01 Casting

A cast product or casting is produced by the pouring of molten metal into a mold where it then solidifies into
a geometric shape. In other instances, molten metal is injected into a die having a cavity in the desired shape
of the part.
Casting is generally the quickest way to produce either a small amount of prototypes or very large production
quantities. The casting process is used by almost every industry as all metals can be cast. Common mill
forms such as bar and plate are produced from cast metal.
The hallmark of a casting is its uniform grain structure. In contrast to wrought metals with their directional
grain structure, the cast structure is said to be “isotropic.” While cast material density is less than that of
wrought metals, isostatic pressing can improve mechanical properties while surface porosity can be
eliminated by sealing with either a resin or a metal coating.
Many casting processes use patterns that form the cavity of the mold and can be made of wood, plastic, or
metal. Patterns which are expendable (consumed by the mold making process or by the poured metal during
casting) are made of wax, plastic, or polystyrene foam. Patterns are oversized to make up for metal
shrinkage as it solidifies. They will also have taper (draft) to ease pattern release and make allowance for
finishing and metal transfer through the mold. Cores are also needed to create any recesses, undercuts, and
hollows required in the part.
The three primary casting processes are:
• expendable mold/reusable pattern
• expendable mold/expendable pattern
• permanent mold/no pattern
The expendable mold/reusable pattern method includes the sand mold, plaster mold, and ceramic mold
casting. Sand mold casting is the most common with virtually no limit to the size of casting that can be made.
Though not very precise in dimension or detail, sand mold casting is the least expensive. Usually found as
horizontally oriented halves, the upper part of the sand mold is called the “cope” and the lower half the
“drag.” Sands for the molds are classified as green-sand molds, no-bake molds, and in-shell molds. Each
produce castings of particular quality characteristics and detail and are also selected according to the metal
being cast and finish requires. Also used are no-bake sand molds, metal-shell molds, plaster molds, and
ceramic molds. Each is suitable in its own way for castings of a particular size, fineness of detail, and
dimensional accuracy.
The expendable mold/expendable pattern method includes investment casting and evaporative-foam
casting. Investment casting is also known as the “lost-wax process” because the pattern material, wax, is
consumed during the mold making process. Some plastics may also be substituted for the more commonly
used wax.
Investment casting patterns are produce by injection molding. As the patterns are consumed, multiple
patterns are assembled on a pattern “tree.” The subsequent shell mold is produced by dipping the pattern in
a slurry mix several times with a drying period between dips. The wax pattern is then melted out, leaving the
hollow mold. Both ferrous and non-ferrous metals can be investment cast. Such castings, usually less than
4-1/2 kilograms, exhibit close tolerances, thin cross sections, and smooth finishes.
Evaporative-foam casting refers to the use of expendable polystyrene foam patterns in molds of dry,

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unbonded sand. These patterns may be for a single part or if for a complex shape, an assembly of patterns
is used. Patterns may also be clustered to produce multiple parts in a single pouring. The advantage of the
foam method include elimination of the cope and drag, cores are not needed, light weight patterns, no
parting lines, and very smooth finishes. Many different metals can also be cast.
Permanent mold/no pattern casting is initially very expensive in producing the mold, but such molds,
machined out of metal or graphite, can be reused thousands of times. Three variation of this method include:
• permanent-mold casting
• die casting
• centrifugal casting
The permanent mold method, because of the chilling effects of the molds, produce parts of superior
mechanical properties, close tolerances, and smooth finishes. The method is well suited for casting the
nonferrous materials. The molds are usually pre-heated to help metal flow and casting may be done
horizontally as well as vertically. After pouring, the casting is cooled by auxiliary cooling systems as well as
the mass of the mold itself. Cores may be of metal, sand, or plaster. The internal mold surfaces are also
insulated and/or Lubricated with various coatings.
Die casting is a high production method for thin wall, precision, and usually smaller parts of non-ferrous
metals. Typically the molten metal is injected under high pressure into usually horizontal die assemblies. The
injection can produce either a single part or multiple parts, in which case the injected charge is called a
“shot.” The two principle types of die casting machines are the “hot chamber” and the “cold chamber.” Hot
chambers are used mainly for zinc and other low melting temperature metals. The cold chamber machines
are used for the higher melting magnesium, and copper. As a final operation, and upon release from the
mold, the ejected part goes through a trimming operation.
Centrifugal casting produces very dense parts and is used for all metal types. The casting solidifies in rapidly
rotating permanent or expendable molds. There are both “true centrifugal casting” and “semi-centrifugal
casting.” True centrifugal casting is used to produce large-diameter tubes, bi-metal tube, and rolls of virtually
any thickness and length. The outside diameter is controlled by the mold and the inside diameter by the
amount of metal poured into the mold. In the “semi” variation the mold surrounds the casting and controls the
shape being cast. These molds usually rotate horizontally while the “true” method can operate vertically as
well.

02 Die Casting
Die casting is a precision, high volume production process in which molten metal is injected under high
pressure into a die having a cavity in the desired shape of the part. Upon solidification, facilitated by a
coolant flowing through the die sections, die clamping is relaxed and the part is ejected for additional cooling
(quenching) and any required finishing, trimming, or machining.
Die casting production rates can range from dozens to thousands of parts per hour. The most common
metals used are aluminum, zinc, and magnesium alloys. Less frequently, due to their higher melting
temperatures, copper and copper alloys such as the brasses. Castability is primarily related to a metal’s
melting temperature, followed by other factors including:
• part complexity

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• minimum wall thickness
• minimum draft or taper
• required precision of the part
Zinc alloys are considered to be the most castable, followed by aluminum, magnesium, and lastly, the copper
alloys. Alloy type will also influence maximum part size. Although final part weight is considered, the more
accurate determinant is material density that is weight per unit of volume. As a comparison, the density of
zinc is .24 lb. per cubic centimeter, as opposed to .066 lb. per cc for magnesium. Thus, for a given weight, a
part cast in magnesium can be larger in size than a part of zinc or any other metal commonly used.
Die casting machines are most often hydraulically actuated and usually in the horizontal position. There are
two principle types of die casting machines in use; the hot chamber type and the cold chamber type. The hot
chamber type is used for the lower melting temperature alloys like zinc and in some instances magnesium. In
operation a reservoir of molten metal (holding pot) is seated in a furnace from which the metal is injected into
the die. Injection pressure can range from 1500 psi to more than 4500 psi.
The cold chamber machine is used primarily for the other alloys due to their higher melting temperatures.
The molten material is ladled, or in some way, fed to the die from an external furnace. Both types of
machines will use a cylindrical pressure vessel, called an “accumulator,” which is charged with nitrogen and
will boost injection pressure.
Die casting machines can be rated by clamping force capacity. Die clamping systems can use either
hydraulic, pneumatic, mechanical, or a combination of systems. Machines may also be rated by the
shotweight capacity of the injection system.
Typically, the die halves are attached to platens on the die casting machine. One platen is stationary while
the other is movable, usually in a horizontal plane. Both are heavy blocks of steel that will not deflect as
molten metal is forced into the die. The stationary platen holds the “cover half” of the die and has a hole that
is directly in line with the injection cylinder. The movable platen carries the other half, called the “ejector
half.”
After the metal solidifies and the die opens, ejector pins release the casting from that half of the die mold.
Part removal can be mechanical, manual, or by simply allowing the part to be dropped into a chute or
conveyor for trimming and/or additional quenching. Before closing for the next injection cycle, the dies are
subjected to an air blast to clean the dies, then given a lubricating spray. Excess metal trimmed from the part
in a separate operation is conveyed to the melt furnace for recycling.
Both the hot and cold die casting systems can be fully programmed for automated operation. Commands
and sequenced operations can be stored in the system computer for retrieval at any time. These commands
can include:
• injection speed
• die temperature
• die clamping force
Such parameters can be continually monitored and recorded through statistical process control (SPC) to
ensure minimum process variation and quality production.
Die construction is common to hot and cold chamber casting. Besides determining the shape of the finished
part, the dies act as a heat sink to cool the casting, provide a vent for trapped air and gases, and contain the

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mechanism to eject the finished part. These dies are usually made of hot-work tool steel, mold steel,
maraging steels, and to a lesser extent, tungsten or molybdenum alloys. They are usually machined from
solid wrought blocks, but may also be machined castings. The dies are initially expensive to produce, but
their cost can be amortized over thousands and even hundreds of thousands parts.
Typically, the dies may be of single or multiple cavities, usually used to produce multiple and identical parts.
If the parts produced are different in design, the dies are said to be “combination dies.” If differently shaped
parts are to be assembled together, they are called “family dies.”
The ejector half of the die will also contain channels or runners to allow metal flow to the die cavity gate or
gates. Die cores, either fixed or movable, may be placed in either die half. These allow holes to be cast in
various directions. Various inserts may be pre-positioned in the dies to become integral casting features. The
dies also have internal cooling conduits through which liquid is circulated. Most dies and cores will be
constructed with a slight taper or draft to facilitate part removal. The amount of draft is dependent upon the
metal’s melting temperature. In most cases, the lower the melting temperature of the melt, the less draft is
required.

03 Roll Forming
Roll Forming Process
Roll forming is a continuous process for forming sheet, strip or coiled metal stock into long shapes of
essentially uniform cross-section. The material is fed through multiple pairs of contoured forming rolls, which
progressively shape the metal until the desired cross section is produced.
Roll forming is typically a high volume production process but is also suited for shorter production runs as
well. As such, roll forming finds wide application in automotive, building, construction, office furniture,
appliance, aircraft, and
in the HVAC industries. Both ferrous and non-ferrous metals as well as some non-metallic material can be
roll formed. Mild steel and aluminum are the most common materials used in the process. Additionally,
polished, painted, coated and plated materials can also be roll formed.
Stock to be roll formed may be either pre-cut to a pre-determined length before roll forming, or post-cut
afterwards to a specified dimension, with the latter being most common.
In the pre-cut method, material passes through the rolls at fixed speeds of 50 to 250 feet, or 15 to 76 meters
per minute. Pre-cut roll forming is commonly used for low-volume production when notching is required that
cannot be easily done using post-cut lines, or when multiple profile widths require expensive and or time
consuming tool changeover.
The more productive post-cut method typically involves a stock uncoiler, a roll forming machine, a cutoff
machine, and a run out table. Production speeds average 100 to 180 feet, or 30 to 55 meters per minute, but
can be as high as 600 feet, or 185 meters per minute. Post-cutting occurs on the fly as the stock is moving.
Post-cut roll forming is also commonly augmented with a range of auxiliary equipment to perform certain
operations, such as prenotching, punching, embossing, marking, trimming, welding, curving, and die forming.
By incorporating auxiliary equipment, the post-cut method can be a complete net-shape process, fully
automated or nearly so if desired. But tool cost and tool change time are more than for the precut method.

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Roll Forming Tolerances
Roll formed product dimensional tolerances are affected by variations in stock material width and thickness,
the physical properties of the material being rolled, the quality of the tooling, machine condition, and operator
skill. Cross section dimensions are commonly held within plus or minus .010 to .030 of an inch, or .25 to .78
of a millimeter, and plus or minus one degree angularly.
Somewhat greater tolerances are necessary for gauge variations and cross-sectional features found in parts
with wide panels or deep profiles.
In general, roll forming length tolerances of plus or minus .020 to .093 of an inch, or .51 to .236 of a
millimeter are possible, depending on the length. The longer the length the greater the tolerance. Additionally,
material straightness before and after roll forming is critical. To be considered are:
• Camber, which is the deviation of a side edge from a straight line measured prior to roll forming.
• Curve, also referred to as Sweep, which is the deviation from a straight line in the horizontal plane.
• Bow, which is the vertical plane deviation from a straight line.
• Twist, which resembles a corkscrew effect, measured in degrees.
A straightening unit installed after the final roll pass is often used to minimize or eliminate the internal
stresses that cause curve, bow and twist. In some instances though, roll forming parameters can be adjusted to
produce parts with controlled curvature.
Springback and end flare are other conditions that can negatively affect the finished part. Springback occurs
when the formed part does not stress beyond its elastic limit during forming. Springback is often compensated
for by overforming the material and then allowing it to ‘spring back’ to the required part profile. End flare
occurs at the end of the formed section and is caused by released internal stresses as the part is cut-off.
Additional roll passes and avoiding pre-punched areas at the cut-off point can control the problem.
Forming Rolls
The design of the forming rollers is dependent upon several factors including:
• Number of forming passes - As the roll forming process is progressive in operation too few passes can cause
distortion and loss of tolerance, too many passes increase the final tooling cost.
• Material width - Generally determined by dividing the finished profile into its component curved and
straight sections, and then totaling these individual dimensions with subsequent width adjustments once the
part is run.
• Flower design - is a station-by-station overlay of the progressive part contours starting with the flat strip
width before forming and ending with the final desired section profile. CAD software packages are very
useful in optimizing roller design.
• Roll material - Several types of materials are used in the manufacture of the forming rolls with the most
common being oil-hardened tool steels. For extended tool life, hardened high-carbon, high-chromium tool
steels are used.
On extremely tough forming applications involving high temperatures and or abrasive materials,
aluminum/bronze or carbide rolls may be required. Where it is important to maintain pre-finished material
surfaces, chrome plated rolls, or plastic rolls made from materials such as nylon or Teflon are used.
Single rolls are often manufactured in multiple sections called split rolls. These have the advantage of lighter

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weight and ease of machining. They are also used when a tool set is intended for a family of roll formed parts.
Roll forming machines typically have a number of individual dual-spindle roll forming units mounted on a
baseplate.
In set-up, rolls are mounted and aligned on these dual-spindle roll forming units. Spacers are used to fix the
rolls in exact position on the spindles. Vertical adjustment of the top shaft position fine tunes it to
accommodate specific rolls and material thickness. There are many styles of spindle support for roll forming
machines, with the most popular type being outboard-style spindle support machines. Outboard machines
have housings supporting both ends of the spindle shafts. The outboard housing is generally adjustable along
the spindles, lessening the distance between supports to accommodate small shapes of thick gage.
The manner in which roll forming units are mounted on a common baseplate largely determines the types of
shapes formed on a particular machine. The most common types of roll forming machines include:
• Single-duty machines, which are made for one particular cross-sectional profile or tool set and are not
normally designed for convenient roll change.
• Standard/conventional machines, which have their outboard supports that are easily removed, permitting
tool change to produce various profiles.
• Side-by-side machines, which accommodate multiple profiles by having more than one set of roll tools
mounted on the spindle shaft at the same time.
• Double-head machines, which have two separate sets of housings and roll shafts that face one another. The
housings are mounted on an adjustable plate mechanism so that they can be shifted to change overall width
while maintaining the same profile for edge formation.
• Rafted machines have housings and spindle shafts with one particular set of roll tools mounted to it.
However, several forming units are on rafts or sub plates that are removable from the roll-former base. On
tool change, these individual rafts are removed and replacement rafts installed holding tooling that has been
set-up off-line.
There are numerous drive systems for roll forming machines with the most flexible being universal-drives.
Universal drive machines have a series of worm-driven gear boxes with outputs that transfer the power source
to the individual roll shafts through a double-jointed universal coupling.
Various lubricants and lubricating systems are used in roll forming. These lubricants can be classified as
evaporative compounds, chemical solutions or synthetics, micro-emulsions or semi-synthetics, macro
emulsions or water solubles and petroleum-based lubricants. Application methods include air or airless
spraying, wiping, roll coating, dripping or flooding and the systems can be highly automated.

04 Forging
Forging is the controlled deformation of metal into a specific shape by compressive forces. The forging
process goes back to 8000 B.C. and evolved from the manual art of simple blacksmithing. Then as now, a
series of compressive hammer blows performs the shaping or forging of the part. Modern forging uses
machine driven impact hammers or presses which deform the workpiece by controlled pressure.
The forging process is superior to casting in that the parts formed have denser microstructures, more defined
grain patterns, and less porosity, making such parts much stronger than a casting. All metals and alloys are
forgeable, but each will have a forgeability rating from high to low or poor. The factors involved are the

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material’s composition, crystal structure and mechanical properties all considered within a temperature
range. The wider the temperature range, the higher the forgeability rating. Most forging is done on heated
workpieces. “Cold forging” can occur at room temperatures. The most forgeable materials are aluminum,
copper, and magnesium. Lower ratings are applied to the various steels, nickel, and titanium alloys. Hot
forging temperatures range from 200o F (93o C) to 3,000o F (1,650o C) for refractory metals.
Types of Forging
The two basic types are open-die forging and impression or closed die forming. Additional variations include
seamless ring forging, hot-die forging, and isothermal forging. Open-die forging is performed on ingots,
billets, or a pre-formed shape. There is little restriction to metal flow and as the repeated hammer blows
reduce the cross section of the workpiece, its length can increase. Upsetting and bulging are other results in
open die forging. Bulging will of course reduce the piece’s length. Lengthening and upsetting are done as the
piece is incrementally rotated on its longitudinal axis and advanced lengthwise through the die. There is
basically no limit to the size of a forging made with the open-die method. However, most work will require
extensive machining to achieve their shape or net shape. Open forge die shapes are usually flat, V-shape, or
semi-rounds. Die accessories include saddles, blocks, rings, mandrels, and punches. All these are
commonly made of hot-work tool steels or medium carbon steels. During forging graphite based lubricants
are used.
As the work done in open forging is usually large and cumbersome, heavy duty and often mechanically
powered material handling equipment is needed such as cranes, fork lifts, and various rotating devices.
lClosed die or impression forging is done in one or in a series of die impressions or die cavities. These dies
are often heated to maintain proper forging temperatures. This type of forging is often done in heavy presses
as well as with hammers.
Workpieces may be round or rectangular in cross section, or flat discs. Simple shapes may be forged in a
single stroke while more complicated pieces may pass through several strokes and die cavities before
achieving their final form. During the final forging, a thin layer of metal, called the “flash” will flow out
between the dies. This flash is subsequently removed manually or by special trimming dies. With a carefully
controlled pre-form size and shape, flashless forging is possible. As in open die forging, graphite lubricants
are used.
Water or oil based, such lubricants enhance metal flow, minimize die wear, retard heat loss, and aid in
releasing the work from the die. The final forged part is much closer to net shape than with open-die forging
and is of higher quality, both dimensionally and metallurgically.
Seamless ring forging is the circumferential expansion and cross section of a centrally pierced, disk shaped
work piece. Both exterior and interior profiles can be obtained on the ring rolling machine which consists of a
mandrel or undriven wheel and a driven outer wheel. As the distance between the rollers and mandrel
closes, the forging action takes place. Products produced include gear blanks, bearing races, valve bodies,
wheels, and turbine components.
Hot die and isothermal forging utilize heated dies to maintain forging temperatures in the workpiece. While
hot die forging maintains temperatures below the workpiece’s forging temperatures, isothermal forging
maintains temperatures at actual forging heat. These types of forging are used on aluminum and copper
alloys and others with a narrow forging temperature range. Products produced are more precise in

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dimension and geometry, can be more complex in design, and have a smoother surface finish.
Computers have become critically important in forging operations. Die designs can be quickly devised. The
computer is used to arrive at optimum forging sequences based on size and part geometry. Computer
controlled forging systems are virtually fully automatic, thus reducing labor costs and scrap, while increasing
productivity and quality.

05 Extrusion Processes
The Extrusion Process
Extrusion is a method of forming in which metals or plastics are forced through a die or series of dies,
resulting in a specific shape of constant cross section. With the proper tooling, extrusions may be tapered or
stepped. Extrusions can be either very thick in cross section or very thin and be either solid or hollow. The
extruded stock, which can be 100 feet in length or longer, is then cut to a convenient stock size and used as
specific products, assembly components, or as raw stock material for further processing. Extrusion size is
expressed as a circle size which relates to the smallest circle diameter which can enclose an extrusion’s
cross section.
Metal Extrusion
Metal extrusion processes may be performed hot, warm, or cold. Each method has its own unique operating
parameters.
Hot Extrusion
Hot Extrusion uses heated feedstock, called a billet, that ranges in temperature from 200° to 2,300°
Fahrenheit, or 90° to 1,260° Celsius depending on the material.
Aluminum is the most common hot extruded material, with billet temperatures ranging from 575° to 1,100°
Fahrenheit, or 300° to 600° Celsius. Hot extrusion is always performed at temperatures much higher than the
recrystallization temperature of the material to be extruded. The heated billet is confined in a container, force
is applied and the billet is extruded through a die or dies.
Hot extrusion is used to produce close tolerance dimensions as well as smooth, fine surfaces. Additionally,
and depending on the metal used, improved microstructures are obtained. The process is also very
economical in that most of the metal extruded is usable.
The primary type of hot extrusion is direct, or forward, extrusion. Direct extrusion is commonly performed in
horizontal hydraulic presses. The heated billet is loaded into a thick-walled container from which it is pushed
through the extrusion die by a ram. Between the ram and the billet is an intermediate dummy block.
Lubrication is used to reduce friction along the billet length and its container. In operation, force increases
rapidly as the billet is upset to fill the container, then increases further as breakthrough force before extrusion
begins. Upon breakthrough, the force declines as billet length decreases until a minimum force is reached.
as the billet thins, the force rapidly rises again to continue metal flow radially toward the die opening.
Hot extrusion presses are rated in force capacity which relates to available ram pressure on the billet. Ram
pressure requirements are based upon:
Billet material and temper
Cross section dimensions
Complexity of the extrusion

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 Extrusion length and temperature
Another factor in determining ram force requirements is the extrusion ratio. This is determined by dividing
the cross sectional area of the container liner by the cross sectional area of the die openings.
Warm and Cold Extrusion Processes Warm extrusion refers to the extruding of feedstock or billet while it is
above room temperature, but well below the recrystallization temperatures used in hot extrusion. Cold
extrusion refers to extrusion at room temperatures. Because the feedstock is at lower temperatures, no micro-
structural changes occur during processing.
Warm and cold extrusion processes increase the strength and hardness of the finished extrusion. Reduced
heat also lowers pollution concerns and eliminates costly high temperature tooling. While virtually all metals
may be warm and cold extruded, those having the highest ductility are more suited for processing. Warm and
cold extrusion processes are commonly integrated into continuous and semi-continuous manufacturing
operations, with the three primary methods including:
Indirect extrusion
Combination extrusion
Impact extrusion
Indirect extrusion, which is also called backward extrusion, is used to produce hollow shapes with the inside
diameter defined by the male punch and the outside diameter controlled by the female die.
Combination extrusion combines various types of extruding including direct and indirect methods to produce
more complex shapes.
Impact extrusion is similar to the other extrusion methods described, but is a much faster process. Using
shorter strokes and shallower dies, punch impact moves the feedstock slug either up, down, or in both
directions at once, without being completely confined by either the punch or die walls. Ductile and low
melting point metals such as tin, aluminum, zinc, and copper are well suited for impact extruding.

Plastics Extrusion
Plastics extrusion is a continuous process in which thermoplastic feedstock is converted to a molten, viscous
fluid and then extruded into various shapes such as bar, rod, tube, and pipe. Plastic extrusion is also used to
produce various profiles such as angles and channel shapes as well as mono-filaments and wiring insulation.
The most commonly extruded thermoplastics include nylon, polycarbonate, polyethylene, and polyvinyl
chloride. Plastic extrusions are performed in a screw extrusion machine, with the machine’s main
components including a hopper, externally heated feed barrel, helically fluted extruder screw, and die
assembly.
As the feedstock enters the feed barrel it is moved forward by the rotating screw. The feedstock is heated by
its frictional movement as it is dragged forward. External heating bands help to bring the material to its final
temperature.
Typical extruder screws move the thermoplastic material through four zones:
Feed zone – in which trapped air is forced from the stock. The feed zone has a constant flight depth. The
flight depth is the distance between the major diameter at the top of the flight, and minor diameter of the
screw at the base of the flight.
Transition zone – in this zone the flight depth decreases, compressing and plasticized the thermoplastic

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material.
Mixing zone – here the flight depth is constant and there may be a special mixing element to ensure the
feedstock is completely plasticized and mixed into a homogenous blend.
Metering zone – the flight depth here is also constant but much smaller than in the mixing zone. This section
acts as a pump forcing the material through the extruder die assembly.
The two principal plastic extrusion processes are:
Profile extrusion
Blown film extrusion
Profile extrusion is a horizontal process producing long continuous shapes which are cooled in long cooling
tanks filled with water after exiting the die assembly. A final cutting operation reduces the extrusion to stock
lengths for later use.
Blown film extrusion is a vertical process where molten plastic passes through a die having a 360 degree
annular opening. The tubular film produced is then filled with air. As a result, the tube expands out into a
bubble having a diameter larger than the diameter of the annular opening of the die. As the tube cools, it is
pulled up and flattened as it passes through a series of rolls. These rolls maintain tension on the plastic film
as it is eventually wound into a coil for later use.

06 Tube Bending
Tube Materials and Types
Metal tubing is used for a wide variety of industrial and commercial products. Tube materials include steels,
aluminum, copper, and brass. Tubing shapes include round, square, rectangular, oval, and special shapes.
Tubing may be produced by roll forming, drawing, and extrusion and they have a variety of seam
configurations. Seams may be welded, open, lock-seams, or tubes may be seamless.
Tube stock is cut to length by either sawing, shearing, disc cutting, lathe cutting, or laser cutting methods.
Once cut to size, tubes are processed into components by bending and/or tube end forming operations.
Tube Bending Basics
When tubing is bent to a specific shape or geometry, force must be applied so as to exceed the materials
'yield point', which is the material's capability to resist permanent deformation, while staying below the
material’s 'ultimate tensile strength', which is the limit of the material's ability to resist tearing. As the tube is
bent over a specific radius the outside wall will stretch in tension while the inside wall bends under
compressive forces. The boundary line through the center of the tube, between the tension and compressed
zones is called the 'neutral axis'. The 'neutral axis' is the location from which all dimensional calculations are
made.
Bending Operations
Tube bending can be done manually, semi-automatically, with CNC equipment, or with dedicated machines.
Manual bending involves minimum costs but is not reliable in regards to accuracy and repeatability. Manual
bending is usually applied to tubing less than one inch in diameter or cross section. Semi-automatic bending
uses machines with either hydraulic or electric motors providing the bending force. Typically the tube must
be manually repositioned before each subsequent bend. Thus repeatability and accuracy may still be an
issue. In contrast, CNC or computer numerically controlled machines incorporating servo-drives can

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accurately control the degree of bend, distances between bends, as well as the plane of the bend. Dedicated
bending machines are designed for specific parts or families of parts.
During some bending operations an internal mandrel might be required to prevent excessive distortion on the
tube wall. There are several types of mandrels including the plug mandrel, the form mandrel, the single-ball
mandrel, and the multi-ball mandrel.
The mandrel is placed inside the workpiece at a position tangent to the actual beginning of the bend radius.
The extraction of the mandrel after bending is facilitated by some form of extraction mechanism.
There are several different bending methods, the use of which depends upon the tube diameter, wall
thickness, minimum bend radius required, and part complexity. These bending methods include:
• Rotary draw bending
• Compression bending
• Ram bending
• Roll bending
Rotary draw bending uses a movable bending form or die, along with a clamping die, a pressure die, and a
wiper die, and is the most common tube bending method. Rotary draw bending can produce bends up to 180
degrees with standard tooling.
Compression bending is similar to rotary bending except that the bending form remains stationary rather than
rotating with the workpiece. This method is used where there is minimum clamping space between bends.
Ram bending uses either a horizontal or vertical press to force a die or forming shoe to against a workpiece
supported by supporting dies. These dies are also contoured like the die or forming shoe to match the profile
of the tube. As force is applied the supporting dies rotate or swivel, following and supporting the workpiece
during the forming cycle.
Roll bending is used to produce large radius bends on heavy walled tubing. Roll bending is not typically used
to bend thin wall tubing due to the high degree of wall stretching and thinning that occurs with the process.
Roll bending uses three forming rolls arranged in a pyramid configuration, either in a horizontal or vertical
position. Each roll has approximately the same diameter and all are contoured to match the cross-sectional
shape of the workpiece. Two of the rolls are fixed while the third is adjusted to determine the finished bend
radius. Roll bending can produce a multiple radius part, full circles, and helixes on tube, pipe, solid, as well
as extruded material.
Tube End Forming
Tube end forming methods are used to alter a tube at its end. Tube end forms are required for many
applications, such as creating a connection to another component, such as a tube or fitting, or to achieve a
close-tolerance fit for certain fluid-handling systems. There are many basic forms that can be applied to the
end of a tube, including:
• Reduction
• Expansion
• Flaring
• Beading
In tube end reduction, the tube is typically held stationary on a ram-forming machine while a reduction punch
is forced axially over the end of the tube to reduce the diameter. This reduction in diameter places the tube

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end section under predominately compressive stresses. Additionally, there is an increase in tube wall
thickness and tube end length.
tube end expansion, the expanded tubular diameter is placed under predominately tensile stresses,
resulting in a decrease in tube wall thickness and tube end length.
Tube end flaring is the opening, or expanding outward, of the end of a tube. There are several types of tube
end flares, including single flares, which can be performed in a single set-up, and inside double flares, which
use a two-flare punch operation within the same tooling.
Beading is a projection or projections used around a tube end to provide strength. Beading is commonly
used for close-tolerance connections. Beads can be generated using a variety of methods, with bead rolling
being one of the most common. Beads produced are of two types, external tube beads, and internal tube
beads, which are also referred to as 'grooves'.

7.1 Sheet Metal Shearing & Bending

Shearing and Bending
The two most basic and oldest metal working operations are shearing and bending. Shearing is defined as
the mechanical cutting of large sheets of metal into smaller pieces of predetermined sizes. A shearing
operation that completes an entire perimeter is known as blanking, with the resulting workpiece being called
a blank.
Bending is defined as the creation of three dimensional shapes out of two dimensional stock. There is
virtually an unlimited variety of shapes that can be produced in both sheetmetal and plate thickness’ by
bending.
Shearing Machines
Most shearing operations are accomplished by the action of two blades, one fixed and one moving vertically,
meeting progressively from one side of the material to the other much like ordinary hand shears. The angular
alignment of the blades is called the rake. Also to be considered is the blade or knife clearance to each
other. Both rake and clearance are a function of the type and thickness of the material to be cut.
The “slip-plane” is the final cracking from both the top and bottom of the work after the descending upper
blade partially cuts through the work. This upper blade is usually inclined in relation to the bottom blade, 1/2
to 2-1/2 degrees. This concentrates cutting pressure exactly at the juncture of the blades and assures a cut
exactly parallel to the blades. The slight offset also helps clean material from between the blades.
Shearing is also done on a “shearing die” mounted in a stamping press, however most shearing is
accomplished with a machine designed especially for the operation and is called a “shear.”
The typical shear consists of:
a fixed bed to which one blade is attached
a vertically moving crosshead which mounts on the upper blade
a series of hold-down pins or feet which hold the material in place while the cutting occurs
a gaging system, either front, back, or squaring arm, to produce specific
workpiece sizes
Shears may be operated manually, mechanically, hydraulically, or pneumatically. They can also be classified
by their design. “Gap” and “gapless” shears are defined by their side frames and the maximum size sheet

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they can handle. “Right angle” shears have two blades set at a 90 degree angle to each other and will cut
simultaneously in two directions. “CNC” shears are programmable to cut various sizes by automatically
feeding material into the blades. “Ironworkers” are designed to cut angle and bar stock and to perform
punching operations.
The sharpness of the knives or blades critically determine the edge quality of the cut and the accurate size of
the workpiece. Dull or improperly gapped or positioned blades will create in the cut piece, either:
a camber or deviation from a straight edge on the drop side of the shear
a bow which is the tendency of the sheared part to arch in the center
a twist which is the angular distortion of the part from end to end
Another common shearing operation is known as “slitting.” This operation begins with a master coil of a
given width. Material from the master coil is fed through a series of rotary knives set to produce a group of
more narrow stock widths for subsequent processing.
Bending
Bending produces shapes in metal by the exertion of force beyond the material’s yield point but below it’s
maximum tensile strength. During bending, the metal is stretched over it’s external radius and compressed
through it’s internal radius. The mid-point between these points is called the neutral axis and is the location
from which mathematical calculations begin.
Bending can be performed in stamping dies designed for forming, but the greater majority of bends are made
in “press brakes.” Like many other machines used in metal fabrication press brakes may be mechanical or
hydraulic in operation. In a typical bending operation, a piece of stock is placed between a set of upper and
lower dies. Then a moving ram lowers the upper die, forcing the work into the fixed lower die. In some press
brake designs, a lower die raises up against a fixed upper die.
Principle terms used in bending include:
bend allowance refers to mathematical factors which determine the final part size
bend angle is usually the included angle of the bent workpiece. it can also refer to the supplementary
angle formed by the two bent tangent lines.
bend radius refers to the distance from the tangents that extend from the remaining flat surfaces of the
part
springback is the tendency of the bent flange to return back to its original shape. Such springback can
amount from 2 to 4 degrees depending upon the material
Press brake operations are divided into two categories:
air bending
bottom bending
In the air bending mode, the male die does not force the workpiece completely into the female bottom die.
Less pressure or force is required than in bottom bending. However, there are trade offs in respect to
springback and bent flange accuracy.
In bottom bending, the work is completely pressed into the female die and the internal radius is accurately
formed by the male die. Thus consistently accurate flange sizes are possible. However, bottom bending does
have limitations in respect to maximum work thickness, usually no greater than 1/8 inch.
Dies used in press brake work are of four major types:

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 acute angle dies, used mostly for air bending
gooseneck dies, used for bending return flanges
offset dies which produce two bends with a single press stroke
rotary dies which, as they move upon the work, form the bend by forcing it over a die anvil
Gaging, which means positioning the work between the closing dies is accomplished by pins or stops located
usually behind the dies. These devices are often computer controlled, allowing quick, repeatable set-ups for
maximum press brake productivity.
Another bending operation is called “folding.” A folding machine uses a bending leaf located in front of
upper and lower clamping jaws. Bends can be made between zero and 180 degrees, making the folding
machine sometimes more versatile than the press brake.

7.2 Sheet Metal Stamping Presses

Stamping Presses
Stamping presses utilize the force of a moving ram, or slide, to transmit force, or an amount of tonnage, to
specific tooling in order to achieve a product’s final shape, often with little or no scrap and, whenever
possible, with minimal operator intervention.
A wide variety of parts are formed in a similarly wide variety of press sizes and types. The moving forces of
the press are generated by either mechanical or hydraulic mechanisms.
Simple, single dimension stampings can be accomplished with small bench top presses generating as little
as five tons. Larger, more geometric shapes are formed with very large presses rated in thousands of tons.
Press speed may also vary from 10 to 18 strokes per minute to as fast as 1800 strokes per minute.
Both the hydraulic and the mechanical press are classified by the type of frame upon which the moving
elements of the press are mounted. The two most common frame types are the gap-frame, or “C” frame, and
the straightside press. Each have their own advantages and disadvantages.
The “C” type press allows easy access to three sides of the die area. They require less floor space, and in
ranges from 35 to 60 tons they may cost half as much as a similar sized straightside press. However, the “C”
press, by its design, is prone to angular misalignment as the open frame deflects as force is brought to bear
on the die or tooling. Although such misalignment is not always a problem, it is overcome by using heavier
and thus more expensive presses.
A popular variation of the gap frame press is the open back inclinable or “OBI” press. By pivoting the frame,
usually backwards, on its base, finished part or scrap discharge is more easily facilitated. However, it’s the
open back stationary (OBS) which is the more popular of the two. OBS presses use timed blasts of air,
mechanical devices, or conveyor system to discharge parts or scrap.
Straightside presses are so named because of the vertical columns or uprights on either side of the machine.
This design eliminates the problem of angular deflection. Also, die life and part accuracy are enhanced. The
four principle components of the straightside press are:
• The crown which supports the motor, flywheel, and other driving mechanisms.
• The columns which support the crown and are fitted with adjustable guides called gibs which insure
parallelism, squareness, and proper movement of press components.
• The bed or foundation of the press.

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• The bolster which mounts on the press bed and accommodates the die while strengthening the bed.
Mechanical presses have an electric motor that turns a flywheel. The flywheel revolves around a crankshaft
until engaged by a clutch device. Then, through a series of drive train components, the energy of the rotating
flywheel is transmitted to the vertical movement of the slide or ram.
There are three basic drive train variations. In the direct drive arrangement, the drive motor, through a belt
arrangement, rotates the flywheel. This method provides the highest speeds, are more easily maintained
while losing less mechanical energy. However, to gain their maximum force, which only occurs near the
bottom of the ram stroke, the press must always be operated at its maximum speed. There is also some
angular misalignment as torque is applied to only one end of the crankshaft. In other drive arrangements
using single and double gear reductions along with eccentric gear drives, the misalignment problems are
eliminated and more power for the forming and the deep drawing of larger parts is possible. Other important
components of the mechanical press are the clutch and braking systems. While the clutch allows the energy
of the revolving flywheel to be transmitted to the crankshaft, the braking system holds the ram in position
when the clutch is disengaged.
The major consideration in the selection of a mechanical press is the force capacity or force that can be
exerted at a specified distance above the bottom of the stroke. This is expressed in tons or metrically in
kilonewtons.
Force capacity is determined by flywheel energy (speed) and torque capacity which is the press’
ability to transmit energy through the drive train and ram into the die. Geared presses do not increase force
capacity. The gear ratio that is present is primarily a means to obtain the most efficient flywheel speed, and
thereby enhancing torque capacity.
The definition of a “high speed mechanical press” is generally accepted as being one capable of 300 strokes
per minute and higher. The press speed for small high volume parts can be as fast as 1400 strokes per
minute.
While the mechanical press remains the most common, the hydraulic press is gaining popularity, having
some distinct advantage. The full force of the press can be delivered at any point of the stroke. Deep drawing
and forming require strong forces high in the stroke. Also, the stroke of the hydraulic press can be adjusted
to facilitate part clearance between cycles. The ability to pre-set the working hydraulic pressure allows the
use of many different tool and die heights and the forming of varying work thickness’.
Press Selection
There is no single universal press that can provide productive and cost efficient operation. Compromises
must be made in order to use the press for more than just one type of stamping. Such compromises include
consideration of the following primary factors:
• Press size
• Force available
• Energy
• Speed
Other considerations can include:
• Size and geometry of the work
• Number of operations to be performed

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• Quantities and production rates
• Accuracy
• Finish requirements
• Equipment costs
Such costs would also include the control systems for the press. As stamping becomes more automated, the
use of CNC systems and various electro-mechanical and solid state control devices become necessary.
Additionally, devices and systems to feed material to the press must also be factored in. There are
mechanical blank handling systems where manual handling is not practical due to speed and size. High
volume feeding is done with coil stock which also requires an investment in coil feeding equipment.
Press Feeding
Coil processing significantly improves the efficiency of sheet metal stamping operations. Because the coil is
fed continuously through the system, production is uninterrupted. In addition, coil processing lines can
eliminate the need for separate blanking presses and reduce storage and handling requirements.
The basic functions of most coil-processing lines include:
• Uncoiling
• Straightening or leveling the coil stock
• Feeding the coil stock
• Scrap processing
Pay-off reel spindles are used to support and uncoil the sheet metal coil stock. For coils of thicker material
and where surface finish is not critical, coil cradles may be used.
Sheet metal stock, as it is uncoiled, has a set, or curvature, which the straightener or leveler removes by
flexing the material between opposing, adjustable rollers as it moves toward the press. This provides flat
material for feeding into the stamping die.
Automatic feed mechanisms using slide, roll, or gripper feed systems move the coil stock to the die. Slide
feeds have grippers which move the coil material a predetermined distance, release, and return for the next
cycle. Roll feeds are the most common with intermittently driven, opposed rollers which allow the coil stock
to dwell during the working stage of the press stroke. These feed systems are usually press driven using air or
hydraulic power.
Independently powered feed rolls driven by digitally controlled servomotors are also used, providing various
feeding modes such as joggle, zig-zag, oscillating, and shuttle feeds. Computer programming for the servo
system results in higher production per press stroke and less scrap generation.
All coil production will generate an amount of scrap. In some cases scrap processing can be a function of the
stamping die itself. Most often scrap is processed by separate mechanisms which may be press actuated or
independently powered.
7.3 Sheet Metal Coil Processing
Coiled Sheet Metal Processing
Sheet metal stock is produced in varying widths and material thicknesses. This stock is typically coiled for
efficient handling, transport and further processing. Coiled sheet metal is processed in several ways:
• It can be slit into a number of individual coils of reduced width
• It may be sheared into rectangular or irregularly shaped blanks for further processing

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• It may be fed directly into a stamping press or other machinery for parts production
Coil Slitting
Slitting is a shearing process in which the width of an original, or master, coil is reduced into multiple
narrower coils. A wide range of materials and thicknesses can be slit, ranging from thin foils to thick plate.
Normally, the outside edges of the master coil are trimmed. This creates an accurate register cut, providing a
reference point from which the other cuts can be made.
Slitting is performed on slitting lines which consist of four basic devices:
• The uncoiler, or pay-off reel, which tightly grips the master coil on its inside diameter using an
expandable mandrel. The coil is fed into the slitter by either rotating or jogging the mandrel.
• The slitter, which consists of two parallel arbors mounted with rotary cutting knives. These knives
partially penetrate the coil stock causing a crack or fracture on both sides of the stock, separating the
material.
• A tensioning device, which is placed between the slitter and the subsequent recoiler. A tensioning device
is needed because the master coil is crowned or larger in diameter in the center of its width than at the
edges. Without a tensioning device the slit material from the center of the master coil would take up more
quickly while the outboard strips would hang loosely.
• The recoiler, which takes up the slit coils on a driven, expandable mandrel. The recoiler mandrel is fitted
with separator discs which prevent interleaving of the narrower coil widths.
Other slitting line equipment can include:
• Scrap disposal machinery
• Edge conditioning equipment
• Packaging devices
There are two basic types of slitting lines:
• The pull-through slitting line
• The loop slitting line
On pull-through slitting lines the recoiler provides the power to pull the coil material off the uncoiler reel,
through the slitter, and recoil the processed strips.
In loop slitting lines, a pit is incorporated into the line. The processed coil strips are looped into the pit which
assists in absorbing the strip length differential within the slit coils. The slitter typically provides the power to
both uncoil and slit the material, while the recoiler provides the power to rewind the material.
Coil Blanking
Medium to large size sheet metal parts are produced from stacked blanks fed into a stamping press. These
blanks are generated from coiled stock using either cut-to-length shearing lines or blanking presses.
Critical to subsequent processing is the need to flatten the naturally occurring curvature, or set of the master
coil stock. To achieve this, the coiled material is fed through a straightener or leveler. As the sheet metal
material moves through the straightener or leveler, it gets flexed between opposing, adjustable rollers. This
flexing results in flattening of the material. Straighteners only remove coil set, but levelers, in addition to
removing coil set, also improve flatness by correcting some common defects found in coiled sheet metal
stock, including:
• Wavy edges, where the outer strip edges are longer than the center

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• Center buckling, or oil-canning, where the center of the strip is longer than the edges
After straightening and leveling the blanks are sheared to size. This is most commonly accomplished using
either the stationary-shear, or loop-type cut-to-length line or the flying-shear cut-to-length line. The primary
difference between the two cut-to-length lines is that the coil is momentarily stopped during shearing on the
stationary-shear line, while the shear travels and cuts the continuously moving coil material on the flyingshear
line.
While regularly shaped blanks are produced by direct shearing operation, more complex and irregular
shapes are produced with blanking presses. Such presses may be either high speed eccentric or hydraulic
types presses having a maximum of 80 strokes per minute. Holes and slots may also be produced during the
basic blanking operation.
Coil Processing Lines
Coil processing significantly improves the efficiency of sheet metal stamping operations as well as other
processing lines, such as roll-forming and duct work manufacturing. Because the coil is fed continuously
through the system, production is uninterrupted. In addition, coil processing lines can eliminate the need for
separate blanking presses and reduce storage and handling requirements.
The basic components of a coil processing line include:
• Pay-off reels, upon which the coil is loaded with a variety of coil handling equipment. For coils of thicker
material and where surface finish is not critical, coil cradles may be used.
• straightening or leveling equipment to insure the coil stock is flat.
• Automatic coil stock feed mechanisms, such as slide, roll, or gripper feed systems to move the coil stock.
Coil stock feed systems can be press driven or independently driven. The most popular and versatile feed
system employs independently powered feel rolls driven by digitally controlled servomotors.
All coil production will generate an amount of scrap. In some cases scrap processing can be a function of the
stamping die itself. Most often scrap is processed by separate mechanisms which may be press actuated or
independently powered.
For high production coil operations, a continuous and uninterrupted flow of coil stock is needed. For this
purpose coil-to-coil welding stations are placed so that the leading edge of the new coil can be welded to the
trailing edge of the previous coil, eliminating the need to thread a new coil into the line. To facilitate the
welding, a coil or strip accumulator is used to hold enough coil to keep the line running while the weld is
taking place.
7.4 Sheet Metal Stamping Dies & Processes
Sheet Metal Stamping
Stamping presses and stamping dies are tools used to produce high volume sheet metal parts. The press
provides the force to close the stamping dies where they shape and cut the sheet metal into finished parts.
Production stamping is generally performed using sheet metal materials .020” to .080” thick, but the process
also can be applied to foils as thin as .001” or to plate stock with thickness' approaching 1.000”.
Formability is the primary attribute of sheet metal material. Formability is further defined as the materials
ability to be:
• bent
• stretched

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• drawn
The metallurgical term for these qualities is “ductility”. Ductility is the materials ability to deform and
elongate
without fracture. The extent to which a stamping is subjected to such deformation is directly related to the
part’s overall shape and geometry.
Other factors also influence the material’s formability. They include:
• the die design
• the press
• the press speed
• lubrication
• sheet metal feeding mechanisms
• monitoring and control systems
Sheet Metal Stamping Dies
The word “die” is a generic term used to describe the tooling used to produce stamped parts. A die set
assembly consisting of a male and female component is the actual tool that produces the shaped stamping.
The male and female components work in opposition to both form and punch holes in the stock. The upper
half of the die set, which may be either the male or female, is mounted on the press ram and delivers the
stroke action. The lower half is attached to an intermediate bolster plate which in turn is secured to the press
bed. Guide pins are used to insure alignment between the upper and lower halves of the die set.
Sheet Metal Stamping Dies & Processes
Fundamental Manufacturing Processes Study Guide, DV11PUB9 - 2 -
The most common types of dies perform cutting and forming. Cutting dies are used to shear sheet material
into what is called a blank. These blanks are then exposed to blanking dies which cut the entire perimeter of
the part, or to forming dies where the blank is stamped into a part. Punching is another function of cutting
dies. Punching is the cutting of a slug from the sheet metal stock to produce a hole or slot. Cutting dies are
also used to trim excess metal from around a formed part.
Hole punching and other cutting operations require specific and carefully maintained clearances between the
punch (male component) and the die (female component). The setting of the required clearances is
determined by both the stock thickness and temper. In general, die clearances increase as the stock
thickness increases. The depth of punch penetration into the sheet metal stock will also increase as softer
stock is used.
Forming is a general term used to describe a stamped part whose shape and contour is reproduced directly
from the shape and contour of a die set. The main forming operations accomplished with press mounted dies
are:
• drawing
• bending
• flanging
• hemming
Drawing, or draw forming, involves forcing a blank deeply into a die cavity and shaping it into the shape and
contour of the punch face and sides. Without sufficient formability qualities, drawn blanks are subject to

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wrinkling, thinning, and fracturing. Draw forming requires an addition to the die set called a “blankholder”.
The function of the blankholder, usually a ring through which the punch and ram pass, is to control the metal
flow as it is forced into the die cavity. In practice, the blankholder must exert less pressure against the blank
than the punch, so metal can flow into the die; yet it must exert enough pressure to prevent the material from
wrinkling.
Bending is a relatively simple forming operation which provides rigidity and shape to sheet metal parts.
Similar to bending is flanging. However a flange is significantly smaller in dimension than the rest of the part.
The functions of a flange include:
• giving a more finished appearance
• rigidity
• edge strengthening
• providing a fastening or attachment surface
Hemming is the folding over of a short flange upon itself to form a smooth, rounded edge and to facilitate the
attachment of mating parts.
Multiple stamping operations may be performed within a single die, or at a number of die stations within a die
set and with a single stroke of the press.
Single station dies can be either compound dies or combinations dies. A compound die performs basic
cutting operations such as blanking and hole punching to produce parts. Combination dies combine shaping
and forming functions with cutting operation to manufacture parts.
Multiple station dies are arranged so that a series of sequential operations are accomplished with each press
stroke. Two die types are used; progressive and transfer. With progressive dies, coil stock is fed into the
press. Individual stampings are connected with a carrier strip as they progress through the various die
operations and are ultimately separated and then discharged from the press. In transfer die operations
individual stock blanks are mechanically moved from die station to die station within a single die set. Large
stampings are done with tandem press lines where the stock is moved from press to press in which specific
operations, such as drawing or trimming, are performed.
Die Lubrication
The resistance of the sheet metal stock to the forces exerted by the moving dies creates friction. For this
reason, lubrication is vital for successful sheet metal forming. A lubrication's function is to minimize contact
between the tooling and the work piece. This results in reduced tonnage requirements, longer tooling life,
and improved product quality.
Lubricants range from light mineral oils to high viscosity drawing compounds. They may be oil base, water
soluble, or synthetic materials. These lubricants may be applied in a variety of ways, including:
• manually by roller or brush
• drip
• machine roller
• spraying
• flooding
Stamping Analysis
Die making is as much of an art as a science. When all the dynamics of stamping are taken into account, the

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resulting part may not meet all expectations. To help fine tune the stamping process and finalize die design,
die makers use an analytical tool called Circle Grid Analysis, or CGA. The application of CGA involves the
etching of a pattern of small circles on the surface of the blank. This pattern deforms along with the blank as
it is formed, providing point-to-point calculations of the deformation that occurred. Analyzing this stamped
grid pattern suggests the location and type of rework that must be performed on the dies to produce easily
manufactured parts. The CGA process is repeated on the die until an acceptable part is produced.
Computer software programs are available that can assure that proposed stamping designs can be
manufactured with certainty, with the objective of minimizing the lengthy fine-tuning process of die making.
Analytical tools such as finite element modeling, or FEM, are also used especially for facilitating deep draw
progressive design with minimum trial and error situations.

8. Punch Presses
The Punch Press
Although the punching of holes is often accomplished with die sets that also perform bending and forming, a
punch press is designed specifically for the making of various shaped holes and cutouts on sheet metal and
plate material. The punch press is fitted with punches and dies of the size and shape of the hole required.
For irregular and non-standard holes, the modern punch press is capable of nibbling. This refers to a series
of successive “hits” following a predetermined pattern that creates the cutout.
The punching action is accomplished by a vertical moving ram that forces the punch through the material
and into a die through which the resulting slug is ejected. Additionally, a device to hold the material in place
as the punch is withdrawn, call a stripper, is often an integral part of the punch tool.
The press ram may be activated manually, mechanically, or hydraulically. The manual press, usually a
tabletop model, is capable of generating about four tons of force. Mechanical punch presses use a system of
flywheels, gears, and eccentrics to stroke the ram. Hydraulic presses use oil pressure to perform the
punching action. These last two types can generate from 8 to 60 tons of force with some larger models
creating over 150 tons. Mechanical presses can operate faster than hydraulic models but the latter can exert
more punching pressure more uniformly on the thicker workpiece.
Press Capacity is determined by not only available tonnage, but also by effective throat depth. This
determines how large a workpiece the press can accommodate. Throat depth is measured from the center of
the punching tool to the rear of the press. Other capacities are the movement of the carriage on which the
work is mounted and the weight of the workpiece. A press may have a single tool mounting station or
multiple stations mounted in a revolving turret. Very heavy punching in plate structurals is done in the
“ironworker.” These perform cutting and parting in addition to punching.
Turret punches can hold from 12 to 70 punch assemblies and can be rotated depending on the press type,
manually or automatically with a CNC system. Tool changing can also be done in semi- and full automatic
modes. By rapidly revolving and presenting a specific punch to the work, the punching speed is then
determined by how fast the workpiece can be moved and positioned under the turret. CNC punching stations
can achieve 500 strokes per minute.
Punch tools are selected by the size and shape of the hole produced. Their tips may be flat or have various
contours that can reduce the punching force needed and helps minimize workpiece distortion. An almost

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infinite variety of punch shapes are available. The CNC punch press can also perform certain forming
operations including single and multiple knockouts, embossing, and louver making. Forming operations are,
in relation to the punching motion, inverted. This means that the raising of the embossing, dimple, or louver
is done from the bottom up, allowing the underside of the work to continue to move freely across the work
table. This movement follows the typical “X-Y” coordinate pattern.
The modern CNC punch press’ versatility is enhanced by several innovations. The “Wilson wheel” is an
arrangement of shearing or forming wheels positioned on both sides of the workpiece. The device is able to
shear in a straight or curved line and also form continuous or intermittent embossing. This type of operation
is more efficient than nibbling, causing less wear and tear on both tooling and the machine while leaving
cleaner edges. The “multi-tool” is like a turret within a turret. They can contain from three to 30 smaller
punches within a single tool body. Self contained and indexed automatically, they add greatly to the main
turret capacity.
CNC punch press accessories include a plasma cutting torch for accurate high speed cutting of any
conductive material from a few thousandths to over one inch thick. The inclusion of plasma cutting greatly
reduces special punch tooling needs. A laser attachment expands versatility further by being able to cut
nonmetallic
material as well as the ferrous metals. Non-ferrous metals such as aluminum, copper, and brass are
difficult to cut with the laser due to their reflectivity.
Automatic loading and unloading systems enable the press to run with virtually no operator intervention. A
carrier is mounted on an overhead rail and is located so material is picked up on one side, placed on the
machine’s work table, and removed to another pile when punching is complete. Sheet material is lifted by
suction cups and sensors on the work table insure the pieces proper location. In cases where a very large
workpiece extends beyond the normal punching range of the turret, such systems can reacquire the
workpiece and reposition it laterally to another fixed location.

09 Heat Treating
Heat treating processes are used to alter the metallurgical structure of metals and in doing so impart specific
mechanical properties. While all metals and alloys will respond to heat treatment in some way,
understanding the thermal effects on the carbon and alloy steels is particularly important. These steels are
ferrous alloys, meaning they contain more than 50 percent iron. Other ferrous types are the tool steel, cast
irons, and the stainless steels.
The mechanical properties of metal affected by heat treatment are:
Tensile strength that is a measure of the force required to permanently deform the metal by stretching.
This point is termed “yield strength.” Ultimate tensile strength is the force required to fracture the metal.
Ductility is the ability of the metal to bend or stretch before fracture. Aluminum is a metal of high ductility,
while cast iron has very low ductility.
Impact strength (toughness) is the metal’s ability to absorb mechanical shock (impact) without fracturing
Hardness is the ability of the metal to resist penetration, wear, and surface scratching. Hardness testing
results are expressed as hardness number.
When molten metal solidifies, atoms become arranged in recognizable patterns called crystal structures and

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may be found as either body-centered cubic or fact-centered cubic. Crystals will grow uniformly in all
directions and as the metal continues to cool, each crystal is confined by adjacent crystals forming grains.
Points of intersection between grains are called “grain boundaries.”
The atoms in the crystalline structures are bound in place by electromagnetic force. Under a load these
magnetic bonds stretch. As the load or stress ceases, the atoms return to their normal position. When an
excessive force is applied, the bonds sever causing permanent deformation in the metal.
To make metals stronger and more resistant to deformation, the crystalline structure is improved by adding
alloying elements. Typical alloying elements added to metals include:
carbon
manganese
chromium
molybdenum
silicon
nickel
Beyond the simple addition of these and other elements, heat treatment is used to gain maximum strengths
afforded by the alloying. There are three main heat treating processes. They are:
Through hardening - affecting the metal throughout it’s cross section
Surface hardening - forming a shell of metal with particular qualities different from those at the center
Softening processes - used to decrease hardness and brittleness
Hardening or strengthening is the most used heat treating processes. They include:
harden and temper
quench and temper
harden and draw
austenitize, quench, and temper
These processes occur in three stages:
heat to a point where the basic metallurgical structure changes
quench to obtain an even harder state
temper or re-heat to obtain a specific level of hardness
A “phase diagram” can graphically show temperature and cooling duration’s which depict actual instances of
metallurgical changes. Hardening processes begin with a breaking down of an alloy’s ferrite and cementite
by heating to a specific level at which more carbon can be absorbed. Quenching at the proper time prevents
reforming of the ferrite and cementite. The common microstructures produced by austenitizing and
quenching are bainite and martensite with the latter requiring tempering. Quenching speed, time, and the
quenching medium is dependent upon the metallurgical structure required in the steel. Generally steels
should not be quenched any faster than necessary. Quench mediums can include brine, water, synthetic
polymers, oil, and air. The temperature of the quench medium is an important factor for consistent results.
The quenched parts, though stronger and harder, are also very brittle and prone to cracking and shattering.
This brittleness is removed by tempering and drawing. In the hardening process, two significant factors affect
the properties of the quenched metal. First is the austenite grain size and the second is the size or mass of
the workpiece.

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The longer the work is held above the critical transformation temperature, the larger the grain size growth,
further increasing the hardness. In respect to the size of the workpiece, the heavier the cross-section, the
slower the cooling and the less quench effect at the center.
Martempering and austempering are two modified hardening methods that produce good strength
characteristics without creating excess internal stresses. Both processes use salt baths and critical timing
down to room temperature and subsequent tempering.
Case hardening is used to produce a hard, wear resistant surface over a tough and shock resistant center.
The two methods of case hardening are Differential Heat Treating and Differential Metal Structure.
Differential heat treating, using either flame or induction heating, heats up the surface of the work very
quickly while the center remains relatively cooler. When the surface reaches austenitizing temperature, the
part is quickly quenched.
The differential metal structure method actually alters the chemical composition of the surface of the work
only. The entire workpiece can then be subjected to the same heat treating cycle with the surface becoming
harder than the interior. The chemical alteration is accomplished by “carburizing” and “nitriding.” Both of
these processes infuse either carbon or nitrogen to the surface layers, and at specific temperatures, alloy the
surface only. Beyond hardening the workpiece, heat treating can also be used to soften metals that through
cold working, machining, and welding, have acquired residual stresses and have hardened, increasing the
chance of fracture.
The three principle softening methods are:
Annealing - heating to a point where deformed grain structure recrystallizes and the metal softens
Normalizing - heat to a point above the metal’s upper transformation point, then air cooled to room
temperature
Stress relieving - heating a workpiece to a low or moderate temperature and holding it for a specific time
period at that temperature, then air cooled to room temperature

10. Powder Metallurgy

This technology uses metal powder to produce a wide variety of metal parts found in an equally wide variety
of manufactured products, ranging from automobiles and aircraft to electronic and consumer items. Powder
metallurgy is also used to produce ingot and billet that are made into plate, sheet, and other shapes. The
technology provides an alternative to the use of cast and wrought materials.
The primary advantage of powder metallurgy is in design flexibility, producing parts of high structural
density as well as of controlled porosity for use as filters and self-lubricating bearings. Parts produced are also
of net or near net shape reducing material waste and post forming operations.
The metal powders used include iron and steel, which are the most common, along with copper, aluminum,
nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, tungsten, tungsten carbide, titanium, tantalum, and magnesium. These powders
may be produced by either physical or mechanical means.
The primary physical method is atomization. A stream of molten metal is subjected to a jet of high-pressure
water or inert gas, usually nitrogen or argon. The resulting droplets settle as a powder in the bottom of a
holding tank. Water atomized particles are irregular in shape, while gas atomization produces more spherical
particles. Another similar process uses helium as an inert gas and is called the Rotating Electrode Process.

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There is also Soluble Gas atomizing.
Mechanical methods include milling in hammer, rod, ball, grinding, or attrition mills. Such methods are used
to produce hard and brittle powders that would be used in alloying, blending, and work hardening, or as
oxide powders.
Parts produced may be of various elemental powders or pre-alloyed powders to which binders and lubricants
may be added. After being consolidated or formed in molds or dies, the part is called a “compact” and is said
to be in a “green state.” This means that the particles of the part are lightly joined allowing handling but
having no real service strength. To achieve final strength and density, the parts are “sintered” in ovens that
heat the parts below melting temperatures but high enough to metallurgically bond the individual particles.
Part shaping or consolidation can be accomplished by mechanical pressing, injection molding, or isostatic
pressing. Most parts are produced by mechanical pressing and oven sintering. Particles are gravity fed into a
die of a mechanical press and formed by the action of punches, either downward, upward, or action in both
directions. Pressing is usually done at room temperatures and with pressures of 10 to 60 tons psi.
Depending on the part’s metallurgy, the atmosphere of the sintering oven may be “endothermic” consisting of
hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon monoxide. Other atmospheres include the “exothermic” being composed of
mainly hydrogen and dissociated ammonia, or entirely of hydrogen. Still other options include an inert gas
atmosphere or a vacuum. In the oven, time, temperature and cooling rates must be closely controlled.
Final net shape is achieved after sintering and by a variety of secondary operations that can include:
• Repressing - to achieve higher densities
• Forging - hot forming partial shapes
• Machining - for details such as holes, slots, etc.
• Heat treating - for additional hardening
• Steam treating - to obtain an oxide surface coating
• Plating - to obtain specific surface finish and color
• Joining - to assemble related parts with typical joining methods, welding, brazing, etc.
Any coolant used in machining porous parts must be carefully selected to avoid base metal reactions. Also
porous parts must be adequately sealed before plating.
Injection molding is used to produce very complex and intricate parts. The injection molding process can
create many of the parts details that would otherwise require secondary operations. The parts produced are
typically small with very high density, usually in the 95 percent range and higher.
Steps in the injection process include:
• powder mixing with a thermoplastic binder added
• injection - at predetermined temperatures
• debinding - binders removed by either solvents and heat or by evaporation
• sintering - the heat treating phase
The molded part is actually an oversize replica of the desired part. Thus, shrinkage during subsequent
processing must be accurately calculated. Total debinding and sintering time can range from 8 to 24 hours.
Identical parts can be batched in the ovens to increase production.
Isostatic pressing can apply very high pressures uniformly in all directions producing parts which are
consistent in density throughout their cross sections. When the process operates at room temperatures it is

25
called cold isostatic pressing or “C.I.P.” At elevated temperatures the process is termed “H.I.P.” or hot
isostatic pressing. HIP will produce parts that will exhibit higher densities without subsequent processing.
Presses for cold isostatic pressing include:
• a pressure chamber
• a pressure generator
• depressurizing equipment
• machine controls
Powder is placed in flexible and pre-shaped molds, also called a “bag” in which the particles are consolidated
by high pressure water or oil, typically from 10,000 to 70,000 psi. Dwell time at full pressure is a few
minutes. The molds may be removable or fixed in the press. The removable molds are filled and sealed
outside the press and then immersed in the consolidating fluid. This is called the “wet-bag” process. Fixed
molds are filled and sealed within the press. Pressure is then applied behind a membrane built into the mold.
As fluid never touches the mold, this is referred to as the “dry-bag” process.
A press for hot isostatic pressing consists of:
• a pressure vessel
• a gas storage and pumping system
• a resistance heated furnace
• required machine controls
Powder is placed in pre-shaped sheet metal molds, usually of mild steel. Molds for complex shapes are
usually welded assemblies. The filled molds are lowered into the pressure vessel and the furnace is placed
over the entire vessel and sealed. Heat and gaseous pressure are applied, consolidating and sintering the
powder in a controlled atmosphere. Depending on the metal being processed, temperatures can range up to
2500 degrees Fahrenheit with pressures of 45,000 psi and higher. The gas is usually argon. Processing
cycles can range from several hours to more than a day. After processing the molds are removed by
machining or chemical leaching. The HIP process can produce dual-metal parts through diffusion bonding or
by cladding.
11.1 Welding
Welding Processes
The selection of a specific welding process is dependent upon many factors. The geometric shape of the
weldment itself is the result of joint designs which, in several forms, is central to the issue of process
applicability. Additionally, alloys to be welded, size and thickness’, costs, portability, and skills needed, are
among the many important weld process characteristics to be considered.
The two basic forms of joining, or the coalescing of metals, are by fusion and solid state welding. The
principle fusion welding processes include:
• arc welding
• resistance welding
• laser beam welding
• electron beam welding
Common to these methods is the melting of the base metal and, though not always, the addition of a filler
metal.

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Electric arc welding, in general, will use a consumable electrode to create the arc and then as melting
occurs, the rod itself becomes part of the fused joint. Some arc welding methods use a tungsten electrode
which is non-consumable and if a filler metal is required, it is added separately as a bare wire. The major arc
welding processes are:
• shielded metal arc welding
• submerged arc welding
• gas metal arc welding
• flux-cored arc welding
• gas tungsten arc welding
• plasma arc welding
Shielded metal arc welding uses a flux covered consumable electrode which in the heat of the arc forms a
gaseous shield to protect the weld puddle from the atmosphere. Welding current is either AC or DC and the
process is used primarily on the ferrous metals.
Submerged arc welding is a semi or fully automatic process in which the arc takes place under or submerged
in a blanket of granular flux. Equipment includes weld wire feeding devices and joint-tracking mechanisms
which move either the welding head or the work.
Gas metal arc welding uses a bare wire fed through a manually manipulated gun or torch. Weld shielding is
obtained from a flow of inert gas, usually argon or argon mixtures. Weld characteristics are largely
determined by the actual mode of metal transfer across the arc. The three basic modes are short circuiting,
spray transfer, and globular transfer.
Flux-cored arc welding is essentially a variation of the gas metal arc welding process. The principle
difference is in the use of weld wire that is tubular and contains within its core a granulated flux.
Gas tungsten arc welding uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode along with argon, helium, or mixtures
of the two to shield the weld. Weld filler rod is usually manually added and depending on the type of metal
being welded will use either AC or DC straight polarity current.
Plasma arc welding utilizes a constricted arc made up of a high velocity stream of ionized gas or plasma.
Additionally, there is a separate shielding gas of argon or argon mixtures used. The plasma arc process
affords very deep penetration at higher welding speeds.
Resistance welding includes the spot, seam, and projection welding processes. Spot welding occurs when
the work is squeezed between two copper electrodes which have an electric current flowing between them.
In seam welding, the electrodes are in the form of opposing wheels which effect a continuous fused joint or
seam. In projection welding, fusion occurs at predetermined locations characterized by embossments,
projections, or joint intersections. Most resistance welding methods are semi-automatic and manually
operated or may be fully automatic.
Laser beam welding uses a focused beam of light as a heat source. The two most common types are the
gas or “CO2” laser and the solid state or “YAG” laser. The more powerful gas laser can weld thick as well as
very thin workpieces, while the solid state laser is used only for the thinner work. Laser welding is
particularly useful in joining dissimilar metals and in welding the refractory metals. Welding may take place
in a high or partial vacuum or at atmospheric pressures.

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Solid State Welding
The two most used solid state welding processes are friction welding and ultrasonic welding.
Friction welding is accomplished by the action of friction and axial force. Usually appearing as either butt or
T-joints, one rapidly rotating member is brought into contact with a stationary member. When, through
friction, the proper surface temperature is reached, an upsetting action or motion completes the weld.
Friction welding is used to join many combinations of metallic and non-metallic materials.
Ultrasonic welding occurs when two pieces, in a lap joint configuration, are subjected to a high frequency
vibratory energy with the same amount of force or pressure. There is relatively little heat generated by the
process. The workpieces are clamped between two welding tips called sonotrodes. Vibrating energy passes
through one or both which oscillate laterally as a perpendicular force maintains contact between the work
surfaces. Such interfacing generates temperatures reaching only 35 to 50 percent of the workpiece’s melting
temperature. Basic equipment includes a power supply and a frequency generator which increase line
frequency to generally 15,000 to 75,000 hertz. There are also transducers that convert that power to an
acoustical power of the same frequency.
Ultrasonic welding usually requires that one of the workpieces be thinner than it’s mating piece. The usual
weld joints are spot or straight and circular seams. Metals welded are commonly the more ductile types,
either similar or dissimilar. The principle users of the process are the electrical and electronic industries.

11.2 Brazing & Soldering

Brazing & Soldering Fundamentals
Brazing and soldering are joining processes that use a combination of heat, filler metal, and typically a flux to
join many similar and dissimilar materials. The essential difference between brazing and soldering is the
melting temperature of the filler metal. Brazing filler metals melt above 840o F / 450 o C while solder filler
metals melt below that temperature. In all cases filler metal melting temperatures are below the melting
temperatures of the workpieces being joined.
Joining is accomplished by the flow of filler metal between closely fitted joints ranging from 0.001 to 0.005
of an inch, or 0.025 to 0.13 of a millimeter in brazing, to 0.003 to 0.006 of an inch, or 0.08 to 0.15 of a
millimeter in soldering. The result is a joining of the parts by capillary action as the liquid filler metal exhibits
a stronger attraction to the base materials than itself. A common term for capillary action is “wetting.”
To facilitate this wetting action a fluxing agent is commonly employed. The flux lowers the molten filler
metal surface tension and inhibits the formation of oxides between the joint surfaces and the filler metal.
However, flux residue is corrosive, requiring a separate post-joining cleaning operation. Soaking in hot water
and/or wire brushing are tow common methods.
Along with joint clearances, proper joint designs are critically important to successful brazing and soldering.
The primary joint types employed are:
• The lap joint
• The flanged lap joint
• The butt joint
• The flanged butt joint
For proper brazing and soldering joint cleaning is especially important. Grease, paint, rust, and any other

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impurities must be removed. This may be accomplished by a variety of either chemical or mechanical
methods.
Brazing
As a joining process brazing has certain advantages over mechanical fastening and welding. These
advantages include:
• The joining of dissimilar metals, and materials
• Very thin material can be brazed which would otherwise be damaged by welding
• Inaccessible joints can more easily be brazed
• Brazing is easily and more economically automated than many welding processes
Brazing & Soldering
Fundamental Manufacturing Processes Study Guide, DV03PUB124 - 2 -
Most ferrous, non-ferrous, and many carbides and cermets can be joined by brazing. Fluxes used in brazing
consist of fluorides, chlorides, borax, borates, fluoroborates, alkalis, wetting agents and water. The fluxes
may be in the form of pastes, powders, liquids, and preforms and are applied by a variety of methods.
Fluxes, especially when heated, can be toxic, so adequate ventilation and safeguards are required.
The most common filler metals used in brazing include:
• Aluminum-silicon
• Copper
• Copper-phosphorus
• Magnesium
• Silver
• Nickel alloys
Each of these flow at specific temperatures and are available as wire, foil, paste, powders, and preforms.
Filler metals typically have significantly different compositions from the materials being joined, for this
reason their selection is critical to successful brazing.
Brazing Methods
• Torch brazing - uses a oxyfuel gas on previously fluxed joints. Usually a manual operation, but can be
automated.
• Furnace brazing - a high production method where fixtured parts preloaded with filler metals and, when
needed, flux are put in a furnace. The furnace may be either a single batch model or a conveyor model
for continuous brazing.
• Dip brazing - assembled parts are typically dipped in a heated chemical bath which serve as both fluxing
agent and heat source to melt pre-applied filler material.
• Induction brazing – a process that uses inductor coils to induce an alternating current into and around a
pre-assembled part. The electrical resistance of the part generates the heat to melt the filler metal.
Soldering
Soldering is one of the oldest methods of joining metals. Because filler metals melt at low temperatures there
is minimum part distortion and heat damage to sensitive parts. Many combinations of metal to metal, ceramic
to metal, and glass to metal may be joined. Soldering is used extensively in the electronics industry where
it’s limited mechanical strength is not a major factor.

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Fluxes for soldering fall into three categories, the inorganic acid fluxes, organic fluxes, and the rosin-based
fluxes. These are available as liquids, powders, pastes, solid and in flux-cored wires. Soldering fluxes may
also be toxic and corrosive and require post-cleaning operations.
Filler materials include combinations of tin-lead, tin-silver-lead, tin-zinc, silver-copper-zinc and zinc-
aluminum
alloys. Again, as with brazing filler metals, solders are supplied as wires, foil, sheets, pastes, preforms, or as
bars and ingots.
Soldering Methods
Iron soldering is the oldest and simplest soldering method and is still widely used today. Soldering irons have
copper tips which easily stores and transfers heat to the joint.
Wave soldering is a specific method used in the fabrication of electronic components and printed circuit
boards (PCB). In this method, continually circulating fountains or waves of solder are lifted into contact with
the joints. As only limited sections of the PCB are immersed in the solder, excess heat and distortion is
controlled. Due to the high speed of the process, flux and vapor entrapment is reduced. Wave solder
machines are highly automated being able to flux, preheat, solder, and remove flux residue on one
continuous conveyor.

12. Turning & the Lathe

Basic Lathe Turning
Turning is one of the oldest and most common of metalcutting operations. In turning, a workpiece is rotated
about its axis as single-point cutting tools are fed into it, shearing away unwanted material and creating the
desired part. Turning can be performed on both external and internal surfaces to produce an axially
symmetrical contoured part.
Parts ranging from watch components to large-diameter marine propeller shafts can be turned on a lathe.
The capacity of a lathe is expressed in two dimensions. The maximum part diameter, or “swing”, and the
maximum part length, or “distance between centers”.
The general-purpose engine lathe is the most basic turning machine tool. As with all lathes, the two basic
requirements for turning are a means of holding the work while it rotates and a means of holding cutting tools
and moving them to the work.
The work may be held on one or by both its ends. Holding the work by one end involves gripping the work in
one of several types of chucks, collets or mandrels. Chucks are mounted on the spindle nose of the lathe,
while collets usually seat in the spindle. The spindle is mounted in the lathe’s “headstock”, which contains the
motor and gear train that makes rotation possible. Directly across from the headstock on the lathe is the
“tailstock”. The tailstock can hold the work by either a live or dead center. Work that is held at both ends is
said to be “between centers”. Additionally, longer workpieces may require a “steady rest” mounted between
the headstock and tailstock to support the work. Typically workpieces are cylindrical, but square and
oddshaped stock can also be turned using special chucks, collets or fixtures.
Lathe cutting tools brought to the work may move in one or more directions. Tool movement on the engine
lathe is accomplished using a combination of the lathe’s “carriage”, “cross slide”, and “compound rest”.
The carriage travels along the machine’s bedways, parallel to the workpiece axis. This axis is known as the

30
“Z” axis.
Motion perpendicular to the work is called the “X” axis. On an engine lathe, this motion is provided by the
cross slide mounted on the carriage.
Atop the cross slide is the “compound rest,” which can be rotated to any angle and secured. The compound
rest also holds the “tool post” where tools are mounted. Tools may also be mounted in the tailstock for
endworking operations.

Lathe Types
Many types of lathes are used for production turning. The most basic turning lathe is the engine lathe. It is
used for single, prototype, and low-quantity parts. The major production lathe today is the computer
numerically controlled (CNC) lathe. These lathes can perform both linear and rotary cuts simultaneously with
great precision to produce large numbers of identical parts. Any motion that can be expressed
mathematically can be programmed into the lathe’s computer control.
Basic CNC lathes include the two-axis, single-turret models and two-turret, four-axis models. Milling
operations can also be added to a lathe’s capabilities by using rotating tools or “live tools” on workpieces.
Additionally, some CNC lathes incorporate a secondary or sub-spindle to expand the lathe’s production
capacity.
Other lathe types include the automatic screw machine for high production and unattended operation. Such
machines can have either single or multiple spindles for holding one or more workpieces.
The swiss-type automatic is used on long, thin parts. The stock is fed longitudinally through the headstock
and turned immediately by using radially mounted tools next to the headstock bushing.
Very large work with swing dimensions beyond the capacity of conventional horizontal lathes are turned on
vertical turret lathes.
Automation & Tool Arrangements
Raw work stock is brought to the lathe in several ways. Long lengths can be automatically loaded through
the spindle bore, and into the chuck or collet, while short lengths or “slugs” can be manually or automatically
loaded. Automated gantry systems are used to load workpieces within a lathe and to transfer parts to
another location.
Automation is also used to verify that a turning operation is performing accurately and reliably through the
use of sensors and probes.
Production lathes automatically bring tools and arrangements of tools to the work by the use of turrets on
larger machines and slide mounted “gang tooling” on smaller, more compact lathes. In some cases, turrets
and gang tooling are combined within a lathe.
Turning Operations
External turning can be broken down into a number of basic operations. “Straight turning” reduces the work
to a specified diameter equally along the work’s axis. “Taper turning” produces a taper along the axis of the
workpiece. Tapers are produced by either offsetting the tailstock from centerline or by using a taper
attachment. “Contour turning” or “profiling” uses a single-point cutting tool along with a CNC control to
produce a surface contour. “Forming” uses a cutting tool ground with the form or geometry of the desired
shape. This forming tool is advanced perpendicular to the axis of the work to reproduce its shape on the

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workpiece.
Other lathe operations include “chamfering” to remove sharp edges, “grooving” to produce recesses and
shoulders, “thread chasing” with tools to produce the desired thread form, “facing” to finish the ends of a
workpiece, “parting off” to cut off finished pieces from the stock, and “picking off” where a finished part is
grabbed, cut off, and then transferred to another location such as a second spindle.

The most common internal turning operation presents the rotating end of a workpiece to the point of a
nonrotatingdrill bit mounted in the tailstock. Roughly drilled holes are finished to exact size by using a reamer
that also mounts in the tailstock. Large-diameter holes are made by boring. A boring bar with a cutting tool
attached is moved along the work’s axis as in surface cutting, but inside a previously drilled hole. Internal
threads are obtained by using tapping tools mounted in the tailstock.
Cutting Tool Factors
The turning operation and cutting tool itself influences the production of chips, which can be long and
difficult to handle. Thus it is important to select tools that break chips before they get too long. Small chips
are easily controlled and collected. Long stringy chips can snarl and cause workpiece damage, among other
problems.
The choice of cutting tool is also influenced by the tougher, harder alloy workpieces that are being turned.
Common alloys and steels with hardness of up to 45 Rockwell C can be turned with standard carbide or
coated-carbide cutting tools. However, hardened steel, stainless steel, and nickel superalloys may require
alternative cutting tool insert materials, such as ceramics, polycrystalline diamond (PCD), or cubic boron
nitride (CBN). Turning with a cutting edge made from one of these materials can eliminate the need for
grinding or other secondary operations. Although they can be expensive, these cutting tools also last longer
and cut metal faster, compensating for their cost.
The geometry, or shape, of the cutting tool also plays a role in determining cutting speeds and surface finish,
with “wiper” and multi-corner geometries becoming popular for difficult turning situations.
Many turning operations are supported by the use of cutting fluid, which cools the work and cutting tool,
flushes away chips, and lubricates the point where the tool and chip meet. However, the turning of cast iron
and other hard materials is typically performed “dry,” without cutting fluid.
Operating Parameters
Regardless of the type of lathe, three key parameters determine productivity and part quality. These
parameters are:
• cutting speed
• feed rate
• depth of cut
The cutting speed is the rate at which the surface of the work moves past the cutting tool.
The feed rate is the rate at which the tool advances into the work.
The depth of cut is the amount of material removed as the work revolves on its axis.
Other factors include the machinability of the work material, the material type and the geometry of the cutting
tool, the angle that the cutting tool enters the work, the type of turning operation, and the overall condition
and power of the lathe itself.

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 13. Cutting Tool Materials
Cutting Tool Materials
Principal categories of cutting tools include single point lathe tools, multi-point milling tools, drills, reamers,
and taps. All of these tools may be standard catalog items or tooling designed and custom-built for a specific
manufacturing need.
The number one error when selecting tooling is calculating monetary savings based on lowest cost per tool,
rather than on maximized productivity and extended tool life. To effectively select tools for machining, a
machinist or engineer must have specific information about:
the starting and finished part shape
the workpiece hardness
the material's tensile strength
the material's abrasiveness
the type of chip generated
the workholding setup
the power and speed capacity of the machine tool
Changes in any of these conditions may require a thorough review of any cutting tool selection.
Different machining applications require different cutting tool materials. The ideal cutting tool material
should
have all of the following characteristics:
harder than the work it is cutting
high temperature stability
resists wear and thermal shock
impact resistant
chemically inert to the work material and cutting fluid
No single cutting tool material incorporates all these qualities. Instead, trade-offs occur among the various
tool materials. For example, ceramic cutting tool material has high heat resistance, but has a low resistance
to shock and impact. Every new and evolving tool development has an application where it will provide
superior performance over others. Many newer cutting tool materials tend to reduce, but not eliminate the
applications of older cutting tool materials.

As rates of metal removal have increased, so has the need for heat resistant cutting tools. The result has
been a progression from high-speed steels to carbide, and on to ceramics and other super hard materials.
Developed around 1900, high-speed steels cut four times faster than the carbon steels they replaced. There
are over 30 grades of high-speed steel, in three main categories: tungsten, molybdenum, and molybdenum
cobalt based grades. Since the 1960s the development of powdered metal high-speed steel has allowed the
production of near-net shaped cutting tools, such as drills, milling cutters and form tools. The use of coatings,
particularly titanium nitride, allows high-speed steel tools to cut faster and last longer. titanium nitride
provides a high surface hardness, resists corrosion, and it minimizes friction.
In industry today, carbide tools have replaced high-speed steels in most applications. These carbide and
coated carbide tools cut about 3 to 5 times faster than high-speed steels. Cemented carbide is a powder

33
metal product consisting of fine carbide particles cemented together with a binder of cobalt. The major
categories of hard carbide include tungsten carbide, titanium carbide, tantalum carbide, and niobium carbide.
Each type of carbide affects the cutting tool’s characteristics differently. For example, a higher tungsten
content increases wear resistance, but reduces tool strength. A higher percentage of cobalt binder increases
strength, but lowers the wear resistance.
Carbide is used in solid round tools or in the form of replaceable inserts. Every manufacturer of carbide tools
offers a variety for specific applications. The proper choice can double tool life or double the cutting speed of
the same tool. Shock-resistant types are used for interrupted cutting. Harder, chemically-stable types are
required for high speed finishing of steel. More heat-resistant tools are needed for machining the superalloys,
like Inconel and Hastelloy.
There are no effective standards for choosing carbide grade specifications so it is necessary to rely on the
carbide suppliers to recommend grades for given applications. Manufacturers do use an ANSI code to
identify their proprietary carbide product line.
Two-thirds of all carbide tools are coated. Coated tools should be considered for most applications because
of their longer life and faster machining. Coating broadens the applications of a specific carbide tool. These
coatings are applied in multiple layers of under .001 of an inch thickness. The main carbide insert and cutting
tool coating materials are titanium carbide, titanium nitride, aluminum oxide, and titanium carbonitride.
Ceramic cutting tools are harder and more heat-resistant than carbides, but more brittle. They are well suited
for machining cast iron, hard steels, and the superalloys. Two types of ceramic cutting tools are available:
the alumina-based and the silicon nitride-based ceramics. The alumina-based ceramics are used for high
speed semi- and final-finishing of ferrous and some non-ferrous materials. The silicon nitride-based ceramics
are generally used for rougher and heavier machining of cast iron and the superalloys.
Cermet tools are produced from the materials used to coat the carbide varieties: titanium carbides and
nitrides. They are especially useful in
chemically reactive machining environments, for final finishing and some turning and milling operations.

Superhard tool materials are divided into two categories: cubic boron nitride, or "CBN", and polycrystalline
diamond, or "PCD". Their cost can be 30 times that of a carbide insert, so their use is limited to well-chosen,
cost effective applications. Cubic boron nitride is used for machining very hard ferrous materials such as
steel dies, alloy steels and hard-facing materials. Polycrystalline diamond is used for non-ferrous machining
and for machining abrasive materials such as glass and some plastics. In some high volume applications,
polycrystalline diamond inserts have outlasted carbide inserts by up to 100 times.
All cutting tools are “perishable,” meaning they have a finite working life. It is not a good practice to use
worn, dull tools until they break. This is a safety hazard which creates scrap, impacts tool and part costs, and
reduces productivity. Aside from breakage, cutting tools wear in many different ways, including:
edge wear and flank wear
cratering or top wear
chipping
built-up edge
deformation

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 thermal cracking
Edge and flank wear are both normal, slow types of tool wear. If the work material is highly abrasive, as with
certain cast-irons, this type of wear will accelerate.
Cratering occurs behind the cutting edge, and happens often in machining long-chipping steels. If the crater
grows large enough and contacts the cutting edge, the tool fails immediately. Cratering can be overcome by
using titanium or tantalum carbide tools.
Chipping on a tool edge is an unpredictable form of tool failure. It is sometimes started when a high point on
an edge breaks away. A stronger carbide grade, different edge preparation, or lead angle change may
eliminate chipping.
Built-up edge is a deposit of workpiece material adhering to the rake face of an insert. These deposits can
break off, pulling out pieces of carbide from the tool. Ductile materials, such as softer steels, aluminum, and
copper cause this problem. The use of higher rake angles, faster cutting speeds, and high pressure cutting
fluid all help eliminate built-up edge.
Deformation of a tool or insert is due to heat build-up. Although very detrimental to the machining process,
deformation is difficult to detect without the use of a microscope. Using a heat-resistant tool, or reducing the
cutting speed often help to prevent deformation.
Thermal cracking occurs when inserts go through rapid heating and cooling cycles. Causes include
interrupted cutting and poor application of cutting fluids.

14. Cutting Tool Geometries

Cutting Tool Geometry
Cutting tools for metalcutting have many shapes, each of which are described by their angles or geometries.
Every one of these tool shapes have a specific purpose in metalcutting. The primary machining goal is to
achieve the most efficient separation of chips from the workpiece. For this reason, the selection of the right
cutting tool geometry is critical. Other chip formation influences include:
• the workpiece material
• the cutting tool material
• the power and speed of the machine
• various process conditions, such as heat and vibration
Turning & Single-Point Cutting Tools
Nearly all turning processes use single point cutting tools, this is, tools that cut with only a single edge in
contact with the work. Most turning is done with coated indexable carbide inserts, but the tool material may
also be high-speed steel, brazed carbide, ceramic, cubic boron nitride, or polycrystalline diamond. 75 percent
of turning operations use just a few basic tool geometries. When turning with inserts, much of the geometry
is built into the tool holder itself rather than the actual insert. However, let's first focus on the inserts. The
geometry of an insert includes:
• the insert's basic shape
• its relief or clearance angle
• the insert type
• the insert's inscribed circle or "IC" size

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• the insert's nose radius
• the insert's chip breaker design
In turning, insert shape selection is based on the trade-off between strength and versatility. For example,
larger point angles are stronger, such as round inserts for contouring and square inserts for roughing and
finishing. The smaller angles (35o and 55o) are the most versatile for intricate work.
Turning inserts may be molded or ground to their working shape. The molded types are more economical
and have wide application. Ground inserts are needed for maximum accuracy and to produce well defined or
sharp contours.

Several angles are important when introducing the cutting tool's edge into a rotating workpiece. These
angles include:
• the angle of inclination
• rake angle
• effective rake angle
• lead or entry angle
• tool nose radius
The angle of inclination when viewed from the side or front is the angle of the insert seat or pocket in the
toolholder, from front to back. This inclination can be either positive, negative, or neutral.
The cutting tool's rake angle is the angle between the cutting edge and the cut itself. It may also be positive,
negative, or neutral.
The effective rake angle is the combination of the tool holder’s angle of inclination and the rake built into the
insert.
The lead or entry angle is the angle between the direction of the cutting tool feed and the cutting edge.
The tool nose radius is the angle formed by the point of the tool. This radius may be large for strength, or
sharp for fine radius turning.
Since a sharp edge is weak and fractures easily, an insert’s cutting edge is prepared with particular shapes
to strengthen it. Those shapes include a honed radius, a chamfer, a land, or a combination of the three.
Insert size is designated by the largest circle which can be inscribed within the perimeter of the insert, called
the inscribed circle. Insert size is directly connected to the toolholder size.
Insert type toolholders for turning consist of a shank, head, insert pocket, and clamping hardware.
Toolholders are either right or left handed, or neutral. The size and type of the toolholder are determined by:
• the turning operation
• the feed direction
• the size of cuts
• machine tool design
• the need for accessibility
• the shape of workpiece
In turning, chipbreaking is critical to efficient work processing and good finishing qualities. Proper
chipbreaking results from balancing the depth of the cut and the geometry of the tool. Many inserts have
chipbreaker grooves molded into them. The four basic chip styles generated in turning are:

36
• small "sixes" and "nines" chips
• helical or spiral chips
• long, stringy chips
• corrugated chips
The first type, shaped like the numerals "6" or "9", represents the ideal chip. The other types indicate the
need for speed and feed adjustments, or selection of a different chip breaker design.

Milling & Multi-Point Cutting Tools

Multi-point cutting tools are those that have two or more chip producing edges on a common body. Tool
rotation then achieves the cut. Multi-point cutting tools include milling cutters, end mills, drills, reamers, and
taps.
In face milling operations each insert cutter alternately enters and exits the workpiece and generates a short
discontinuous chip. Most milling with insert cutters is done using the climb milling mode. This means that the
insert cutting edge is biting into the work and creating the thickest part of the chip first and thinning the chip
towards the exit point. This is the reverse of the conventional milling mode.
Not all face mills are used for large, flat machining. Smaller diameter face mills are used to ramp into a
surface, plunge to a depth, and interpolate outwards to mill a pocket. The major variables in face mill body
design that will influence tool selection are:
• the cutter's diameter
• the left- or right-handedness of the cut
• cutter geometries, including the rake and lead angles
• insert pocket design
• the milling cutter pitch
• cutter’s mounting method to the machine
Most face mills are designed with fixed position insert pockets. Others are "modular" in that they accept a
variety of insert cartridges that can hold inserts of different designs, and seat them at different angles. This
expands the machining range of a single cutter body.
The pitch of a milling cutter refers to the number of inserts it holds in relation to its diameter. The coarser the
pitch (fewer cutting inserts), the larger the chip gullet, which provides room for the chip as the cutter passes
through a workpiece. Milling cutters may have coarse, fine, or extra-fine pitches.
Milling inserts are available in many grades and shapes. Each has its unique corner geometry.
To maintain close tolerances, maximize tool life, and obtain good finishes, careful and precise mounting of
the insert is necessary. Additionally, the mounting of the milling tool to the machine is of high importance.
Milling cutters less than 3 inches in diameter are of the integral-shank or one piece type. Those between 3
and 8 inches mount into an adapter which is fitted to the machine spindle. The larger ones, 8 inches and up,
mount directly on the machine’s spindle.

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 15. Metal cutting Fluids
Cutting Fluids/Coolants
These fluids, often referred to as coolants, are an integral part of most machining or chip making
processes.
Usually mixed with water, they perform several functions including:
• Cooling work and tool surfaces
• Removal of chips from the cutting area
• Contributing to longer tool life
• Promoting part surface integrity
• Aiding in corrosion control
The primary factor in the selection of a fluid is the nature of the machine process and the non-cutting
function of the fluid itself. In some cases, as with cast iron, no fluid or coolant is used.
Additionally, the method of fluid/coolant application can directly affect chip formation, chip removal,
cutting tool life, and surface integrity.
Surface Integrity
This refers to the quality of the part’s surface finish after machining. Surface quality is very much
dependant on how well the fluid reduces tool-to-part friction and its ability to dissipate heat. Without a
cooling fluid the part may be affected physically, electrically, and magnetically.
Non-Cutting Functions
The selection of a fluid/coolant must also consider its impact, not only on the part being machined or
ground, but upon the local environment of the operation. These considerations would include the:
• Addition of rust inhibitors to control corrosion
• Stink (odor) resistance to prevent the formation of noxious fumes
• Gum resistance to prevent the accumulation of residue on the part surface
• Operator health and comfort
• Disposability which, depending on chemical content, may come under certain environmental restraints

Fluid Lubrication and Cooling

In machining operations fluids will provide lubrication both to the equipment and the actual cutting zone.
Lubrication fluid will absorb and dissipate frictional heat by carrying it away from cutting zone. In
situations where tools run very fast, or if there is extreme hardness in the part, cooling becomes more
important than lubrication. In contrast with slower tool speeds and softer material, lubrication needs are
more critical.
In respect to lubricity, special fluid properties influence their operative characteristics. They are:
• Extreme Pressure Additives – These contain high levels of chlorine, sulfur, or phosphorus which react
to the newly machined surface to prevent edge build-up and chip welding in the work zone.
• Boundary Lubrication – Having highly polar molecules which attach themselves to the metallic surfaces
involved and repel each other reducing friction.
• Hydrodynamic Lubrication or 'Full Fluid' Lubrication – Where the fluid becomes a barrier between two
surfaces resulting in no metal-to-metal contact.

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Types of Fluids
There are several groups of metal cutting fluids, including:
• Straight or Cutting Oils – May be synthetic, vegetable, animal, or mineral oils. They are not usually
mixed with water and may contain certain chemicals. Their major advantage is their lubricity between
work piece and the tool. They are not suitable for high speed machining.
• Soluble Oils, also called Chemical Emulsions – They are mixed with water and typically contain other
additives to aid in maintaining work surface integrity. The quality of the water used is critical to optimum
performance. Being mixed with water, the soluble oils have less lubrication qualities but are a more
efficient in their cooling ability.
• Semi-Synthetic or Semi-Chemical Fluids – These will contain small amounts of oil and other additives
to enhance lubrication while providing maximum cooling. As such, they are useful in more difficult
machining and grinding operations. Disadvantages include lower lubrication ability, possible skin
irritants, and less corrosion protection.
• Synthetic or Chemical Fluids – These are blended coolants but contain no oils. They provide high
cooling capability, low surface tension, and quick wetting ability. They produce no smoke, reject tramp
oils and remain cleaner. However, they have less lubricity, are high in chemical oxygen needs, and have
narrow concentration ranges. Their primary use is in high speed turning of harder materials and in surface
and cylindrical grinding.

Fluid Application Systems

Delivery of the fluid/coolants to the cutting zone is accomplished by several methods including:
• Flooding – Most common delivery methods. Utilizes a low pressure pump and a nozzle directed at the
work.
• High Pressure-High Volume (HPHV) – Most effective in cooling the work and chip removal. System
must be totally enclosed to maintain system pressure.
• Spray Mist – Coolant is combined with a stream of high pressure air. The resulting mist is directed at
the work with most of it evaporating upon contact.
• Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) – Lubricant is sprayed onto the face of the cutting tool. This
method is used where flooding may cause thermal cracking and enclosed high pressure systems are not
possible.
• Dry Machining – Used with porous materials like cast iron and is the least costly in overall machining.
Also has the advantage of maintaining a clean atmosphere and few health problems. However, dry
machining requires slower process speed and results in shorter tool life.

Cutting Fluid Maintenance

Maintenance and monitoring of the fluids is necessary for useful fluid life. Part of this is in the care and
cleanliness of the machine tools themselves. Monitoring includes concentration checks using the
appropriate
test, including:
• Refractometers, which are used to determine the total amount of solubles in a solution.

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• Titration Kits, which are used to analyze fluid concentration in metal cutting fluids contaminated with
tramp oils.
• Tests for PH levels and alkalinity (acid splits) are also useful.
Additionally, the use of the various metal cutting fluids involves health and safety issues for operators
and other personnel. The fluid manufacturer’s product data sheets should always be consulted and rigidly
followed.

16. Threading
The Helical Thread
The helical screw form has two basic functions in manufacturing. One is to transmit power and motion, as
with a lead screw that moves a machine table. The second is in the assembly of objects using bolts,
screws, nuts and other "threaded" fasteners. Most industrial thread making is performed in fastener
manufacturing.
The two fundamental types of threads are the external thread and the internal thread. Most threads are
right-handed, meaning they are advanced or tightened by turning the thread in a clockwise direction.
Special applications such as gas line connections have left-handed threads.
Standard and metric threads are defined by common dimensions:
• the major diameter, which is the outside thread crest diameter on external threads, and the base or root
diameter on internal threads
• the minimum or minor diameter, which is the screw diameter at the base of an external thread, and the
thread crest diameter of an internal thread
• the thread pitch, which is the distance between two adjacent thread crests
• the thread pitch diameter, which is an imaginary diameter measured through the threads where the width
of the groove and thread are equal
This last dimension, the thread pitch diameter, is the most important as it is a reference from which all
other thread measurements originate.
Most thread angles are 60o, however threads used to transmit power or torque approach a square
configuration for maximum strength. Screw lead is the distance a fastener travels in one revolution and
varies with the fastener's job. Most fasteners are single lead, meaning one fastener revolution advances
the fastener one thread pitch. Depending on the application, two, three, or four screw lead threads can be
used to speed up assembly. The trade-off is that the greater the number of screw leads, the less holding
power because the threads have a steeper pitch.
There are several thread types, but the broadest categories are coarse and fine. This refers to the number
of threads per inch. Fine threads have more threads per inch, and have more holding power. Fine threads
are also more resistant to vibration. Coarse threads resist stripping and lend themselves to automatic
assembly.
External Threads
External threads can be produced manually using tap and die sets. Fixed or adjustable dies and taps are
mounted in hand operated holding collets and applied to the work, which is usually held fixed in a vise.
In manufacturing, external threads are produced in several ways. "Thread turning" is a lathe operation in
which the cutting tool moves along the axis of a rotating workpiece, cutting a helix. By changing rotation

40
speed and longitudinal feed, a wide variety of thread sizes, shapes, and pitch can be created.
"Chasing" involves forcing a piece of round stock into a set of rotating dies called chasers. Chasing can
be done manually or automatically.
"Thread milling" is a method of producing larger diameter internal and external threads. To perform
thread milling, a machine with three-axis control capable of helical interpolation is required. Thread
milling combines
three motions:
• the rotation of the cutting tool with the thread profile shape about its own axis
• the orbiting motion around the workpiece
• the longitudinal motion of the tool
Threads on very hard materials may be ground. This is a very costly method requiring specialized
equipment.
The most common high-volume method of thread production is "cold forming" or "thread rolling". In this
method, threads are forced under high pressure into a blank by dies having the desired thread form. Most
thread rolling is done at room temperature, but harder material receives some amount of pre-heat. Two
thread rolling techniques are used:
• flat plate thread rolling, in which blanks are fed between plates that move relative to each to form the
major and minor diameter of the thread
• radial or cylindrical thread rolling, where threads are produced by the in-feeding motion of circular dies
Internal Threads
It is possible to thread roll an internal thread, but most are cut with a tap having a progression of sharp
thread cutting sections surrounding its exterior. This tap is driven into a previously drilled hole to cut a
thread shape in the hole's wall as the tap moves axially. The main difference among taps is the amount of
chamfer at the cutting edge. More chamfer results in a gradual cutting action. Less chamfer provides more
cutting power. The three commonly used tap forms are:
• the taper tap, which has the most chamfer and does the least cutting; used as a starting tap
• the plug tap, which is a general purpose tap
• the bottoming tap, which has the least chamfer and is often used for as a finishing tap
Taps will have two, three, or four flutes which facilitate lubrication and help remove chips and cuttings.
Flutes may be straight or spiral. Spiral flutes are especially useful in lifting chips out of blind holes.
Most taps are made of high speed steel, and sometimes carbide or carbon steel. Taps are designed chiefly
to cut steel, but special taps are available for working with aluminum, cast iron and other materials.

High volume tapping is accomplished using dedicated tapping machines, lathes, machining centers, and
computer numerically controlled or "CNC" drill and tap centers. These drill and tap centers are similar to,
but smaller than, regular machining centers. They can be programmed to perform holemaking and tapping
to produce a variety of threaded parts in high quantities. Some machines have multi-spindles and gangs of
ten or more taps.
Cutting fluid delivery is important in all thread cutting operations, both internal and external. Cutting
fluids maintain lubricity between the cutting or forming tools and the workpiece, cool the work area, and

41
flush away chips. An exception to this rule are cast iron parts which are usually cut dry.
Thread Quality & Verification
Threaded parts have commonly been used for critical safety-related purposes, so the control and quality
of threading operations is particularly important. Critical thread dimensions must also meet specific
tolerances.
The dimensions of threads can be inspected with different levels of verification. If a threaded fastener is
only required to assemble other parts together without specific load-carrying requirements, a basic
“go/no-go” gage may be adequate for checking its threads. However, these gages only check whether the
threads exceed their maximum allowable dimensions; they cannot clearly verify whether thread
dimensions meet their minimum size tolerance, or whether the thread pitch diameter and thread shape are
correct.
For threaded parts having specific strength requirements in service, a more complete inspection of critical
thread dimensions is required. All maximum and minimum diameters and thread angles are checked and
charted. This makes process variations due to tool wear visible over time. At the highest level of
inspection,
characteristics such as roundness and taper are monitored, requiring even more sophisticated thread
inspection gages. Mechanical testing, which is also known as destructive testing, is used to gather specific
performance or property values of materials for design purposes and quality control. This is done by
forcing materials to fail using various testing load applications.

Non-destructive testing is often utilized to locate flaws in threaded parts. Two commonly used
nondestructive
tests are:
• magnetic particle inspection
• ultrasonic testing
In magnetic particle inspection, the magnetic particles are applied to a test surface area either dry or
suspended in a liquid. When a magnetic field is created within a test part, a discontinuity, perpendicular to
the induced magnetic field causes a leakage field to form on the parts surface and hold the rearranged
particles in place at the flaw for inspection. These particles are often coated with a fluorescent material
for inspection using an ultraviolet or black light.
In ultrasonic testing, high frequency sound waves are sent by a transducer into an object. The energy of
the ultrasonic waves is reflected back to the transducer by any discontinuities, indicating their presence
and location.

17.1 Milling & Machining Centers

The Milling Process
Milling is the most versatile of machining processes. Metal removal is accomplished through the relative
motions of a rotating, multi-edge cutter and multi-axis movement of the workpiece. Milling is a form of
interrupted cutting where repeated cycles of entry and exit motions of the cutting tool accomplish the
actual metal removal and discontinuous chip generation. Milling has more variations in machine types,

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tooling, and work piece movement than any other machining method.
All milling machines, from compact tabletop models to the standard vertical knee mill and the massive
CNC machining centers, operate on the same principles and operating parameters. The most important of
these operating parameters are:
• cutting speed, which is the speed at which the tool engages the work
• feed rate, which is the distance the tool edge travels in one cutter revolution
• the axial depth of cut, which is the distance the tool is set below an unmachined surface
• the radial depth of cut, which is the amount of work surface engaged by the tool
The capabilities of the milling machine are measured by motor horsepower, maximum spindle speeds and
spindle taper size.
Milling Machine Basics
The most basic milling machine is the vertical spindle, ram-type “knee” mill. Though not well adapted to
production milling, it is ideal for toolmaking and prototype machining. Knee mills are primarily used for
manual operations, but their capabilities can be expanded.
The knee travels vertically, up and down the column, and supports the saddle and table. The saddle moves
in and out from the column, while the table moves side to side of the column. Additionally, the ram, at the
top of the column, supports the milling head which contains the motor, toolhead, speed and feed controls,
quill and spindle. The non-rotating quill holds the rotating spindle. The ram can be moved both in and out
from the column and can be tilted for angular milling and drilling.
Cutting tools are secured in collets or drill chucks held in the spindle. Work is usually secured to the table
using bolts and clamps, or by using vises or fixtures bolted to the table. The work table contains
longitudinal
“T” slots to facilitate the attachment of these devices.
The knee mill’s capabilities are expanded by the use of digital readout displays and CNC technology.
CNC technology provides three-axis capability to the mill.

CNC Machining Centers

Manual mills require that the operator/machinist set all the required parameters, change tools, and
manually direct all table movement. However, with CNC capability, work is performed much faster, with
exceptional repeatability. In addition, CNC computer programs can be verified and completed graphically
before actual metalcutting begins.
A machining center is a machine for both milling and holemaking on a variety of non-round or prismatic
shapes. The primary types of machining centers are either vertical or horizontal. The vertical type is often
preferred when work is done on a single face. With the use of rotary tables, more than one side of a
workpiece, or several workpieces, can be machined without operator intervention. Vertical machining
centers using a rotary table have four axes of motion. Three are lineal motions of the table while the
fourth is the table’s rotary axis.
Horizontal centers with their horizontal spindles are better suited to larger, boxy workpieces. With a
horizontal spindle, a wider variety of workpiece shapes are easier to mount and chips fall out of the way
better. Like vertical machining centers, horizontal centers have multiple-axis table movements. Typically,

43
the horizontal center’s table rotates to present all four sides of a workpiece to the tooling.

Tool changers & Cutting Tools

The unique feature of the machining center is the tool changer. The tool-changer system moves tools
from storage to spindle and back again in rapid sequence. While most machining centers will store and
handle 20 to 40 individual tools, some will have inventories of over 200.
In general, a milling cutter is a rotary tool with one or more cutting edges, each of which removes a small
amount of material as it contacts the work piece. The variety of cutter types is almost limitless. One of the
more basic is the face mill cutter used for milling flat surfaces. Used at high speeds, face mill cutters
range from a few centimeters to over a half-meter in diameter. Some face mills will simultaneously mill a
shoulder that is square to the surface.
Work that requires edge preparation, shoulders, and grooves, is accomplished with other milling cutters.
An end mill cutter is a tool with cutting edges on its end as well as on its periphery. End mills are used for
short, shallow slots and some edge finishing. Circular grooving or slotting cutters are more adapted to the
making of longer and deeper slots. This is because end mills are susceptible to deflection during heavier
cuts. Chamfers and contour milling are performed with specially shaped end mills.
Cutting tools are chosen not only for their geometries; they are also chosen for their material properties.
More than ever, tougher cutter materials are available that extend tool life and allow faster cutting of
tougher, harder work piece materials. Standard or coated carbide tools work well in most cutting
situations. However, cubic boron nitride, or “CBN”, tool inserts may be needed for cutting hardened
materials. Additionally, tools with polycrystalline diamond, or “PCD”, surfaces may be needed for
cutting difficult-to-machine nonferrous alloys, such as nickel super alloys. The higher costs of these
cutting tools must be weighed against their improvements in speed and tool life.

Work holding & Work changing

In all kinds of milling, a critical component is the work holding device and the ability to be changed over
quickly to present new work or work surfaces to the tooling. Machining centers can utilize long machine
beds, pallet changers and multi-sided “tombstone” fixtures to enable new work to be set up and
positioned while previously setup work pieces are being milled.
Machining Center Accessories & Programming
Machining centers can incorporate two very useful accessories. One is the touch-trigger probe which,
with its computer software, will dimensionally check work piece measurements before removal from the
machining center. The probe is stored with other tooling for quick application. The second accessory is
the tool presetting machine, which allows the technician to assemble the tooling according to the
programmed part Requirements before placing tools in the machining center’s tool storage.
The choice of tool holder itself can be critical. Chucks, collets and other mechanical-interference tool
holders use applied clamping pressure to set tools for common milling situations. In recent years, shrink-
fit
tool holders have become more popular, especially for high-speed machining operations. Here, the tool
holder develops uniform clamping pressure as it contracts around the tool shank, after first being heated

44
and expanded. Shrink-fit systems require extra equipment, but the cost may be justified by the higher
cutting speeds and feeds that they allow.
The programming and control software for “CNC” machining centers has become increasingly
sophisticated and easier to use. Programming has also made milling more accurate, allowing higher
productivity and better surface quality on parts. Software can allow a machine tool to learn how to correct
for process variations in its actual tool path, in comparison with its desired programmed path. Other
programs suppress machining vibrations, improving the surface finish of parts.
Simulation programs also can be used to optimize a process by predicting what the cycle time of a
programmed tool path will be before milling begins.

17.2 Gears & Gear Manufacturing

Gear Descriptions and Functions
Gears are mechanical components within machines and mechanical assemblies which transmit power and
motion through successive engagement of their peripheral teeth. Gears perform certain key functions with
machines and assemblies, including:
• Reversing rotational direction
• Altering angular orientation of rotary motion
• Converting rotary to linear motion and vice-versa
• Altering speed and power transmission ratios
Gear design is based upon an involute curve form which imparts a rolling, rather than sliding action
between engaging teeth. This rolling action provides a uniform rotary action that lowers both friction and
wear of the gear teeth.
Gear Terminology
There are several gear and gear-tooth dimensions and terms important to the understanding of gear
production and finishing processes. These terms include:
• Base Circle: The diameter from which the involute tooth profile is developed.
• Pitch Circle: The imaginary rolling circle produced by the meshing gears during rotation. Also known as
the Pitch Diameter.
• Line of Centers: Line connecting the Pitch Circle centers of mating gears.
• Pitch Point: The point of tangency of two gear Pitch Circles, through the Line of Centers.
• Line of Action: A line tangent to the Base Circles of mating gears, through the Pitch Point and thus the
path of tooth contact.
• Pressure Angle: The angle formed between the Line of Action and a line tangent to the Pitch Point.
• Outside Circle: The outside diameter of gear. Also known as the Addendum Circle.
• Root Circle: The diameter of the gear at the tooth base. Also known as the Dedendum Circle.
• Addendum: The radial distance between the Pitch Circle and the Outside Circle of the gear.
• Dedendum: The radial distance between the Pitch Circle and the Root Circle.
• Tooth Thickness: The thickness of the gear tooth measured along the Pitch Circle.
• Circular Pitch: The length of the arc along the Pitch Circle between corresponding points of adjacent
teeth.

45
• Face Width: The width of gear tooth measured axially.
• Tooth Face: The mating surface of a gear tooth between the Outside Circle and the Pitch Circle.
• Tooth Flank: The mating surface of a gear tooth measured between the Pitch Circle and the Root Circle.
Gears & Gear Manufacturing
Fundamental Manufacturing Processes Study Guide, DV03PUB29 - 2 -
Gear Types
Gears may have internal or external teeth and are available in forms that typically relate to axis positions,
which include:
• Parallel axes, which pertain to two or more tangent pitch shafts using either spur gears-the most
common type of gear, or helical gears.
• Intersection axes using straight bevel gears, spiral bevel gears, or zerol bevel gears.
• Non-intersecting, non-parallel axes, which refer to worms and worm gears, crossed helical gears, and
hypoid gears.
Racks and pinions which are used to convert rotary motion to linear motion are other familiar gear types.
Gear Manufacturing
Materials used to produce gears may include steel-which is the most common material, and various
nonferrous materials including plastics and composites. Manufacturing methods include: machining,
forging, casting, stamping, powder-metallurgy techniques, and plastic injection molding. Of these,
machining is the most common manufacturing method used. Gear machining is classified into two
categories:
• Gear Generating
• Gear Form-Cutting
Gear generating involves gear cutting through the relative motion of a rotating cutting tool and the
generating, or rotational, motion of the workpiece. The two primary generating processes are hobbing and
shaping.
Hobbing uses a helically fluted cutting tool called a hob. Both the hob and the workpiece rotate as the hob
is fed axially across the gear blank. Hobbing is limited to producing external gear teeth on spur and
helical gears. Hobbing can be performed on a single gear blank, but also allows for stacking of multiple
workpieces, increasing production rates.
Shaping produces gears by rotating the workpiece in contact with a reciprocating cutting tool. The cutter
may be pinion shaped, a multi-tooth rack-shaped cutter, or a single-point cutting tool.
Gear form-cutting uses formed cutting tools that have the actual shape, or profile, desired in the finished
gear. The two primary form-cutting methods are broaching and milling.
Broaching is the fastest method of machining gears and is performed using a multi-tooth cutting tool
called a broach. Each tooth on the broach is generally higher than the preceding tooth. As a result, the
depth of cut increases with each tooth as the broaching operation progresses. Broaching is typically used
to produce internal gear teeth. External teeth can be broached using “pot broaching”. In this process a
hollow broaching tool, called the pot, is used to cut the gear teeth.
Milling is a basic machining process which uses the relative motion between a rotating, multi-edge cutter
and a work piece to cut individual gear teeth. A variation of the process, called “gashing”, is used to

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produce large, coarse-pitch gears. Gashing is used on heavy-duty milling machines and involves plunging
the rotating cutter into a blank for rapid metal removal.

Gear Finishing
After manufacturing, gears require a number of finishing operations. Finishing operations include heat
treatment and final dimensional and surface finishing. This finishing can be accomplished using:
• Shaving
• Grinding
• Honing
Shaving is performed with a cutter having the exact shape of the finished gear tooth. Only small amounts
of material are removed by a rolling and reciprocating action. The process is fast but generally expensive
due to the cost of machinery and tooling. Shaving is typically performed prior to heat treating.
Grinding sometimes serves as an initial gear production process, but is most often employed for gear
finishing. Grinding is classified as either form grinding or involute-generation grinding.
Form grinding uses wheels having the exact shape of the tooth spacing. The grinding wheels are either
vitrified-bond wheels, which require periodic re-dressing, or Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) wheels, which
can last hundreds of times longer than vitrified wheels without dressing.
Involute-generation grinding refers to a grinding wheel or wheels used to finish the gear tooth by axially
rotating the work piece while it is reciprocated in an angular direction, which in turn is determined by the
type of gear being finished. This type of grinding is performed either intermittently or continuously.
Intermittent grinding uses tooth profiles dressed on cup wheels, or on one or two single-rib wheels. Each
tooth is ground individually, then the next is indexed to the wheel. Continuous grinding uses grinding
wheels with the rack profile dressed helically on the outside diameter. Both the grinding wheel and the
work turn in timed relationship for continuous finishing.
Honing involves the meshing of the gear teeth in a cross axis relationship with a plastic, abrasive
impregnated gear shaped tool. The tool traverses the tooth surface in a back and forth movement parallel
to the work piece axis. Honing polishes the gear tooth surface and can be used to correct minor errors in
gear tooth geometry.

18. Hole making

Hole making
Drilling, the most common of hole making processes, consumes half of the cutting tools used in all chip
making processes. In most cases, the drill creates a cylindrical hole by rotational action, cutting into a
fixed work piece. When hole making is done on a lathe, the drill is fixed while the work rotates. Because
most of the cutting and chip generation takes place in the confined space of the hole, lubrication is
critical. Coolants lubricate the cut, cool the drill point, and help flush out chips.
The main problem in hole making is deflection of the drill. A rule of thumb states that the rigidity of a the
drill is proportional to the fourth power of its diameter. Thus, a ½" (12.5mm) diameter drill is only 1/16
as rigid as a 1" (250mm) diameter drill.

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Because of the many types of drilling tools and methods, the tool choice is determined by a number of
factors, including:
• the ultimate hole size
• the hole's depth
• tolerances required
• the type of material being drilled
• the amount of holes needed
Hole making processes are divided into either “short-hole” drilling, which is most common, and “deep
hole” drilling.
A short hole is defined as a hole with a small ratio of depth to diameter. Typically that would include
holes up to 1.2" (30mm) having a depth of no more than 5 or 6 times that diameter. For holes greater than
1.2" (30mm) in diameter, short holes are those no more than 2.5 times hole diameter. Short holes are
usually drilled in one motion. Drilling deeper with conventional drills requires repeated withdrawal of the
drill to clear the chips from the drill’s flutes. This repeated withdrawal of the drill is called “peck
drilling.”
Deep hole drilling is more difficult, mainly in keeping the hole straight, and requires special drills, guides,
equipment, and methods. One of these methods is called “trepanning.” This involves the making of a
circular cut using a hollow-core cutting tool. The result is a cut in the form of an outer ring while a central
core of material drops through and leaves the full hole. In this way, larger diameter holes may be cut
using less power and chip production.

Holes come in many forms. A “through” hole goes completely through a work piece. A “blind” hole is
drilled only to a certain depth. “Interrupted” holes intersect at some point with other holes within a work
piece. Hole may also have a oblique entry or exit angle. Holes may be drilled for coolant passages or to
provide access for part inspection. Holes may also be threaded for fasteners.

The Drill
By definition, a drill is a round, end-cutting tool with one or more cutting lips and one or more straight or
helical flutes. The twist drill is the most common hole making tool, and is made up of a shank, flutes, two
cutting lips and a point. Such drills are made of high speed steel or carbide for drilling hard and abrasive
materials. Twist drills typically are used in production for holes up to 5/8" (20mm) in diameter. Some are
“index able-insert” drills- steel drills with one or more carbide cutting edges seated in them.
The twist drill is held and driven by the shank. These shanks can be straight for use in collets or drill
chucks, or tapered for mounting directly into machine spindles.
The helix angle of the drill’s flutes will vary according to the material being drilled. An angle of 25o to
33o is optimal for steel and cast iron. Angles ranging from 35o to 40o are used for softer metals like
aluminum.
Brass and plastics are best drilled with low helix drills having an angle of 15o to 20o.
The drill point is formed by the two cutting lips and does the work of metal cutting. The standard drill
point angle is 118o with a clearance angle of between 10o and 20o. Variations in tip geometry have

48
improved drill action by allowing cooler running and improved chip removal. Various high penetration
drills have been developed with special point designs. These drills may also be coated high speed steel,
carbide tipped, or all carbide.
Like other tools, drills will become dull over time. Indications of dulling include an increase of spindle
pressure required to produce chips and a squealing in the cut. When required, drill sharpening should
always be done on machines or with fixtures designed for that specific purpose.
There are many special purpose drills such as the center drill which is very short with a 60o countersink.
The center drill is used to start holes. Spade drills have interchangeable flat blade inserts which will drill
large diameter holes from 1" (25mm) to 6" (150mm). Core drills are multi-fluted drills used to enlarge
and finish previously drilled or cast holes. A step drill presents increasingly larger diameters as it
progresses through the material. Drilling end mills can drill to relatively shallow depths and then enlarge
or reshape the hole according to movement of the workpiece on the machine table.
For increased accuracy and to help prevent drill breakage, drilling is often done using drill jigs and
bushings.
The jig positions the drill while the hardened bushing guides it. This keeps the drill straight and true as it
enters the work.

Hole making Machines & Parameters

The sensitive drill press is a familiar shop machine, but most production drilling is done on more
productive and sophisticated equipment. This equipment includes lathes, machining centers, and high-
production transfer machines. For drilling large work pieces, a radial drill press can be used. The drill
head can be moved in and out from the machine column and rotated around the column to almost any
point. Self-feeding drilling units operate automatically for repetitive work. They can be set up for drilling
as well as secondary hole finishing operations. Multi-spindle drilling machines are used for mass
production. The rotary motion of the multi-spindle machine is generated from a central source and
transmitted to multiple spindles. Drill and tap centers perform automated tapping as well as drilling
operations.
The two parameters for accurate and efficient drilling include:
• cutting speed, which is measured at the periphery of the drill body and expressed in surface feet per
minute
• feed or penetration rate, which is the distance of travel into the stock per unit of time and expressed as
inches or millimeters per minute
As a rule of thumb, the harder the material, the slower the cutting speed and feed rates.
Initial hole drilling is usually followed by some kind of finishing operation. Reaming is one such method.

A reamer removes just enough metal to provide a smooth finish and accurate size to the hole. Reamers
may be right- or left-handed, straight or tapered. Boring is an internal turning operation that enlarges and
finishes
an existing hole. Boring uses a bar with a single-point cutting tool, or a tool with two or three edges.

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Boring can improve a hole's geometry and location, since the hole shape is primarily determined by
machine tool motions. Roller burnishing is a polishing operation which smoothes irregularities on the
hole wall and often produces a mirror-like finish. Honing is an abrasive method which gives very
accurate final sizing and finish to the hole.
Other post-drilling operations include counter boring which enlarges hole diameter to a specific depth,
and countersinking which produces an angle entry to the hole to allow certain types of hardware to be
flush to the material’s surface.

19.Grinding
The Grinding Process
Grinding is an abrasive material removal and surface generation process used to shape and finish
components made of metals and other materials. The precision and surface finish obtained through
grinding can be up to ten times better than with either turning or milling.
Grinding employs an abrasive product, usually a rotating wheel brought into controlled contact with a
work surface. The grinding wheel is composed of abrasive grains held together in a binder. These
abrasive grains act as cutting tools, removing tiny chips of material from the work. As these abrasive
grains wear and become dull, the added resistance leads to fracture of the grains or weakening of their
bond. The dull pieces break away, revealing sharp new grains that continue cutting. The requirements for
efficient grinding include:
• abrasive components which are harder than the work
• shock- and heat-resistant abrasive wheels
• abrasives that are friable. That is, they are capable of controlled fracturing
Most abrasives used in industry are synthetic. Aluminum oxide is used in three quarters of all grinding
operations, and is primarily used to grind ferrous metals. The next most common manufactured abrasive
is ceramic, which is used for grinding hard brittle metals. Ceramic abrasive grains are commonly mixed
with aluminum oxide in the manufacture of the wheel to produce better grinding characteristics. Silicon
carbide is next, it is used for grinding softer, non-ferrous metals and high density materials, such as
cemented carbide or ceramics. Superabrasives, namely cubic boron nitride or ‘CBN’ and diamond, are
used in about five percent of grinding. Hard ferrous materials are ground with ‘CBN’, while non-ferrous
materials and nonmetals are best ground with diamond.
The grain size of abrasive materials is important to the process. Large, coarse grains remove material
faster, while smaller grains produce a finer finish.
The binders that hold these abrasive grains together include:
• vitrified bonds, a glass-like bond formed of fused clay or feldspar
• organic bonds, from synthetic resins, rubber, or shellac
• metal bond, using powder metallurgy or single-layer bond systems
Wheels are graded according their strength and wear resistance. A ‘hard’ wheel is one that resists the
separation of its individual grains. One that is too hard will wear slowly and present dulled grains to the
work and overheat, affecting the final finish. If too soft a wheel is used, it will deteriorate quickly,

50
requiring frequent replacement.

Another aspect of grinding wheels is their pore structure or density, which refers to the porosity between
individual grains. This pore structure creates spaces between the grains that provide coolant retention and
areas for the chips to form. Dense wheels are best for harder materials, while more open densities are
better for the softer metals.
The three factors of grain size, bond type, and pore structure are closely related, and together determine
how well a wheel will perform.

Grinding Safety
Damaged wheels or even wheels suspected of being damaged should not be used. Safety steps for proper
use of grinding wheels include, but are not limited to:
• always having machine guards in place before turning on a grinding wheel
• running wheels for at least one minute before actual work begins
• always using eye protection
• properly balancing and dressing wheels before use
Wheel dressing is done with special tools designed for that purpose. Although wheel dressing is often
done manually between work cycles, some grinding machines perform the dressing task automatically.
The application of coolants to the grinding process is important. Coolants reduce grinding machine power
requirements, maintain work quality, stabilize part dimensions, and insure longer wheel life. Coolants are
either emulsions, synthetic lubricants or special grinding oils. Coolants are applied by either flooding the
work area or by high pressure jet streams.

Precision Grinding Methods

There are many forms of grinding, but the three primary categories of precision grinding operations are:
• cylindrical grinding, both external and internal
• centerless grinding
• surface grinding
In cylindrical grinding, the workpiece rotates about a fixed axis and the surfaces machined are concentric
to that axis of rotation. ‘OD’ or outside diameter cylindrical grinding produces an external surface that
may be either straight, tapered, or contoured. The basic components of a cylindrical grinder include a
wheelhead, which incorporate the spindle and drive motor; a cross-slide, that moves the wheelhead to and
from the workpiece; a headstock, which locates, holds, and drives the workpiece; and a tailstock, which
holds the other end of the work.
Internal diameter or ‘ID’ cylindrical grinders finish the inside of a previously drilled, reamed, or bored
hole, using small grinding wheels run at high RPM. The principle elements of a internal grinding machine
are the workhead, which holds the work and has its own drive; and the wheelhead, which is the internal
grinding spindle. In addition to the rotary motions of work and wheel, an internal grinder has a traverse
movement to bring the wheel to and from the work zone, and a reciprocating spindle movement for both
the wheel's approach to the work surface and for the feed movement of the wheel during grinding.

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Several different internal contours can be produced within a workpiece using ‘ID’ grinding.

In centerless grinding, the workpiece rotates between a grinding wheel and a regulating wheel. The
regulating wheel is slower than the grinding wheel, and causes the workpiece to rotate at a desired
peripheral speed for grinding. As the gap between the two wheels is reduced, the diameter of the rotating
workpiece is ground to a uniform outside diameter. The change in the workpiece diameter is equal to the
distance by which one of the wheels is advanced. The work is supported from below by a fixed work-rest
blade.
The two basic modes of centerless grinding are ‘thru-feed’ and ‘infeed’ or ‘plunge’ mode. In the thru-feed
mode, the work proceeds in the axial direction through the slowly narrowing gap between the grinding
wheel and the regulating wheel. Work is advanced by the axial force exerted on it by the rotating surface
of the regulating wheel. This is a highly productive form of grinding in that a number of workpieces can
be ground simultaneously and in a continuous stream. The ‘infeed’ mode is used for work with projecting
heads that would prohibit ‘thru-feeding’, the work is placed on the work-rest blade while one wheel is
retracted and fed to an end stop. The wheel is then brought back, reducing the gap between the wheels,
grinding the work.
Surface grinding produces flat, angular, or contoured surfaces by feeding the workpiece in a horizontal
plane beneath a rotating wheel. Work is most often magnetically attached to the table, and a flat surface
may be ground by either a traversing movement of the table using the periphery of a grinding wheel, or
by a rotating movement of the workpiece or workpieces using the grinding wheel face.

Workpiece surfaces produced by grinding are influenced by the following factors:

• workpiece material - harder materials allow finer finishes
• type of wheel - fine grains yield finer finishes
• wheel condition - clogged wheels cannot produce a good finish
• dressing procedure - improperly dressed wheels will mar the work surface
• feed rate - finer finishes are obtained with slower feed rates
• machine rigidity - a machine in poor condition is prone to produce chatter and poor quality parts.
• lubricant cleanliness - coolant filtration removes waste that could damage workpiece surface
Surface integrity is the condition of the surface below the apparently smooth finish. Micro-cracking,
microstructural changes, or other damage, typically due to excess heat or excess force in the process, may
be hidden under a clean, smooth-looking surface. Careful finish grinding can sometimes remove damage
to surface integrity created by too-vigorous rough grinding.

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 20. Workholding
Workholding Principles

Workholding includes any device used to present and hold a workpiece to a cutting tool. These devices
include clamps, vises, chucks, fixtures and more. The decision about how to hold a part influences:
• which surfaces or holes can be designated as reference surfaces, or datums
• which surfaces can be machined in a single setup
• the overall accuracy of the machining process
• allowable cutting forces, which may include speeds and feeds
• the tool path
• possibly the tool size and shape
Other important factors include:
• cutting tool access to work
• ease of loading and unloading from workholding device
• simplicity of workholding setup and teardown
• use of standard catalog workholding components for economy
To correctly machine a part it must be held in a setup that guarantees a definite location and orientation.
This setup must be repeatable throughout the production run. Additionally, the workholding device must
hold the part securely in position while cutting forces, vibrations, centrifugal force, and gravity act to
dislodge it.
Defining the workholding location begins with visualizing the coordinate system representing a solid
object in space, known as the six degrees of freedom. These six coordinates consist of the plus and minus
movement in the "x", "y", "z" axes, and in clockwise and counter-clockwise directions around each of
these three axes.
There are twelve directions of movement that make-up these six degrees of freedom. to accurately locate
a workpiece for machining, it must be secured to restrict movement in these twelve directions.

determines the "locators" which will negate, or cancel out, movement along these axes. The locators are
points of contact, or attachment, that systematically restrain the workpiece. Once a workpiece is properly
located in space and secured, all six degrees of freedom are canceled.
Accuracy and productivity demand that as many machining operations as possible occur for a single
workholding procedure. Reclamping, rechucking, and other repositioning of work compromises the
accuracy of the work, increasing non-value added time to the manufacture of the part. Sometimes
multiple set-ups are needed when datum surfaces must be machined first, or a through hole has steps on
both sides, or a part has blind holes on opposite sides.

Milling and Machining Center Workholding

In small-lot milling operations, the simplest clamps and vises can be used. Production machining centers
often require the use of quick-acting single and multiple clamps, sometimes hydraulically or

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pneumatically actuated. For mass- production of a part, a dedicated fixture is often used.
The number and variety of clamping devices for milling and machining centers is extensive. among them
are:
• strap clamps
• cam clamps
• toggle clamps
• push-pull clamps
• latch clamps
Similarly there are many types of machine table mounted vises. There are single- and multiple-jaw types,
as well as swivel and tilting base models. Many vises can be operated automatically. Vises may be
mounted on a cube or column or on a "tombstone" or indexer. Rotary tables permit four sides of a
workpiece to be machined in one setup, and allow the machining of holes and surfaces at odd angles. The
two types of rotary tables include:
• indexing tables, which allow parts to be quickly set and locked in position
• full rotary tables, which traverse during cutting to generate shapes
Many horizontal machining centers have rotary tables built in, and may also have second accessory rotary
tables added atop the first to provide another axis.
Some fixturing systems are modular, and allow various standard interchangeable components to be
configured quickly for a variety of workholding situations. These modular fixtures may start from drilled
and tapped base plates, or from base plates having a series of parallel "T" slots.
Many horizontal machining centers accept workpieces clamped to pallets and change pallets
automatically in seconds. Fixturing is built on the pallets rather than on the machine table. Workpieces
are unloaded and new parts loaded on the pallet outside the machining zone while work on a second pallet
is being machined.
Once done, these pallets swap, and the unloading/loading process begins again. Vertical machining
centers may also be fitted with mini-pallet transfer systems for quick loading to the work table.
A dedicated fixture for machining centers, as opposed to modular fixturing, is created for one specific
part and cannot be adapted to a different use. However, dedicated fixtures offer the highest accuracy,
repeatability and loading/unloading speed.

Lathe Workholding
In turning, the workpiece rotates instead of the cutting tool, so the workholding devices must transmit
torque to rotate the workpiece and withstand the centrifugal force developed by that rotation.
Chucks are the primary workholding tools in turning operations. Also used is the collet, the mandrel and
the face driver. Each have distinct applications.

Chucks:
• may have 2, 3, 4, or 6 jaws to hold work by external or internal surfaces
• many chucks operate manually, but in CNC lathes they operate automatically
• indexing chucks can index to different positions to present multiple surfaces of a workpiece to the

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cutting tool
• for longer parts, a tailstock support is used with the chuck or other lathe workholding
• chucks may also be magnetic, to grip irregularly-shaped ferrous workpieces

Collets:
• accurately and tightly hold the smooth surfaces of round bar and cylindrical slug workpieces
• special collets can grip square and hex shapes
• collets may be multi-sized, with a stepless gripping size range
• collets are available for work pieces that are decimal, metric, and non-standard sizes
• collets are often used in conjunction with automatic bar stock feeders
Chucks or collets are used for between-center turning of long workpieces. A tailstock supports the end of
the work opposite the chuck or collet. Since cutting forces must be limited when between-center turning,
a steady rest is sometimes used to support long thin work.
The face driver is used for shaft turning. The face driver attaches to the end face of the work rather than
its periphery. This allows the cutting tool access to the entire length of the work piece.
Mandrels, also called arbors, grip work pieces from their interior surfaces. This allows the cutting tool
full access to the exterior of the part.

21.1 Measurement & Gaging

All manufacturing is built around the measurement of both in-process work and
in the final inspection of the finished part. Some typical measurable values
include:
• time
• weight
• temperature
• pressure
• hardness
• part dimensions
Part dimensions refer to the physical aspects of the item in respect to size and shape and to the size,
orientation, form, and location of part details such as holes, slots, projections, etc. Two systems for linear
measurement are used today in industry, the familiar English system based on the yard and
the Metric system based on the meter.
Measurement systems are calibrated to primary standards that are actual
physical objects that provide a common dimensional reference. “Gage Blocks” are extremely accurate
and stable alloy steel units which either, singly or in groups, are used to calibrate and check the accuracy
of various measurement tools. Additionally, flat, hard surface plates provide reference
points from which other dimensions can be obtained.

The use of the various measurement tools is dependent upon the understanding
of the following core concepts:

55
• Precision - the quality of being clearly defined or how close the indicated value is to the true value
• Resolution - referring to the fineness of the tool’s graduations. A rule graduated in 1/2 mm is more
precise than one graduated in whole millimeters
• Accuracy - the degree to which an indicated value conforms to an established standard
• Repeatability - the degree of consistency achieved with a measuring tool, with a single reader measuring
the same dimension several times
• Reproducibility - the degree of consistency achieved when a measuring device is used by different
readers to inspect the same part or part dimension

Nongraduated measuring tools and gages are used to transfer existing or preset
dimensions to or from a graduated tool. In other instances they act as
pass/fail comparisons such as the go-no go gage.
The common non-graduated tools and gages include:
• dividers
• calipers (plus the hermaphrodite caliper)
• telescope gages
• small hole gages
• squares
• straight edges
• adjustable parallels
• go/no-go gages
Each has its own application during an inspection sequence. A typical example is in the divider being set
to a radius dimension on a graduated scale then used to scribe a circle of a given diameter.
Graduated measuring tools and gages have either linear or angular graduations
and may be in English or metric units. Some of the more common tools include:
• rules
• combination squares
• calipers
• micrometers
• height gages
These tools have either specific or universal use in a variety of inspection sequences. For example,
calipers may be used for reading both “inside” and “outside” diameter. The use of the combination square
can be expanded to the measurement of angles with a “protractor” head, and to the locating of the
centers of round objects with a “centering” head.

Vernier calipers are calipers that have an additional scale, called a “Vernier scale,” for greater resolution
and precision. This additional scale will divide each millimeter into 50 units representing two one
hundredths (.02) of a millimeter. Height gages and depth gages have also been refined by
the addition of Vernier scales.
Micrometers use a stationary anvil and moveable spindle mounted on a “C” type frame. By rotation of a

56
thimble the spindle moves towards the anvil.
Measurement is obtained by the graduated thimble revolving around the graduated portion of the spindle
shaft. Similar to the Vernier caliper, the micrometer’s shaft is graduated in millimeters and the thimble in
one hundredths of a millimeter (.01).
Dial read-outs and electronic digital displays have improved the precision of measurement readings.
Vernier calipers have dials with a pointer that rotates as the moveable jaw slides along the frame of the
caliper. Also available are electronic digital readout. A dial indicator uses a contact point attached to
a spindle and rack arrangement. The movement of the contact is transmitted to the face of the dial that is
appropriately graduated. Both dials and digital read-outs have been incorporated in most standard
measuring tools and instruments. They have the important advantage of providing direct readings
and eliminating the chance of errors associated with the interpretation of sliding Vernier scales.
Additionally, the electronic digital read-out devices are useful in collecting data for statistical process
control (SPC) functions.
Other measuring devices work by comparing the part dimensions and characteristics with an image or
model of the specified part’s characteristics or dimensions. The three most common devices are:
• optical measuring projectors
• vision systems
• coordinate measuring machines or CMMs
The optical projection method is a non-contact device that displays the feature in question on a display
screen. Measurements are checked by cross hairs etched directly on the screen or with overlay charts.
Usually the part profile is depicted, but some systems enable surface viewing as well. Other
systems have edge detection capabilities that use beams of light to trigger a coordinate reading when light
or dark edges are crossed. Vision systems use visual sensors to read part characteristics and make
intelligent decisions as to acceptance or rejection. The main applications of visual systems are gaging and
flaw detection, symbol and object recognition, and machine tracking and object location.

Coordinate measuring machines (CMM) are extremely accurate devices ranging from small tabletop units
to very large CMMs capable of inspecting whole aircraft components. They use a probing system to
collect raw data and feed it into a computer to be processed and analyzed. In operation the probe or
probes are brought into contact with the part either manually or by machine controls. Geometric and
dimensional data is then transmitted to the system’s computer. Probes will operate in the X, Y, and
vertical Z axes.

21.2 Mechanical & Non-Destructive Testing

Materials Testing
Prior to manufacturing, many material, design, and production decisions are made to ensure product
reliability and proper performance. To validate these decisions, a variety of testing methods are
employed.
The methods are grouped into two major categories:
• Mechanical Testing

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• Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
Mechanical testing, which is also known as destructive testing, is accomplished by forcing a part to fail
by the application of various load factors. In contrast, non-destructive testing does not affect the part’s
future usefulness and leaves the part and its component materials in tact.
Mechanical Testing
Mechanical testing specifications have been developed by the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) and many of these specifications have been adopted by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI).
Typically mechanical testing involves such attributes as hardness, strength, and impact toughness.
Additionally, materials can be subjected to various types of loads such as tension or compression.
Mechanical testing can occur at room temperatures or in either high or low temperature extremes.
Hardness – The resistance to indentation and to scratching or abrasion. The two most common hardness
tests are the Brinell test and the Rockwell test.
In the Brinell hardness test, a known load is applied for a given period of time to a specimen surface
using a hardened steel or tungsten-carbide ball, causing a permanent indentation. Standard ball diameter
is 10 millimeters, or approximately four-tenths of an inch. The diameter of the resulting permanent
indentation is then measured and converted to a Brinell hardness number.
The Rockwell hardness test involves the use of an indentor for penetrating the surface of a material first
by applying a minor, or initial load, and then applying a major, or final load under specific conditions.

The difference between the minor and major penetration depths is then noted as a hardness value directly
from a dial or digital readout. The harder the material the higher the number.
Tensile – Force is applied perpendicular to the cross sectional area of the test item. Two of the primary
material properties that tensile tests determine are:
• Yield Strength, which is the stress required to permanently elongate, or deform, a material a specific
amount, commonly 0.2% of total elongation.
• Ultimate Tensile Strength, which is the maximum stress a material can withstand just prior to fracturing.
Compression – Compressive loads are applied to a point just beyond the yield strength of the material and
measured at that point or continued to the point of failure if required.
Impact – Impact tests measure resistance to shock loading or impact by determining the amount of
energy
absorbed by the test specimen. There are two basic types of impact tests:
• Pendulum
• Drop Weight
Most common pendulum impact tests are the Charpy notched-bar impact test and the Izod notched-bar
impact test. In both tests, the specimen is fractured and the energy absorbed is documented. The chief
differences between these two impact tests are the way the test specimen is held and in the pendulum
hammer design.
In the dropped weight test, a known weight is dropped from a specified height. Such tests have
advantages in that the impact is unidirectional with failure beginning at the weakest point and propagating

58
from there.
A principle advantage over the pendulum impact tests is that the drop weight impact test can define
failure by either deformation, crack initiation, or complete failure of the specimen.
Fracture Toughness - Measures a material’s resistance to brittle fracture and can be quantified by linear
elastic fracture mechanics.
Fatigue – Measures material failure under repeated loading below the yield strength. Stresses measured
below failure is referred to as the ‘endurance limit’ while the number of repeating cycles the material can
withstand above this limit is known as ‘fatigue life.’
Creep – Measures a material’s continuing dimensional change while under timed stress load. Creep tests
are usually performed at elevated temperatures and can last for a thousand hours or longer.
Non-Destructive Testing
All non-destructive tests include several basic elements:
• A source that distributes a probing medium
• A modification of the probing medium in reaction to discontinuities or variations in the material’s
properties
• A sensitive detector responsive to changes in the distribution of the probing medium
• A means of indicating or recording of the detector’s signals
• An observer or devise capable of accurately interpreting the test object’s material properties or
discontinuities
Non-Destructive Testing Methods
Non-destructive testing methods require a trained and competent inspector. Moreover, the inspector must
be trained in the specific testing method involved. Some of the most common non-destructive testing
methods include:
Visual – Most simple, quickly and easily performed method. Most often performed with special
illuminations and magnification aids. Limited to detecting only surface defects.
Liquid Penetrant – Able to detect pits, porosity, and seams. A liquid penetrant dye is applied for a specific
time. Later a developer is applied which causes the dye to be drawn out from the defect and mark the
flaw’s location.
Magnetic Particle – While dry or suspended in a liquid, magnetic particles are applied to a test surface
area.
When a magnetic field is created within a test part, a discontinuity, perpendicular to the induced magnetic
field causes a leakage field to form on the parts surface and hold the rearranged particles in place at the
flaw for inspection.
Eddy Currents – Using a testing coil, a small circulating current called an eddy current is applied to any
electrically conductive part. Any change in the eddy current pattern results in a change in the coil signal.
While sensitive and versatile, the process requires the use of accurate reference standards.
Ultrasonic – High frequency sound waves are sent by a transducer into an object. The energy of the
ultrasonic waves is reflected back to the transducer by any discontinuities, indicating their presence and
location. Ultrasonic testing can be accomplished using either:
• Immersion Testing

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• Contact Testing
In immersion testing, sound waves are transmitted through a water path or column. In contact testing, the
transducer is in direct contact with the test specimen. A thin liquid film couplant is required to ensure
efficient transmission of the ultrasonic energy. All types of materials can be tested with ultrasonics, but
complex shapes can prove problematic.

Radiographic – Based on the ability of x-rays and gamma rays to penetrate all materials and thicknesses
differently. The radiation is directed through the part and imprints on a film stock or an electronic device.
The resulting image reveals the internal characteristics of the part, with possible imperfections showing
up as density changes in the image. This process is used primarily on welds and is difficult to use on
complex shapes. The process is costly and involves certain health risks for process operators.
Additionally, high interpretive skills in reading the x-ray images are required.

22.1 Plating & Surface Coatings

Plating & Surface Coating Processes
The use of plating and surface coatings to finish part surfaces is widespread in manufacturing. Applied as
thin films, these coatings provide protection, durability, and/or decoration to part surfaces. The most
common plating and surface coating technologies used include:
• Electroplating
• Electroless Plating
• Conversion Coating
• Hot Dipping
• Porcelain Enameling
Electroplating
Electroplating is a process by which a thin layer of metal is cathodically deposited on another metal,
plastic, or other substrate material that is, or has been made electrically conductive. The process occurs in
an electrolytic solution consisting of certain chemical compounds that make the solution highly
conductive.
Direct current is used for Electroplating. The positively charged plating metal ions within the electrolytic
solution are precipitated, or drawn out of the solution to coat the negatively charged conductive part
surface.
As the current flows, the metal ions in the solution gain electrons at the part surface and transform into a
metal coating. The positively charged plating metal is referred to as the 'anode', while the part to be plated
is called the 'cathode'.
This process, referred to as electrolysis, was explained in 1883 by Michael Faraday, and is known as
Faraday’s Law. In summary, Faraday’s Law states that the amount of metal deposited by an electric
current passing through a solution is directly related to the quantity of electricity that flows. Also, the
amount of plating material deposited is directly related to the weight of that plating metal. This
relationship determines plating time and current levels to deposit a coating of a given thickness.
Most metals can be electroplated, the easiest being iron, copper, nickel, zinc, silver, and gold. Other more

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difficult metals include stainless steel, aluminum, magnesium, and lead. Metals commonly used as plating
material include nickel, copper, chromium and various precious metals such as gold and silver.
Electrolytic solutions will often contain additives used to brighten or enhance the uniformity of the
plating metal and can also influence hardness and corrosion resistance.

Electroless Plating
Electroless plating is also known as autocatalytic deposition. The plating metal, in an ionic state within a
plating solution, is deposited onto a substrate surface that has been rendered catalytic by chemical
reaction. When a layer of metal forms on the part surface, that layer, and subsequent layers, becomes the
catalyst which results in a continuous chemical reaction adding more metal coating on the part.
The electroless plating solutions contain metal salts, reducers, complexing agents, PH adjusters, and
stabilizers. These solution baths operate around 200oF or 90oC. Coating thickness depends upon
immersion time.
The principle advantage of the electroless process is in its ability to create uniform coating thicknesses
regardless of part geometry. The process also allows the plating of non- and semi-conductive surfaces, as
well as conductive surfaces. As such, the process is often used to plate non-conductive parts with a
conductive coating in preparation for electroplating operations. Electroless plating is a much slower
process than the electroplating process.
The most common deposited metals are nickel and its alloys along with copper, cobalt and gold. Nickel
plating provides for high wear and corrosion resistance.
Conversion Coating
Using conversion coatings processes, strongly adherent coating materials are formed on metal surfaces by
chemical or electrochemical reactions between a solution and the ions formed by the metallic surface
immersed in the solution. The most common chemical conversion coatings are:
• Phosphate coatings
• Chromate coatings
• Oxide coatings
Each of these coatings imparts specific surface qualities on the parts treated.
Phosphate coatings transform metal substrates into new surfaces that have non-metallic, non-conducting,
water-insoluble properties.
Chromate coatings impart superior corrosion resistance and like phosphate coatings provide a bonding
base for paints and lacquers. Chromate coatings are also moisture and abrasion resistant.
Oxide coatings, usually black, are applied to ferrous metal surfaces, and with some solution modification
to non-ferrous surfaces as well. While black oxide coatings are used primarily for decorative purposes,
they provide a good base for paint as well. Additionally, oxide coated parts are commonly post treated
with sealing lubricants to aid in corrosion resistance and to improve lubricity.
The electrochemical method of conversion coating is also known as 'anodizing'. This term stems from the
fact that the part to be coated is the 'anode' rather than the 'cathode' as in electroplating. Anodizing
provides corrosion protection, and also increases abrasion resistance, decorative appeal, paint and
adhesive adherence, and electrical insulation. Aluminum and magnesium are the most commonly

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anodized metals, but titanium, zinc, and zirconium can be anodized as well.
The most common anodizing electrolytic solutions are sulfuric acid based. The rate at which the process
takes place is dependant on voltage, current density, type of solution, and solution temperature. Using
sulfuric based solutions anodized coatings are generally transparent and extremely thin. Hard anodizing is
done at higher levels of electric current and voltages, but with lower solution temperatures. These
anodized coatings have greater resistance to corrosion and abrasion and are thicker than standard
anodized coatings.
Hot Dipping
The most common hot dipping process is galvanizing. Galvanizing involves immersing parts in a molten
zinc bath which has a temperature of 835oF to 855oF or 445oC to 460oC. The molten zinc and the part
substrate react chemically, resulting in a zinc-iron alloy coating having a almost pure zinc outer layer.
Precleaning of the parts is particularly important, and includes caustic cleaning, pickling, and fluxing in
sequential steps. Parts are immersed in the molten zinc until they reach the same temperature as the zinc
bath.
Galvanizing can be applied to large or small fabricated or semi-fabricated parts, as well as to coil stock.
Porcelain Enameling
Porcelain enameling is widely used in industrial, household, and architectural applications, and is
typically applied to steel, cast iron, and aluminum. Porcelain enameling is the deposition and fusion
bonding of alkali borosilicate glass more commonly known as 'frit'. The process occurs at temperatures
between 800oF to 1400oF, or 425oC to 760oC . As it melts, the frit bonds chemically to the metal
substrate resulting in a unique coating that imparts high heat, corrosion, chemical, and electrical
resistance. Porcelain enamel coatings with decorative colors can also be achieved.
The porcelain coatings consist mainly of the frit. Other materials such as clay, bentonite, electrolytes, and
coloring oxides are also present. these coatings are commonly applied suspended in water, either by
dipping or spraying. The coating may also be electro statically applied as a dry powder. As with all
coating methods, meticulous cleaning of the substrate is critical.
Once applied, water-borne porcelain coatings may be air dried or dried by radiant heat prior to firing in a
furnace. Dry powder porcelain enameling coatings may be fired immediately.

22.2Painting & Powder Coating

Paint and Powder Coatings
Paint and powder coatings are organic coatings made up of carbon based compounds. They consist of
four basic elements:
• Pigments
• Additives
• Resins
• Solvents
Pigments contribute color, corrosion resistance and mechanical strength to the coating.
Additives are chemicals that impart special properties to the coatings. Additives may include thickeners,
ultraviolet stabilizers and anti-foaming agents.

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Resins, such as acrylics and epoxies, bind the pigments and additives together into a solid, durable film.
Solvents affect viscosity and drying qualities of coatings. Powder coatings by their nature are produced
and applied without the use of solvents.
By combining variations of pigments, additives, resins and solvents a variety of coating formulations are
created. These formulations include:
• Primers
• Sealers
• Basecoats
• Clearcoats
• Topcoats and others
Enamels and Lacquers
Because they act as the binder and film former, resins are the most critical component in paint
formulation. Resins are made up of molecular structures known as polymers. These paint polymers can be
categorized as either enamels or lacquers, depending on how they form their film.
Enamels rely on solvent evaporation while the resin polymers undergo chemical "crosslinking" to form a
film.
Crosslinking is where the polymer molecules reacts with another chemical called a crosslinker, to form
larger polymer chains. These chains link and bundle together with other chains to produce an extremely
strong film bond.
Lacquers, like enamels, use the evaporation of a solvent to form their films but do not undergo additional
crosslinking. In a lacquer, the molecules in the existing polymer matrix simply bond together as the
solvent
evaporates.
Liquid paints
Liquid paints are the most common coatings applied in industry. Most liquid paint formulations today are
often broadly categorized as either solventborne or waterborne high solids coatings. High solids coatings,
as the name implies, use special fluidization formulations to increase the solids content, approaching 50
to 80 percent of a formulation. High solids coatings have high viscosity and leave minimum residual
solvents as environmental contaminants.
Solventborne coating use solvent to fluidize or disperse the coating solids. The most common types of
resins used to produce solventborne coatings include: alkyds, polyesters, epoxies, urethanes, acrylics, and
silicones.
Waterborne coatings use mostly water as their fluidizing agent but may include some solvents as well.
Their formulation includes: water-reducible alkyds, modified alkyds, polyurethanes, latexs, and acrylic
latexs and epoxy hybrids.
All painting processes can be broken down into three fundamental sequences:
• Pretreatment and Cleaning
• Paint Application
• Paint Curing
Part pretreatment and cleaning are a critical component to the success application of coatings. The

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primary types of cleaning processes include: chemical cleaning, vapor degreasing, and ultrasonic
cleaning. Cleaning processes are determined based upon the part composition, the contaminants to be
removed, the paint application method, and the part end use.
The application of paints are most often done in segregated and well-ventilated areas or enclosures.
Application methods include:
• Air Spraying
• Airless Spraying
• Air Assisted Airless Spraying
• High Volume, Low Pressure Spraying
• Electrostatic Spraying
• Electrocoating
Paint application selection is based on the type of paint used, the size and quantity of parts, transfer
efficiency, and waste factors.
A coating is transformed into a solid paint film through curing. Paint curing may occur at room
temperatures or in some type of oven. The primary curing processes are heat crosslinking and radiation
curing. Heat crosslinking is used for coatings that cure too slowly or cannot cure at room temperatures.
Radiation curing is a rapid curing process, usually within seconds, that utilizes a radiation energy source
such as ultraviolet light.

Powder Coatings
Developed in the 1960’s, powder coatings are a viable alternative to liquid coating processes. Powder
coatings are applied dry and most cure into a continuous coating by crosslinking when heated.
Powder coatings are made up of finely ground homogeneous plastic particles, each containing the proper
proportion of resins, pigments, binders, flow aids, hardening agents and fillers. The primary types resins
used to produce powders include: epoxies, polyesters, acrylics, silicones, and hybrid combinations.
Because powders coatings have no solvent content, the method is more environmentally friendly than
liquid coatings. Additionally, there is minimal powder waste since most overspray is recoverable.
The powder coating process requires several subsystems including:
• A part pretreatment method or methods
• A powder application system
• A booth with a powder recovery system
• A curing oven
• A conveyor or other means to move the parts through the process
Pretreatment and part preparation is accomplished by either mechanical or chemical means.
The most common method of application is electrostatic spraying. The powder particles are suspended in
an air stream and pumped by compressed air through a spray gun which imparts the electrostatic charge
to the powder particles. These charged particle then cling to the parts which are grounded.
Approximately 50 percent of the powder particles adheres to the part during electrostatic spraying, so
efficient powder recovery systems are an important aspect of the powder coating process.
The curing of powder coatings is accomplished in either convection or infrared ovens. Convection ovens,

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usually gas fired, heat the powder using circulation hot air. Infrared ovens can effect a cure much faster,
acting on the parts immediately. However, since the infrared radiation is directional, complex parts with
deep recesses can be difficult to cure.

23. Electrical Discharge Machining

Electrical Discharge Machining
EDM is the thermal erosion process in which metal is removed by a series of recurring electrical
discharges between a cutting tool acting as an electrode and a conductive workpiece, in the presence of a
dielectric fluid. This discharge occurs in a voltage gap between the electrode and workpiece. Heat from
the discharge vaporizes minute particles of workpiece material, which are then washed from the gap by
the continuously flushing dielectric fluid.
There are two main types of EDMs; the ram and the wire-cut. Each are used to produce very small and
accurate parts as well as large items like automotive stamping dies and aircraft body components. The
largest single use of EDM is in die making. Materials worked with EDM include hardened and heat-
treated steels, carbide, polycrystalline diamond, titanium, hot and cold rolled steels, copper, brass, and
high temperature alloys. However, any material to be machined with the EDM process must be
conductive.
The benefits of EDM include:
• EDM is a non-contact process that generates no cutting forces, permitting the production of small and
fragile pieces
• Burr-free edges are produced
• intricate details and superior finishes are possible
• EDM machines with built-in process knowledge allow the production of intricate parts with minimum
operator intervention
The limitations of EDM include:
• low metal removal rates compared to chip machining
• lead time is needed to produce specific, consumable electrode shapes
Ram EDM
In ram EDM, the electrode/tool is attached to the ram which is connected to one pole, usually the positive
pole, of a pulsed power supply. The workpiece is connected to the negative pole. The work is then
positioned so that there is a gap between it and the electrode. The gap is then flooded with the dielectric
fluid. Once the power supply is turned on, thousands of direct current, or DC, impulses per second cross
the gap, beginning the erosion process. The spark temperatures generated can range from 14,000° to
21,000° Fahrenheit. As the erosion continues, the electrode advances into the work while maintaining a
constant gap dimension.

The finished EDM'd workpiece can exhibit several distinct layers. The surface layer will have small
globules of removed workpiece metal and electrode particles adhering to it, which are easily removed.
The second layer is called the “white” or “recast” layer where EDM has altered the metallurgical structure

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of the workpiece. The third layer is the heat-affected zone or “annealed” layer. This layer has been heated
but not melted.
All of these surface conditions are affected by:
• the EDM cycles of on- and off-time
• the duty cycle, which is the ratio of on-time relative to total cycle time
• the gap distance between the workpiece and the electrode
The electrode is fabricated with the reverse or negative image of the finished workpiece cavity. When
EDM'd, this workpiece cavity is measurably larger than the electrode. This dimensional difference is
called the overcut or kerf. This kerf dimension is critical during the fabrication of the electrode.
Ram EDM machines are also known as diesinkers or vertical EDMs. They range in size from tabletop
models to large CNC units. Ram EDMs have four sub-systems:
• a DC power supply to provide the electrical discharges, with controls for voltage, current, duration, duty
cycle, frequency, and polarity
• a dielectric system to introduce fluid into the voltage area/discharge zone and flush away work and
electrode debris, this fluid is usually a hydrocarbon or silicone based oil
• a consumable electrode, usually made of copper or graphite
• a servo system to control infeed of the electrode and provide gap maintenance
CNC ram EDM machines have automatic tool change capability allowing long unattended running times,
use of multiple electrodes for rough and fine metal removal, orbiting controls for cavity enlargement, and
contouring capability.
Wire EDM
The wire EDM process uses a consumable, electrically charged wire to effect very fine and intricate cuts.
The process is particularly useful in cutting fine details in pre-hardened stamping and blanking dies. A
wire drive system constantly presents fresh wire to the work so electrode wear is not a problem. Typical
wire diameters range from 0.002 - 0.013 of an inch, or 0.05 - 0.33 of a millimeter. These wires will
produce a kerf slightly larger than their own diameter. A 0.012 inch/0.3 millimeter wire will create a
0.015 inch/0.4 millimeter kerf. Wire EDM’s can run for long periods without operator attention. The four
basic wire EDM subsystems include:
• the DC power supply
• the dielectric system
• the wire feeding system
• the work positioning system
The wire system principle of operation is the same as the ram type, using a series of DC discharges
between the wire and work piece.
As with ram EDMs, flushing with dielectric fluid is critically important. In some cases, both wire and
work are completely submerged. However, this may cause electrolytic corrosion on some workpiece
materials. Since the wire electrode is very thin, power used is limited and removal rates are slow. The
actual removal rate is calculated in square inches per hour.
A two-axis wire EDM can only make cuts at right-angles to the work table, while a CNC positioning
system with a two-axis table can perform a wide variety of angled cuts. Independent multi-axis machines

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can cut tapered angles and make cuts that result in different top and bottom profiles. This capability is
needed in making items such as extrusion dies and flow valves. The wire never touches the work during
cuts. The wirecontrol servo system is able to maintain a wire-to-work distance of approximately .001
inch. The wire cuts along a programmed path starting at either an edge or in a predrilled hole. Parts to be
cut can be stacked for production quantities.
A third type of EDM is designed for drilling small, but very deep holes. These holes may have a depth-
todiameter ratio up to 100 to 1. Tubular electrodes up to a foot long are rotated at speeds of about 100
RPM while drilling. As the electrical discharges occur, this rotation aids in flushing and provides for
uniform electrode wear.
Some of the hazards in EDM machining include the chance of flash fire in the dielectric fluid if the level
falls too low. Smoke can be irritating to the eyes and lungs and but can be controlled with exhaust and
smoke eating devices. The dielectric fluid can be irritating to the skin as well.

24. Thermal & Abrasive Water-jet Cutting

Thermal and Waterjet Cutting
The four most commonly used non-contact methods of metal cutting are oxy-fuel gas, plasma, laser, and
abrasive waterjet. The first three cutting processes are thermal in nature, while the water-jet method cuts
by abrasive erosion. These four processes are primarily used to make precision external and interior cuts
on flat sheet and plate material. These processes are also used to trim previously formed parts.
The selection of the most efficient process for a specific application is based on several factors:
• the type of work material
• work thickness
• intricacy of the cut
• quality of cut
• the desired cutting speed
• metallurgical effects
• environmental concerns
• cost of system
• cost per foot, or meter of cut
The advantages of these four non-contact cutting processes include not having to rely on perishable
cutting tools to shape parts, or elaborate work holding methods and systems to clamp parts. These
processes do, however, use consumable items such as torch tips, gases, and abrasive materials.
The thermal processes and the oxy-fuel gas process in particular share two disadvantages. First, heat
changes the structure of metal in a ‘heat-affected zone’ adjacent to the cut. This may degrade some
metallurgical qualities at the cut's edge, requiring pre-treatment or trimming. Secondly, tolerances may be
less accurate than a machined cut, except for laser cutting. The thermal processes also present several
safety and environmental concerns including:
• fuel gases
• flames
• hot slag

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• electrical shock
• high noise levels
• intense arc radiation and laser light exposure
All four cutting processes typically cut material on two-axis X-Y tables, but in some applications have
been
teamed with articulated-arm robots or five-axis gantry systems. These robots can carry a plasma torch,
laser, or abrasive waterjet cutting head for a wide range of cutting applications. Typically, multiple parts
are arranged or ‘nested’ on a blank sheet of material. Nesting software helps programmers arrange parts
and cutting paths to maximize the use of stock material, minimizing scrap during cutting.
Oxy-Fuel Cutting
Oxy-fuel gas cutting, usually with acetylene gas, was once the only method of thermal cutting. The oxy-
fuel torch has a pre-heating flame that heats either the iron or carbon steels to its ‘kindling temperature’ of
around 1,650º F or 900º C. Then, a stream of pure oxygen is introduced causing the rapid combustion
reaction between the steel and the oxygen. The resulting molten material, or slag, is blown through the
metal by the stream of cutting oxygen, providing a relatively smooth and regular cut. The variables
encountered in oxy-fuel cutting include:
• oxygen purity
• rate of oxygen supply
• torch tip size and type
• distance of torch from work
• fuel gas flow rate
• cutting speed
• the work material type
• surface condition of the material
• the angle of cut
Oxy-fuel cutting is accomplished manually with single torches. Machines for oxy-fuel cutting range from
portable units to gigantic automated machines with multiple cutting heads.
Plasma Cutting
Plasma cutting uses an extremely high temperature, high-velocity stream of ionized gas to cut the metal.
Plasma temperatures range from about 9,000º to 54,000º F, or 5,000º to 30,000º C. Depending upon the
material to be plasma cut, the gases used include: standard compressed shop air, oxygen, argon and
hydrogen, or nitrogen and hydrogen. Gas shielding is accomplished with air, water, or carbon dioxide.
Plasma cutting requires a torch, a power supply, and an arc-starting circuit. The plasma cutting power
supply is a constant-current DC power source. A high-frequency AC starting circuit ionizes the gas to
make it conductive. When gas is fed to the torch, part of the gas is ionized by the high-voltage arc starter
between the electrode, or cathode, in the torch, and the torch tip. When the power supply’s small DC
current meets this high voltage gas, it creates a pilot arc. This pilot arc leaves the torch tip as a plasma jet
and becomes the path for the main plasma arc. Once the pilot arc contacts the metal’s surface, or anode,
the main arc forms.
The pilot arc then shuts off, and the cutting torch beings operation.

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As a thermal process, plasma cutting generally produces a narrower kerf and smaller heat-affected zone
than oxy-fuel. Plasma cutting is particularly useful on stainless, aluminum and other non-ferrous metals
and on other non-oxidizing materials. Plasma cutting is often coupled with CNC, or computer
numerically controlled punch presses to enhance productivity.
Laser Cutting
Laser cutting utilizes a beam of light as a heat source for cutting. A laser is a beam of ‘coherent’ light as
opposed to the ‘random’ light from an ordinary bulb. Of the thermal cutting processes, laser cutting
produces the narrowest kerfs and smallest heat-affected zones. Laser cutting is done on sheets or plates of
almost any alloy up to one half inch (13 mm) thick. Contoured shapes and holes can be cut with
exceptionally high speeds. Often laser cuts require no secondary finishing.
A laser beam can be a continuous wave or a series of bursts or pulses. Cutting is enhanced by the use of
gases and liquids to increase cutting speed, enhance cut quality, and cool the work.
Laser types are named for their lasing mediums. The most commonly used lasers for cutting are the CO2
gas laser, and the neodymium-doped yttrium-aluminum-garnet, or ‘YAG’, solid-state laser. Another
solid-state laser that has grown in importance is the fiber laser, in which a laser beam is produced by the
excitation of photons along a long optical fiber.
There are a variety of laser cutting machines for flat plate and sheet stock. Lasers are often used with five-
or six-axis robot controllers for work on previously formed shapes. Like plasma cutting, lasers are often
added to CNC punch presses. Additionally, lasers are particularly suited for various non-contact hole
making operations. Laser hole making is most often performed by trepanning, in which the focused laser
beam cuts in a circle.
Abrasive Waterjet Cutting
The abrasive waterjet erosion process uses abrasive garnet particles suspended in a high-pressure stream
of water to cut a wide variety of metallic and non-metallic materials. Using pressures from 30,000 to
60,000 pounds per square inch (PSI), or approximately 200 and 400 megapascals (MPa) the waterjet
process can cut work several inches thick, while producing no heat, fumes, toxic wastes, or dust.
The components of a waterjet system include:
• an intensifier pump
• a water delivery, holding and pumping system
• a gantry, robot, or other torch nozzle guiding device
• a nozzle assembly to create the jet stream
Additionally, the abrasive system requires a hopper, a metering device, and a mixing chamber to
introduce the abrasive to the water stream within the cutting head. Here the water stream accelerates the
abrasive particles to supersonic speeds as they exit the torch nozzle. The abrasives perform 90 percent of
the cutting.
The resulting kerf is about equal to the nozzle diameter and relatively smooth. Cutting speeds determine
the cut quality as does the water pressure, cutting angle, and size and type of abrasive

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 25. Hydroforming

Hydroforming uses fluid pressure applied to a tubular or sheet metal blank to form it into the desired
component shape. The most commonly used materials in hydroforming include the various grades of
steel.
These grades of steel are used extensively because they exhibit good fatigue properties, high energy
absorption, and reasonable resistance to corrosion. Other metals used for hydroforming include:
• Stainless Steels
• Aluminum
• Copper
• Copper Alloys
The Hydroforming System
All hydroforming systems include:
• Tooling and dies
• A hydraulic press
• A fluid-pressure intensification system
Hydroforming dies vary dramatically with regards to sheet metal hydroforming and tubular hydroforming
operations. Dies may be single or multi-cavity.
Hydroforming utilizes hydraulic, rather than mechanical, presses for many reasons. Hydraulic presses are
able to deliver full tonnage at any point in the stroke, not just at the bottom as is the case with mechanical
presses. The hydraulic press can be adjusted to provide optimal part clearance. Also, hydraulic presses
can be stopped in mid-stroke which is advantageous to some hydroforming operations.
The fluid-pressure intensification pressure system consists of a low-pressure, high flow rate filling
system, along with a high-pressure intensifier to raise the fluid pressure to forming levels. The forming
fluid is waterbased and contains additives such as lubricants, drying agents, rust preventatives, and
bactericides.
In a typical hydroforming operating cycle, a blank is placed on the lower die tooling, and the press is
closed. Fluid is then introduced to either one side of the sheet metal blank, or within the tubular blank. As
fluid pressure is intensified the blank deforms, taking the shape of the tooling. Lubrication is especially
important in hydroforming. Lubricants assist in reducing the friction and stresses as the metal flows into
its final shape.

Tubular Hydroforming
Tubular hydroforming begins with the placement of either straight tubes, or more commonly preformed
tubes, into the die. Sealing punches within the die close off the tube ends as fluid pressurization begins.
The three surfaces of a tube that can act as sealing surfaces, include:
• The outside diameter of the tube
• The inside diameter of the tube

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• The end surface of the tube
During forming, a combination of increasing internal fluid pressure and a simultaneous axial pressing on
the tube ends by the sealing punches cause the tubular material to flow into the contours of the die.
Tubular hydroforming is generally divided into three operating techniques:
• Low-Pressure Hydroforming uses fluid pressures of 12,000 PSI/828 BAR or less. Cycle time is less than
with other hydroforming methods, but components must be designed carefully to form properly using the
lower fluid pressures.
• High-Pressure Hydroforming uses fluid pressures ranging from 20,000 to 100,000 PSI/1,379 to 6,895
BAR. The exact amount of pressure needed is dependent upon several factors such as material yield
strength, tube wall thickness and the inside radius of the sharpest cross-sectional corner. When the tube
is expanded by high pressure within the die cavity, material thickness may vary throughout the part.
Additionally, larger presses are needed for high-pressure hydroforming and the higher operating
pressures can result in longer cycle times.
• Pressure Sequence Hydroforming utilizes the closing action of the hydraulic press to assist in the
hydroforming of the blank. The blank is first placed in the die cavity and the die is partially closed, partly
deforming the tube. Low-pressurized fluid is then pumped into the blank allowing it to resist
compression.
The die starts to close again with the desired low-pressure maintained while part cross section reduces.
Once the die is fully closed, high pressure is applied to the fluid, forcing the blank material into the corner
recesses of the die cavity with no wall thinning. Maximum pressure for pressure sequence hydroforming
is typically under 10,000 PSI/690 BAR.
Tubular hydroforming cycles also include 'hydro-piercing' to create holes and slots in the part. The
piercing tool is incorporated into the hydroforming die and activated during the forming cycle by
hydraulic cylinders.
The piercing action is usually inward against the pressurized fluid. Piercing can also be performed
outwardly by retracting a plunger, or backup punch. The fluid pressure within the tube causes the surface
material to fail, creating a hole in the unreinforced portion of the tube wall.
Sheet Metal Hydroforming
In sheet metal hydroforming, controlled metal flow during the operation minimizes localized stress
concentrations that may cause workpiece buckling or wrinkling. Sheet metal hydroforming is slower than
traditional stamping, thus its use is limited to short runs of more highly specialized parts.

The two most common methods of sheet metal hydroforming are:

• Rubber Diaphragm Forming
• Active Hydro-Mechanical Drawing
In Rubber Diaphragm Forming, a fluid forming chamber is attached to the slides of a hydraulic press.
Fluid is retained within the chamber by a flexible rubber diaphragm, which serves as a universal die
capable of accommodating any shape. Attached to the rubber diaphragm is a wear-pad which acts as a
blank holder and protects the diaphragm. A single tool, typically a punch, but in some cases a cavity die,
is mounted to a hydraulic cylinder on the bed of the press. A blank is placed on the lower blank holder of

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the rubber diaphragm forming press. The forming chamber is then lowered and initial pressure is applied.
The punch moves upward and into the flexible die member, shaping the sheet metal material. Typical
forming pressures range from 5,000 to 15,000 PSI/345 to 1,034 BAR. After forming is completed,
pressure is released, the forming chamber is raised, and the punch is stripped from the finished part.
Active Hydro-Mechanical Drawing is used in fabricating large sheet metal panels and can improve the
buckling strength of the finished part. The lower blankholder is a reservoir containing an oil and water
emulsion as a fluid medium, while the top die holds the punch. As the press closes over the blank it forms
a water tight seal between the die halves. At this stage, a part-specific gap exists between the clamped
blank and the punch. As soon as the blank-holding force has built, the fluid is brought to a defined
pressure. This pressure causes a controlled bulging of the blank over its entire surface, resulting in work
hardening of the workpiece and a substantial improvement in buckling strength of the part. Bulging
continues until the blank comes to rest against the center of the punch surface. After this pre-stretching
process, the punch is lowered into the blank. The sheet metal flows rather than rubs against the punch and
female die by fluid pressure.
Active Hydro-Mechanical Drawing is cost effective since only one die half needs to be machined to
achieve the required part shape.
Post Hydroforming Operations
Although many secondary operations are performed during hydroforming, many post-hydroforming
operations are needed to finish tubular and sheet metal parts. Common post-hydroforming processing
includes:
• Additional holemaking using conventional drilling, laser drilling, punching, or cutting.
• Trimming to remove surplus metal from the hydroformed part using cutting lasers, trimming dies,
machining, sawing, or shearing operations.
• Joining operations, such as the various welding processes and mechanical fasteners, are used to
assemble hydroform components to existing structural assemblies.

26. Deburring Processes

Burrs are sharp edges resulting from cutting and stamping operations. Although usually small in size,
burrs can cause assembly problems, interfere with fluid flow, and are a common cause of worker injury.
Burrs can also cause increased stresses and subsequent fatigue failure of the part.
Burr removal, or “deburring,” is a standard practice associated with virtually every segment of the
manufacturing process. The vast majority of deburring is performed using mechanical deburring
processes, but thermal deburring and electro-chemical deburring processes are also used.
Mechanical Deburring Processes
Mechanical deburring encompasses many types of processes, including:
• cutting processes
• power brushing
• bonded abrasive finishing
• mass finishing

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• abrasive blasting
• abrasive flow deburring
Cutting Processes
Cutting processes encompass a variety of manual and mechanized cutting tools for deburring, such as:
• drills
• reamers
• rotary and flat files
• knives and scrapers
• brushes and stones
• bonded abrasive papers, belts and wheels
• mechanical edgers
• numerically controlled machining centers with deburring tools
Cutting processes are flexible in application and require only a small capital investment. Additionally,
inspection for obvious defects can occur simultaneously. However, achieving piece to piece precision and
consistency can be difficult. In high production situations a variety of mechanized tools and systems can
be employed which can improve consistency and dimensional accuracy.
Power Brushing
Power brushing is both a fast and relatively low cost deburring method. Brushes are made of metal
filaments or wire and may also be of non-metallic or synthetic materials. Common metal filament brushes
can be of histrength and stainless steel as well as brass, copper, nickel, and other alloys. A common
synthetic brush material is nylon. Brushes come in a variety of shapes and sizes for numerous
applications. Power brush aggressiveness depends on filament diameter, free length configuration, the
texture, density, and bristle material type, wheel width, brush velocity, and workpiece contact.
Bonded Abrasive Finishing
Bonded abrasive finishing, also known as sanding, is found in most manufacturing facilities. Bonded
abrasive products include sheets, belts, pads, disks, and wheels. The most common abrasives used include
aluminum oxides, silicon carbide, or zirconia compounds. These abrasives range in size and grade from
course to exceptionally fine for various applications.
Mass Finishing
Mass finishing allows for the mechanical finishing of many parts simultaneously. In addition to
deburring, mass finishing may also be used to descale, brighten, and polish parts. Mass deburring is
considered a 'loose-abrasive' method in which batches of parts are vibrated or tumbled in specifically
designed tubs or barrels along with an abrasive media. Deburring media may be produced from organic,
and preformed metallic, ceramic, or resin-bonded plastic materials. Preformed media ranges in a variety
of sizes and shapes. In addition to the media, mass finishing usually employs water or other water-soluble
compounds.
Vibratory finishing is the most common mass finishing method. Vibration frequency can range from 800
to 3600 vibrations per minute.
Other mass finishing processes include:
• barrel tumbling, which is a low pressure process involving the controlled sliding and rolling of the

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workpieces, media and compound;
• centrifugal disk and centrifugal barrel finishing, which are high-energy applications that are usually 20
to 50 times faster than vibratory finishing;
• spindle finishing, with parts mounted on a single or multi-spindle and immersed in a tub of abrasive
media.
The main drawback of centrifugal disk, centrifugal barrel, and spindle finishing is that they are limited to
the size and number of parts that can be finished at one time.
Abrasive Blasting
Abrasive blasting can be done either wet or dry. The stream of abrasive material, propelled by air
pressure, can be focused on a specific area or applied fan-like to an entire part or part surface. Both
metallic and nonmetallic abrasives are used.
In wet applications the abrasive is applied as a slurry usually with water as the liquid, along with rust
inhibitors if required. The process is considered a precision method in that part tolerance can be
maintained.

Abrasive Flow Deburring

Abrasive flow deburring involves the extrusion of semi-solid material impregnated with abrasives
through holes and openings in hydraulically clamped workpieces. Extrusion pressure can range from 100
to 3200 PSI. The most common abrasive media used is silicon carbide in a polymer carrier. Other
abrasives include boron carbide, alumina, and diamond.
Thermal and Electro-Chemical Deburring
Thermal and electro-chemical deburring, although not as commonly used as the mechanical processes,
are important in that they can deburr parts quickly including difficult to reach internal part surfaces.
Thermal energy deburring takes place in a chamber filled with oxygen and a combustible gas, usually
natural gas. This gas is ignited producing intense heat which vaporizes the burrs and other sharp corners.
A resulting oxide residue is subsequently removed using a mild acid or during any additional finishing
process, such as heat treating.
In the electro-chemical deburring process burrs are dissolved by the action of a neutral-salt electrolyte
flowing through the gap between the tool or cathode and the workpiece which is the anode. This is a very
fast, precision process. The amount of material removed is proportional to the amount of time and levels
of current applied. The dissolved metal, in the form of hydroxides, is carried away by the controlled flow
of the electrolyte, which is then filtered for reuse. Electro-chemical electrodes are made of copper-
tungsten. The workpiece areas not being deburred are insulated by a non-conductive material.

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 27. Computer Numerical Control

A numerical control, or “NC”, system controls many machine functions and movements which were
traditionally performed by skilled machinists. Numerical control developed out of the need to meet the
requirements of high production rates, uniformity and consistent part quality. Programmed instructions
are converted into output signals which in turn control machine operations such as spindle speeds, tool
selection, tool movement, and cutting fluid flow.
By integrating a computer processor, computer numerical control, or “CNC” as it is now known, allows
part machining programs to be edited and stored in the computer memory as well as permitting
diagnostics and quality control functions during the actual machining.
All CNC machining begins with a part program, which are sequential instructions or coded commands
that direct the specific machine functions. The part program may be manually generated or, more
commonly, generated by computer aided part programming systems.

Basic CNC Principles

All computer controlled machines are able to accurately and repeatedly control motion in various
directions.
Each of these directions of motion is called an axis. Depending on the machine type there are commonly
two to five axes. Additionally, a CNC axis may be either a linear axis in which movement is in a straight
line, or a rotary axis with motion following a circular path.
Each axis consists of a mechanical component, such as a slide that moves, a servo drive motor that
powers the mechanical movement, and a ball screw to transfer the power from the servo drive motor to
the mechanical component. These components, along with the computer controls that govern them, are
referred to as an axis drive system.
Using a vertical mill machining center as an example, there are typically three linear axes of motion. Each
are given an alphabetic designation or address. The machine table motion side to side is called the “X”
axis.
Table movement in and out is the “Y” axis, while head movement up and down the column is the “Z”
axis. If a rotary table is added to the machine table, then the fourth axis is designated the “A” axis.

Work Positioning
The method of accurate work positioning in relation to the cutting tool is called the “rectangular
coordinate system.” On the vertical mill, the horizontal base line is designated the “X” axis, while the
vertical base line is designated the “Y” axis. The “Z” axis is at a right angle, perpendicular to both the
“X” and “Y” axes. Increments for all base lines are specified in linear measurements, for most machines
the smallest increment is one ten-thousandth of an inch (.0001). If the machine is graduated in metric the
smallest increment is usually one thousandth of a millimeter (.001mm). The rectangular coordinate
system allows the mathematical plotting of points in space. These points or locations are called
“coordinates.” The coordinates in turn relate to the tool center and dictate the “tool path” through the

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work.

The location where the rectangular coordinate base lines intersect is known as “program zero,” “work
zero,” “part zero,” or “part origin.” This location is the point from which all other coordinates are derived.
The placement of program zero can vary from part to part.
The two modes of specifying coordinates are the “absolute mode” and the “incremental mode.” In the
absolute mode all coordinates are referenced from program zero and may carry plus or minus values
(polarity). Additionally, in the absolute mode, the rectangular coordinate system is segmented into four
quadrants to help establish a coordinate’s polarity. Each “incremental” coordinate is referenced from each
of the previously located coordinate. The absolute mode is the most often used in CNC programming.

CNC Programming Basics

CNC instructions are called part program commands. When running, a part program is interpreted one
command line at a time until all lines are completed. Commands, which are also referred to as blocks, are
made up of words which each begin with a letter address and end with a numerical value.
Each letter address relates to a specific machine function. “G” and “M” letter addresses are two of the
most common. A “G” letter specifies certain machine preparations such as inch or metric modes, or
absolutes versus incremental modes. A “M” letter specifies miscellaneous machine functions and work
like on-off switches for coolant flow, tool changing, or spindle rotation. Other letter addresses are used to
direct a wide variety of other machine commands.

Program Command Parameters

Optimum machine programming requires consideration of certain machine operating parameters
including:
• Positioning control
• Compensations
• Special machine features
Positioning control is the ability to program tool and machine slide movement simultaneously along two
or more axes. Positioning may be for point-to-point movement or for contouring movement along a
continuous path. Contouring requires tool movement along multiple axes simultaneously. This movement
is referred to as “Interpolation” which is the process of calculating intermediate values between specific
points along a programmed path and outputting those values as a precise motion. Interpolation may be
linear having just a start and end point along a straight line, or circular which requires an end point, a
center and a direction around the arc.
Compensations address tooling related variations. Two of the most important types are tool length
compensation and cutter radius compensation.
Special features are those which can minimize CNC programming errors. A common special feature is a
canned cycle which allows many different instructions to be programmed into just a single command.
Hole making and associated secondary operations are made with canned cycles.

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CAD/CAM
Two computer-based systems which impact the use of CNC technology are computer aided design and
computer aided manufacturing.
A computer aided design, or CAD, system uses computers to graphically create product designs and
models. These designs can be reviewed, revised, and refined for optimum end use and application. Once
finalized, the CAD design is then exported to a computer aided manufacturing, or CAM, system. CAM
systems assist in all phases of manufacturing a product, including process planning, production planning,
machining, scheduling, management and quality control.

28. Industrial Robotics

Robotics Overview
Industrial robots are defined as 'multi-functional manipulators designed to move materials, parts, tools, or
specialized devices through various programmed motions'. As such, robots provides consistent reliable
performance, repetitive accuracy and are able to handle heavy work loads and perform in harsh
environments. Additionally, robots can be quickly reprogrammed to reflect changes in production needs
and cycles. All of the above result in vastly improved productivity and quality. However, this technology
has certain disadvantages, which can include:
• The need for skilled programmers
• The high cost of robotic systems
• Constant maintenance procedures
• Unique worker safety precautions
Robots can have either hydraulic, electric, or pneumatic power sources. Movement configurations can
range from simple arm extension and retraction movements to very complex movements involving body,
upper arm, lower arm, and wrist movement. These various configurations are differentiated by the
number of 'degrees of freedom' or 'axes of motion'. The number of axes determines the overall dexterity
of the robot.
Robots may have up to seven axes of motion which include four arm motions and three wrist motions.
The axes, or joints, can be either linear or rotary in motion. Another defining aspect is the robot’s work
envelope which is its maximum reach in all directions.
Robots are broadly classified by their arm’s geometry. The primary types are:
• Rectangular Arm Robots - also called Cartesian Robots, or Gantry Robots, move in the standard
Cartesian coordinate axes 'X', 'Y', and 'Z'. This type is usually used for handling small parts in pick and
place operations and is easily integrated into assembly operations.
• Selective Compliant Articulated Robot for Assembly (SCARA) Robots - these SCARA robots have two
parallel rotary axes that enable vertical axis insertion from the end of the wrist. SCARA robots are
especially well suited for assembly work.
• Articulated Robots - also call jointed arm robots, they have three axes of rotary arm motion but do not

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have any corresponding coordinate system. Being able to move simultaneously along its three axes, the
articulated robot is used for very complex tasks.
Robots are typically fixtured in place and thus have a clearly defined but finite work envelope. In some
instances the robot may be mounted on a slide, transporter, or gantry. This arrangement allows the robot
to service multiple work stations or machines.

Robot Wrist & End of Arm Tools

The wrist provides one, two, or three axes of motion relative to the arm itself. The motions are:
• Pitch - motion in the vertical plane
• Yaw - motion in the horizontal plane
• Roll - a rotary motion
Additionally, the wrist serves as the mounting point for a variety of devices. These 'end effectors' are
either hand, or gripping devices, or job specific tools.
Gripping devices can include:
• Suction cups
• Multiple jaw grippers that grip internal or external surfaces
• A system of interchangeable grippers
Tools can include welding guns, paint spraying nozzles, and a wide variety of machining tools:
• Welding - both arc and spot welding can be effectively done with robots while providing fast, high
quality assembly line production capability
• Part coatings - robots facilitate the accurate and consistently stable application of paints, adhesives, and
powder coating to flat, curved, and hard to reach surfaces
• Machining - wrist mounted drills, mills, boring, and deburring tools are typical of a wide variety of tools
used in manufacturing operations
Robot Programming
Programming gives the robot system specific instructions governing the movement of the arm and its end
effector. These include:
• Direction
• Path
• Distances to move
• Sequences
• Tool selections
These programs may be created either on-line or off-line with each method having distinct advantages or
disadvantages.
• On-line Programming - uses a 'teach pendant' to direct the robot’s movement. Taught data is stored in
the pendant’s memory then transferred to the robot’s controller. This is a convenient and easy method of
programming when tasks are simple and revisions or adjustments can be made on the spot. However,
the production line must be stopped during the programming and there are safety issues to consider as
the programmer must work within the robot’s work envelope.
• Off-line Programming - this method is accomplished on computers located away from the robot station.

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Using simulation software, data is generated then sent to the robot’s controller where it is translated into
instructions. Additionally, the software contains modeling data which assists selection of the best robot
configuration for a particular application. A primary advantage of off-line programming is that production
need not be interrupted in order to create an initial or revised program.
Robot Sensors
Sensors are used to monitor part location and orientation during the production cycle. In so doing, the
sensors can allow the robot to compensate for any variation in the parts or other aspects of the process.
The sensors may either be contact or non-contact in function.
Contact sensors include force gages and compliance devices which compensate for part positioning
errors.
Non-contact sensors include:
• Pneumatic sensors which detect part presence by air flow disturbance
• Ultrasonic sensors that analyze sound waves reflected from a part
• Proximity sensors that register the approach, arrival, or removal of parts
• Optical sensors utilizing interrupted light beams across the path of an incoming part
• Machine Vision Systems that use visual sensors, usually video cameras, to provide data that allows the
robot to make intelligent decisions regarding parts.

29. Rapid Prototyping

Rapid Prototyping
Rapid prototyping is a general term which describes a variety of systems that can construct three
dimensional models directly from electronic data. This technology, first developed in the mid 1980’s, is
based on the solid modeling portion of computer-aided design, or CAD. Solid modeling uses CAD data to
fully describe not only the parts overall shape, but also it’s interior volume and outside surfaces.
Rapid prototyping systems use this data to build fabrications layer by layer in very thin cross sections.
Each layer is stacked upon a previous layer until the model is complete. Rapid prototyping systems build
intricate and complex shapes much quicker and more simply than by conventional modeling methods.
Additionally, these systems can also produce models from data generated from the 3-dimensional
digitizing of existing parts, and medical imaging devices.
Materials used to fabricate prototype models are broadly classified as either liquid, powder, filament, or
foil.
Prototyping systems typically operate untended, and upon completion, the fabricated models can require
some post-operations. these post processing operations includes surface finishing and support removal. In
total, however, the cost of prototype modeling is greatly reduced from more conventional model shop
fabrications.
Rapid Prototyping Systems
Rapid prototyping systems range from large modeling units suitable for shop and laboratory use to
smaller 'desk top' systems. The primary rapid prototyping systems include:
• Stereo lithography

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• Selective Laser Sintering
• Fused Deposition Modeling
• Ultrasonic Consolidation
• The Pro-Metal System
• The Thermojet Modeler
• The 612 Modeler
• The Z810 Modeler
• The Eden 330
• Room Temperature Vulcanizing Tooling

Stereolithography
Stereolithography is a liquid based RP system which builds models in layers within a reservoir of a
liquid, thermosetting, epoxy-based, photosensitive polymer. Curing of each successive layer is
accomplished by a focused low power laser beam following, or tracing, a path dictated by the part’s CAD
file. Upon completion supporting ribs are removed in secondary operations. Models as large as 40" X 32"
X 23" can be fabricated.

Selective Laser Sintering

Selective Laser Sintering is similar to stereolithography except that a powder is used to fabricate the
model. Sintering, or fusing, is done with a more powerful carbon dioxide laser. In operation, a layer of
powder is spread evenly over the sintered powder layer, and then the laser beam scans the model design
to the CAD
file and selectively sinters the powder particles together. The principal advantage of this process is the
wide variety of powder materials that can be used. Models fabricated are as large as 14.5" X 12.5" X
17.5".
Fused Deposition Modeling
Fused Deposition Modeling involves feeding a thermoplastic filament through a heated extrusion head
which moves in the "X" and "Y" axes, depositing model material on a table that operates in the "Z" axis,
building the model. The thermoplastic material is deposited in the form of a fine bead which is flattened
for the next bead layer. The thermoplastic material is heated just above it’s melting point so that the bead
solidifies almost upon application thus cold welding itself to the previous bead.
Ultrasonic Consolidation
Ultrasonic Consolidation produces direct metal parts by ultrasonically welding layers of aluminum foil
strips to a prepared metal substrate. Once welded, the layer is milled to it’s cross-sectional shape as
dictated by the CAD data. Like other rapid prototyping systems, this process allows the building of parts
with complex geometries, overhangs, and internal enclosures. Additionally, ultrasonic consolidation is
capable of joining a variety of similar and dissimilar metals, along with certain ceramic-metal
combinations.

Pro-Metal System

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The Pro-Metal System is also used to create metal models by using inkjets to apply a liquid polymeric
binder onto a powder media. Models are built from steel based powder from the bottom up. When the
model is finished they are sintered to remove the binder, then infiltrated with bronze to either eliminate or
significantly reduce porosity. Models are of high strength with no support structures needed. Tooling for
plastic molding is a common application.
Of the smaller rapid prototyping systems the Thermojet, 612 modeler, the Z810 modeler, and the Eden
330 modelers are all inkjet based.

Thermojet Modeler
The ThermoJet Modeler uses an array of over 300 jets to produce wax models. It is a self-contained,
compact unit producing models up to 10" X 7.5" X 8" in size. The system is cartridge loaded and post
finishing operations are minimal.
The 612 Modeler
Two print heads are used on the 612 Modeler. One to build the model using a proprietary thermoplastic
and the other to build the necessary supports using a proprietary wax. The supports are designed to
dissolve in solvents without affecting the model itself. A milling operation is performed after each layer
to provide extreme accuracy and detail. The system is widely used in the medical and jewelry industries.
The Z810 Modeler
The Z810 Modeler is the fastest modeling system, building up parts at rates of one to two inches per hour.
The Z810 uses one of two materials. The first combines starch and cellulose while the second is plaster
based. Either material can be infiltrated with wax or resins to enhance the model’s mechanical properties.
The Z810 uses a wiper blade to smooth powder in the build area. Once level, the printer head dispenses a
binder only in areas dictated by the CAD file. Then the building platform lowers and the existing layer is
leveled over with powder to repeat the process. Models produced by the Z810 have rough surfaces but
operating costs are low, including the cost of modeling materials.
The Eden 330 Modeler
The Eden 330 Modeler has eight heads containing a total of over 1,500 nozzles. Half the nozzles dispense
fine droplets of a proprietary model photopolymer material while the other half dispenses droplets of
proprietary photopolymer support material. The system produces very thin layers of modeling material
increasing accuracy and surface quality. Each layer is cured immediately by exposure to ultra-violet light.
When the model is complete the gel-like support material is easily removed.
Room Temperature Vulcanizing Tooling
Room Temperature Vulcanizing Tooling produces soft tooling for low pressure injection molding.
Silicone materials are used to produce tooling since they do not require special curing equipment. The
method uses a prepared prototyped model as a pattern. The mold halves are typically prepared and pour
one half at a time. Once the pattern is secured in a box, the silicone material is poured around the pattern
and allowed to cure. Once cured, the first mold half and the pattern are prepared for the pouring of the
second half of the mold. Once prepared the mold half is poured, and again allowed to cure. Once cured,
the mold is separated at the parting line and prepared for use. This process can mold a number of parts
before replacement tooling is required.

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 30. Composite Materials & Manufacturing

Composites consist of two distinct materials, which together improve product performance and/or lower
production costs. Composite materials typically include plated, clad, or coated metals, however the term
'composites' has evolved to mean a material containing a matrix, or base substance, and a reinforcement
material.
The matrix acts as a binder for the reinforcement while controlling the physical shape and dimensions of
the part. Its primary purpose however is to transfer the load, or stress, applied to the part to the
reinforcement.
The matrix also protects the reinforcement from adverse environmental effects.
The reinforcement’s function is to enhance the mechanical properties of the composite and is typically the
main load bearing element. Reinforcements are usually in the form of either fibers or particles. Matrix
and reinforcement materials can be polymers, metals, ceramics, or carbon. The most widely used
composite materials are fiber-reinforced thermosetting polymers.

Thermosets require specific curing times to develop their full mechanical properties. Once set, thermosets
cannot be reprocessed or reused in any way. Some of the common thermoset matrix materials include:
Polyesters
Epoxies
Bismaleimides
Phenolics
Polyimides
The polyester materials, while less costly, have lower strength characteristics and are less heat and
weather resistant. As such though, they are the most widely used in commercial products. The epoxy,
bismaleimide, phenolic, and polyimide matrix materials exhibit superior mechanical properties and heat
resistance qualities.
The reinforcement material can significantly improve the mechanical properties of the matrix. This is
particularly true when the reinforcement is in the form of long oriented fibers. Physical properties are also
influenced by the reinforcement, including:
Density, or Weight per Unit Volume
Thermal Expansion
Electrical Conductivity
Thermal Conductivity
Vibration Dampening
Commonly used reinforcement fibers are E-glass, aramid, and carbon, which is also referred to as
graphite. Some of the many forms of such fibers include strand, tow, filaments, fabrics, pre-impregnated
tapes, and pre-forms. Several of these fiber materials can be used in the manufacture of a single part. The
application of a fiber reinforcement can be in a single direction, varied angularly or varied randomly
throughout the part.

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Composite Manufacturing
The primary manufacturing methods used to produce composites include:
Manual Lay-Up
Automated Lay-Up
Spray-Up
Filament Winding
Pultrusion
Resin Transfer Molding
Manual lay-up involves cutting the reinforcement material to size using a variety of hand and power-
operated devices. These cut pieces are then impregnated with wet matrix material, and laid over a mold
surface that has been coated with a release agent and then typically a resin gel-coat. The impregnated
reinforcement material is then hand-rolled to ensure uniform distribution and to remove trapped air. More
reinforcement material is added until the required part thickness has been built-up. Manual lay-up can
also be performed using preimpregnated reinforcement material, called 'prepreg'. The use of prepreg
material eliminates separate handling of the reinforcement and resin, and can improve part quality by
providing more consistent control of reinforcement and resin contents. Prepreg must be kept refrigerated
prior to use, however, to prevent premature curing.
The productivity of the manual lay-up can be automated using CNC machines. These machines are used
for both prepreg tape-laying and prepreg fiber-placement primarily in the aerospace industry. There is
virtually no limit to the size of the work that can be tape-rolled, but the shape has to be relatively flat to
butt each successive row without gaps, overlaps or wrinkles. Automatic, multi-axis fiber placement
machines overcome this limitation by dispensing numerous, narrow individual tapes of material which are
collimated as they are laid on the mold surface.
In spray-up, resin is sprayed onto a prepared mold surface using a specially designed spray gun. This gun
simultaneously chops continuous reinforcement into suitable lengths as it sprays the resin.
After lay-up, the composite parts must be cured. Curing can take place at room temperature, often with
heated air assist. Ovens, heated-platen presses, and autoclaves may also be used. Curing times may range
from a single hour to one-half day or longer. Curing is also accomplished with vacuum bag molding.
Here a non-adhering plastic film, usually polyester, is sealed around the lay-up material and mold plate. A
vacuum is slowly created under the bag forcing it against the lay-up. This draws out entrapped air and
excess resin.
Vacuum bag molding is effective in producing large, complex shaped parts.
Filament winding refers to wrapping a narrow fiber tow or band of tows of resin impregnated fiber
around a mandrel of the shape to be produced. When the mandrel is removed, a hollow shape is the result.
Uses for filament winding include pipe, tubing, pressure vessels, tanks and items of similar shape.
Filament winding is typically applied using either hoop or helical winding. In hoop winding, the tow is
almost perpendicular to the axis of the rotating mandrel. Each mandrel rotation advances the material-
delivery supporting carriage one band width, butting the edge of one band next to the previous band. In
helical winding, material is deposited in a helical path in one direction, then turns around on end and

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returns in a helical path in the opposite direction. Filament winding mandrels may be metallic or non-
metallic and designed to either collapse to facilitate part removal or may be dissolvable after curing.
Pultrusion is a continuous process used primarily to produce long, straight shapes of constant cross-
section.
Pultrusion is similar to extrusion except that the composite material is pulled, rather than pushed, through
a die. Pultrusions are produced using continuous reinforcing fibers called 'roving' that provide
longitudinal reinforcement, and transverse reinforcement in the form of mat or cloth materials. These
reinforcements are resin impregnated by drawing through a resin wet-out station; and generally shaped
within a guiding, or preforming, system. They are then subsequently shaped and cured through a
preheated die or set of dies.
Once cured, the pultrusion is saw-cut to length. Pultrusions can be hollow or solid, and applications
include bar and rod, pipe, tubing, ladder rails and rungs, and supports of many kinds.
Resin transfer molding or 'RTM' produces large, complex items such as bath and shower enclosures,
cabinets, aircraft parts, and automotive components. In this process, a set of mold halves are loaded with
reinforcement material then clamped together. Resin is then pumped or gravity fed into the mold infusing
the reinforcement material. Once the mold is filled with resin, it is plugged and allowed to cure. After
curing, the mold halves are separated and the part removed for final trimming and finishing.
Composite Fabrication & Assembly
Cured composite parts may be machined, drilled, and sawed as needed to meet specifications. Tooling
must be kept sharp, often being carbide or diamond tipped, as the composite material can be highly
abrasive. A coolant is often used to prevent heat buildup during machining.
The two principle joining methods used for assembling composite parts are adhesive bonding and
mechanical fastening.
Adhesive bonding produces strong, permanent joints. Proper preparation and cleanliness is critical.
Typical joint configurations include lap, double lap, overlays, and scarf joints. Work pieces may be
placed in a fixture and pressed together while setting and curing. Elevated temperatures may be required
depending on the adhesive type used.
Mechanical fastening employs rivets, pins, bolts, and other fasteners. These may be either metallic or
composite material fasteners. Careful and precise holemaking and accurate torquing are required to
prevent distortion and cracking of the composite material during fastening.

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