents were due to fall of persons or stumbling

against any objects, striking by objects (25.8*/.), fall of objects

(18.9*/.), contact with hot materials (12.8*/.), such as, molten

metal splashes, sparks, etc. The remaining 6.8*/. were due to

electric shocks, inhalation of hot, toxic fumes, caught fire,

etc .

In the roof-welding unit of the Wagon-shop, the welders had

to climb to a 9 to 10 feet high narrow platform through a

staircase having no safety guards. This increases the chances of

falling either from the roof of the wagons or from the narrow

staircases. The staircases should have safety guards or rails on

both sides to minimize accidents due to falling.

 68

Table — 5

Reportable and Non-reportable Accidents Analysis of the Manual Metal

Arc Welders.

Reportable Non-reportable
accidents aocidents

1. Accident records avialable 3 and half years One year

for the period of

8. Total numbe of accidents 1344 8649

studied

3. Accidents due to MMA welding 46 78

4. Accidents per 1,000 MMA welders 58 380

per year

Table - 6

Reportable Accidents Analysis of the Manual Metal Arc Welders wi

Regard to the Causes of Accidents.

Classification of causes Number Percentages

of reportable accidents ('/.)

1. Fall of persons 16 35.7

S. Striking by objects 18 85.8

3. Fall of objects 9 18.9

4. Contact with hot materials 6 18.8

5. Electric shocks, inhalation of 3 6.8

toxic fumes, caught fire, etc.

Total : 46 100.0
 69

The boundaries in most of the existing passageways were

found to have no markings. Hence, frequent encroachment with

different types of scraps, materials, metal turnings, angles,

bars, plates, etc., block the passageways. This resulted in an

increase of chances of accidents of the welders as well as of

other workers, due to stumbling against these objects. A

previous study by Sen (33) showed that 15.5% of the total 77

reportable accidents were only due stumbling against objects

while moving. Systematic and safe storage of these haphazardly

kept materials not only would reduce the large number of

accidents, but in itself will improve productivity by provision

of more congenital surroundings.

In most of the working areas, where welding operations were

being done, heavy loads are always carried either by Electric

Overhead Travelling (EOT) cranes or by fork-lift trucks or by any

other means, increasing the chances of serious accidents

involving welders either struck by heavy articles or by falling

stray loads. All the welders should always be provided with

safety helmets. Beside this, all the EOT cranes and fork-lift

trucks should be provided with warning bells to alert all the

workers working nearby. All these would be able to reduce the

huge number of accidents.

2.1.2 Nature of injuries

The results from reportable accidents analysis with regard

to the nature of injuries were presented in Table - 7. It was

revealed that 30.6% of the total injuries during MMA welding were

due to trauma, 25.7% due to heat burn, 22% due to abrasion and

10.8% were due to arc eyes and irritation of the eyes. The

remaining 10.9% were due to other injuries, e.g., sprain,

incision, laceration, electric shocks, etc.

2.1.3 Body parts involved

Regarding the main body parts affected (presented in

Table -8), it was observed that 16.2%, 9.3% and 7.4% of the

total injuries during arc welding involved fingers, feet and eyes

respectively. The other (67.1%) body parts affected were scalp,

upper and lower arms, thigh, knee, hand, ankle, etc. Whereas,

previous study by Sen (33) showed that in 1344 number of

accidents of all types of workers, the main body parts involved

were wrist, hand and fingers (37.2%), toes, feet and ankle

(23.8%) and eyes (7.6%).

From these results, it might be concluded that the existing

welding screens, hand gloves, safety shoes and protective

clothings are unable to protect the welders from uv and thermal

radiations and also from abrasions, lacerations, etc., injuries.

2.1.4 Man-days lost

The number of man-days lost during different reportable

accidents of the MMA welders for the three years was presented in

Table - 9. It had been observed that most of the man-days were

lost due to caught fire, fall of objects, struck by objects and

fall of persons. It had also been revealed that every year on

 71

Table - 7

Reportable Accidents Analysis of the Manual Metal Arc Welders with

Regard to the Nature of Injuries.

Nature of injuries in Percentages

reportable accidents (7.)

1. T rauma 30.6

2. Heat burn 25.7

3. Abrasion 22.0

4. Sprain, incision, laceration, 10.9

electric shocks, etc.

5. Irritation of the eyes, arc 10.8

eyes, etc.

Table - 8

Reportable Accidents Analysis of the Manual Metal Arc Welders with

Regard to the Body Parts involved.

Body parts involved in Percentages

reportable accidents (*/.)

1- Fingers 16.2

2. Feet ‘ 9.3

3. Eyes 7.A

4. Scalp, upper and lower arms, hand, 67.1

fore head, thigh, knee, foot, etc.
 72

Table - 9

Man-days Last Due to Reportable Accidents of the Manua1 Metal Arc

(MMA) Welders.

SI . Causes of Accidents Man-days Lost

No

1984 1985 1986 Total

1. Caught fire 45 0 113 158

a. Fall of objects SO 69 35 134

3. Struck by objects 45 57 17 119

4. Persons fell down E4 64 30 1 18

5. Spark from electrode 0 ao 33 43

6• Contact with hot materials ia a El 35

Total : 146 aia E39 597

average 199 man-days were lost only for the MMA welders resulting

in huge financial loss to the factory.

2.2 Non-reportable accidents analysis

A total number of 2649 non-reportable accidents were studied

of which 72 cases were due to MMA welding. It was observed that

the total number of non-reportable accidents per 1000 MMA welders

per year was 320 (Table - 5).

2.2.1 Nature of injuries

Table - 10 showed the results regarding the nature of

injuries in non-reportable accidents. It was observed that the

maximum number of accidents were due to irritation of the eyes

(31.9V.) caused by foreign particles, sparks and ultraviolet rays.

Next to this was abrasion (25V. of the total injuries). Injuries

due to burn were 22.2M and due to trauma were 10.4*/.. The
4

remaining 10.5*/. were due to other injuries, i.e., incision,

pricking, sprain, electric shocks, etc.

2.2.2 Body parts involved

Regarding the main body parts involved, as given in

Table - 11, it had been revealed that the eyes were affected

most, about 37.8*/., whereas the fingers were found to be affected

next in order, 17.4*/ of thetotal body parts involved. The

percentages of the leg, toe, heel and ankles involved in the

accidents were 8.7, 5.8, 4.3 and again 4.3 respectively. The

other body parts affected (21.7*/.) were scalp, upper and lower

arms, hand, forehead, thigh, knee, feet, etc.

 74

Table - 10

Non-reportable Accidents Analysis of the Manual Metal Arc Welders with

Regard to the Nature of Injuries.

Nature of injuries in Percentages

non-reportable accidents {*/.)

1. Irritation of the eyes 31.9

caused by foreign particles,
sparks and uv radiation

E. Abrasion E5.0

3. Heat burn EE.E

4. Incision, pricking, etc. 10.5

5. Trauma 10.4

Table - 11

Non-reportable Accidents Analysis of the Manual Metal Arc Welders with

Regard to the.Body Parts involved.

Body parts involved in Percentages

non-reporatble accidents (*/♦>

1. Eyes 37.B

£. Fingers 17.4

3. Legs 8.7

4. Toe 5.8

5. Heel 4.3

6. Ankles 4.3

7. Scalp,upper and lower arms, hand, El.7

forehead, thigh, knee, foot, etc.
 75

These ‘large number of non-reportable accidents entailed a

major financial involvement of the factory every year in

providing First Aids, medical treatments, compensations, etc.,

along with low productivity.

2.3 Previous studies

A number of previous studies had also shown the similar

observations of large number of eye and heat--burn injuries among

the MMA welders. In 1982, Carino et al. < 132) had observed
’

in

critical opacities in the eyes of the of 120 arc welders.

*■*■

•
4

Out of 328 welders of a shipyard of the British Royal Navy, 21*/.

had at least one incident of arc eye as observed by McMillan

<73>. He (73) also noted that ray burn was 21.6% for the skin and

ankles and IB*/, for the front of the neck. Burns from the sparks

or slag were common - fee? (42.4*/.) and the forearms (37.2*/.) being

most commonly affected. Foster (135) observed that 7% of the

annually reported approximately 90.000 eye injuries were caused

by intense light or radiating substances and 95*/. of these were

identified as welders' flash, whereas Reesal et. al_. (136) had

found that during 1985, welders have submitted 21*/. of all claims

for eye injuries received by the Worker's Compensation Board of

Alberta, USA.

2.4 Conclusions

It might be pointed out that most of the accidents occurred

only due to the reluctance to use existing personal protective

devices (PPDs). There were a number of reasons for which the

 76

workers were reluctant to use the existing PPDs as shown in

Figures 5, 6 and 7. Some of the reasons were : i) these were

highly uncomfortable, ii> not made according to the

anthropometric dimensions of the users, iii) restricted normal

movements of the body parts, iv) no consideration for

ventilation, which is essential for the tropical climate, and v)

very high cost, etc. Actually all the existing PPDs are the

verbatim copies of the designs meant for the Westerners in cold

countries and the Indians face great problems during their use

resulting in severe mishaps. As for example, a severe accident

took place due to the wrapping round of the excess portion of the

gloves protruding out into a drill machine (33). The direct and

indirect costs of this particular accident amounted to about Rs.

0.6 mill ions.

All the MMA welders always faced high uv and thermal

radiations. The skin is a very poor reflector of these radiations

and thereby, absorb all of it. In this situation, for shadowing

of the exposed body parts, the welders use PPDs, such as, welding

screens, hand gloves, safety shoes and protective clothings. But

the large number of reportable and non-reportable accidents

revealed that the existing PPDs are not sufficient to give proper

protection of these MMA welders.

Therefore, the factory managements should take proper steps

immediately by providing the MMA welders with the new,

ergonomically designed PPDs from the occupational safety, health,

productivity and economic paints of view. Beside this, perfect

 77
reporting and proper investigation of these accidents and

injuries, identification and classification of the key facts and

ergonomic solutions of all these problems are the important steps

in the prevention of future accidents, injuries and also in the

reduction of the large number of man-days lost.

3. Questionnaire Study

The questionnaire study enlisted the following occupational

safety and health problems alongwith the hazards faced by the MMA

welders during their daily work with the existing electrode

holders, welding screens, work clothings, hand gloves and safety

shoes.

3.1 Occupational safety and health problems

Manual metal arc welding produced uv and thermal radiations,

flying hot metal spatters and hazardous, hot, toxic fumes which

affected the eyes, skin, respiratory system, etc., of the

welders.

3.1.1 Problems of the eyes

The part of the body, most badly affected by the uv and

thermal radiations of the welding arc, is the eye. The percentage

of responses of the MMA welders regarding the problems of their

eyes were presented in Table - 12.

Most of the welders (96.30*/.) experienced sudden exposure to

the welding arcs very often in their daily working life. Similar

observations were also reported by the International Institute of

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 79

welding ( 125) and by Ross (126). In the present study, the

average number of exposures to the welding arc experienced by

each welder in each day were given below s

No. of exposures : <10 >10 >20 >30 >40

Percentage of welders : - 33.33 38.89 20.37 7.41

experienced

This sudden exposures to the welding arc were mainly due to

the unergonomic design of the existing welding screens at present

used by them and this resulted in several problems of the eyes,

such as, inflammation of the conjunctiva (conjunctivitis) and

inflammation of the cornea (photokeratitis) in all the welders

and retinal lesions in few welders. These were acute effects.

Long-term exposures resulted in yellowing of the lens in most of

the welders and formation of cataracts in few welders.

When the two effects, i.e., photokeratitis and

conjunctivitis appeared together, the condition was known as

'keroato-conjunctivitis* or 'arc eyes' or-'welder's flash'. In

this condition the symptoms were reddening of the eyes, tears

(lacrimation>, excessive blinking (blepharospasm), burning or

painful sensation, sensation of foreign bodies in the eyes,

difficulties in looking at strong day-lights (photophobia) and

swelling of the eyes - experienced by almost all the welders.

According to the MMA welders, these effects appeared :

Immediately Within hours Later on

(53.70*/. > (33.34*/. > ( 12.96*/.)

 80
They also experienced that these effects were :

Permanent Temporary

(79.63*/.) (20.37*/.)

Beside the uv and thermal radiations, the flying hot metal

spatters, coming from the arc, also caused a large number of

severe eye injuries, as_ experienced by more than 70*/. of the MMA

welders very often during their working life.

In the present study, reportable accident analysis showed

that 10.8*/. of the total injuries were due to 'arc eyes' and

irritation of the eyes (Table - 7) and 7.4% of the total body

parts affected were the eyes (Table - 8). In case of the non­

reportable accidents, it was noticed that 31.9*/. of the total

injuries were due to irritation of the eyes caused by foreign

particles, sparks and uv rays (Table - 10). Regarding the body

parts involved, the eyes were affected most, about 37.8*/.

(Table - 11).

According to the MMA welders, no precautionary measures were

taken by the factory management against these large number of eye

injuries, though medical facilities were provided to them after

the accidents.

These large number of eye injuries proved that the existing

welding screens were not sufficient to protect the welders from

the uv and thermal radiations and also from flying hot metal

splaters coming from the arc. This resulted in a huge financial

loss to the factory in providing First Aids, medical treatments,

compensations, etc. It also caused loss of man-days and thereby,

 81

loss of production* Therefore, proper steps should immediately

be taken to get rid of these hazardous problems by providing an

ergonomically designed improved welding screen.

3.1.2 Problems of the skin

The percentage, of responses of the MMA welders, regardingj

the problems of the skin due to exposure to uv and thermal

radiations and also flying hot metal spatters coming from the

arc, were presented in Table - 13.

The main short-term effects due to moderate exposure to uv

and thermal radiations, experienced by almost all the MMA

welders, were erythema, or reddening of the skin, immediate

tanning, itchign or irritating sensations and skin burning mainly

in front and sides of the neck, chest, head, upper and lower arms

and head. Stenback (127), Parrish et al.(128) and Wan ejt_ al .

(129) also observed erythema on sites exposed to uv radiation.

Ross (126) observed that most common sites for ray-burn were the

front and sides of the neck.

Excessive exposures caused severe skin burns, inflammatory

swelling, blisteing or even bleeding in extreme cases. More

exposure to uv radiation also resulted in delayed tanning,

peeling and thickening of the exposed skin along with the several

skin diseases. Thickening of stratum corneum was also observed by

Stenback (130).

According to the more experienced welders (welding more than

20 years) long-term exposure to uv radiation caused pre-mature

 Tabl e - 13

n _x. )
oons es of the manual metal arc welders (N = 5 4 regarding the problems of the skin due tc^
exposure to uv and thermal radiations and ^ ^ ^ h o t ^ e t a l ^ p a t t e r ^ c a m i n ^ f r o ^ t h e ^ r c . ________
Percentage of responses
SI . Always Very often Sometimes Rare Never
No. Problems of the skin
46.30 48.15 5.55 - -
1. Reddening of the skin
E7.78 7E EE
E. Injuries due to flying sparks
Skin burns due to uv and thermal radiation? E7.78 72 EE
3.
5.56 53 70 31 48 9.E6
4. Thickening of the skin
95 ’6
EE EE 48 15 SO. 37
5. Inflammatory swelling
7E EE E7 78
6 .
Itching or irritating sensations
61 11 35 19 3.70
7. Peeling of the skin
68 5E E7 78 3.70
8. Blistering due to excessive exposure
9 £6 E9 63 38.89 ££.22
9. Bleeding in extreme cases
53 70 35.19 11.11
10. Premature aging of the skin
75. 9E E4.0B
11. Immediate tanning
3.71 35.19 24.07 24. 07 IE. 96
IE. Delayed tanning
E7.78 53.70 9.E6 9.E6
13. Other skin diseases

oo
N3
 83

aging of the skin and increased the risks of skin cancers.

The flying hot metal spatters, coming from the arc, also

caused skin injuries in almost all the welders in the front and

sides of the neck, chest, abdomen, upper and lower arms, head,

etc., mainly during welding in overhead and squatting postures.

In the present study, accident analysis showed that out of the

total number of injuries, heat burns were 25.7% in case of

reportable accidets and 22.2% in case of non-reportable

accidents.

According to the MMA welders, the main body parts affected

by the uv and thermal radiations and flying hot metal spatters

were forehead, neck, chest, abdomen, upper and lower arms, hand,

leg, foot, etc., as shown in Table - 14.

3.1.3 Problems of the respiratory system

Almost all the welders (24.08% always, 62.96% very often and

12.92% sometimes) felt burning sensations in their nostrils and

throat due to the entry of hot, toxic coming from the arc as

shown in. Table - 15. Either always (44.44%) or very often

(55.56%) they also felt coughing and suffocation due to heavy

smokes mainly during welding in more or less confined or

congested work-floors.

More than 22% of the welders had complained about asthma,

20.37% about chronic bronchitis and 31.48% about other

obstructive respiratory disorders. About 25.93% had not yet

experienced any of the respiratory disorders. A similar study

 84

Table - 14

Percentage of responses of the manual metal arc welders (N=54>

regarding the body parts mostly affected by the uv and thermal
radiations and flying hot metal spatters coming from the arc.

Body parts Percentage of responses for

affected --------------------------------------------------
SI. uv and thermal Flying hot metal
No. radiations spatters

Forehead 87.04 92.59

Neck 90.94 96.29

Chest 94.44 96.29

Abdomen .75.92 87.04

Upper arm 57.41 68.52

Lower arm 64. a i 83.33

Hand 70.37 59.26

Leg 53.70 57.41

9. Foot 31.48 57.41

 85

on 522 MMA welders by Slepick et_ al. (106) showed that chronic

bronchitis was found in 50.7V of the subjects and a number of

obstructive disorders were found among 36.5V of the welders.

3.1.4 Problems due to hot environment

According to their responses as shown in Table - 16, 64.81*/.

of the welders felt very hot and 35.19V. felt hot during the

summer months. Whereas, in winter seasons, 27-78*/. of them felt

hot and 46.30*/. warm. Only 25.92*/. felt comfortable during welding

within the shop-floor. To most of the welders, the ventilation

within the shop-floor were either poor (46.29*/.) or very poor

(42.59*/.) .

In one part of the girder shop, there were no overhead

shade. The welders had to work under the direct solar radiation

and this increased the thermal load acting on them. In most of

the work-shops, particularly in the foundry and forge shops,

welders working near the running furnaces, were more exposed to

high thermal radiations. Very poor ventilation within these

shop-floors made the work more hazardous and thereby reduced the

quality as well as quantity of welding. Ergonomically designed

thermal barriers as well as proper ventilation should be provided

for better performance and production.

3.1.5 Hazards due to high surrounding noise

In all the shop-floors, where the present study was carried

out, particularly in the wagon-shop, the high surrounding noise

(due to rivetting and chipping operations) resulted in several

 Table - 15

Percentage of responses of the manual metal arc welders (N=54) regarding the problems of the respiratory
system due to exposure to hot toxic fumes coming from the -arc.
Percentage of responses
SI.
No. Problems of respiratory system Always Very often Sometimes Rare Never

1. Burning sensation in the nostril and throat 34.OS 63.96 13.96 - -

3. Coughing and suffocation - 44.44 55.56 -

3. Other respiratory disorders Asthma Bronchitis Any other Nil

(33.33) (30.37) (31.48) (35.93)

9T
Table

Percentage of responses of the manual metal arc welders (N=54) regarding the problems due to the hazardous
thermal environment.
•
IS Percentage of responses
•ON
Problems

•
l During welding, the welder feels Very hot Hot Warm Comfortable Cool Cold Very Cold

i)In summer months 64. SI 35.19

ii)In winter seasons 37.78 46.30 35.93

3 .
Ventilation within the shop-floor Very good Good Adequate Poor Very poor
(-) (-) (11.13) (46.39) (43.59)

00
 87

hazardous problems, which are shown in Table - 17,

According to all the MMA welders, the high surrounding noise

decreased their hearing ability temporarily. It also caused

fatigue effect in some of the welders. All the welders had also

complained that during welding in a- group, the high surrounding

noise hampered the means of communication between them.

The length of the arc has a great role on the quality of

welding. Different 'arc lengths' produced different sounds. Most

of the MMA welders maintained the fixed 'arc length', essential

for the particualr type of welding, by hearing the sound produced

by the arc. But in most of the times, the high surrounding noise

masked the sound produced by the arc and thereby, the welders

(14.81*/. always, 62.96% vey often and 22.23*/. sometimes) faced a

great problem of maintaining a fixed 'arc length' which

ultimately deteriorated the quality of welding in 24.07*/. of the

welders.

Therefore, proper steps should immediately be taken to get

rid of this high surrouding noise by providing new, ergonomically

designed ear-muff having the facilities to communi cate with the

co-workers without any difficulties (35).

3.1.6 Hazards due to heavy smokes

In some fo the work-shops, particularly in wagon-shop, heavy

smokes came out from the oven used for heating the rivets. This

caused coughing, suffocation, watering of their eyes and poor

visibility of most of the welders. Their percentage of responses

were presented in Table - 18. Attempts should be made to remove

the smokes coming out of the oven by providing some low-cost,

ergonomically designed hoods.

3.H Hazards due to the existig electrode—holders

Regarding the use of the existing electrode-holders, most of

the welders had made a number of complaints. These complaints

along with the percentage of responses of the welders were

presented in Table - 19.

All the MMA welders had complained that within few minutes

of work, the electrode holders became too hot to work

comfortably. According to them, the use of aluminium cable made

the holder too hot to work. Due to the unergonomic design of the

holders, the welders were more exposed to uv and thermal

radiations and sparks and faced difficulties during fixation of

electrodes to the holder, removal of the remnant electrodes from

the holder and also during work in a narrow work-space. The

repeated use of the strong spring (Fig. 1,5) of the holder

during the frictation and removal of the electrodes (daily on

average of 90+40, range 28 - 154) resulted in an early fatigue as

well as musculo-skeletal disorders of the hand. All the welders

complained about that. All the welders also complained about the

poor visibility of the electrode-tips, particularly when the

electrodes became shorter. The heavy cable attached to the

holder, made its manipulation difficult to most of the welders.

Gripping of the handle was very uncomfortable to most (87.04*/.) of

the welders and there were chances of slippage during working

Percentage of responses of the manual metal arc welders <N=54>
<N=54) regarding the hazards due to the high
surrounding noise of the shop-floor.

Percentage of responses
SI. ----------------------------------------------------
No. Hazards Always Very often Sometimes Rare Never

The surrounding noise of the shop-floor :

1. Decrease hearing ability 14.01 62.96 22.23 - -

2. Cause fatigue effect - - 37.04 40.74 22.22

3. Disturb communication with others 18.52 31.48 31.48 14.B1 3.71

4. Mask the sound of the arc 25.93 59.26 14.81 - -

5. Decrease the quality of welding - - 24.07 35.19 40.74

Table - IB

Percentage of responses of the manual metal arc welders (N=54> regarding the problems due to the heavy smokes
coming from the oven used for heating the rivets.

Percentage of responses
SI. ----------------------------------------------------
No. Problems Always Very often Sometimes Rare Never

The smoke caused :

1. Coughing and suffocation - 16.67 31.48 16.67 35.18

2. Watering from the eyes - 20.37 33.34 24.07 22.22

3. Poor visibility - - 11.11 16.67

16.67 72.22
89
Percentage of responses of the manual metal arc welders (N=54) regarding the hazardous problems due to the use
of the existing electrod e holders.

SI .

No. Problems Percentage of responses

1. During work the holders become warm Hot Very hot Too hot
(-) <-) (-) ( 100 )

8. Visibility of the electrode-tips Very good Good Poor Very poor

(-) (- ) (9.86) (90.74)
3. Fixation of the electrode Very easy Easy Not so Difficult Very diffieu1t
to the holder (-) (-) (-> (16.67) (83.33)

4. Removal of the remnant electrodes (-) (-) (-) (7.41) (9S.59)

5. Manipulation of the cable (-) (-) (11.11 ) (57.41.) (31.48)

6. Work in narrow work space (-) (-) (18.96) (55.56) (31.48)

7. Chances of getting electric shocks Very high High Medium Low Very low None
(88.89) (1 1 .1 1 ) (-) (-) (-) (-)

8. Gripping of the handle Comfortable Adequate Uncomfortable

(-) (18.96) (87.04)
9. Weight of the holders Light Convenient Heavy Very heavy
(-) (7.41) (66.67) (25.92)
10 ,
More exposed to
i) uv and thermal radiations Yes No
(88.89) ( 11 .11 )

ii ) sparks Yes No
(77.78) (2S.SS)
iii) New designs Essential Not essential
(94.44) (5.56)
 91

time. More than 66*/. of the welders had complained that the

holder was heavy, whereas, to E5.9E*/. of the welders, it was too

heavy to work comfortably. About 94.44% of the welders suggested

that the new, alternative designs of electrode-holders were

essential.

3.3 Hazards due to the existing personal protective devices

(PPDs)

None of the exsiting PPDs, i.e., welding screens, work

clothings, hand gloves and safety shoes were ergonomically

designed. The existing hazards, obtained from the questionnaire

study, were mentioned below.

3.3.1 Welding screens

All the welders had agreed that the head-screen was better

than the hand-held screen as shown in Table - EO. Bu.t none of

the MMA welders were provided with the head-screen. According to

most of the welders, none of the two types of screens mentioned

above were able to give proper protection from uv and thermal

radiations, flying hot metal spatters and hot, toxic fumes. The

screens only provided very poor visibility and their use caused

unnecessay hand movements and thereby early fatigue. According

to 9E.59*/. of the welders ergonomically designed new alternative

designs were essential.

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 93

3.3.2 Work clothing

Every year each welder was provided with at least one boiler

suit, but in most of the cases not according to the size they

required. Actually large size boiler suits were purchared so

that all the welders could use it. Moreover, none of the

clothings were made according to the anthropometric dimensions of

the Indian workers. All these resulted in severe problems in

using them, as shown in Table - 21.

More than 72*/. fo the MMA welders had experienced that the

existing boiler suits were not sufficient to provide proper

protection from uv and thermal radiations and also from flying

hot metal spatters coming from the arc. All the welders preferred

full sleeve clothing to have a better protection, but in most of

the cases they were provided with half-sleeve boiler suits.

According to all the MMA welders, none of the supplied

boiler suits were sufficiently durable. To avoid foul smell of

the sweat, 48.15*/ welders washed their bailer suits regularly and

51.85*/. sometimes. About 61.11*/, of the welders complained that

ventilation within the clothing were very poor. To 94. 44'/.

welders, these clothings were very uncomfortable.

According to most of them, the work clothing should be

designed in such a way that the neck, chest, abdomen, upper and

lower arms, hands and legs had more protection from the radiant

heat and sparks. More than 94*/. welders wished to have new,

ergonomically designed work clothings.

 Table - 21

th< suitability of the existing work

(N=54) regarding
Percentage of responses of the manual metal arc welder,
clothing .

IS* Percentage of responses

•o n Features studied
Full sleeve (100) Both ( >
Half sleeve (-)
1. Types of clothing preferred
Always Very often Sometimes Rare Never
2. Provide protection from 72.22
27.78
24.07 75.93
i) uv and thermal radiations
ii) flying hot metal spatters 1 0 0 .0 0
3. Anthropometr ically designed
48.15 51.85
4. Washed regularly
Yes (-) No ‘ (100)
5. Whether sufficiently durable
Very good(-) Good(-) Adequate (-> Poor (38.89) Very •poor (61.11 >

6. Ventilation within clothing

Neck Chest Abdomen Upper-arm Lo«er-arm Hand Leg
7. Which body parts need more
protection from :
92 '6S 8L' LL 92.60 72.23
B7.04 88.89 94.45 35'89 t-0‘68 94.45 68.52
i) radiant heat 90.74 94.45 70.92
ii) flying hot metal spatters
Uncomfortable (94.44)
Comfortable (-> Adequate (5.56)
B. Existing clothins are
Not essential (5.56)
Essential (94.44)
9. New designs are

n O
 95

3.3.3 Hand gloves

According to most of the MMA welders, the existing hand

gloves were not sufficient to provide proper protection from

thermal radiation, sparks, sharp edges, etc., and resulted in a

number of severe injuries - heat burn, cut, abrasions,

lacerations, etc. (Table 22). None io f the gloves were

anthropometrically designed . Mainly due to the use of hand

gloves of large sizes, most of the welders had difficulties in

holding electrode holders, electrodes and welding screens.

More than 90*/. of the welders had complained that there

gloves were not well ventilated and were also not durable. To

almost all the welders (94.44*/.) these gloves were uncomfortable

and new designs were very much essential.

3.3.4 Safety shoes

Every year, each welder was provided with one pair of

leather ammunition boots. But most of the welders (72.22*/.) had

pointed out that the shoes were too heavy to work comfortably

(Table - 23).

According to most of the welders, the existing safety shoes

were unable to provide protection from uv and thermal radiations,

sparks, red-hot remnant electrodes, heavy loads falling on toes,

sharp edges on the floor, etc. Supplied shoes were not

anthropometrically designed, not well ventilated and thus were

uncomfortable to most of the welders (79.63*/.). All the welders

needed better designed safety shoes.

■Percentage of responses of the manual metal arc welders (N=54> regarding the suitability of the existing hand
•g1 oves .

SI .

No. Features studied Percentage of responses

1. Provide protection from : Always Very often Sometimes Rare Never

(i) uv and thermal radiations 20.37 79.63
(ii) flying hot metal spatterss 1 1 .1 1 16.67 72.22
(iii) abrasion, laceration, etc. 20.37 16.67 62.96
P. Anthropometrically designed : 1 0 0 .0 0
3. Create problems in handling 86 ’S3
(i) electrode holders 50.00 24.07
T9 IT *
(ii )
electrodes 38. B9
(iii) welding screens 31 .48 24.07

4. Well ventilated 9.26 90.74

5. Not sufficiently durable 1 1 .1 1 29.63 59.26
6. Existing hand gloves Comfortable Adequate Uncomfortab let
(-) (5.56) (94.44)
7. New designs Essential Not essential
(94.44) (5.56)

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 98

From the results of the questionnaire study, it could be

concluded that the existing personal protective devices were not

giving the MMA welders sufficient protection from the thermal and

uv radiations, toxic fumes and also from other hazardous

situations faced by them in their daily working life. These

problems, along with the problems concerning the existing tools

and implements used by them, should immediately be tackled by the

management by the proper application of ergonomic principles.

This needed a few more important information and more data

with special reference to the normal daily activities of the MMA

welders. To have these data, all the above-mentioned problems

were studied thoroughly by direct observation method and work

analysis to identify the exact causes of there problems so that

proper steps could be taken for ergonomic solutions.

A. Detail Activity Recording and Task Analysis

The detail activity recording and task analysis of the 20

selected manual metal arc (MMA) welders, during welding with the

existing method, equipment and implements, revealed the following

important information and actual data on their normal daily

activities and on the hazardous and undesirable situations ’faced

by them :

4.1 Daily activities of the MMA welders :

The eight hours1 duty of an MMA welder was the summation of

the following time periods :

 i) Time spent for the preparation of the job,

ii) Time spent for the auxiliary activities after the completion

of the day’s allotted work,

iii) Actual working time,

iv) Lunch and tea-time, and

v) Idle time, i.e., time spent in gossiping, napping, personal

needs (urination, defeacation), sleeping, etc.

The time spent for each of these periods were given in the

Table - 24.

4.1.1 Time spent for the preparation of the job

The activities within this period were given below :

i) The MMA welders dress themselves with the existing personal

protective devices, e.g., boiler suit, ammunition boots,

hand gloves and welding screen.

ii) Collect the electrode-holder, steel brush, chipping hammer,

etc., from the personal cup-board.

iii) Wait for the allocation of the day’s work.

iv) Receive oral instruction regarding the day's work.

v) Collect the electrodes from the stores.

Table - 24 showed that the average time spent for these

activities was 98.95 +10.55 minutes with the range of 80 - 125

minutes. It was on average 20.61 + 2.19*/. of the total eight

hour’s duty period

 100

Table - 24

Daily Activities and Related Time Required in 8 Hours' Duty of the MMA
Welders.

Time Required In Percent of

Activities (minutes) 8 Hours' Duty

1. Preparation for the job 98.95 + 10.55 E0.61 + E.19

(80 - 125) (16.67 - E6.04

a. Auxiliary activities after 64.5 + 4.84 13.44 + 1.01

the completion of the day's (60 - 70) (IE.5 - 14.58)
allotted work

3. Arcing and non-arcing 111.9 + 48.E3 33.31 + 10.05

activities (38 - aio) (6.67 - 43.75)

4. Eating lunch (lunch time) 43.9 + 7.38 9.15 + 1.54

(30 - 60) (6.E5 - IE.5)

5. Drinking tea (tea time) 17.65 + 4.91 3.68 + 1.0E

(10 - 30) (E.09 - 6.E5)

6. Gossiping, napping, urination, 143.1 + 44.57 E9.81 + 9.E8

defeacatioh, sleeping, etc. (60 - E10) (IE.5 - 43.75)

Data : Mean + SD

Figures in the parentheses indicate the range.

 101

Waiting for the allocation of the day's work was the

unnecessary wastage of time which could easily be reduced if the

next day’s work is being scheduled in the previous day as an

advance.

4.1.2 Time spent for the auxiliary activities after the

completion of the day's work

The auxiliary activities after the completion of the day's

work were given below :

i> The welders arrange the personal protective devices,

electrode-holder, steel brush, chipping hammer, etc., into

their personal cup-boards.

ii) Return the electrodes, if remained extra, to the stores.

iii) Remove the boiler suit.

iv) Take a bath.

v) Dress themselves with their usual clothings.

The average time required for these activities was 64.5 +

4.B4 minutes with the range of 60 to 70 minutes. This time period

was about 13.44 + 1.01% of the total eight hours' duty as shown

in Table - 24.

4.1.3 Actual Working time :

The activities within the actual working time were given below :
 102
i) The welders set the welding condition, i.e., connect

the work to be welded or the metal earthed and the

electrode-holder to the welding machine through the

cables, turn the knob on the welding unit to the

desired amperage required for that specific job.

ii) If required, fix the work-piece to the fixture or jig

with the help of a helper.

iii) Clean or degrease the work-surface by using steel brush

or by spraying chemical solution.

iv) Fix the electrode to the holder at desired angle.

V) Bring the welding screeni, held by left hand , in front

of the face, to protect their eyes and faces from uv

and thermal radiations and also from the hazardous

fumes coming from the arc.

vi) Strike an arc and weld the joints.

vii) Remove the welding screen and keep it on the ground.

viii) Remove the red hot remnant electrode from the

holder.

ix) Deslag by using chipping hammers and steel brush,

x) Repeate the steps from (iii) to (ix) to complete the

job .
 103

It might be observed from the values given in Table - 24

that in the eight: hours' duty, the MMA welders actually worked

from 32 to 210 minutes with an average of 111.9 + ,48.23 minutes,

within which they finished their work allotted for that day. No

such data had been observed in any other studies on the MMA

welders.

a) Variation of actual working tine

The wide variation in the actual working time was depended

on the day's allotted-work and also on the type of work which

again varied widely in different work-shops and also in different

units of the same work-shop as was observed from the Table - 25.

i) In Girder-shop :

In the Girder-shop during the study period, each MMA welder

had to weld 10 railway slippers per day. Each welder completed

it between 93 to 125 minutes, with an average of 116.6 + 13.43

minutes, i.e., the actual working time was 24.29 + 2.79*/. of the

eight hours' duty with the range of 19.37 to 26.04*/..

ii)In Wagon—shop :

* Floor running unit s

In the floor running unit of the Wagon-shop, two Wagon-

floors were welded per day by three MMA welders working at a

time. Each welder worked on an average 122.67 + 12.22 minutes to

complete the job with the range of 112 to 136 minutes. The

actual working time for these welders was 25.56 + 2.55*/. of the
 104

Table -25

Actual Working Time of the MMA Welders in the Different Units of the
Wagon and Girder Shops.

Actual Working Percentage of

Work-shop Different Units Time (min) B Hours 1 Duty

Roof (air-pocket) 47.75 + 10.91 9.95 + 2.27

welding
(32 - 57) (6.67 - 11.87)

Body-end 96.0 + 31.51 20.0 + 6.56

(64 - 127) (13.34 - 26.46)

Wagon

Floor-running 122.67 + 12.22 25.56 + 2.55

Unit
(112 - 136) (23.34 - 28.34)

Under-frame 205.0 +7.07 42.71 + 1.47

Welding
(200 - 210) (41.67 - 43.75)

Girder Sleeper Welding 116.6 + 13.43 24.29 + 2.79

(93 - 125) (19.37 - 26.04)

Data : Mean + SD

Figures in the parentheses indicate the range.

 105

total sight hours' duty with the range of S3.34 to ES.34%.

* Body end unit :

In the body end unit of the Wagon-shop, either two or three

paired body ends were welded per day by a group of 4 MMA welders

and S COg-welders. Each MMA welder works between 64 to 1S7

minutes with an average Df 96 + 31.51 minutes to complete the

job. With respect to eight hours' duty their actual working time

was only SO + 6.56*/. with the range of 13.34 to S6.46%.

* Roof welding unit :

It has also been observed from the Table-S that in the roof

(air pocket) welding unit of the Wagon-shop, each MMA Welder

works from 3S to 57 minutes with an average of *+7.75 + 10.91

minutes. With respect to eight hours' duty, their actual working

time was only 9.95 + S.S7*/. with the range of 6.67 to 11.87*/..

* Undei—frame welding unit :

Each welder, of the undei—frame welding unit of the Wagon-

shop, actually works from S00 to S10 minutes with an average of

S05 + 707 minutes to complete the job allotted for that day. The

actual working time for these welders was 4E.71 + 1.47% with an

average of *+1.67 to *+3.75% of the total eight hours’ duty.

Bo the Table - S5 pointed out that the actual working time

was minimum for the MMA welders working in the roof welding unit

and it was maximum for the welders working in the under-frame

welding unit of the Wagon—shop.

 106

The actual working time could be divided into arcing time

and non-arcing time.

4.1.4 Arcing tine :

It was the total time spent for arcing only throughout

the working period. It was revealed from the Table - 26 that

the total arcing time per day per MMA welder varied from 21.2 to

126.3 minutes with an average of 64.9 + 29.78 minutes depending

on the type of welding allotted and the extent of welding carried

out for that day.

The arcing time for each 4 mm electrode varied from 0.40

to 2.90 minutes with anaverage of 1.17 + 0.18 minutes as given

in the Table - 27. In case of 5 mm electrode, it varied from

0.47 to 2.29 minutes with an average of about 1.54 + 0.19

minutes. The arcing time for the same type of electrode depended

on the :

i) type of work,

ii) site to be welded,

iii) the amount of electric current used, and

iv) to some extent on the welder himself.

From the total arcing time of an MMA welder, his duty

cycle (defined as the arcing time expressed as a percentage of

the total time, i.e., eight hours) could be calculated as follows

(60) :

Total arcing time

Duty cycle = ------------------ X 1007.
Total time
 107

Table - 26

Arcing and Non-arcing Times of the MMA Welders in 8 Hours' Duty.

Actual Working Time Total Arcing Time Total Non-arcing Time

(min) (min) (min)

111.9 + 48.23 64.9 + 29.78 46.9 + 23.33

(32 - 210) (21.1 - 126.3) (10.92 - 98.40)

Data : Mean + SD

Figures in the parentheses indicate the range.

Table - 27

Comparison of Arcing Times of the MMA Welders While Working with

Electrodes of 4mm and 5mm Diameters.

Arcing times per electrode

4mm electrode 5mm electrode

1.17+ 0.18 1.54 + 0.19

(0.40 - 2,. 90) (0.47 - 2.29)

Data : Mean + SD

Figures in the parentheses indicate the range.

 Since a welder was paid principally for the skill of

fusing a joint and depositing weld metal, it was obviously

essential to have a duty cycle as high as possible, But there

was a limit as because the welder had to do other anci11iary

tasks. Now, without increasing the actual working time, the

total arcing time could be increased by reducing the non-arcing

time.

4. 1.5 Relationship between working experience, arcing tine and

striking rate

It had been revealed from Table - 28 that the MMA welders,

having more than 15 years of experience, showed the average

arcing time of 1.71 + 0.12 minutes per electrode with the range

of 1.50 to 1.77 minutes. For these welders, the average number

of strikes was 5+2 per electrode with the range of 3 to 7. MMA

welders having 10 to 15 years of experience showed average arcing

time of 1.48 + 0.14 minutes with the range of 1.24 to 1.69

minutes. The average number of strikes per electrode was 5 + 4

with the range of 3-14. Whereas, the wleders having less than 10

years of experience, showed average arcing time of 1.45 + 0.47

minutes with the range of 1.04 to 2.31 minutes. They had the

average number of strikes 4+1 per electrode with the range

of 3-5. .

So, from these data, inferences might be drawn that the more

experienced workers i.e., very good and skilled welders had

longer arcing time (higher productivity) per electrode in spite

 109

Table - SQ

Comparison of Arcing Time and Number of Strikes for Each Electrode of

the Three Groups of MMA Welders Having Different Years of Working
Experience.

Working Arcing time Number of strikes

experience per electrode per electrode
(years) (min)

More than 1.71 + 0.12 5 + 2

15 years
(N = 5) (1.50 - 1.77) (3 - 7)

From 1.48 + 0.14 5 + 4

10 - 15 years
(N = 9) (1.24 - 1.69) (3 - 14

Less than 1.45 + 0.47 4 + 1

10 years
(N = 6) (1.04 - 2.31) (3 -

Data : Mean + SD

Figures in the parentheses indicate the range.

of higher striking rate. Wehreas, less skilled welders had

shorter arcing time inspite of lower striking rate.

From the striking rate, a number of inference might be drawn :

i) Whether he was skilled and experienced welder or not,

ii) What type of work - intermittent or continuous

arcing.

iii) Whether the welder was fatigued or not. During the

first part of the day's work, the striking rate might

be small, whereas, for the same type of work and for

the same welder, the striking rate might be higher

indicating fatiguness of the welder.

4.1.6 Non—arcing time

It was the time spent in actual working period for the

activities mentioned above in 4.1.3 Cfrom number (i) to (x)

except No. (vi)3. The non-arcing time for each MMA welder varied

from 10.92 to 98.40 minutes with an average of 46.9 +23.33

minutes as given in Table - 26.

The non-arcing time might be divided into :

i) Essential time for work, related to the allotted work

piece, such as - setting the working conditions, cleaning or

degreasing the work-surface, deslaging, electrode changing, etc.

ii) Time—spent for auxiliary work, not related to the

allotted work piece, which might be reduced by improved

 Ill
techniques or methods, such as hand movements with the usual

welding screen and time spent for cooling down the hot electrode

holder.

4.1.7 Reduction of non—arcing time

It could be achieved by the following means :

i) By reducing the unnecessary extra time required for

the electrode changing :

At present, due to the bad designs of the existing

electrode holder unnecessarily more time is required to fix the

electrode to it and also to remove the red hot remnant electrode

from the holder (Data not recorded). Attempts were made to

enhance the process of electrode changing by designing and

developing a new, ergonomic, low-cost electrode holder for the

MMA welders.

ii) By reducing the unnecessary wastage of working time

due to large number of hand movements with the

welding screen

During work, welders protected his eyes and face from the

uv and thermal radiations by bringing the welding screen,

hold by the left hand, in front of the face. As shown in

Table - E9, these movements of the left hand with the screen

ranged from 2 to 102 times with an average of 10 + 8 times for

each 4 mm electrode and from 2 to 70 times with an average of

8+4 times for each 5 mm electrode. The wide range of hand

movements per electrode depended on the type of work and on the

 112

site of welding. For continuous straight welding in a horizontal

plane, there were less number of striking of an arc and thereby

less number of hand movements, whereas, in case of welding in the

overhead or vertical position or during tagging, there were large

number of hand movements.

As shown in Table - 29, the frequency of movements of the

left hand with the welding screen in each welder varied from 134

to 858 with an average of 385 + 190 during the total working

period of about 111.9 + 48.83 minutes.

Now, the total time required for these large number of hand

movements ranged from 1.12 to 7.15 minutes with an averge of

3.81 + 1.58 minutes, as shown in Table - 30. Therefore, these

large number of unnecessary hand movements took away 1.65 to

5.43*/ of each welder's actual working time of about 111.9 minutes

with an average of 3.08 + 1.12%. This wastage of a part of the

non-arcing time could be saved by using the new, ergonomically

designed welding screen for the MMA welders.

iii) By reducing the time spent for cooling the hot electrode

holder :

Mainly because of the bad design of the existing electrode­

holder, it became very hot within a few minutes of work. As a

result, the MMA welders stopped their work and tried to cool it

either by waiting for a few minutes, or by rapping the empty

paper packets of the electrodes or torn clothes around the handle

(Fig. 5, 8) or by holding it under the cool running tap-water

 113

Table - 29

Number of Hand Movements of the MMA Welders with the Protective

Screen.

For each 4mm electrode For each 5mm electrode Total in 8 hours' duty
CD
1+

8+4 385 + 190

o

(8-102) (8-70) (134 - 858)

Data : Mean + SD

Figures in the parentheses indicate the range.

Table - 30

Daily Wastage of Working Time of Each MMA Welder Due to Large Number
of Hand Movements with the Protective Screen.

Actual working time Wastage of working time

(min)
In minutes In percentage

111.9 + 48.83 3.81 + 1.58 3.08 +1.12

(38 - 810) (1.12-7.15) (1.65-5.43)

Data : Mean + SD

Figures in the parentheses indicate the range.

 114

resulting in a lass of valuable working time. Attempts had been

made to reduce this loss of non-arcing time by designing and

developing a new, ergonomic electrode-holder for the MMA welders.

iv) By supplying electrodes within the easy reach of the MMA

welders :

It had been observed that in most of the cases, the welders

had to waste his working time to find out where he has kept the

electrodes (data have not been recorded). The new, ergomically

designed work-clothing with the long pockets, on the right back ,

similar to the arrow-holder and on the left leg, would result in

an easy and quick supply and handling of the electrodes during

work and thereby would also be able to reduce unnecessary wastage

of working time.

4.1.8 Lunch and tea-time :

In between the work periods, there were tea-break for half

an hour and lunch-break for one hour. It had been observed that

the MMA welders spent on an average 17.65 + 4.91 minutes for tea-

break with the range of 10 to 30 minutes. Whereas, during the

lunch break, they, spent on an average 43.9 + 7.38 minutes for

their lunch with the range from 30 to 60 minutes, as shown in

Table - 24. Therefore, it could be concluded that on an average

3.68 + 1.02*/. and 9.15 + 1 .54*X of the total eight hours' duty were

spent for tea and for taking their lunch respectively.

 115
4.1.9 Idle time

It included the time spent for gossiping, napping, personal

needs (urination, defeacation), sleeping, etc. It had been

revealed from Table - 24 that the idle time was on an average

143.1 + 44.57 minutes with the range from 50 to 210 minutes. This

idle time was 29.81 + 9.28*/. of the total eight hours' duty.

4.2 Types and numbers of electrodes used

MMA welders used electrodes of different diameters (2.5 mm

to 5 mm) and length (35 mm to 45 mm). Total number of electrodes

(of different sizes) received by the store and consumed by the

MMA welders of a heavy engineering factory for the year 1985-86

were shown in Table - 31. It had been observed that in one year

approximately 11,69,650 electrodes were received by the store and

9,21,750 electrodes3 were consumed. For this large number of

electrodes, every year a huge amount of money was being spent as

shown in Table - 32.

In general, the MMA welders used mild-steel electodes of two

diameters - 4 mm and 5 mm depending on the thickness of the plate

to be welded. Table - 33 showed that during the work spell, each

MMA welder used about 14 to 77 number of electrodes per day with

an average of 45 + 20, depending on the type and extent of

welding allotted for that day.

4.3 Wastage of electrode length

The MMA welders could not or did not utilize the full length

of the each electrode. The main causes were as follows :

 116

Table - 31

Numbers of Different Sizes of Electrodes Received and Issued

(Consumed) for the Year 1985 - 86.

SI. Diameter x Length Received Consumed

No. <mm> (cm)

1. 5.00 X 45 5,48,800 4,65,700

2. 4.00 X 45 4,35,050 3,55,100

3. 3.15 X 45 1,25,800 42,950

A. 2.50 X 35 .60,000 58,000

Total • 11,69,650 9,21,750

Table - 32

Total Amount of Rupees Spent for the Electrodes Received and Consumed
for the Two Years.

Years Received Issued

(Rs. Million) (Rs. Million)

1984 - 85 4.34 4.47

1985 - 86 3.39 2.73

 117

i) In the existing electrode-holders, there were no provision

of protection of the welders’ hands from the thermal radiations

coming from the red hot electrodes and also from the arc. Now,

during welding, as the electrodes became shorter, the electrode

holders became intensely hot. As a result, the welders throw

away these electrodes before fully utilizing them.

ii) During welding, the tips of the shorter electrodes were not

visible due to the bad designs of the existing electrodeholders.

These resulted in an wastage of an average 8.3 + 3.99 cm

length of each electode with a range of E.5 to 35 cm as shown in

Table - 34. In percentage it would be about 19.3 + 9.88*/. of the

length of each electode with a range of 5.8 to 81.4*/.. Even a 10'/

saving of this wastage would mean an average financial saving of

the electrode-cost of about Rs.0.5 million per annum for the

factory the study was undertaken.

4.4 Total length of welding done per day

The total length of welding done per day by each MMA welder,

given in Table - 33, varied from 14 to 108.6 feet with an average

of 58.4 + 31-.0S feet, depending on the type and extent of welding

allotted for that day.

4.5 Thrown away remnant electrodes which are hazardous

After welding, the remnant red hot electrodes were thrown

away throughout the busy shop-floors. These not only damaged the

shoes of the welders and other workers working there, but also
 118

Table — 33

Total Number of Electrodes Used and Total Length of Welding Done by

the MMA Welders in 8 Hours' Duty.

Total number of electrodes used 45 + 80

(14 - 77)

Total length of welding done (in feet) 58.45 + 31.08

(14.0 - 10B.6)

Data : Mean + SD

Figures in the parentheses indicate the range.

Table — 34

Wastage of the Length of Each Electrode Due to its Non-utilization.

Number of electrodes Initial length Final length Wastage

studied (cm) (cm) (*/.)

318 43.0 B.3 + 3.99 19.30 + 9.88

(8.5 - 35.0) (5.B - B1.4)

Data : Mean + SD

Figures in the parentheses indicate the range.

 119

damaged the welding cables (Fig. 9) and increased the chances of

severe accidents. Buhrer (137) had pointed out that some of the

fires arising from welding and allied processes were due to the

thrown away red hot electrode stubs.

In the body-end unit of the Wagon-shop, these thrown-away

remnant electrodes were also sometimes used to fill up the small

gaps between the parts of the body-ends of the wagons to be

welded. Therefore, when necessary, the welders had to search out

the thrown away remnant electrodes.

4.6 Hazards and undesirable situations due to the usual

electrode holders at present being used by the MMA welders

The MMA welders generally used two types of electrode

holders - short spring type (Fig. 1, B) and long tong type. But

both these two types of holders were not ergonomically designed

and had the following hazardous problems faced by the welders

during work :

a) Excessive heating of the handle

During welding, both the two types of holders became very

hot within a few minutes. Sometimes, it caused blisters on the

welders' hands. It was very difficult for the welders to work

with these hot electrode-holders.

The main causes of this excessive heating of the handle were

that the cables used were made of aluminium, but not of capper

which is a much better electrical conductor. Moreover, in most

of the cases, the welders used much heavier current than

specified for the particular electrodes. This also lead to

excessive heating of the holder.

b) Poor visibility of the electrode—tips

Mainly because of the bad design of the electrode holders,

there were problems of poor visibility of the electrode-tips,

specially when the electrodes became shorter. So, the welders

could not utilize the maximum length of each electrode resulting

on an average wastage of about 19.3 + 9.28V. length of each

electrode. Sometimes, they solved the problem by bending the tip

of the electordes (as shown in Fig. 2, 8).

c) Problems of fixing the electrodes to the holder

In the existing electrode-holders, there were no

arrangements for proper and sufficiently tight fixing of the

electrodes to the holder at the required angles’ resulting in

unnecessary delay in striking the arc and difficulty in

maintaining it. ..»

The welders also faced the problems of easy removal of the

remnant electrodes from the holder. Sometimes it melted and

sticked to the holder (Fig. 10) and the welders had to remove it

either with the help of another electrode or by hitting the

holder against any solid object which in most of the cases

damaged the electrodes as well as the electrode-holder.

 121

d> Poor hand—grip

The hands provided the link between the welder and the

electrode-holder to be manipulated. But the holdei—grip was not

according to the anthropometric, dimensions of the workers.

Therefore, weak and inefficient grip (Fig. 5) deteriorated the

quality of welding and also resulted in the chances of slippage

of the holder during handling.

e) Problems of heaviness

Both the two types of electrode-holders were to heavy to

work for a long period.

* f) Problems of working in a narrow work-space

The front portion of the tong type holder was unnecessarily

long, thereby causing difficulty in maintaining during work in a

narrow and insufficient space for the welding job.

g) Manipulation of the cable

The welders also found it difficult to manipulate the heavy

cables fitted to the holder. This resulted in an extra static

work-load for the welder and thereby causing quick muscular

fatigue. Almost, similar observatios were also noticed by Page

in 1971 (77).

h) Electric shocks from the holder

Due to the bad design of the existing electrode holders,

most of the welders had got electric shocks mainly in rainy and
 122

summer seasons. One of the main causes was the absence of any

fiber guard oh insulation cover either over the cable junction or

over other exposed electrical connections.

4.7 Hazards and undesirable situation due to the use of existing

welding screens

The existing welding screens (Fig. 2, 3) used by the MMA

welders were not ergonomically designed and caused the following

hazardous problems during work :

a) Large number of unnecessary hand movements :

The frequency of movements of the left hand with the screen

varied from 134 to 858 with an average of 385 + 190 in every

working day during the actual working period of about 111.9 +

48.23 minutes.

b> Wastage of working time

These large number of hand movements took away 1.65 to 5.43*/.

of each arc welders' actual working time of about 111.9 minutes

with an average of 3.02 + 1.12*/..

c) Unnecessary holding and carrying of welding screen

The total time spent for the unnecessary holding and

carrying of the existing welding screen was presented in

Table - 35.

d) Unnecessary muscular fatigue

These large number of hand movements kept the left hand

 123

Table — 35

Total Time Spent in Unnecessary Holding and Carrying of the Welding

Screen by Each Manual Metal Arc Welder.

Unnecessary holding and carrying of welding screen

In percent of In percent
actual working of eight
In minutes period (*/.) hours1 duty(‘/.)

Mean + SD 87.7 + 37.95 78.9 + 11.05 18.3 + 7.90

Range (88 - 155) • (47.43 - 96.35) (5.89 - 38.39)

 124

always engaged, performed static work with the heavy sceen and

thereby induced unnecessary muscular fatigue.

e) Radiotions and fume hazards :

The existing protective screens were not suitable in

protecting the faces and eyes of the MMA welders from the thermal

and uv radiations. These also could not protect them from toxic

fumes coming from the arc. Moreover, the screens were so

uncomfortable that sometimes the welders refused to use it (Fig.

b) . These resulted in a large number of eye injuries,

respiratory disorders and several skin-diseases.

f) Poor visibility

The visibility of the welder through the screen was also

very poor and resulted in difficulty in welding. Thus the

quality of welding was affected.

4.8 Problems of carrying electrodes during work

During the start of the day's work, each arc welder was

given approximately the required number of electrodes (average 45

+ 20, as given in Table - 33), depending on the type and extent of

welding allotted for that day. One box of mild steel electrodes

weighed about 3.5 kg for 70 pieces of 4 mm electrodes or 4.5 kg

for 35 pieces of 5 mm electrodes. Therefore, the weight of the

45 electrodes, which they had to carry, was approximately 2.25 kg

for 4 mm electrodes or 5.78 kg for 5 mm electrodes. So, the

welders found it difficult to hold a bunch of electrodes in hand

 125

continuously, causing unnecessary static work of the fingers and

resultant fatigue.

In the different workshops, the arc welders had to carry and

move these electrodes manually from place to place and they faced

a number of problems. As for example, in the Wagon-shop, to weld

the four sides of the wagon, the welders, carrying a bunch of

electrodes in one hand and the protective screen and the

electrode holder (attached to the heavy welding cable) with the

other, had to climb to a 9 to 10 feet high narrow platform

through a stair case which has no safety guards. There were

chances of slippage from the stairs which may result in serious

accidents. Moreover, there was no suitable place to keep the

electrodes on that high narrow platform. Sometimes, they

temporarily kept the electrodes on the semi-round shaped top of

the wagon increasing the chances of falling, damage or loss of

electrodes. Therefore, proper steps should immediately be taken

for easy and safe carrying of the electrodes by the welders

during work.

A.9 Hand gloves

All the hand gloves used by the MMA welders were not

anthropometrically designed. Usually, oversized gloves were

purchased in bulk so as to be used by all the workers. This

resulted in a very serious problems in holding the electrode­

holder and also the electrodes. For the same reason, most of the

welders never wore gloves in their left-hand, as because they

fell it very uneasy in handling the electrodes during fitting to

 126

and removing from the holders. In some cases they even refused to

wore gloves in the right hand also (Fig. 2, 5 and '&> This

caused an increase of heat-burns and other injuries of the hand.

Therefore, anthropometrically designed appropriate hand-gloves

should be supplied to the MMA welders.

4.10 Use of more than the specified electric current

It was pointed out that the arc welders used more than the

specified electric current (printed on the box-cover of the

electrodes) mainly for the quick completion of the job. This not

only deteriorated the quality of welding, but also made the

holder and also the transformer too hot to work with. This

ultimately damaged the holder and the transformer resulting in

increase of cost of maintenance.

4.11 Other problems

a) It was observed that other workers specially the overhead

travelling crane operators faced the acute problems of receiving

the blinding intense uv rays from the arcs during welding in the

same shop-floor, as there were no protective screens or barriers.

This is also higly dangerous from the accident points of view

during the operation of the cranes.

b) In one part of the Girder shop, the MMA welders had to work

under direct sunlight. This resulted in an extra thermal load on

the welders. Moreover, during rainy season, the work usually

stopped. Overhead shades hould be provided immediately.

 127
c> In the Wagon shop, always heavy loads were being carried by

the overhead travelling cranes resulting in the chances of

falling of stray articles on the welders to cause serious

accidents with huge loss of money, time and productivity.

Therefore, proper ergonomic steps should immediatley be taken by

providing the arc welders with safety helmets fitted to the new,

ergonomically designed protective screens.

5. Postural Analysis

In their daily working life, the manual metal arc (MMA)

welders had to work in various postures, e.g., standing, stooping

or bending forward, bending backward, squatting, etc., depending

mainly on the site of welding. Some of these were ergonomically

good and some were bad or awkward.

5.1 Good working postures

The following were identified as fairly good or not so bad

working postures :

a) Forward bending of trunk with a support of elbow on one leg

reduced the strain on the trunk.

b) Excessive forward bending of the trunk though not a good

posture, yet there was less possibility of pain on their lower

back (lumbar).

c) During the change of electrodes, a bit of relaxation due to

an interruption of awkward posture brought relief in their

sustained strained posture.

d) Squatting (sitting ,erect or slightly bending forward on

 128
heels in a low position with the legs drawn up closely beneath

the body and weight equally distributed on both the feet) with a

support of elbow on the knee was one of the good working postures

largely used by the MMA welders.

5.2 Bad working postures

The following were identified as the bad working postures:

a) Welding in stooping posture (forward bending of the trunk)

resulted in discomfort in different areas of the back (upper,

middle and lower). The welders were seen to work in different

angles of bending of their trunk varying from about 15° to 130°.

b) The welders were also seen to work with sustained static

position of their limbs at extreme angles resulting in pain in

different parts of the body.

c) During overhead welding, the welders had to work bending

their head in backward direction resulting in pain at the neck

region.

d) Sometimes, the welders had to work in standing posture

loading on a particular group of muscles resulting in, for

example, pain in the leg and thigh muscles.

5.3 Questionnaire survey

The results of the questionnaire survey, regarding the pain

at the different parts of the body of the MMA welders due to

awkward working postures, were presented in Table - 36. It was

observed that out of the 45 workers interviewed, 38 (84.5*/.)

complained about middle and lower back pain, 28 (62.3!4>

 129

complained about, pain at the neck region, 26 (57.8*/.) about pain

at the thigh, 20 (44.5*/.) at the lower leg, 19 (42.3*/.) at the

shoulder and 9 (20*/.) at the arm.

All the bad working postures, so far studied might lead to

postural constraints, inducing early muscular fatigue and pain

and ultimately resulting in low productivity.

5.4 Comparative study

The results of the comparative study of the total arcing

time, total number of electrodes used and total number of strikes

in squatting and standing or stooping postures in cases of 24 MMA

welders were given in Table - 37. It would be observed that out

of the 8 hours' work per day, the total arcing time of 63.28 +

26.72 minutes, the welders mainly worked in squatting posture for

about 33.29 + 29.14 minutes and in standing and stopping postures

for about 29.99 + 22.65 minutes.

In squatting posture, the MMA welders utilized a large

number of electrodes (23 + 19) with relatively less number of

strikes (77 + 65), whereas, in standing and stooping postures,

they could utilize less number of electrodes (19 + 14) with a

large number of strikes (97 + B5). All these indicated greater

productivity in squatting posture than that in standing or

stooping posture.

Therefore, it might be concluded that the MMA welders showed

their best performance in squatting posture than in standing or

stooping one. It was also observed that when the same work could

have been done either by stooping or squatting postures, the arc

wel(derq mainly preferred the squatting one.

 130

Table - 36

Complaints of Pain at the Different Parts of the Body by the Manual

Metal Arc Welders ( N = 45) due to Awkward Working Postures.

Pain at the different Number of Workers Percentages of

parts of the body who complained total workers

in
OQ
Middle and lower back 38

•
Neck 88 68.3

Thigh 86 57.8

Lower leg 80 44.5

Shoulder 19 48.3

Arm 9 80.0

Table 37

Comparison of Day's Total Arcing Time, Total Number of Electodes Used

and Total Number of Strikes in Squatting and Standing or Stooping
Postures of the Manual Metal Arc Welders <N=24>

Working Arcing time Number of Total number

posture (min) electrodes used of strikes

Squatting 33.89 89.14 83 + 19 77 + 65

(1.85 98.68) (1 54) (3 - 880)

Standing/ 89.99 + 88.65 19 i 14 97 + 85

Stooping (8.86 *” 95.83) ' (8 58) (10 - 393)

Total 63.88 *+* 86.78 43 + 19 175 + 89

(Squatting and (83.71 - 186.71) ( 14 - 77) • (60 - 489)
standing or
stooping)

Values : Mean + SD, Figures in the parentheses indicate the range.

6. Anthropometric Study 131

All the equipment, implements, tools and personal protective

devices (PPDs), used by the MMA welders should always be designed

and manufactured according to the respective body dimensions of

the MMA welders. Otherwise the welders would face problems. As

for example, hands provided the link between the welders and the

electrode holders. But due to a weak, inefficient and

uncomfortable grip, the welders felt uneasy in manipulation of

the holder and thereby resulted, in reduction of efficiency,

performance, quality of welding and productivity.

The present study showed that none of the existing electrode

holders, hand-gloves, welding screens and safety shoes were

designed according to the anthropometric dimensions of the

Indians. Actually all these are the verbatim copies of designs

menat for the Westerners. Present study showed that most of the

welders were provided with large size hand gloves and safety

shoes (Fig. 4, 5) for which the welders were reluctant to use

them.

Poor fittings of th PPDs not only hampered the personal

protection of the welders but also resulted in severe accidents

and loss of human lives, money and materials. As for example in

this very factory, a severe accident took place due to the

wrapping round of the excess protruding portion of the gloves

into a drill machine (33). The direct and indirect costs of the

particular accident amounted to about Rs. 0.6 millions.

 132

In the present study attempt had been made to provide a

ready reference anthropometric data pack on a few selective

essential body dimensions of the Indians to be used by the Indian

manufacturers of the welding screens, safety shoes, electrode

holders and hand gloves for safe and better utilization of their

products.

The schematic diagrams of the taken anthropometric body

dimensions and the resultant data were presented in the Figures

11, IS and 13 and Tables - 38, 39 and 40 respectively.

Different percentile values (5th, S5th, 50th, 75th and 95th>

were produced for the fabrication of different sizes of hand

gloves, safety shoes, etc., to fit different workers having

respective body dimensions.

7. Fabrication of New, Ergonomically Designed Different

Prototypes of Electrode Holder and Personal Protective Devices

for the Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welders and Users' Trials

On the basis of the results of the questionnaire study,

activity recordings and task analysis, different prototypes of

the new, ergonomically designed welding screens, on-off spot

lights, protective clothings, safety shoes and electrode holders

were fabricated with due consideration of the relevant

anthropometric dimensions of the Indian population. Trial

experiments on the MMA welders were carried out with the each

prototype to find out their suitability to solve the actual

problems. On the basis of the results of these trial

experiments, further modifications were carried out to finalize

Anthropometric Data For Indian Males, Obtained For the Design of "Helmet With Welding Screen" For
The Manual Metal Arc Welders.

E
6
Values

•
r-i
Measurements Numbers of

to 2
0
Subjects .

as
Mean )

+1
(Minimum-Maximum Percentiles
5th 25th 75th 95th

tH
985

<1
4-
1-1
43
43
OJ
<r
v-l
—H
4-
Head length 187. 191

+1
181 199

CU
+

cu
4)
41
tu
H
4-
in
—H
o

4-
in
tn
o

i>
iu
o
tu
tu

Head length, maximum (191 - 253) 199

1
218

tn
585

cu
4-
tn
O'
<r
tu
o
tu
■n
ao
tu
r-'

cu
a-
<)•

Vertex to chin
tu
tu
in

95 .39

+1
238

rH
4"
o
r*

cu
^—4
tu
4-
tu
■f
CU
•H

Head breadth 280 97 .79 151 157

+1
135
) IS?

in
(OET -

CU
03
CU
03
—H
in
4"
tu
in
CD

Throat length, normal 07 73 109

+1
93

4]
90T

b-

in
y*-4
in
CO
H
(U

Neck breadth 75 113. (100 - 135) 101

+i
116

CO
tn
tu

4)
-43
in
—•4

Ear to ear distance, normal 180 178. (158 - 203) 171 183 192

+1
i

00
•i
in

in
4-
4-
<r

CO
OJ
tu
tu
in
in
in
4)

4)

in
4)

Head circumference 178 30 517 531

+1
133
 134

x •3 - >0 0 in O' rH CU -0 H O' 4- 4

4» 0 O' m 03 O' 4 O' O cu IS in
tn tu cu CU to
a-

in X cd O' cu t' O 4" O' cu HJ rH 0- m

0) 4> in O' -0 00 >0 to IS -0 rH 4 CO
in tu CU CU CO
r-
+>
c
01
u X 0 O' 0- O 0- CO >0 O' O' O' rH

u 4J m m m 0 O' in CO -0 in 00 tu rH

& in tu rH tu CO
a. Oi

X h- cu O' cu in 0 0 0 in 4 4 O'
E 44 tu CD 4* •0 'O in CO H) in o- rH O'
Anthropometric Data For Indian Males Obtained For The Design of Safety Shoes.

£ in tu rH CU cu

in
m
3 e
r-1 3
fl e tu -s in 4^
> ■H 0 (U in — -"■* cu CO 4“ O'
X co cu 0 0 cu CO O 0 cu CO CO
d CD O' H 00 4* O' rH
z 1 1 1 1
£ 4 •D in 0
3 w CU 4~ <1 O' tn 0 O' 0 0 O'
£ tu in O' in in CO cu m CO rH cu cu
•H V* w ■W w N** -W •w
c
•H 4" T- O CO in O 0 CO CO CO cu
Z in O 4* O in CO CO in O' CO 4* CO
4" h- -0 IS is vO CO in in O' 0 00
a rH cu rH
CO
+1 +1 +i +1 *f I +1 +1 +l +l +1 +1
+1
cu CO iH O' CD in rH cu 4 CO rH rH
c 4 CU to O' in -0 CD <1 CD 0 O O
m •
01 0 in O' CO 43 H -0 O' CO rH rH in
z 4" O' in O' is O CO -0 -0 O 4” cu
cu CU tu CO

4-
0
in n 0 in in >0 O' -0 rH CO in 4* 4-
in 44 0 0 m CD T—1 tu rH O' O' H3 <1 -0
i- u to CO cu cu CU cu CU cu CU rH rH rH
01 01
X
6 x
3 3
z cn QJ
"■ U
44 r-i C
X d QJ
cn 44 in i-
X 1- J- ai
Qi 01 ai d X d 4-
X •H r—i 4> 44 ■H E
d) ai X d X 0 i. 3
in X in X 44 d QJ QJ d QJ U
3 d QJ QI rH U rH U i-
rH in X £ E !_ rHc O C
O 3 X d at QJ QJ u
0) 0 44 44 44 £ L rH L.
in X iH aj d d d L X QJ rH QI 44
-P X 44 iH rH d 44 L 4- d 4- 0
c 44 ■O d rH X X X H
»— X QI E E £ a
01 01 <0 E d 44 44 44 0 d • a 3 3 4-
e c 01 E a a a QI QJ a U 44 U
0) ai s_ iH ai 01 QJ H i- 3 !_ d L 4-
!_ r-H X d rH X X X iH X ■rH •rH 0
3 u d d QI u QJ u
in 44 44 QJ • rH 4> 44 44 E H rH rH rH
d O 0 44 X 0 0 0 1 ai -X -X rH
QJ O 0 d HI 0 0 0 •H QJ c c d
z u. u. _J z U- Ll Ll CD 1 <E <r CD

•
rH 0 r*H tu CO 4- in >0 O' 00 O' O rH CU
CD z rH rH rH
 Table - 40

Anthropometric Data For Indian Males, Obtained For the Design of Hand Gloves and Electrode Holders
For The Manual Metal Arc Welders.

e
e
Values

H
•
tn
Measurements Numbers of
No . Subjects
Mean

+1
SD (Minimum-Maximum) Percentiles
in
+>
r

5th OJ 75th 95th

y-i
1

CO
cu
in
86

O
00
Hand length

H
'pHI
0
cu
cu
ffl
y~4

,51

+1
(119 163 173 187

cu
- 98)

CO
H
o

cu
<r
-»-i
CU
h'
CD
o
in
O

Palm length
cu
H
4^
<rH

176)

+l
99 107

CO
CO
cu
in
to
4-
h-
Hand breadth with thumb
00
<i

99.
W
o

.37 (77 - 177)

+!
93 111

4-
00
cu
4-
in

o
cu

Hand breadth without thumb 3S5

+1
.78 (60 - 100) 77 85 90
1

in
4"
O'
CU
CU
4-
00
00
4-
cn
in
CD
CU
h-
CU

Hand depth at metacarpal 39)

+1
31
1

o
CU
CU
O
CO
n—4
■H
o
t-H
CU
4-

w
tH
V4

Mid-finger tip depth 88 .37 18)

+!
15
i

0"
4-
4*
CD
4-

in
4-
CO
o
O'
4-

in
in
4)

in
in
in

Hand grip length E13

+1
39
l

00
cu
O'
CO
00
00
cu

S8
4)
in
O'
▼H
H
O
4-

Hand grip breadth 98. 30 130)

+l
109

O'
cu
O'
r-4
Ch

in
in
o
o
•*-1
y^i
in

First lfength .38 (73 - 127)

+!
85 93 105
(09
4-
O'
4*
o
cu
4-

10.
cu
4-
in
4)

4)
<H
in

Grip diameter, maximum 109 83 (39 -

+1

H
y-4
rH
o

(*)
4*
4"
4)
CU

Wrist circumference 99 157. 39 ( 130 - 191 > 177

+1
4“.

0J
991
4
4-
O'
4-

CU
4)
4)
H
O'
cu
OJ
0

•
01
0
h-
O'

01
01
cu
OJ
01

in

Fist circumference - 373)

+1
135
 136

the designs In case of the welding screen two alternative

designs were finalized ■ Design I and Design I I .

7-1 New, ergonomically designed welding screen - Design I

To remove the disadvantages of the existing.welding screens,

the following prototypes were fabricated :

7.1.1 Prototype 1 (Fig. 14)

a) Fabrication

i) The handle of the existing welding screen was removed and

the screen was fixed to an adjustable head-band, so that it could

be fitted on to the head of the MMA welder to make the left hand

free to perform other work.

ii) An aluminium frame was made to hold the uv protective filter

glass and the two ordinary glass pieces. This frame was fitted

to the window of the screen through a hinge. The aluminium frame

with the glasses was connected to a chin-strap. Just at the

middle of the chin-strap, a small curved aluminium plate (chin-

holder), was attached to fit the chin.

iii) The aluminium frame was tied to the window of the screen by

a very light elastic cord. It helped to hold the aluminium frame

always tightly fixed to the window during normal condition and

also helped easy and quick return after it was opened.

b> Mode of action

During welding, the welder fitted the screen on his head

 137

with the help of the head-band and put his chin on the aluminium

frame of the chin-strap so that a small downward movement of the

lower-jaw pulled the chin-strap downward and lifted the aluminium

frame upward to open from The hinge-point. Through the opening,

at the bottom of the frame, the welder was able to see the

electrode-tip and also the welding site. Just before striking an

arc, the welder closed the frame over the window by closing his

mouth, i.e., raising the lower jaw.

c> Trial experiments

A number of selected MMA welders were asked to put the

prototype on their head and, if possible, to weld. Questionnaire

study was performed to collect their opinions regarding its

advantages and disadvantages experienced by them during the trial

experiments.

It was observed that the Prototype I had the following

advantages and disadvantages.

d) Advantages

i) This prototype made the left hand free to perform other

work.

ii) There was saving of working time due to the elimination of a

large number of hand movements.

iii> There was no unnecessary muscular fatigue of the left hand

caused by the static work of continuously holding the heavy

protective screen.
 138

iv) It protected" the MMA welders not only from the ultraviolet

and thermal radiations but also from the toxic fumes coming

through the two sides of the screen.

v) As the screen had been fitted to the head, it had come more

closer to the eyes of the welders. As a result, the visual field

through the window was much more than that in the existing one.

e) Disadvantages

i) The force exerted by the downward movement of the lower jaw

to lift the aluminium frame with the glasses should be minimized.

ii) There were possibilities of the entry of hot, toxic fumes

and the arcs into the screen through the sides of the aluminium

frame during its opening.

iii) The MMA welders required necessary training and practice to

cope up with the new mechanism of opening the window by the

downward movement of the lower jaw.

iv) The aluminium chin-plate was not of comfortable fit for each

welder.

On the basis of the trial experiments mentioned above, a

number of modifications were made on the prototype I and thereby,

Prototype II was developed.

 139
7.1.2 Prototype H (Fig. 15)

a) Fabrication

The modifications of Prototype I incorporated in Prototype

II were as follows :

i) The aluminium frame was replaced by a light weight wooden

frame and was fixed to the window of the welding screen.

ii) In the wooden frame, three grooves were cut. In the first

(the most anterior) and third (the most posterior) grooves, two

ordinary glass pieces were fitted with the sides sealed to

prevent the entry of hot, toxic fumes coming from the arc.

iii) A very thin and light weight brass frame, just to hold the

uv protective glass, was made in such a way that it could slide

up and down easily through the middle groove of the wooden frame.

At the upper two corners of this brass frame two small hooks were

fixed for attaching two black nylon cords.

iv) Two very small and light weight aluminium pul lies were made

and fitted on to the top of the welding screen just over the

wooden frame.

v) The brass-frame was then connected to the chin-holder with

the help of two very light-weight flexible, black, nylon cord

which passed over the aluminium pul lies.

vi) The aluminium plate of the chin-strap was replaced by a

small piece of leather.

b) Mode of action 140

A small downward movement of the chin raised the "framed uv

protective glass" so that the welder could see the site to be

welded and also could fit the electrodes to the holder without

removing the screen as was done with the existing screen.

Trial experiments with the Prototype II showed that it had

the following advantages and disadvantages:

c) Advantages

i) In this Prototype, only the uv protective filter glass was

to be raised.

ii) The use of flexible nylon cords and small aluminium pullies

reduced the friction and therefore, the welder had to exert very

little force to raise the uv protective glass.

iii) As the wooden frame was fixed to the window, there was no

chance of entry of fumes into the screen through the window.

d> Disadvantages

i) The welders needed more opening of the window mainly during

the fitting of the electrodes to the holder.

ii) The top of the wooden frame was not closed and there were

every chances of the glass to come out through the opening when

the protective screen was inadvertently inverted. This increased

the chances of displacement and thereby, damaged the protective

glass.
 141

To remove these disadvantages, a number of modifications

were made and incorporated in the Prototype III.

7.1.3 Prototype III (Fig. 16)

a) Fabrication :

The modifications made in Prototype II to make Prototype III

were as follows :

i) One standard sized uv protective filter glass was cut into

three equal pieces. In one of these pieces, two small holes were

made just at the two upper corners.

ii) The previous wooden frame of the Prototype II was replaced

by another wooden frame having four inside grooves instead of

three. In the first and fourth grooves, two ordinary glasses

were fitted and sealed.

iii) In the third groove of the wooden frame, two of the three uv

protective glass pieces were fitted and sealed in such a way that

one piece would be at the top of the groove and the other one at

the bottom. The gap between them would be slightly less than the

width of the remaining third uv glass piece.

iv> In the second groove, the remaining uv protective glass

piece, having two holes, was hung in such a way that it would

fill up or just overlap the gap and could move up and down easily

similar to that in the Prototype II.

Trial experiments were carried out with the Prototype III

and the following advantages and disadvantages were noted I

 142
b) Advantage

The main advantage of this Prototype III was that only one-

third of the uv protective glass had to be lifted. Therefore,

the welder had to apply very little force through the downward

movement of his chin.

c) Disadvantage

i) There were every chances that the uv protective glass-piece

may broken at the time of drilling for the holes during

fabrication. This manufacturing problem could easily be solved

during mass production.

ii) There were still a few chances of entering the arc rays

within the screen through the small holes made in the uv

protective glass piece.

iii) The field of vision, to see the site to be welded and also

to fit the electrodes to the holder, had been reduced.

To remove these disadvantages a number of modifications were

made and incorporated in the Prototype IV.

7.1.4 Prototype IV (Fig. 17 and 18)

a) Fabrication

The modifications of the Prototype III, incorporated in the

Prototype IV were as follows :

i) The Prototype III welding screen was fitted to a safety

helmet.
 143

ii) One standard sized uv protective glass was cut into two

equal halfs. One piee was fixed to the upper portion of the

third groove of the wooden frame. The other piece was placed in

the lower portion of the second groove in such a way that it

could move up-down freely with little friction.

iii) The aluminium pullies were placed on the helmet just over

the wooden frame.

b) Advantages

i) The field of vision was much more than that in the

Prototype III.

ii) Safety helmet, attached to the screen was very essential to

protect the arc welders mainly from the overhead stray-loads or

other materials falling from the-overhead cranes.

c) Disadvantages

i) As the safety helmet was fitted to the screen, it resulted

in a problem of poor ventilation within the screen.

ii) During the fixation of the electrodes to the holder and also

in between the works, the welders wished to remove the screen

from the face to have a better ventilation. But as the screen

was tightly fixed to the helmet, the welder had to remove the

helmet along with the screen and at the same time they had to

hold it on or carry on in their hands resulting in unnecessary

muscular work and fatigue.

In Prototype V, these disadvantages were removed,

 144

7.1.5 Prototype V

a) Fabrication

i) In Prototype V, the safety helmet was fitted to the screen

in such a way that the screen could be lifted up over the helmet

when it was not used. When required, a slight nodding of the

head could put it back into the welding position.

ii) A number of holes were made on the helmet for better

ventilation. Some holes were made on the two sides of the raised

portion of the top of the helmet, one further away from the other

on the opposite side in order not to reduce the structural

strength. Other holes were made on the lower portion of the back

of the helmet also in alternately opposite positions. The

selection of the positions of the holes were made in such a way

that either the arc rays, fumes or spatters could not enter the

helmet through these holes.

iii) In both the side straps (jaws) and the chin-straps, velcro-

strips were attached, so that the welders could adjust its length

according to their needs.

Trial experiments with this Prototype V showed the following

advantages :

b) Advantages

i) For a better view of the surroundings, the tip of the

electrode-holder and also during inspection, grinding and

chipping, the welder could lift the screen up over the helmet
 145

inspite of removing it from the head. This process of up-

liftment of the screen not only provided better view of the work

but also provided better and effective ventilation to the welder.

ii) During welding, the air within the screen became very hot.

This hot air could pass out through the holes made on the helmet

and relatively cool air then entered the screen from below.

Thereby a better ventilation was provided. If any fumes entire

by chance, this could also be passed out easily.

iii) The new chin-strap (for the up and down movements of the

movable uv protective glass piece) and the new side-jaw strap

(for tight fixation of the helmet-screen to the head) solved the

problems of adjustability to different MMA welders.

Thus the 'Design I* welding screen was finalized.

7.2 New, ergonomically designed welding screen — Design II

In 'Design II1 welding screen, an automatic on-off spot­

light was developed that could be fitted on either to a helmet-

screen or to an adjustable stand.

7.2.1 Prototype I

a) Fabrication

One tungsten lamp of 200 watts and 110 volts was housed with

a reflector and a powerful adjustable lens for focusing the light

on the work site. This was then fitted to an adjustable stand.

The lamp was then connected to the welding transformer in

parallel to the cable connection.

 146
b) Mode of action

As long as the welder was arcing, most of the current passed

through the cable to the electrode-holder to maintain the arc and

very small amount passed to the lamp and made it to glow dimly.

But as soon as the welder stopped arcing, most of the current

passed through the lamp and made it to glow brightly.

c) Trial experiment

After fabrication, trial experiments were carried out with

the automatic on-off spot-light to know whether it was working

properly and also to find out its longivity.

The spot-light, fitted to an adjustable stand, was connected

to a welding transformer and was studied for several days. It

was observed that after 500 minutes of arcing and more than 2525

number striking of arcs, the automatic on-off spot-light was

still working properly according to the principle. Then, trial

experiments were carried out on the MMA welders.

The automatic spot-light was focused on the work-site. As

long as the welder was not welding, the spot-light was on and the

welder was able to see the welding site through the uv-protective

filter glass. But as soon as the welder striked on arc, the

spot-light started to glow very dimly, but the welder was able to

see the job with the help of the intense light of the arc. So,

the welder had not to remove the screen to see the work-site.
 147
d) Advantages

The welders had not to remove the screen or had not to open

the window of the screen to see the site of welding and the tip

of the electrodes. So, the chances of exposure to uv and thermal

radiations, hot, toxic fumes and flying hot metal spatters were

very low.

e) Disadvantages

The welders complained that the intensity of the spot-light

was too low to see the work-site through the window. They also

suggested that the lamp should not be fitted on to the helmet-

screen, as because the high temperatures produced would create a

lot of problems.

7.2.2 Prototype II (Fig. 19 and 20)

a) Fabrication

To solve the disadvantages fo the Prototype I and also to

finalize the 'Design II' of the welding screen, a new, compact,

tungsten halogen lamp (300 wt) with a dichoric reflector was

developed which could produce cool beam of intense light and

could operate at low-voltage (12 volts). The lamp was housed in

a strong aluminium frame with an adjustable lens at the front, so

that the beam could be focused on the specific area. Provisions

were made so that the whole arrangement could easily be fitted on

either to a helmet-screen or to an adjustable stand.

 148

7.2.3 Users' responses ta improved design -features

The users' responses to the improved design features of the

Melding screen were presented in Table - 41.

The replacement of the hand-held screen by the helmet-screen

was very satisfactory to all the MMA welders as had been done in

Design I. Ventilation within the helment screen created problems

to some of the welders <35.19%). Visibility was better than the

existing one. Except a few (11.11%), most of the MMA welders had

agreed that the Design I screen had the ability to provide

protection from hazards coming from the arc. Regarding the

opening of the window, 42.60% of the welders had suggested that

they needed more training and more time to cope up with the new

mechanism.

In case of the Design II welding screen, the on-off

automatic spot-light on the stand was much more appreciated than

the spot-light on the helmet-screen. In case of the latter one,

some of the welders (29.63%) faced difficulties in focusing the

light on the work site. Almost all the welders agreed that

Design II was better to protect the welders from the hazards of

the welding arcs. It also provided better ventilation to the MMA

welders.

7.3 New, ergonomically designed protective work clothing

7.3.1 Prototype I

a) Fabrication

i> In an existing full sleeve boiler suit, usually supplied to

 149

Table - 41

Users' responses to the improved design features of the welding

screens.

Percentage of responses *

Improved design features +2 +1 0 -i -2

A. Design I

1. Helmet Screen : 94.44 5.56 - - -

2. Ventilation within the : - 35. 19 29.62 35.19

helmet

3. Visibility through the : 35.18 50.00 14.82 -

window

4. Ability to provide : 31 .48 42.59 14.82 11.11

protection

5. New system of opening the : 11.11 35.18 11.11 25.93 16.67

window

B. Design II

1. Automatic on-off ;
spot-1igbt

i) On the helmet screen : 33.33 37.04 - 22.22 7.41

ii)On the stand ; 38.89 40.74 - 18.52 1.85

2. Ability to provide : 38.89 50.00 11.11 -

protection

3. Visibility through the : 40.74 50.00 9.26 — —

window

* Responses +2 Very Satisfactory/Very good

+1 Satisfactory/Good

0 Passable/Adequate

-1 Minor problem/Undesirable/Poor

-2 Major problem/Very undesirable/Very poor

 150

the MMA welders, three slits (long, narrow openings) were made -
/

one at the middle of the back (Fig. 21) and two on the axillae

(arm pits) as shown in Figures 22 and 23 - for better ventilation

within the clothing.

ii) At the front surface of the boiler suit, two pieces of very

thin, polished, aluminium foils (Fig. 18 and 20) were attached,

with the help of velcro strips, one on the right and another on

the left of the chest, to reflect most of the thermal radiations

coming from the arc (31).

iii) The existing collar was replaced by the high broad neck

collar (Fig. 24) to protect the neck from the uv and thermal

radiations and also from the flying hot metal spatters coming

from the arc.

iv) To solve the problems of carrying electrodes by the MMA

welders, long pockets, similar to the arrow-holder of an archer,

were made - one each on the right and left back (shoulder) and

also on the right and left leg (Fig. 21). The length of the

pockets were made 16 inches, slightly less than the length of the

electrodes (18 inches), so that the welders could pull the

electrodes out of the pockets easily. Elastic band was fitted on

to the openig (mouth) of the pocket to hold the electrodes firmly

within the pockets and also to prevent free movement within

pocket, particularly when the welder was moving.

b) Trial experiments

With the new, ergonomically designed work-clothing, trial

 151

experiments were carried out on the MMA welders. They were asked

to wear it and weld. After the work, the advantages and

disadvantages of the new design were noted down for further

modification.

c) Advantages

i) During welding, high speed man-cooler or supply of

compressed air behind the welders provided a good ventilation

within the clothing. Cool air entered the clothing through the

long narrow opening at the back and came out through the opening

at the neck and at the arm pits and thereby helped quick

evaporation of sweat and in this way cooled the body. The air

that came out through the opening at the neck also helped remove

the toxic fumes of the arc entering the welding screen.

ii) The thin polished aluminium foils reflected most of the

radiant heat coming from the arcs.

iii) The high and broad neck collar also helped to protect mainly

the two sides of the neck both from the uv and thermal radiations

and also from the flying hot metal spatters.

iv) The pockets on the right back and the left leg were highly

appreciated. Instead of holding a bunch of electrodes in hand

continuously, the MMA welders could keep it within the pockets,

where the electrodes were always in safe and protected from any

damages. There were practically no chances of loss of electrodes

that might occur due to slippage from hand into such a congested

places from where it was not possible to get back.

 152

v> Electrodes within the pockets meant its easy and quick

supply during work. There were also no unnecessary wastage of

working time to find out where he had kept the electrodes.

d) Disadvantages

i) Welders found it difficult to use the pockets on the left

back and on the right leg.

ii) The position of the pocket on the right back (shoulder) was

slightly lower. The welders had to stretched their hands for the

electrodes.

iii) During walk, the lower portion of the pocket of the left leg

touched against the ground.

iv) The welders were disturbed by the pointed tip of the

electrodes, particularly during carrying the electrodes in the

pocket of the right back (shoulder).

v) Profuse sweating damaged the electrodes.

The above mentioned disadvantages of the Prototype I were

removed in Prototype II.

7.3.2 Finalization of the design of protective work clothing

To finalize the design of the protective work clothing, the

following modifications were carried out s

i) Pockets on the left back and right leg were removed. The

length of the pocket of the right back (shoulder) was shortened

 153

to 14 inches. Moreover, the positions of both the pockets were

slightly raised.

ii) Padding inside the pockets were made to protect the welders

from the pointed tip of the electrodes and also to protect the

electrodes from the sweat of the welders.

iii) Provisions were made so that blue silica get (6-20 mesh)

within small packets be kept inside the pockets to protect the

electrodes from the moisture.

7.3.3 Users* responses to the improved design features

The users' responses to the improved design features of the

work clothing were presented in Table - 42. Both the pockets for

carrying the electrodes were highly appreciated by most of the

welders. A few (11.11*/.) of the welders, particularly the aged

ones, had difficulties in using these pockets. High neck collars

had also been appreciated by all the welders. According tb most

of the welders the new design had provided better ventilation and

also better protection against the thermal radiations.

7.4 New, ergonomically designed safety shoes (Fig. 25)

a) Fabrication

A new, ergonomically designed, low-cost, light weight, hard

toe, hinged-wooden-sole, heat proof, well ventilated, easy

removing safety showes were designed and developed according to

the anthropometric dimensions of the Indian People.

 154

Table — 42 .

Users' responses to the improved design features of the work

clothing <ar*d safety shoes.

Percentage of responses *

Improved design features +2 +1 0 -1 -2

A. Work Clothing

1 . Right shouldei—back pocket: 33.33 38.89 16.67 9.26 1.85

2. Left leg pocket : 42.59 40.74 5.56 9.26 1.85

3. 9.26 _
High-neck collars : 35.18 55.56

4. Ventilation through it : 18.52 48.15 29.63 3.70

5. Protection against : 20.37 50.00 24.07 5.56

thermal radiation

B. Safety shoes

1 . Hinged wooden sole : 20.37 29.63 38.89 11.11

2. Hard toe : 42.59 57.41 - _

3. Protection against : 35.18 46.30 9.26 9.26

thermal radiation

4. Holes on the lateral and : 37.04 46.30 16.66

medial surfaces for
ventilation

5. — —
in
in

in
■4

Velclo strip : 38.89 5.55

* Responses +E Very Satisfactory/Very good

+1 Satisfactory/Good

0 Passable/Adequate/No opinion

-1 Undesirable/Minor problem/Poor

-2 Not feasible/Major porblem/Very poor

 155

b) Improved design features and the users’ responses

The users' responses to the improved design features were

presented in Table - 42.

i> Hinged wooden sole : The hinged wooden sole which protected

the welders from red hot remnant electrodes and also from other

hazards, was . made corrugated to avoid slippage. Most of the

welders had accepted it, but 11.11*4 had problems regarding its

use and acceptability.

ii) Hard toe s A hard toe was provided to protect the welders

from heavy loads falling on the toes. This design feature was

accepted by all the welders.

iii) Asbestos covering s Asbestos sheets within protective

covering was given just under the leather to protect the foot

from thermal radiations coming from the arc. Some of the welders

made comments on asbects poisoning.

iv) Holes : On the lateral and medial surfaces of the shoes, a

number of holes were made in such a way that flying hot metal

spatters could not enter the shoes. It provided better

ventilation withing the shoes and was accepted by all the

welders.

v) Velcro strips : In place of the show-lace, velcro strips

were provided particularly for easy removing of the shoes during

emergency conditions which was favoured by all the welders.

 156

7.5 Newf ergonomically designed electrode holder

7.5.1 Fabrication

A new, ergonomically designed electrode holder for the MMA

welders was designed and developed having the following new

features :

i) new electrode gripping system : Two alternating system were

developed.

* Vise-lock system : The new method of vise-lock gripping

fixed the electrode tightly to the holder at the required angle

(Fig. 26). Very small pressure was required to release the lock

(Fig. 27). This allowed easy removal of the remnant electrodes.

Increased surface area of contact between the electrode and the

holder helped easy flow of electricity from the holder to the

electrode and thereby resulted in less production of heat. The

gripping portion was made of copper for better electrical

conductance (Fig. 28).

* Chuck system : In another new method of chuck gripping

system, slight right turn of the handle of the holder closed-up

the movable parts of the chuck and thereby fixed the electrode

tightly to the holder. Whereas, slight left turn release the

electrode. The movable parts of the chuck were made of copper

for better electrical conductance and less production of .heat.

The chuck system provided much more surface of contact between

the electrode and the holder.

 157
ii) The new design has increased the visibility of the tips of

the electrodes when it became shorter and thereby helped the

welders utilize the maximum length of each electrode. It thus

solved the problems of unnecessary wastage of the electrode­

length .

iii) Three radiating copper fins were fitted just after the

electrode gripping portion. It helped disipate the radiant heat

and also reduced heat conduction to the handle of the electrode

holder.

iv> The cable from the welding transformer was connected near

the electrode gripping portion of the holder (Fig. H8) instead of

the passing inside the handle to avoid excessive heating of the

handle. This reduced the current consumption by lowering the

resistance. The cable connection was made covered to avoid the

chances of electric shocks. Arrangements were made so that the

cable could be fitted tightly with the holder and at the same

time it could easily be detached from the holder for storing or

other manipulation of the holder.

v) As the electricity was not passing inside the handle, the

central thick copper rod, within the handle, and the layers of

insulations were eliminated. This made the holder comfortably

lighter and also cheaper to produce.

vi ) The extended handle was designed after due consideration of

the anthropometric dimensions of the welders.

 158

7.5.S Validation of the improved design features of the new,

electrode holder

Due to the non-coopertion from the factory management, it

was not possible to arrange trial experiments with the new,

ergonomically designed electrode holder on the MMA welders. Only

validation of the improved design features were carried out

through questionnaire study. The responses of the MMA welders

were presented in Table - 43.

Both the new electrode gripping systems were highly

appreciated by most of the welders. According to them, it would

increase the visibility of the tip of the electrodes when it

became shorter and thereby would also help utilize maximum length

of each electrode. According to the 79.63*/. of the welders, the

radiating copper fins would be very helpful in dissipating the

thermal radiations coming from the arc. The anthropometrically

designed handle satisfied about BO*/, of the welders but all of

them suggested to shorten the length of the handle. Almost all

the welders appreciated the tight and covered connection between

the cable and the holder. According to them it would reduce the

chances of electric shocks to the welders.

There were controversies, regarding the cable connection

just after the electrode gripping portion. According to 48.15*/

of the welders, it would create problems during the manipulation

of the holder.
 159

Table - 43

Validation of the improved design features of the electrode

holder.

Percentage of responses *

Improved design features +2 +1 0 -1 -2

1. New electrode gripping ••

system
i) Vise •
• 20.37 35.19 25.93 3.70 14.81
ii) Chuck • 24.07 42.59 24.08 3.70 5.56

2. Radiating copper-fins . «• 25.93 53.70 - 12.96 7.41

3. Anthropometrically •• 24.07 55.56 20.37 - -

designed handle

4. Tight and covered 79.63 20.37 '

"
connection between holder
and cable

5. Cable connection outside . — 22.22 29.63 31.48 16.67

the handle

* Responses +2 Very Satisfactory/Very good

+1 Satisfactory/Good

0 Passable/Adequate/No opinion

-1 Undesirable/Minor problem/Poor

-2 Not feasible/Major problem/Very poor

 160

8. An Ergonomic Approach to Reduce the Cost of Manual

Metal Arc (MMA) Welding

The essential components of the total costs of on MMA

welding operation were as follows :

i) Labour charge for the welders,

ii) Associated labour charges for the helpers,

iii) Costs for personal protective devices (PPDs) used by the

*

MMA welders,

iv) Direct and indirect costs of accidents of MMA welders,

v) Costs of electrodes,

vi) Costs of electric power,

vii) Costs (capital) for machines and ancillary tools and

equipment and the depriciation costs,

viii)Costs for maintenance and repairs, and

ix) Costs for quality control, design, stores, sales and

general administration.

Application of proper ergonomic principles could effectively

reduce the costs of each of the above mentioned elements.

B.l Labour charge for the welders

Every MMA welder was paid for his eight hours' duty. Beside

arcing, he had to do a number of other essential work within this

period. All the activities of the MMA welders were grouped into

different headings and the percentage of time spent for these

activities were shown in Figure 29.

 161

From the total arcig time of an MMA welder, his duty cycle

(defined as the arcing time expressed as a percentage of the

total time) could be calculated (60) as followed :

Arcing time
Duty cycle =----------- X 100*/.
Total time

Since a welder was paid principally for the skill of fusing

a joint and depositing weld metal, it was obviously essential to

have a duty cycle as high as possible. But there was a limit as

because the welder had ta do other ancillary tasks as discussed

previously.

In the present study, it was observed that the arcing time

was very low, 64.9 + 29.78 minutes (Table - 26) only which was

13.52% (Fig. 29) of the total eight hours' duty. The present

study also revealed that without lengthening the actual working

time of 111.9 + 48.23 minutes (Table - 26) the arcing time could

be increased by decreasing the non-arcing time spent for the

auxilliary work not related to the allotted work piece, such as,

i) by reducing the time spent for cooling the hot electrode

holder.

ii) by reducing the unnecessary extra time required for the

electrode changing,

iii) by reducing the wastage of working time due to large number

of unnecessary hand movements with the welding screen, and

iv) by supplying electrodes within the easy reach of the

welders.
 162

The new, ergonomically designed electrode holder (Figure 26

to 28) would be able to enhance the process of electrode

changing. This new design would also be useful to save the time

spent to cool the hot electrode holder to make it workable.

Wastage of a part of the working time due to a large number

of unnecessary hand movements with the welding screen could be

saved by the use of new, ergonomically desinged welding screen.

Beside this, the new, work clothing would also be able to save

some of the wastage of working time by quick supply of electrodes

from the pockets of the clothing within the easy reach of the

welders.

8.2 Associated labour charges for the helpers

Occassionally the MMA welders were helped (for fixing the

work pieces to the jig or fixture, etc.) by another person

(helper) to complete their task quickly and satisfactorily. The

increased costs resulting from the use of additional labour must-

be taken into account. Nothing could be done in this case unless

some special jigs of devices were used.

8.3 Costs for personal protective devices (PPDs) used by the MMA
welders

The amount of the money spent for the personal protection of

the MMA welders, were not very effective and useful since

existing PPDs as had been seen were unable to save the welders

from a number of heat burn and other injuries, thereby, resulting

in an increase of the costs of accidents. Ergonomically

 163

designed, low-cost, special type of welding screen, a boiler

suit, safety shoes and hand gloves would be able to reduce these

large number of heat burns and other injuries and thereby would

save a considerable amount of money spent as costs of accidents.

The new low-cost welding screen (U$ SO/-) would be able to

replace the most modern photochromatic welding screen of U$

1,500/-.

8.4 Direct and indirect costs of accidents of MMA welders

Proper application of ergonomic principles could easily

reduce the large number of accidents of the MMA welders and

thereby would be able to reduce both the direct and indirect

costs of accidents.

8.5 Costs of electrodes

The quantity of the electrodes required was the main cost of

consumables. The volume of weld metal required, for a particular

joint, could easily be calculated by making allowances for looses

by way of spatter, stub ends, etc. From this, the quantity of

electrodes required could be calculated.

Studies had shown that due to the bad design of the existing

electrode holders, the MMA welders could not utilize the maximum

length of the electrodes and thereby, resulted in an wastage on

an average 8.3 + 3-99 cm length of each electrode with a range of

E.5 to 35 cm. In percentage, it would be about 19.3 + 9.28*/. of

the length of each electrode with a range of 5.8 to 81.4% (Table

- 34). Even a 10% saving of this wastage would mean an averge

 164

financial saving of the electrode cost of about rupees 0.5

million per.annum for the factory the study was undertaken.

With the help of the new, ergonomically designed electrode

holder, the MMA welders would be able to utilize the maximum

length of each of the electrodes and so, would be able to reduce

the costs of the consumables.

A large number of electrodes are either damaged or lost

during carrying by the MMA welders within the work shops. This

loss of electrodes could easily be saved if the welders use the

new, ergonomically designed work-clothing having specially

designed long pockets for the easy and safe carrying of the

electrodes during the work.

8.6 Costs of electric power

In most of the cases, the MMA welders used more than the

specified current (printed on the box-cover of the electrodes)

for quick completion of the day's work schedule. This should be

checked immediately to reduce to costs of electric power.

8.7 Capital costs of machines, ancillary tools and equipment

It meant the capital costs of the welding plant. Before

selection, purchase and installation of the MMA welding machines,

tools and equipment, ergonomic points should be considered or an

ergonomist should be consulted for better selection of the above

mentioned items to reduce the incidental costs.

 165
8.8 Costs of maintenance

It meant the amount of money spent.to keep the welding plant

including machines, tools and equipment, in good condition. Some

of the main important ergonomic spets that should immediately be

considered to reduce the costs of maintenance were:

i >' Use of more than the specified electric current made the

electrode holder and the transformer too hot to be damaged

quickly resulting in increase of cost of maintenance. Use of

specified current could save this cost easily.

ii) The thrown out red hot electrode-stubs not only damaged the

welding cables but also the shoes of the welders and other

workers working there, resulting in an increase of maintenance

costs of the cables and the safety shoes. This cost could easily

be saved by collecting the electrode stubs in a sand-box instead

of throwing them away.

iii) The use of new, ergonomically designed electrode holder

would prevent the holder to become extremely hot and damaged

easily. This would also reduce the costs of its maintenance.

iv) It was also very essential to train the MMA welders about

the careful handling of all the related machines, tools and

equipment to reduce the costs of maintenance.

8.9 Costs for quality control, design, stores, sales and general

administration

In the present study, no stress had been given on these

aspects.
 166

Application of new, ergonomically designed, low-cost

personal protective devices and ancillary tools and equipment

would be able to reduce a large number of hazards faced daily by

the MMA welders and thus would also be able to increase the skill

as well as the quality of welding. This would also have a

beneficial effect on the reduction of the costs of welding.

 167

E. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the present study, the fallowing conclusions and

recommendations were made to be implemented for the impovement of

working conditions and work organization, enhancement of

productivity, safety and occupational health, minimization of

reportable and non-repartable accidents and also for the

reduction of the financial as well as the physiological and other

relevant costs involved in manual metal arc (MMA) welding. The

recommendations, made for the factories where the studies were

carried out, were also applicable to the similar other factories

in West Bengal as well as in India.

1- Protection Against UV and Thermal Radiations, Sparks and

Hot, Toxic Fumes

i) All the MMA welders should be provided with the new,

ergonomically designed welding screens (Fig. 17 and 19),

protective work clothing (Fig. SO to H4), safety shoes (Fig. S5>

and the electrode holders (Fig. H6 to S8> to have better

protection from the uv and thermal radiations, flying hot metal

spatters and hot hazardous toxic fumes coming from the arc.

ii) To reduce the effects of welding fumes and gases, welders

should keep their heads away from the fumes. They should be make

sure that enough ventilation was available.

iii) Care should be taken so that materials being welded does not

produce compounds which have a low Occupational Exposure Limit

(OEL).
 168

iv.) In the tram-car shop, the helpers working just below the

site of welding, should be provided with the leather or other

type of ergonomically designed hood (hat) to protect their head

and faces from the burn injuries caused by the spark coming from

the arc.

v) In those shop-floors, where MMA welding operations were

going on, the electric overhead travelling (EOT) crane operators

should use safety goggles specially during the night to solve the

highly dangerous problems of receiving the blinding intense uv

rays from the arc.

vi) Factories should purchase anthropometrically designed hand

gloves of different sizes based on different percentile values so

that the welders having respective hand dimensions could use

them. These would resulted in minimization of heat burn and

other injuries of the hand and also an easy handling of the

electrodes, electrode holders, welding screens, work pieces, etc.

vii) Ancillary personnel should always be warned of the hazards

arising from viewing the arc with a nacked eyes.

viii) Welders should always use goggles when chipping the slags

off a weld.

ix) First aid treatment should always immediately be available

for any one who has been subjected to a flash from the arc.

E. Protection Against Hot Environment

i) A man-cooler (high speed air circulating fan) should be

 169

provided with, behind the welders while working with the new,

ergonomically designed work clothing (Fig. 24), for necessary

ventilation and better evaporation of sweat.

ii) Slightly cool drinking water should be supplied to every (IMA

welder working near furnaces specially during the summer months

for maintenance of fluid balance for the high sweat loss during

work. Cool water could also be used as the first step against

the heat burns of the eyes and skins.

iii) Proper steps should immediately be taken by providing an

overhead shade in the girder shop where slipper welding were

being carried out under the direct sunlight. This would reduce

the thermal load on the welders caused by the solar radiations.

iv) Welding should be done only in areas where there is enough

ventilation.

3. Protection Against High Intense Noise

i) The pneumatic chipping and grinding operations produce

intense noise which caused hearing loss. Welders usually had to

shout at the top of their voices to carry out verbal

communications. A low-cost ergonomically designed ear-muff with

some verbal communication facilities (35) should be used by the

welders and supervisors, as necessary.

ii) Low-cost ear—plugs could also be used by the welders in the

noisy area to have protection against hearing loss.

iii) Regular assessment of hearing loss of the welders working in

 170

extremely noisy environment should be done with the help of an

audiometer.

4. Protection Against Fire Hazards

i) After arcing, the red hot remnant electrodes should not be

thrown away all over the shop-floors, rather should be collected

in several small iron-pots, filled with sand or water, placed

near the areas where MMA welding were carried out. These would

prevent the chances of fire hazards arisinng from welding and

allied processes. This would also helpful to reduce the damage

of the welding cables and the shoes of the welders and other

workers.

ii) Before welding, the welder should be sure that the work-site

is completely cleaned of inflammable liquids. They also should

not weld near inflammable materials.

iii) Combustible materials should always be removed from the work

area.

5. Protection Against Electrical Hazards

i) Each and every MMA welders should be provided with the new,

ergonomically designed electrode holder (Fig. 26 to 20) to

minimize the chances of getting electic shocks.

ii) The welding lead, welding return and the earth lead should

be of adequate size for the currents being used.

iii) The earth lead should be securely fastened to a satisfactory

earth point.
 171

iv) Separate isolating switches should always be within the easy

reach of the welders for emergency disconnection of the main

supply.

v) During welding the welders should not stand in water or on

wet floor or should not use wet gloves to avoid electrical

hazards. They should always dry out the work-piece or bench if

found wet.

vi ) The welders should always try to prevent the welding cables

from coming in contact with hot metal, water, oil or grease.

vii) Welders should never attempt to rescue an electric shock

victim without first turning off the power source.

viii) Cables and connectors should always be maintained in good

condition.

6. Good Working Postures

i) Adjustment of working height should be done so that there

would be minimum trunk bending.

ii) The new, ergonomically designed welding screen (Fig. 17 and

19) would make the left hand free. Therefore, it might be

recommended that during welding with forward bending, the welder

could support freely on the thigh with the left elbow. This

would reduce the strain of the bend postures.

iii) During welding the bottom of the wagon, an ergonomically

designed, light weight, folding sitting stool fixed on the

 172

buttocks should be used so that there would be no awkward

posture.

7. For Easy Carrying of Electrodes

The new, ergonomically desinged work clothing with the

pockets on the right back (like the arrow-holder of an archer)

and also on the left leg would result in temporary, safe storage,

easy and quick supply and handling of electrodes during work.

8. For Better House Keeping

i) The boundaries of all the passageways and gangays should be

prominently marked and strictly kept free from any encroachment.

This would reduce accidents due to striking by objects and • fall

of the MMA welders.

ii) The working area shcld be regularly cleaned off small iron

pieces, electrode stubs ard other scraps strewn or buried in the

ground. Otherwise, these would damage the welding cables, shoes

of the welders, etc.

iii) In the roof welding unit of the wagon-shop, the stairs

should have safety guards or rails on both the sides to minimize

the number of accidents due to falling.

iv) Good house-keeping in the shop-floors not only would reduce

the number of accidents, but in itself would improve productivity

by the provision of more congenital surrounding for better work.

9. Others

i) For quick completion of their job, the welders should not

use more than the specified electric current (printed on the box-

cover of the electrodes) as were done by most of them. This

would help to make the holder as well as the transformer less hot

to work with them. This would also help to increase the quality

of welding as well as the longivity of the holder and the

transformer.

ii) Waiting for the allocation of the day's work resulted in an

unnecssary wastage of working time. This could easily be saved

by planning an advance schedule of the next day's programme.

iii) Under the proper supervision of the safety officers along

with the supervisors of the respective shop-floors, each day the

critical incidents (narrowly saved accidents) should be analyzed,

discussed and the remedial measures should be taken for the

prevention of future severe accidents.

iv) It is to be assumed that the welders are using the PPDs

during work. Some administrative steps should be taken to debar

the specific welders from accident benefits in case of accidents

when the welders did not use the PPDs provided.

v) Proper supervision and regular training are also necessary to

prevent unsafe acts on the part of the welders.

v) Safety meetings should be arranged, once every month, between

the welders, safety officers, supervisors and medical persons of

the factory, to discuss about the types and severity of accidents

and their remedies.

 174

vi> Suggestions from the welders, supervisors, etc., should be

invited and prizes and rewards for good suggestions be provided.

viii)Regular activity of the welders should be recorded to

analyse the critical incidents for remedial actions.

 175

Fig.l : The existing electrode holder (spring type) most widely

used by the MMA welders.

Fig.2 : The existing hand held welding screen, most widely used
by the MMA welders. The electrode has been bended for
better visibility.
 176

Fig.3 : Ore of the several types of existing welding screens

used by the HHA welders.

Fig.A : wbout 16.6a of the MMA welders are using ordinary

rubber chappals resulting in large number of heat burn
and other injuries of the feet.
 1 77

Fig.5 : Due to the uneconomic design of the hand gloves, most

of the welders are reluctant to use them. The weak and
inefficient grip deteriorated the quality of welding
and also resulted in the chances of slippage during
work.

Fig.6 : Mainly due to the uneconomic design, some of the

welders are reluctant to use the existing welding
screen, hand gloves and safety shoes.
 178

Fig.7 : The helper is not using the goggles for protection

against uv and thermal radiations and flying hot metal
spatters coming from the arc. Use of ordinary
terricotton half shirts and paints also increase the
chances of fire hazards.

Fig.8 : As the existing electrode holder becomes very hot

within few minutes of work, the welder has wrapped torn
clothes around the handle. This makes the handle-grip
very uneconomic and results in unnecessary muscular
fatigue of the fingers.
 179

Fig.9 : The thrown away red hot remnant electrodes damage the
welding cable.

Fig.10 : In most of the cases the electrodes melted and sticked

to the holders and damaged the gripping portion o* the
holder.
 180

(b)

Fig.11 i Schematic Diagram of the Anthropometric

Measurements, Taken for the Design of the Welding
Screen for the MMA Welders. Numbers Indicate Each
% tke. cv> V' 1at^- 3S.'
 181

(a)

lb)

Fig.12 : Schematic Diagram of the Anthropometric

Measurements, Taken for the Design of the Safety
Shoes for the MMA Welders. Numbers Indicate Each
of the Specific Dimensions as Given in Table - 3?-
 182

FiQ-lS * Schematic Diagram of the Anthropometric

Measurements Taken for the Design of Hand Gloves
and Electrode Holders for the MMA Welders. Numbers
Indicate Each of the Specific Dimensions as Given
in Table - 4)0.
 183

Fig.1^ : The Prototype I welding screen (Design I) designed

and developed for the MHA welders.

Fig.16 : The Prototype III welding screen (Design I).

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Fig.17 : The Prototype IV welding screen (Design I).

Fig.18 : An MMA welder with the new, ergonoaically designed

welding screen (Design I), safety shoes and protective
work clothing.
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Fig.19 : The Prototype II welding screen (Design II).

Fig.20 : An MMA welder with the new, ergonomically designed

welding screen (Design II), protective work clothing
and safety shoes.
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Fig.21 : An fWA welder with the new, ergonomically designed

protective work clothing and safety shoes. A long,
narrow opening at the middle of the back resulted in
better ventilation within the clothing. Long pockets
are helpful for temporary storage and quick supply of
electrodes during work.

Fig.22 : An HKA welder with the new, ergonomically designed

protective work clothing and welding screen (Design
ID. Long narrow openings on the axillae (arm-pits)
resulted in better ventilation within the clothings.
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better ventilation and quick evaporation of sweat.

able to protect the neck of the MIA welders from uv and

thermal radiations and also from the flying hot
spatters coming from the arc.
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Fig.25 : The new, ergonomically designed, low-cost, light­

weight, tard toe, hinged-wooden-sale, heat proof, well
ventilated easy removing safety shoes for the HMA
welders.

Fig.26 : Prototype of the new, ergonomically designed electrode

holder for the IftiA welders. The new method of vise
lock gripping fixed the electrode tightly to the holder
at the required angle.
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Fig.27 : Prototype of the new, ergonomically designed electrode

holder. Very small pressure is required to release the
lock of the vise-lock gripping system.

Fig.28 : The electrode gripping portion of the new design is

made of copper for better electrical conductance.
Arrangement is made so that the cable from the welding
transformer can be connected at the front of the holder
instead of passing through the handle.
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8 — hours' duty

Time spent for Time spent for Actual working Lunch and Idle time
the preparation the auxiliary time (23.31*/.) tea time (29.81'/)
of the job
(SO. 61'/.)

Essential time for the Time spent for

work related to the auxiliary work, not
allotted workpiece related to the
allotted work piece

Figure 29. Daily activities and related time spent (*/) in 8 hours'

duty of an MMA welder.