Floods and Flash Flood

H.M.M.B. SENEVIRATNE
ISBN 978- 955- 52362- 5- 6

1
Preface

This book is written mainly for the Sri Lankan student in Environmental
Management, but may be applicable to any developing world situation.
Data collection began in 1975 during the feasibility study on upper
Mahaweli catchment under a UNDP programme. Recent data was collected
during a study of health in 17 districts of Sri Lanka between 1998 and 2000
and field work programmes of the Department of Social Sciences,
Environmental Management sector between 2005 April and 2015 February.
Study of Gama saha Weva system and the modern systems of flood and
flash flood management are included to indicate their applicability in the
management and possible control of disaster originating from floods and
flash floods.

All students of Environmental Management between 2005 and 2015, Dr.

J.M.S.B. Jayasundara, Dr. Mrs. S.W.G.K.. Bulankulama and Mrs.
Denipitiya are remembered for their assistance given to field work
programmes conducted between 2005 April and 2015 February.

H.M.M.B.Seneviratne, B.A. Hons. (Cey), M.Phil. (Notts.) PhD. (NTNU).

2
Chapter 1

Floods and flash floods

Introduction

Flood occurs when water overflows the natural channel f a stream or river
or a constructed canal or a storage. Overflowing of the natural boundary
can occur due to natural factors like Rainfall, earthquake and landslide. The
social factors which contribute to flooding are poor settlement planning,
accelerated soil erosion and sedimentation.

It is estimated about 35 percent of the population of the world and 89

percent of all the big cities (over one million people) are located on
riverbanks. It is possible to control normal flooding which is an overflow
of about 1 meter above bank level. However any flood higher than 1meter
depth is extremely difficult to control, unless heavy concrete protection
systems are placed.

Today floods of various sizes are identified as one of the most damaging
global hazard and disaster, which affect many countries every year. Both
developed and developing countries have high risk areas of flooding but
this book concentrates on the flood and its effect on developing countries.
Increase in rainfall intensity and sedimentation of reservoirs, drainage,
streams and rivers have increased the risk of flooding in the developing
world in the last two decades. Similar scenario is visible annually in Sri
Lanka, since the rapid growth of population and establishment of
unplanned settlements and infrastructure began in the 1980s. This high
level flood and flash damage in Sri Lanka relates negatively to its national
literacy level of about 90 percent indicating that there is extremely low
rates of environmental literacy in the populace and authorities responsible
for planning.

Flood - defined

Flood occurs when a water body overflows its natural boundary.

In River, stream, canal – overflowing its banks

3
In Lake or reservoir – overflowing the boundary or from sluice gates
Sea – sea overflowing its beach

Flash flood - defined

Originating from high intensity rainfall of 60 mm/hr or more frequency of

flash floods has tripled in the last 3 decades. However, the most flash flood
damage ( about 60 to 70 percent) occurs due to expansion of settled area
without proper drainage and landscape planning.

Changing environment and flooding

Environmental change and change of environment are the two most

important factors which increases the risk of hazard and disaster. These
changes can occur due to geological, climatic and social change. The
investigation into flooding in Sri Lanka ( Seneviratne and Karunaratne,
2003 and 2004, Seneviratne, 2005,2006,2007 , 2008, 2010) reveals that
climatic change and sedimentation has played an important role in the
increase in damages and loss of life.

Environmental change

Environmental change is the process of changing environment through

human activities with the use of technology, social and political ideology.
For example the ancient civilisation of Sri Lanka was based on the concept
of irrigation and a strong monarchical rule, which arranged the environment
to suit the sustainability of a hydraulic civilisation. Since the arrival of
western colonists, the environment of Sri Lanka was changed to suit the
cultivation of tree crops and spices. We are still in this environment and
have begun to introduce an unplanned urban and rural settlement
expansion. Therefore our environment is becoming more and more
polluted, dangerous and chaotic to live. Since 1980s rapid growth of
population and unplanned development has resulted in creating an
environment conducive for erosion and sedimentation which leads to
increased damage from flooding and flash floods.

Change of Environment

Change of environment is the change of living environment by migration

for the purpose of living and economic activity. Migration to farm

4
settlements, urban areas and emigration are forms of change of
environment. Again if these activities are not planned properly, the new
environment is subjected to pollution, becoming dangerous and chaotic to
live. When emigration is not conducted in a proper manner the emigrants
are subjected to many legal and social difficulties. Damages from most of
the flash floods in Sri Lanka has increased due to poor planning of new
settlements constructed from migrants from rural to urban and rural to farm
settlements.

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Chapter 2

Changed Hydrological environment of Sri Lanka : Environmental

Management Perspective

Water is one of the pulses of the earth, which makes the earth a living
planet. Water in its three major physical states vapour, droplet and flow
medium transfers energy from potential, to kinetic and dynamic. This
energy is utilised to construct landforms of various forms and sizes. This
process is termed “fluvial” and flood is one of the states of dynamic energy
of flowing water.

Both geological and surface water in Sri Lanka originate from rainfall.
Nature and intensity of rainfall decides the nature of flow types. At
beginning of rainfall depending on the absorption capacity (rate of
infiltration) water begins to accumulate in to any low lying depression.
When these micro or small depressions are filled water begins to flow as
small lines of water named rills. Except for bare clay these rills are
destroyed by disturbance to the surface after every rain. However,
sometimes in house garden and open soil surface they can remain
undisturbed throughout the rainy period. In modern housing and other
building areas permanent rills are formed from waste water or blockade of
natural rill flow. If the amount of rainfall passes 20 millimeter mark the rills
will be in full bloom and they converge on any ditch like formation which
we call “ gully or stream”. These gully or stream have many variations and
contribute to soil erosion which provides sediments for larger streams and
rivers.

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Table 2.1 Living pulses of the earth - STREAMS (smaller than 5 meter of
channel width) and RIVERS (5 meter or bigger than 5 meter channel
width)

Level of flow Duration Average Material involved Result

Velocity

Low flow Vary on rainfall 3 to 6 km/hr Water, mud and sand Gentle
flow -
enjoyable

Medium flow High rainfall 5 to 10 km/hr Water, mud sand and Moderate
vegetation flow – be
careful

High flow Very high 20 to 30 km/hr Water, mud sand, gravel High flow
rainfall vegetation and settlement – be very
debris careful

Flood flow Extremely high 30 to 50 km/hr Water, mud sand, gravel Flood –
rainfall vegetation and settlement be
debris extremely
careful

Catastrophic Extremely high 30 to 70 km/hr Water, mud sand, gravel Raging

flood rainfall vegetation and settlement Flood –
debris stay away
from the
stream or
river

Streams and flood

Table 2.1 show the various levels of flow of streams and rivers and their
relationship to flood. The increase in flow level in streams and rivers leads
to increase in their destructive capacity. Average velocities of water in
streams and rivers are difficult to measure without proper instruments, but
power of streams can be understood by observing the material carried by
them as given in the

7
Clouds, rainfall and floods

The flood situations have a close relationship to types of rain fall and types
of rainfall expected can be easily judged by the cloud types. Cirrus are high
and thin clouds which are associated with moving air masses. These clouds
arrive in front of depressions or cyclones, indicating that there is a
possibility of rains. In a tropical country like Sri Lanka this type of clouds
have very rare connectivity to heavy rainfall.

Table 2.2 Cloud types, rainfall expected and possibility of flood – cirrus
and stratus

Type of Time Velocity Result Flow types Possibility of

formation period flood

Cirrus 1 5 to 10 Dry No surface flow No, but can be a

percent km/hr weather sign of storms

Cirro 2 10 to 15 Dry No surface flow No, but can be a

Stratus - percent km/hr weather sign of storms
and
sometimes
dew

Stratus - 3 10 to 20 Dry Some surface Very rare, but

cumulo percent km/hr weather flow can be a sign of
and storms
sometimes
dew

Stratus 20 to 6 to 20 Wet Some high flow Low – only when

25 km/hr weather settlements are
percent and some located very close
times long to streams and
duration rivers and no
gentle rain drainage facilities

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Table 2.3 Cloud types, rainfall expected and possibility of flood – strato
nimbus and strato nimbus -depressional

Type of Time Velocity Result Flow types Possibility of

formation period flood

Strato – 8 10 to 30 Moderate to Wet weather Low – only

Nimbus percent km/hr big, form over and gentle when
oceans above to moderate settlements are
1000m drift to rain located without
land, Water proper long
droplets term planning
or drainage

Strato – 4 10 to 30 Moderate to Wet weather Moderate -

Nimbus – percent km/hr very big, form and gentle when
depressional over warm to strong settlements are
clouds oceans above rain of long located without
1000m and drift duration proper long
towards land, term planning
large from 200 or drainage and
square blockade of
kilometres to stream
3000 square channels
kilometres,
Water droplets

Strato- nimbus and strato- nimbus- depressional are big flat clouds formed
in association with depressions and cyclones. Sometimes, these clouds can
produce long duration rain , which can lead to flooding. Special example is
the south west monsoon which carry large masses of strato nimbus clouds,
which make low annual flooding in many parts of India, Sri lanka and
Bangladesh . Most of the roads, bridges and culverts in these countries are
designed for this type of rain.

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Table 2.3 Cloud types, rainfall expected and possibility of flood – cumulus,
cumulo-nimbus, double cell cumulo nimbus and multiple cell cumulo -
nimbus

Type of Time period Velocity Size , location in the Result Flood production
formation sky, Material involved capacity

Cumulus 50 to 60 5 to 30 Moderate to big Wet weather Moderate - when

percent km/hr Water droplets, form and some settlements are located
at 3000 to 10000 times long without proper long
meters above ground duration rain term planning or
and drift down to drainage and blockade
about 1000 meters of stream channels

Cumulo- 11 percent 10 to 40 Big to very big, form Rain to short High – even planned
Nimbus km/hr at 3000 to 10000 duration areas will be flooded for
meters above ground heavy rain a short period of time
and drift down to with lightning
about 1000 meters,
Water droplets

Double Cell 0.2 percent 20 to 60 Big to very big, Water Rain and high High – all types of
Cumulo- km/hr droplets form at 3000 intensity rain. lowlands can be flooded
Nimbus to 10000 meters Low visibility with flash floods, if
above ground and and No flying proper drainage is not
drift down to about provided
1000 meters

Multiple Cell 0.01 percent 40 to Big to very big, form High intensity Very high – all types of
cumulus 300 at 5000 to 10000 rain and lowlands can be flooded
km/hr meters above ground winds with flash floods
and drift down to Cyclonic and
about 1000meters, Tornado. Low
Water droplets visibility and
No flying

Cumulus clouds bring most of the rain with thunder and lightning to
tropical regions like Sri Lanka. With the onset of climatic change cumulus
formation has increased and their formation has become complex with
more and more double cell and multiple cell types. This changing character

10
produces cloud lines identified as “line Squalls” which bring long duration
rain and cause majority of flash floods, where drainage is poor. In Sri lanka
about 90 percent of flash floods are fromed from multiple cell cumulus
clouds which bring high intensity rain (over 60 mm/hr). The drainage
designs used in Sri lanka have not changed much or adjusted to suit this
new activity and drainage overflow leads to flash flood. This design failure
leads to almost all the flash floods in Colombo and other big cities in Sri
Lanka and farm land damage, where large river floods are rare. Most of the
2010 flooding were a result of amalgamation of many flash floods
originating from cumulo- nimbus clouds associated with depressions
originating from La Nina effect. The frequency of this type of rain has
increased in the last 2 decades with increasing property damage.

Climate and flood

Sri Lanka has four major climatic seasons constructed by the types of rain
forming mechanisms. The following tables present all the details necessary
for the understanding of the climate of Sri Lanka within the study of floods
and flash floods.

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Streams, rivers and their hydrological environment and Change in Sri Lanka

Hydrological environment of Sri Lanka is composed of three major water sources and their
storage systems. Proper management of these water sources and reservoir storage systems is
required for flood control.

1. Highland spring system originating from the water bearing rocks

2. Lowland underground water system which feeds the extensive well network and
streams

3. Dryzone and semi arid zone water sources fed by seasonal streams, deep water
bearing rocks and limestone seepage in some areas.

Why excess water?

At present, in Sri Lanka, floods are formed when there is excess water flow originating from
rainfall with high intensities and long duration rainfall from depressions crossing the island
during all seasons, contrary to about 20 years ago when flood was an annual event during
the monsoons. The primary reason for this effect is development without a scientific
environmental management plan.

Though there are about 5 ministries and another 5 authorities involved in environmental
management Sri Lanka is yet to establish a scientific environmental management and
control system. About 20 30 conferences and more than 100 workshops on environmental
problems are held every year with many scientists and public sector officials participating in
international collaboration programmes. However, the hazard level and disaster situation
continue to increase with heavy damage to housing, roads and livelihoods since 1980s.

Growth of population and disregard for settlement planning has increased the effect of
floods and flash floods to disastrous levels since about 2000. Lack of understanding in the
populous on environmental hazards and inability of the authorities to present a viable plan
has led to encroachment of housing into floodable areas, blockage of streams and river
banks. By 2017 any continuous heavy rainfall over 600 to 700 millimeters in the catchment
has produced disastrous floods.

12
The general picture of this increase in disaster damage are given in the Table below
Reason Status
Climatic change Climatic change has resulted
in the reduction of mean
annual rainfall, increased
intensity of thunderstorms
and increase of temperature
and evaporation. However
nature, occurrence and
intensity of rainfall have
increased since 1980s,
resulting in an increase of
disaster damage from floods
and flash floods.
Increased human use
Domestic use Population has increased by
50 percent in the last 20 years
This use has increased by
Industrial and commercial about 500 percent
use
Waste About 10 to 15 percent of
cleaned water supplied by the
National Water Supply and
Drainage Board is wasted
through leakages and use of
cleaned water for low quality
water requirements
Remedy
A proper environmental
management through, rain
water harvesting, spring
rejuvenation, spring
regeneration, strict reduction of
pool effect and recycling.
Master drainage systems have
to be organised using available
streams, rivers and wetlands.
Strict control of waste
Strict recycling by large
commercial and industrial units
Any form of construction must
have proper drainage systems
National Policy on Water has no
capacity at the moment to
implement any meaningful
water policy, therefore a future
based water policy has to be
prepared. (USA has installed a
Water Police to monitor water
use).
Waste and waste water must be
discharged without any
interference on drainage
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Why soils are important in flood control

Most of the large scale shallow floods are common in areas of clayey or sandy clay soils,
because these soils have low infiltration capacity. Alluvials and gley soils are in this
category of soils with low absorption (infiltration) rates and allow long duration flood water
retention (keeping for long period). The location of housing (villages) in the ancient
kingdom of Sri Lanka were planned with a very clear understanding of this factor, where the
village housing was located on high ground with lateritic soils (gravelly mounds on the
plain surface with clayey soils).

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Chapter 3

Technosphere and floods

Technosphere is the sphere of human constructed knowledge, which affect all the
geologically constructed spheres of the earth. The inventions from the discovery of fire and
wheel to micro-computers and cruise missiles have influenced the way we think about our
living planet. The technosphere directs the consumer to be aggressive and has created a
massive destruction of limited resources of the earth. However, the most recent concepts of
environmental management through the invention of biodegradable plastics, forest
harvesting, water recycling and large scale bioenergy production has indicated that the
technosphere may not always be damaging to the earth.

The deeper understanding of geological phenomena and social behaviour will help to
manage environment better in the future. The knowledge gained on technology is already
helping the world population to live more safely than ever in a more unstable world.

Sri Lanka will face more earthquakes, cyclones and tornadoes in future. Creep and slide
resulting from rock decay and rock structure breakages and road construction in
mountainous areas will increase causing serious damage to property, livelihood and
government expenditure. However, these can be controlled to minimise damage by using
scientific systems already available.

For example

Earthquakes – insertion of clay into pressure zones to create many small quakes than a big
one, Adjusting construction systems to suit the strength of shock and pressure

Asteroid hit – use of nuclear bomb to deviate or destroy asteroid

15
Core – use of an untanium vehicle to go to core and explode nuclear bombs to reactivate

Landslides – detailed geohydrological surveys, settlement planning, early warning systems,

use of university research projects to monitor locations, use of smart technology to build
connectivity networks

Tsunami – Reliable prediction systems

Floods – settlement planning, water transfer, river barriers, stronger levees

Cyclones – seed the cloud with salts or pulp to reduce power

Drought – local storage systems, recycling, inter basin transfer – use of ice bergs – transport
of water in massive polythene bags, artificial rain. In USA already 15 percent of rain in the
dry areas is artificial.

Insect invasions – use of bio-killing systems

Discipline – reduction of socio-political corruption, literacy, ethical behaviour and use of

mannerisms

Misbehaviour – application of law and correct punishment

Roads – use of strict law and fines reduce death on roads

16
Pattern of thought in Sri Lanka is that these remedial measures are

Expensive

Too high technology

We have no expertise

But, the reality is that we have no master plan for our national environment in which we
live.

This is mainly because the knowledge technosphere is not properly utilized and applied.
Flood control requires two major activities, mitigation and adaptation.

Mitigation and adaptation to forces of water is extremely difficult, but with the use of
available technology, the developed world has successfully managed to reduce damage and
loss of lives in the last 2 decades. However, loss of life and damages from flooding are on
the increase in the developing countries. Developed countries have put in place
management systems and have successfully managed their flood disasters without much
help from global community, but all the developing countries depend on help from global
community in all stages from rescue to reconstruction. The socio-political inefficiencies
and corruption in the developing countries have forced them to be in this poor or begging
state during flood disasters.

Sri Lanka has two major resources to mitigate and adapt to flooding. They are literacy and
lack of massive rivers which can overflow over large areas.

Firstly, Sri Lanka has one of the highest literacy rates in the developing world, but the
literacy of the populace is turned into a marginal variable by poor policy implementation on
environmental management. Beginning from 1980s the intrusion of politics and corruption
into state service has led to neglect of many environmental rules and regulations and land
allocation for new settlements. Therefore the percentage of populace affected by natural
hazards and disasters has continued to increase.

Secondly, in comparison to most of the other countries of the world, rivers of Sri Lanka are
small in size and low in volume. Comprehensive plans for river basin development were
made with the aid of Colombo Plan in the late 1950s, but all the development programmes
of successive governments have not properly followed these plans, which have resulted in
the present hazardous situation.

Therefore in Sri Lanka we are yet to utilize proper technospheric systems to understand and
adapt to processes of streams and rivers and we depend on short term programmes of river
basin development which results in continuous flooding. As predicted in 1975 and 2005 the
effect of flooding will increase in the future if a long term programme of restructuring of
vulnerable infrastructure is not established.

17
Most common and the disastrous type of flash flood in terms of sediment transport
along a foot path.

A scene of a small town where no proper storm drainage, which leads to flash flood,
which uses road surface as the channel and destroy the road ( general folk lore is that
“during the rainy season, highways department becomes waterways department”)

18
Micro Flash floods and road destruction

Roads of A,B,C categories and all village tracks are damaged by lack of storm drainage. The
major cause for this damage is the poor design of drains, which most of the time insufficient
to carry even rain water originating from a normal rainfall. At times of high intensity storms
these drains overflow and the road surface is covered with a micro flash flood resulting in
covering the road surface with gravel and mud. An average of 3 points of road per kilometer
damaged due to lack of proper drainage was recorded during the field work programmes
between 2005 and 2015 in 17 districts of Sri Lanka.

Another, major factor for micro flash flood is the entry of sub roads and house access
constructed without a proper drainage facility (picture below).

Multi-billion rupee highway (A route) has no storm drainage. Sand and gravel enter the road
suraface in micro-flash floods

This occurs due to low level of environmental literacy of the people and road designers.
The people cannot understand that water flow with sand gravel and mud originating from
their property is able to damage the road surface. People generally have no knowledge of
maintaining proper drainage in the roadside drain and they fill it for the purpose of access to
vehicles, three wheelers and motor bikes (Picture below)

19
No storm drain (or even a normal drain) as it is filled for access –red arrow- and water flow
on the road surface in a micro flash flood during rain making the road a waterway. The
average occurrence of this is about 3 points per kilometer

The road designers have neglected the provision of proper drainage facility to entry of sub
roads and house access paths. The estimates made during field programmes indicate
annually about rupees 100,000 to 500,000 rupee damage per kilometer of roads can occur
due to micro flash flood originating from low literacy and design failure.

20
Chapter 4

General Theory and Flood problem

Development is a scientific process, which operates logically within the confines of the
selected socio-economic environment. It has to be conducted with the given principles of
the ideology used and supported by a steady growth in the economy and improvement in
living standards. Flood is a major hazard which affects development in all the nations and
specially in the developing nations flood has become a “development delay” factor.
Therefore understanding the scientific development process and following theories and
strategies of development is essential for flood control. The failure in Sri Lanka in flood
control emanates (originate) from non-adherence to procedures of planning in development
theories in relation to disaster management. This is because disaster management is under
the domination of politics and administration systems rather than a scientific system.
Surveys conducted indicate that their are serious failures in following scientific approaches
due to political influence and administrative inefficiency. Therefore this chapter attempts to
present the scientific concept of development to be utilised in disaster management in
general.

Modernisation

The modern development theory is known by various names like modernisation, neo-
classical approach, and development perspective and as neo-colonialism in the political
arena of some developing countries. The most commonly used term is the modernisation.

The modernisation theory is based on the Keynesian ideology, which paved way for a new
idea of the role of the government in managing the economy (Preston 1996).

Keynes was of the belief that government borrowings can finance expenditures, which
in turn would generate more revenue and these additional revenues and higher tax
returns from increased revenue can be used for the repayment of borrowings.
Therefore, the modernisation theory believed in authoritative intervention, through the
use of economic growth models and aid mechanisms.

The modern development theory is based on the experiences of the western world and its
economics, sociology, political and scientific views and the poor countries were to follow

21
this method for their development. This theory was explained by many on the basis of a
structural and dynamic programme, with stages and categories.

Rostow (1960), presented a model based on five stages, which are to be experienced by all
societies in the transformation of their economy from undeveloped to develop. It assumes
that the increased production leads to growth and that the redistribution of capital will occur
in the process of growth. The capital accumulation, growth of labour force and scientific
and technological advancement are woven into the process of development through five
major stages given in this theory. This theory remained a pre-eminent theory of
modernisation in the early 1960s (Preston, 1996).

The major criticism against Rostow's theory was that it was principally an economic
programme, which did not consider the historical aspect of the development process in the
developing countries or their colonial type relationship with the western developed nations.
Firstly, the newly independent developing countries were not able to guide themselves
towards their economic goals due to social and political problems associated with the
formation of new states as given in Hettne, (1990). Hettne (1990) was of the view that
development is a national goal that cannot be separated from be other political goals and
has to be treated as equal to political goals.

Secondly, the inability of the new states to identify their priorities of development as well as
high levels of official corruption did not enable the capital accumulation, scientific
development or growth of a skilled labour force.

Lund (1993) is of the view that after independence colonies were unsuccessful in economic
improvement and local elite was busy keeping themselves in power, fighting neighbours or
suppressing rebellions.

Crew and Harrison (1998) and Dube (1988) identify the eurocentric nature of the
modernisation paradigm, as a major factor for its failure in the developing countries. Crew
and Harrison, (1998) indicate that rationality, the search for objective truth, and a movement
towards modernity was expected in the ideology but not practised in the developing nations.

Therefore, the criticisms of the modernisation paradigm have been extended to include its
heavy dependence on economic theory and the failure to understand the complex social

22
situations. However, the modernisation remained a powerful tool in development planning
in the developing countries well into the late 1970s, mainly because its utilisation by the
international development agencies and funding authorities.

The crisis faced by the modernisation theory led to the formulation of some alternative
perspectives of development. Though these approaches have some change in the secondary
strategies, they still believed in the transformation of societies, international exploitation and
domination. The intention was to make a more service oriented development and aid
redistribution of wealth. Within this framework, there was a struggle in the poor nations
and some tried to establish socialist societies, while others worked towards national
capitalism.

The dependency school formulated the underdevelopment theory through the writings of
many radical researchers, which contained the elements of Marxist language, mode of
analysis and ideological and theoretical projects (Aina, 1993). This wing was headed by
Andre Gunder Frank, Samir Amin, Walter Rodney and a host of others, and which has been
called the underdevelopment theory, which is Neo-Marxist in formation. (Aina, 1993).

A parallel to the theory of under-development, the problems of modernisation were

discussed in the structural Marxism originating from the French school of Marxist studies.
This theory explained the importance of class relations in the development and gave a
strong critique of capitalism and explained the process of development with the use of
impeccable logic and convincing inter-linkage.

These two variants managed to introduce alternatives to the modernisation on social

transformation, production and political organisation and became popular in the
undeveloped world as it gave a deep critique of capitalism, colonisation and neo-colonial
imperialism.

Frank (1966) presents the best overview of this group of theories, which studies the
overall exploitation of the satellite states by the central powerful industrial states. His
view was that the industrialised countries have become rich through the exploitation of
the poor countries.

It is pertinent to look at Myrdal (1970), who brought forward the concept of circular
cumulative causation, which became popular through the notion of vicious cycle of poverty.

23
He regarded the development as a social process and stressed that the power structures of
the developing world have to be changed either by evolution or revolution as a prerequisite
for development. He further explained that this should be followed by changes in
orientation on the part of the developed world.

However, the modernisation paradigm survived in the developing world as a major

instrument in the process of development from its beginnings to 1980s and the influences of
theories of underdevelopment and Marxist alternatives were not capable of making a
marked impact. This is a result of the strong presence of nationalism, ethnicity and
corruption in the developing world , which were more easily accommodated within the
modernist capitalist philosophy (Aina, 1993). Giddens (1991) claims that the inability of
the theories of underdevelopment to consider cultural and political factors in detail may
have led to their weaknesses. According to Lund (1993), the renewal of interest in the
modernist thinking was initiated by the rise of a few newly industrialised countries in the
East Asian region. These countries have used joint ventures with multi-national or trans-
national companies and have built an export oriented industrial base, which led to the
transformation of the economy . A similar rapid growth was noticed in Bangladesh and Sri
Lanka in the early 1980s. However, it should be noted that this rapid growth and
diversification was mostly associated with the financial and tariff support given by the
industrialised countries.

Alternative development

The continuing poverty of the developing world led to a rethinking of the validity of the
modernist and dependency theories and a search for a better alternative of development
discourse. The Cocoyoc conference in 1974 discussed the idea of sustainable development
and the international foundation for development alternatives (IFAD) recommended the
establishment of a humanist model of development (Friedmann, 1992)

Following the above attempt, in the 1980s, along with ecological crisis and poverty, which
threatened not only the developing world, but also the developed world, many world
gatherings were convened to find a serious alternative to the current development strategy.
The need for a paradigm, which can focus on the ways of improving the productivity of
poor through social, economic and political empowerment, became vital.

24
Therefore, the alternative development approach became action oriented based on
humanistic and post-structuralism methods.

The alternative development therefore, brought forward practises like provision of basic
needs, informal sector utilisation and redistribution of wealth. This is a result of the
recognition of the importance and dignity of the ordinary people over the institutionalised
systems. However, the response to this ideology was slow, because most of the developing
nations were either holding onto neo-Marxist theories of development or embroiled in
corruption and regional conflicts. Lund (1993), indicates that the alternative development
was not utilised well because it was too optimistic, and not capable of providing rapid
solutions to development problems.

The difficulty to see the clarity of the many faces of the initial alternative development
paradigm, resulted in the establishment of the notions of empowerment, sustainability and
participation.

As Friedman (1998) explains, the people in their pursuit of life and livelihood needs to
acquire three kinds of power: social, political, and psychological. This is conducted by the
households, which are production centred and public. In the discussion of the politics of
alternative development and the existing power imbalances in the world today, Friedmann
(1998:36) indicates that the capacity of the alternative development to depend on the local
social, political and psychological situations.

The participatory strategy in development can also be discussed within the alternative
development, because the development within it demands for citizen participation
(Friedman, 1998). The origin of the participatory strategy can be traced back to the late
1960s and early 1970s in rural development work (Aina, 1993). This has been mainly
in operation in micro-scale projects and exhibit some difference to empowerment.

The alternative development has not indicated that it is capable of the establishment of a
better process of development and the developing world is still immersed in poverty or
getting poorer than before. There are many debates on the nature of the development
paradigm needed for the two worlds, developed and developing.

25
The modern development has had major negative impacts on the environment and
onexisting social structures. Many livelihoods have been seriously affected by excessive use
of forests, water systems, and fisheries. Urban areas in developing countries suffer from
serious pollution and congestion in transportation, poor quality water, and solid waste
disposal problems. By 1990 it was clear that if this damage is not checked properly it may
retard development of these areas. Then the occurrence of massive destruction through
increased intensity of cyclones, landslides and droughts resulting from El Nino effect
between 1990 and 2000 prompted the World Organisations to take note of effects of global
warming resulting from the process of development in the highly industrialised countries of
the world.

World Bank President James Wolfensohn and chief economist Joseph Stiglitz acknowledged
in 1999 that these issues are crucial to address if global development has to bring any
meaning to livelihoods of millions in the developing world which rested outside the
centalised government control. Richard Norgaard, identifies a fundamental error in the
modernisation thinking which prevented us from identifying environmental concerns.

Extract from

Sustainable Development and flooding

The term sustainable development is used as a global remedy for all the ills including poor
environmental management. Economically sustainable system is a system which to produce
goods and services without being heavily indebted and not causing environmental damage
(Harris, 2000). In here environmental sustainability is to maintain natural resources at a
level where they are not threatened with serious damage which cannot be remedied with the
use of available technology. A social sustainability is achieved through the operation of a
free and fair government and social institutions where equity of all is honoured. However, it
should be remembered that in a developing world where corruption, gluttony and conflicts
arising from ethnicity, religious fanatism and extreme nationalism has continued to effect
the livelihoods this form of sustainability has only a nominal meaning.

26
Managing Tropics

Managing tropics is the most difficult economic and social challenges man has ever faced
as it has a massive population and a natural environment with high energy transfer. This
high energy environment is product of its temperature, which in turn produces rapidly
circulating air, deep clouds, and thunderstorms, high rates of mass movement, soil erosion
and floods. These extremities have resulted in the inability to develop tropics and Malaysia
is the only country with a sizable landmass which is fast developing and the only model
available for development of a tropical country. Israel has developed, but it has taken the
western model culture in to development which is not directly applicable to cultures of Asia,
Africa and Latin America.

In addition to the above mentioned natural extremities, many social ills have also resulted in
the problems of management in the tropics. Almost all the developing countries have no
democratic governance, cultural instability, religious fanatics and terrorism within their
borders. These countries are troubled with public service inefficiency and corruption with
elitist power overrunning the rights of the masses. This unpleasant situation has forced many
developing countries in the tropics to remain poor and unstable. The result is that these
countries in the tropics are constantly troubled by natural and societal hazards which affect
their economic development. In 2006 about 87 percent of the deaths and 84 percent of the
damages recorded world wide were reported from developing countries located in the
tropics. Total estimated damage to property was about 2 trillion dollars (200,000 billion
rupees). Most of these disasters occur due to lack of scientific understanding and non-
utilisation available scientific environmental management system in these countries by the
inefficient public service systems.

The facts to be understood

Tropical environment is of high energy – high temperature/ high humidity/ rapid convection
(circulation of warm air)/ high energy thunderstorms with lightning/ fast moving air masses,
which bring heavy rains and strong winds ( large gatherings of clouds moving rapidly)/
heavy cultural and religious mix (Hinduism – Buddhism –Islam and Christianity with
sizable number of followers in all religions)/ many ancient cultural belief systems (it is
estimated that there are about 2000 languages and 20,000 dialects in the tropics).

27
Tropical environment has local extremes of environment - Locally there are extreme warm
temperatures (average 28 to 30 degree C), wide daily range ( day and night difference) ,
high humidity (most of the time over 65% (which results in sweating), high run off from
heavy rainfall which erode soil easily (muddy streams and rivers), rapid weathering of rocks
( resulting from high daily range and humidity), high rates of oxidation and calcification
(reddish soils and lime flavour water), deep soils with semi-weathered rock particles in them
( liable for landslides), high salinity in seas water (more particles for cloud formation) and
high level of diversity of plants and animals (high biodiversity).

The present social structure of the tropics is based on a mixture of ancient and modern belief
systems, which has not yet found the path to development. In reality, the mixture of old and
new has not been stabilised by legislation either from the old or the new systems of
governance. Therefore the discipline in the process of development which can be seen
clearly through environmental management systems (waste control through strict scientific
legislation/ societal control through fair application of rule of law) in the developed world
are not utilised by the countries of the tropics. Further, the developed world utilises their
high status of development to exploit the weaker developing world through global business
and monetary institutions.

The tropics are the poor area of the world which were under many empires and kingdoms
from the ancient past to the end of European colonisation. The effect of colonisation is
present in the tropics from the physical (environmental change conducted through the
establishment of plantation agriculture and establishment of food production programmes
using western models of irrigation) and societal ( construction of new hybrid culture centred
on the language of the colonist and trade links) transformation the colonists left behind.

The utilisation of the theory of modernisation in the development process was the norm
after the second world war. This was not practised in the tropical developing world as the
colonists required to keep tropics as the raw material suppliers to their manufacturing. The
faithful of the colonists were brought to political power through the cultural connection and
these leaders could not provide the impetus for national development. The coming of the
cold war brought a division in the poor developing countries of the tropics and for about
1980 this division was responsible for the slaying of many national leaders and , bloody
revolutions. These revolutions brought confusion to the poor tropical world and many
fanatical systems emerged against the destabilisation forces supported by the western
system.

Frank (1966) presents the best overview of this group of theories, which studies the
overall exploitation of the satellite states by the central powerful industrial states. His

28
view was that the industrialised countries have become rich through the exploitation of
the poor countries. It is pertinent to look at Myrdal (1970), who brought forward the
concept of circular cumulative causation, which became popular through the notion of
vicious cycle of poverty. He regarded the development as a social process and stressed
that the power structures of the developing world have to be changed either by evolution
or revolution as a prerequisite for development. He further explained that this should be
followed by changes in orientation on the part of the developed world. Crew and
Harrison (1998) and Dube (1988) identify the eurocentric nature of the modernisation
paradigm, as a major factor for its failure in the developing countries. Crew and
Harrison, (1998) indicate that rationality, the search for objective truth, and a movement
towards modernity was expected in the ideology but not practised in the developing
nations. There was no serious discussion of the modernisation theory until the early
1970s and environmental degradation was becoming a problem, because role of spatial
variables and geographical contexts were not considered important Lund ( 1993). She
reiterates the validity of the cultural and historic factors of development in a discussion
of the newly industrialised countries of Asia and relates this development to a pre-
modern or modern phenomenon in the Rostowian sense. A continuation of this process
of change into the 1970s is related to the rapid growth of Sri Lanka and Bangladesh,
which was curtailed by the recession in the west in the 1980s. Globalisation has nat
managed to correct the situation, though it has managed to provide marginal wealth to
poor of the tropical developing world through flow of foreign investment. A few
countries like India, China, Brazil, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan and South Korea have
managed to be fairly developed due to existence of a good political leadership and
heavy support from western financial institutions. However, the rest of the tropical
developing countries are affected by many economic and social problems and stay poor
while many have become poorer than before.

There are two primary reasons for poverty in the tropics

First is its high energy physical environment which requires a different magnitude of
basic scientific knowledge in the utilisation and control of environment. All tropical
poor countries suffer from lack of utilisation of scientific knowledge in national
planning and the political problems have resulted in non-adherence to scientific
planning systems.

Secondly, corruption in governance, poor quality education and tribal base of the society
of the tropical nations results in inability to apply the current development models.
Since the advent of electronic and social media impact of fake news has increased
leading to spread of tribal concepts, which harm national unity.

However countries like Malaysia, China and India have shown that a system
constructed in alliance with the modern world systems, but with local independence can
change the status of poverty. With this background knowledge of the tropics the
following tables are prepared and they will provide you information on the environment
of the tropics.

29
The general environment of climate and flooding in tropical climates
Climate Environmental factors relating
to flooding
Tropical Under natural conditions
rainforest tropical rainforest loose about
and 30 to 40 percent of water to
Tropical the tree canopy and pools,
Monsoonal which delays the immediate
forest flow to the streams and rivers.
When cleared the soils are
quickly hardened and rill flow
begins immediately. Between
1990 and 2010 most of
massive losses of life results
from this increased stream
flow which has resulted in
mudslides. At the time of
writing this book a similar case
is reported from Brazil where
about 500 people have died in
a area formally covered with
rainforest.
A similar character is present in
the tropical monsoonal forests.
In Sri Lanka most of the flash
flood damage and landslide
damage occurs in the areas of
monsoonal forests, where the
proper water flow dynamics
have not been understood .
Flood management and control
Proper storm water discharge and
surface drainage is essential. These
system have to be kept clean all
the time and sedimentation has o
be prevented by proper
maintenance. When I was a child i
remember cleaning of drains
before the onset of south west
monsoons by road workers. But at
present roadside drains are used as
waste dumps and I cannot
comprehend why the authorities
have no interest in maintaining
drains properly. Some of the
respondents indicated that this is
result of contracting system, where
the contractor and the authorities
connive to maintain poor quality
roads, which allow them to receive
contracts regularly for re-
construction. Observations have
reveled that even well educated
people do not keep drainage
system in order indicating either
very low environmental literacy or
foolishness.
30
Climate Area Major environmental characteristics Present situation Value
Tropical All the Forest has a minimum of four to five layered Heavily damaged by The most valuable
rainforest rainforest forest. Forest floor is covered with lianas and uncontrolled human carbon storage in
(Af) areas of activities. Poverty has the world and place
High rainfall (mean annual rainfall over 3000
Congo, forced many border where most of the
mms) and high humidity (relative humidity over
Amazon people to encroach in carbon dioxide
65%, which is not conducive for humans) makes
and to the forest. gases are
this area to be very uncomfortable for humans.
Indonesian However, the most processed. Recent
No dry season and there may be about 250 to 300
Islands, serious damage is scientific
rainy days with about 90 percent of the rain
some from illegal timber investigations have
coming from Thunderstorms in the afternoon or
locations collection and indicated that
evening. High evapotranspiration makes the air
in Sri removal of medicinal destriction of these
constantly sticky and sweating.
Lanka, and flowering plants forests can activate
Southern Very few rainforest areas are inhabited and by hired labour of the a rapid global
India, mostly forest tribes occupy these areas. Average local elites some climatic change.
Northern population density is less than 25 people/ per times supported by
Austarlia, square kilometre. The soils depend on the corrupt westerners.
South east continuous supply of organic matter from the The medicinal value
In 2006 Sri Lankan
Asia forest and once the forest is cleared, soil looses its of these forests is
media reported 12
(Malaysia fertility rapidly. considered to be
cases related to
and irreplaceable. With
Best suitable for forest harvesting in a scientific damage to its
southern the highest
way, which can supply rare tropical hardwoods, Rainforest and about
Phillipines) biodiversity these
medicinal products and flowering plants. Malaysia 4 cases where
East Africa forests may contain
and Vietnam have begun forest harvesting in its foreigners were
( Kenya the secrets of
rainforest. involved in export of
and medicine and the
rainforest plants and
Uganda) global food chain.
animals.

31
Climate Area
Tropical All the rainforest areas of
rainforest the monsoon lands are
(Am) categorised under this
type. Once of the largest
Or
forest regions of the globe
Monsoon
which were utilised by
Rain
many ancient civilisations
Forest
(Rajarata of Sri Lanka,
south and Central Indian
civilisations ( Mayura,
Chola and Gujarat
Tamilnadu Vijayanagar-
south east Asian
civilisations -Angkorwat-
and central American
indian Civilisations- Inca
and Aztec- ) which
flourished when these
areas were slightly more
rainier than today. At
present these forests are
limited to highly localised
small forest units.
Major environmental characteristics Present situation
Forest has a minimum of two to three layered forest. Forest floor is covered Heavily damaged
with srubs, herbs and lianas. by uncontrolled
human activities.
Moderate rainfall ( mean annual 1500 to 2000 millimeters) and moderate Poverty has forced
humidity ( relative humidity of 75% to 55%)makes this area to be very many border
people to encroach
comfortable for humans. There is a minimum of 3 months dry season and
in to the forest.
rainfall is received mainly from the southwest monsoon in the south and south
However, the most
west and north easterlies in the north and east of the areas. Convection is high
serious damage is
and tropical depressions and cyclones are common. Thunderstorms are from illegal timber
common in the periods of March-April and October – Novemebr. High collection and
evapotranspiration makes the dry season very dry and windy. Today most of the removal of
populations of Asia, Africa and Latin America live in this area (total of about 3.0 medicinal and
billion) The soils depend on the continuous supply of organic matter from the flowering plants by
hired labour of the
forest and once the forest is cleared, soil looses its fertility rapidly.
local elites some
Best suitable for tropical grain cultivation in valleys, tree crops and forest times supported by
harvesting in a scientific way. These forests carry highly ornamental tropical corrupt
hardwoods, which are very expensive in the global market. Further, medicinal westerners.
products and tropical fruit trees add value to this forest. India, Malaysia and In 2006 Sri Lankan
Vietnam have begun forest harvesting in its rainforest. media reported
more than 170
The boundary of this forest with tropical grasslands is the home to many exotic cases related to
mammals like elephant, tiger, cheetah and lion. In addition many species of damage to its
monkey, deer, antelope, wild buffalos, many types of reptiles and amphibians monsoon forest.
also live in this area. This is the most visited forest in the world by tourists local
and foreign.
32
Climate Area Major environmental characteristics Present situation
Tropical Tropical Grasslands are known as Savanna in Africa Stepps in Asia, Downs in Heavily damaged by
Grasslands grasslands are Australia and Prairies in North America belong to this type of uncontrolled human
(BS) located environment. Forest has a minimum of two to three layered forest. activities. Poverty has
between the Grassland is about 80 percent grass with shrub forest along the river forced many border
monsoon forest valleys. people to encroach
(Am) and the in to the grassland.
Low rainfall ( less than 600 millimeters annually) and low humidity
tropical deserts. However, the most
( between 35% to 60% for more than 9 months of the year) makes
Some ancient serious damage is
this area to be slightly uncomfortable humans. Rainy season is about
civilisations from increased
3 months and the rest of the year is dry. Today this area is damaged
(Egyptian, animal rearing and
by desert encroachment and humans have begun to migrate out. The
mesapotamian, killing of wild animals
grasslands of the developed countries have been scientifically
Indo-gangetic, for fun and collection
developed and sustain human habitation without many problems.
Persian, Middle of body parts. This
However, the regions of developing countries suffer continuously
Eastern and activity is conducted
from water shortage and related diseases. In Africa, Asia and Latin
Amerindian) by hired labour of the
America the lowest life expectancy and highest children mortalities
flourished in local elites some
are reported from the grassland areas due to constant food
this region times supported by
shortages. People live in tribal groups which have a cultural
when these corrupt westerners.
attachments to the area. The soils depend on the continuous supply
regions were
of organic matter from the grassland and once the grassland is In 2006 international
slightly more
cleared, soil looses its fertility rapidly and begins to blow away in dust media reported
rainy than
storms. about 125 cases
today.
related to damage to
American indian Best suitable for tropical grain cultivation in a low intensive scientific
tropical grasslands
Civilisations- way. Tropical grasslands is the home to many exotic mammals like
and its biotic
Inca and elephant, tiger, cheetah and lion. In addition many species of
resources.
Aztec- ) and monkey, deer, antelope, wild buffalos, many types of reptiles and
today limited to amphibians also live in this area. This is the most visited forest in the
highly localised world by tourists local and foreign.
small forest
units.

33
Chapter 5

Models of flood control and prevention

The early civilizations managed to utilize both physical and human planning systems to combat
flooding. Diversions, embankments, ditches and walls were used in the early civilizations of
China, Egypt and Mesapotamia. Settlement based environmental planning system was used in
the above civilizations and Rajarata civilization of Sri Lanka, followed a similar settlements
plans o avoid flood damage.

Settlement based environmental planning system of ancient Rajarata Kingdom, Sri Lanka
(Gama and Weva or Gamparisara Model) Settlement planning system of
environmental Management: A time tested programme for areas with seasonal drought
(Seneviratne, 2006)

( the term Weva is used in the following presentation as tank is not suitable for the reservoir
which was constructed not only to store water, but to fulfil many other requirements
of the area which it is situated)

Gamparisara Model

Gama saha Weva system of environmental management is one of the best sustainable solutions
to seasonal drought and flood, which is practised today in a more modernised form in
many developed countries for irrigation, power generation and urban water supply.
This system is capable of providing a system, which is universally acceptable in
environmental management. However this system can be operated by an efficient and
honest system of governance ( as said in the principals of Buddhism – Raja Bhawathu
Dammiko = the rule have to be based on the truth)

The system practised in Sri Lanka during the period of ancient civilisation was designed to fulfil
the following requirements.

1. Collect high runoff from the catchments where rocky ridges and hardpan latosols
resulted in high rate of runoff during thunderstorms and depressional rain. Both rocky
ridges and hardpan latosols have low infiltration and very low percolation capacity. An
experiment conducted in Mihinthale area between October 2005 and May 2006
revealed that between 80 to 90 percent of the runoff from the two 2 sample sites (forest
cover and cultivated) were released into the streams or interfluve clay pans.
2. Stabilise the surface ground water flow in the catchment to support a system composed
of forest, shrub, grassland, village, tank and cultivated areas. The experiment indicates
that this form of stabilisation is present in the areas with more than 60 percent forest
cover.

34
 Field surveys revel that most of the ratios of the ancient time were between a low of
1(Tank and cultivated ): 0.6 (shrub and grassland): 0.2 (Forest) to a high of 1(Tank and
cultivated ): 0.5(shrub and grassland): 0.5(Forest).

The ratio between forest and shrub forest (supplied household requirements of
firewood, medicinal products and construction material) was highly controlled and
stable. Higher ratios between forest and shrub forest were found in the catchments with
higher spring levels indicating that the areas with higher spring levels were conserved
more strictly than the other areas.

It is the theory of micro-drainage which was put to use by this system. The first order weva
(Kulu Weva) were followed by the second order weva (Kuda weva) and the third
order weva (Maha Weva) were the last in the system though many complex patterns
are present within the weva hierarchy. There is a relationship between the weva order
and stream order as the experiment indicated. The first order weva were constructed
on the 4th or higher order (Strahler, 1967) streams at the field mapping level.

Most of these 4th order streams appear as 1st or 2nd order streams in Aerial Photos and mostly as
1st order in 1:50,000 topographic sheets (topographic map is not detailed enough for
identification). These 1st order streams increase their dimension to 5 th or sometimes 6th
order ephemeral streams after a total rainfall of 200 millimetres during the rainy
season, indicating rapid runoff in the plain with hills, hill ranges and thin soils. The
geomorphology of the area contributes to this increase through two major factors
identified in the Rassagala (80 percent within a forest reserve) and Bulankulama
( highly disturbed by construction) micro catchments (Near Mihinthale).

Firstly, the slopes of the upper catchments of Kulu Weva on the Erosional plains of the North
Central Plains have upper catchment slopes between 1:100 and 1:300. These slopes
are quickly saturated under high intensity thunderstorm rain as the thin organic soil is
underlain by a thick latosol layer which is not very permeable. Rainfall intensities
over 60 millimetres/hr, which are common in the thunderstorms of the area during the
first rains in October start the flow of water to the 1 st order streams and low slope
angle constructs many winding 1st order streams through the leaf litter. The
experiment conducted produced following data from the Rassagla catchment.

Table 4.1 Development of ephemeral streams and rainfall

Site 1 Ground cover Rainfall Stream

Rassagla 1 Shrub forest 0 1

Rassagla 1 Shrub forest 80 2
Rassagla 1 Shrub forest 200 5
Rassagla 1 Shrub forest 300 6

35
 Table 4.2 Development of ephemeral streams and rainfall
Site 2 Ground cover Rainfall Stream

Rassagla 2 Teak Plantation 0 1

Rassagla 2 Teak Plantation 80 2
Rassagla 2 Teak Plantation 200 2
Rassagla 2 Teak Plantation 300 3
* uneven surface produced by land preparation results in heavy ponding and reduces the
out flow to streams. In total about 40 to 60 percent of the water in the teak plantation
are converging into these pools and evaporate.

Data (Table 4.1 and 4.2) indicate that the undisturbed shrub forest absorb a large quantity of
water to the limit of about 80 millimetres, before starting the stream flow, but the
streams in the teak plantation area cannot flow properly as disturbed micro-slopes
construct pools on the surface. This results in the formation of larger and rapid
flowing gullies which leads to heavy erosion.

The 1st and 2nd order streams in this identification are truly ephemeral unless fed by an artificial
source like wastewater from a settlement or cultivated land. The 3 rd and 4th order
streams flow between 1 to 3 days after rain from middle of November to mid January.

The system is not always simple and there were complex construction systems to handle local
situations, which demanded special techniques. These local situations arose from the
variations of rock type, soil cover, slope and land use. The experiment showed that
micro-slopes were responsible for loss of water to the stream and to weva. The
average slope in most of the cascades is in the region of 1:10,000 to 1:25,000, where a
slight variation in slope will result in accumulation of water in the micro-basin type
formations on latosols. During the experiment it was clear that a rise of slope by 4 to
6 centimeters locally would lead to heavy blockage of water flow to the stream.

Then it was paramount that the settlement, cropland, shrub land and forest were kept in pristine
condition. The most important disturbance to the regular flow of water into the stream
system generally originates from human activities.

Firstly, the settlement in this system was located in a high ground besides the weva or cultivated
area. This prevented wastewater, seepage of sewage residue and animal waste and
other types of solid and liquid waste entering weva. Further the location allowed the
settlement to direct its wastewater into some type of wastewater pond, which was used
as a recycling unit. Non-existence of chemical waste may have allowed these ponds to
be non-toxic and some types of plants and fish may have been used in organic
recycling or cleaning system of waste water from the settlement. There is evidence
that craft industries like iron, silver and paint production were situated in special
locations where waste water was treated before discharged into canal (ela).

36
Secondly, though it is not very clear, inscriptions and designs of the sacred and built up areas of
the ancient civilisation support an existence of a highly developed hydrological
management system. The wastage of water was controlled with heavy legal and
communal commands and user-friendly system was maintained. Rocky ridges were
not utilised for settlements and they were either fully conserved or kept in the custody
of monks, who managed the area in pristine condition. The experiment conducted on
these areas indicate that the rock ridges under the care of monks had about 4 to 6
times more springs than the areas closer to other types of settlements. The specific
purpose of the shrub, forest and the upper catchment of weva were defined by law and
tradition and the law breakers were punished.

This system was capable of maintaining a population of about 5 to 8 million between the period
of 200 and 1100 AD, when the civilisation was in full bloom. National plan for the
civilisation was in operation with periods of rapid and slow phases of weva building,
resettlement in the peripheries and inter-basin water transfer (Paranavitane, 1959).

Today the total disregard for the Gama saha Weva system originate from the public sector
planning of settlements (including Resettlement programme since 1930), construction
of roads and railways, establishment of forest plantations, construction of large
government and private sector institutions, waste dumping and land fill since
independence. These activities have increased the regular blockage of 1 st, 2nd and 3rd
order streams in the area, destroyed some of them totally and redirected water to local
depressions where they accumulate and evaporate, thus seriously starving the 1 st order
weva system. It is clear that the present civilisation of the wet zone has never
managed to understand the principle of environmental management of the ancient
civilisation though rhetoric is evident in all types of utterances and unscientific
publications. It is time that we attempt to understand that it is not only the existence
of the Gama saha Weva system which made possible for the development of the dry
zone civilisation, but the hydrological management system in operation through
various royal instructions and laws, which defined the terms of water conservation
and water use. Existence of officials like dolos-maha-vatan, va-vajarama, vel-kami
and compensation paid for loss due to royal order clearly indicate this existence of an
efficient management system. If the orders of the palace were not conducted properly
the officials responsible were punished. Then it is clear that this system of
management was user friendly, community oriented, but strictly legal and orderly
(Paranvitane, 1959). The king himself was well educated on his duties and was under
the guidance of council of ministers and high dignitaries.

We must understand the value of drainage and hydrological management if we are to solve the
major problem in Sri Lanka and prevent the destruction caused to regular flow of
streams in the dry zone during the wet season. The present planning system or the
legal system is not built on this type of regularisation and today we are forced to
depend on inter-basin water transfer. However, it is clear that we are even unable to
maintain a well operational inter-basin water transfer system at present due to poor
upper watershed management. There is chaos in the drought control system and it is

37
 high time we understand that this problem can be solved only through a well-managed
scientific system and not by just feeding the area with water from somewhere as we
do today. During the 2016 April to 2018 September drought it was clear that even the
mega inter-basin water transfer (Mahaweli Transfer system) was unable to supply
required amounts of water t the dry zone.

The management of environmental hazards require a holistic approach, where the physical
hazards are controlled through technical expertise and the societal organisation required for the
stabilisation of environment is to be conducted through the implementation of laws and
regulations and development of positive attitudes. Therefore, environmental hazards
management programme requires the support of an organisational framework with knowledge
and authority if it is to support the survival of humanity.)

The construction of the Imperial Canal in China (to divert excess water of the south to the
North), Great Wall (to stop the invasions of Mongols), Levees along Nile and Euphrates (to
control flooding) are more than 2000 years old. CS 1 indicate that the use of a planned
settlement with a surrounding shrub and forest supported by a detailed system of laws and
regulations have reduce drought and flood disaster to a minimum in the ancient Rajarata
Civilisation of Sri Lanka.

The scientific development in modernization led to the formation of capabilities in flood control
in the developed world. European systems of Swiss and north European regions managed to
install a mix system of engineering and agronomic measures with strict adherence to law and
regulations. These states succeeded in controlling flood disasters in their domains with the use
of this mixture of systems and today they are taken as examples where flood impact is reduced
to a minimum in the world.

USA with its extremely rapid development began detailed studies on the impact of floods and
with the use of river basin development model, belief in the engineering systems and engaged in
the development of technology required for the future, has managed to reduce damage to the
minimum by supplying early warning to populace.

However the Dust Bowl disaster in the early 1900 led USA a re-think the strategies of disaster
control and the scientist began to adopt a more ecological view (Burrows, 1920). 1936 the US
Congress passed the bill on Flood Control Act and construction systems were favoured by the
disaster managers. White (1945) indicated the importance of management infused into
construction, as a better methodology in management of disasters and favoured a behavioural
approach. His much used questionnaire on natural hazard provided a basis for digitization of
data on environment based on percentage values in this study. Hewitt (1983) indicates that this
approach is characterized by three major approaches in flood disaster management.

1. application of scientific knowledge

2. use physical and human control measures where necessary
3. use of armed forces in the emergency response

38
This is still the dominant view in flood disaster management (and in general disaster
management) but this approach is continually re-evaluated through the application of more
society oriented methods.

By mid 1970s an alternative approach to disaster management was installed through inclusion
of role played by individual action. The arrival of this approach was necessary because there
was a massive increase in disasters in the developing world which were not truly of physical
origin. Developing countries have faced many hazards because they have unplanned settlements
and local knowledge is not used in public programmes of disaster mitigation. The behavioural
approach has failed in the developing world because the corruption in the governance has led to
non-adherence to scientific method of utilisation of resources of the natural environment. Most
of the Global organizations and funding authorities have indicated that inability to install
economic and environmental sustainability in the developing world is a case of this public
sector mismanagement and disasters are intensified due to this mismanagement. For example
the massive damages occurred in the 2003 Rathnapura floods and 2006 October-November
rainy season in Sri Lanka, flash floods in Colombo and other urban areas after every heavy rain
(more than 60 mm/hr intensity) is due to construction on stream reserves and not listening to
scientific advice both by the populace and institutions.

The future of disaster management is well organized in the developed world with the use of
scientific method and local participation. The story of disaster management in developing
countries is in a state of flux which has not found its direction mainly due to corruption in the
institutional and local management systems. Therefore future looks bleak for the developing
world as disasters emanating from climatic change; increased geological activity and societal
crisis will increase rapidly in the next 25 to 50 years. This is the case of Sri Lanka where the
public sector is yet to install a working disaster management system in the country, though it
has a fairly good relief provision system. The people talk of ‘flood vehicles’, tsunami houses’
and ‘landslide cars’ in reference to vehicles bought and houses build by many categories of
workers of the public and private sector, through engaging in corrupt practices during relief
work related to disaster.

Today most of the developing countries operate a stop and go planning system which depends
on a relief management strategy. This is an excessively expensive system where cost of
compensation and rebuilding affects not only the merger financial resources of the public
organizations, but sudden redirection of funding results in a loss to the regional and sometimes
national economic development. Further, the trauma of the incident will continue in the affected
people and communities, well beyond the physical relief and rehabilitation and poverty is
increased of the affected. For example listening to the stories of affected of 2003 Kalu, Gin and
Nilwala floods and landslide disasters in Sri Lanka reveals the misery of the affected. Most of
the affected have many complaints of not receiving proper relief and aid until 2006. Some of the
foot bridges in the rural areas destroyed by the floods are yet to be rebuilt ( survey in 2006)
making their daily journeys seriously hazardous, the housing reconstruction is not properly
managed and the roads are not properly repaired.

39
The structural paradigm (Emel and Peet, 1989) was in existence in the developing countries
during the times of early civilization. For example in Sri Lanka, the monarchial system of
governance had a disaster management system based on settlement planning as indicated above.

The early civilization has faced many serious floods as given in Mahawamsa. The weva cascade
system was the first line of defense against flood and when it failed in a period of heavy rainfall
massive floods resulted. However, the records indicate that this type of failure was limited to
about 6 to 7 times in a period of about 1500 years. Sometimes, the disaster has led to
abandonment of some of the frontier regions and populace was accommodated in refugee camps
in the nearest available area which was not affected by drought or flood. Massive floods were
rare under peaceful conditions but at times of war, the purposeful destruction of wev bunds have
resulted in disastrous floods. The technology used in the construction of weva and weirs
(amuna) indicate that there was pre planning for heavy floods which occur in intervals of 10, 20,
50 and 100 years. The 1957 floods indicated that most of the medium sized weva is not capable
of controlling 50 year and 100 flood. This is why the location of settlement was properly
planned with an aim of reducing damage to a minimum. The dearth of records on massive
disasters during the times of ancient kingdom in many records kept is due to the reason that the
environment and disasters were properly managed in it, specially through the construction of the
settlement away from the most possible disaster.

The environment – man relationship was maintained through a strict enforcement of law, which
prevented continuity of disasters and reduced the human and capital cost to the economy. The
following evidences from the inscriptions and pronouncements indicate the strength of the
belief which prevailed in a highly organized like in a developed world of modern times, which
controls the environment-man interface through strict environment systems.

The following abstracts found and provided by Lagamuwa, (2007), indicate the management
system of the ancient kingdom of Rajarata.

Total environment: with reference to the environment in and around the settlement

“In every settlement it is prohibited to cut timber, kill animals, erect new construction
and pollute water within a circumference of 60 feet. It is designated as an intermediate
zone between the settlement and forest”

The value of above imposition was to keep a stable organic environment with a balance
of living beings (which is not kept today). This was possible as the settlement of the
kingdom was designed and structured in association with the environment. Similar
environmental laws are in force in the highly developed western world and in countries
like Malaysia and Singapore where all human acts including planning of settlement is
also conducted according to strict environmental requirements.

“ in the 3rd century BC, it was prohibited to slaughter animals within a circumference of
25 miles of Anuradhapura city ”

40
 “In 12 th century AD, it was prohibited to slaughter animals, fishing and cut timber
within a circumference of 35 kilometers of Polonnaruwa city ”

the above two edicts were aimed at preventing water pollution, spread of disease and
securing a religious environment.

The following of above edicts were possible because there was an advanced level of
environmental planning in the system of governance.

The breaking of environmental law and edicts demanded heavy punishment. The illegal felling
of trees was punished by hard labour related to tank building and restoration. These actions
were punishable by a fine or manual work.

“ illegal cutting of trees were punished by a fine or cutting and repairing an area equal
to about 18 cubic meters of weva”. Mihinthale Pillar Inscription, King Mihindu IV.
“ the palm, coconut, tamarind and Mee trees on Mihinthala hill should not be cut or
removed. The persons including the royal servants who break this law should be
punished by a fine and the income collected should be given to the temple” Mihinthala
Pillar Inscription, King Sena II, AD 853-887.

The technology of water management was the core of the success of the kingdom.

“ The sluice of Tissa weva should be closed nine days after harvest in the fields of
Isurumuniya and allow it to fill again. Then the remaining water can be released first to
the temple and surrounding area and any excess water should be released to Malwathu
Ela. In addition the land belonging to the temple should not be taken over by anyone.”
Wessagiriya Inscription, Mihindu IV, 956-973.

“ 2 Aka (an older currency) was fined for flooding of paddy fields (over use of water),
before ploughing (there was a set standard for ploughing). If ploughing was not done
correctly the person at fault was fined with one Kalang of gold. If the ploughing was
not done as prescribed the person at fault was fined 5 kalangs of gold.”
( the detailed activities, edicts and laws are given in Appendix 1 in Sinhala)

Development of new order

Increase in hazard vulnerability in the third world has been noted by Torry (1979) and Susman
et al (1983). Poverty, technical change, technical dependency and unequal trade arrangements
were given as reason by above authors for the existing high vulnerability of third world
population. Sen (2000) identifies lack of freedom from global and local market forces as a
primary reason form underdevelopment and hunger and indicates disaster risk in the developing
countries is much higher than in developed countries.

41
Behavioural approach provides a framework for practical hazard control while structuralist
approach attempts to reduce the risk of disaster through control of poverty. Then the best
disaster control has to be conducted in a way that there is a fusion between the two approaches,
which will facilitate the reduction of effect of factors responsible for disaster and through use of
technology. However, in the developing world countries where there is high rate of socio-
political corruption, disregard for scientific approach and neglect of local knowledge, disasters
continue to increase the damage to life and property. This neglect and nonchalance has resulted
in excessive trauma and suffering of the populace during after disaster situations. It is estimated
by UN and related agencies that about an average of 10,000 people die and property worth of
300 to 600 billion US dollars are damaged in the developing world. However, experts on
disaster management believe that the loss of life may be about a thousand to two thousand and
property damage will be about 30 to 50 billion US Dollars if proper disaster management is
utilized in these countries.

Present system of disaster management in the developing countries depends on institutional

help, when necessary, but most of the time the loss of life and property damage is not fully
supported by them. After an initial period of help and relief the institutional system fade away
and the victims have to depend on their local or relative help systems to see an end to their
suffering. Recently the involvement of NGO’s have eased the sufferings of many as major
international support programmes are reluctant to fund public systems in the developing
countries as these public systems have visible high levels of corruption. The case of Tsunami
funding in all the countries in Asia except for Malaysia and Singapore are questioned by
international auditing organizations. Then it is not incorrect to say that the disaster management
system of the developing world and in Sri Lanka is in a state of confusion, which has resulted in
a high impact on the general economy leading to poverty of nations, regions, localities and
persons.

System of disaster management is conducted by two major organisational frameworks

Institutional framework of disaster management – service industry

Grass root/ Participatory framework of disaster management –

US Disaster Management Control System

Study/Research

Homeland Security (formerly -FEMA – Federal Emergency Management Authority)

This system show the value of basic research, which leads to minimising loss of life and
reduction in property damage. In the last 20 years (1986 to 2005) USA (government
and people) lost about 200 billion dollars worth of property due to natural
environmental and societal environmental disasters and the loss of life is estimated to

42
 be 15200 (excluding traffic accidents). If there was no proper disaster management
this damage would have risen to about 2000 billion dollars igniting some economic
and political failures. The flood damage in the same period was about 80 billion
dollars, which is about 60 percent less than without proper flood management and
settlement planning. US is at present planning fro climatic change and about 30 to
40,000 residents have resettled with or without government assistance. There are
programmes of assistance to people who are ready to resettle away from new areas of
vulnerability due to climatic change.

Work schedule of the US Disaster Management Control System

Study/Research

The basic research on disaster management is conducted by the University system and technical
research centres and these results are fed into the national research centres and warning centres.
University research scientists and people also head the national research centres with research
degrees in their respective fields.

Monitoring/Warning/ Prepaedness

Data for monitoring and warning is gathered by all research organisations and analysed with the
help of specialists in the field who are the University research scientists. When a hazard is
predicted the state authorities take over the warning system through national television, radio
network and Internet. Police will travel around the most vulnerable areas warning people of the
locality. If the hazard is of national nature (the control of 9/11 World Trade centre Attack) the
office of the president will control it through FEMA (Figure 2.1) and special security services
like FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation), CIA (Central Intelligence Authority), NSO (National
Security Organisation).

Disaster readiness, actions during disaster, search and rescue

Normally conducted by the state authorities, but federal help is always available. FEMA keeps a
massive storage of food, water and medical supplies in stock away from hazard zone and deliver
when required.

Rehabilitation and Rebuilding

Normally conducted by the state authorities, but federal help is always available. FEMA keeps a
massive storage of food, water and medical supplies in stock away from hazard zone and deliver
when required.

Failure rate

Failure rate in Warning, Search, Rescue and Relief in this organisational framework is estimated
to be 10 to 12 percent. The most devastating and damaging disaster in the history of USA

43
occurred on the 28th of August 2005. It destroyed an area of about 123,000 square kilometres
(about twice the size of Sri Lanka), but the death toll was below 2000. The prediction was 80
percent accurate and most of the deaths occurred among the people who refused to listen to the
warning to evacuate.

Israel System

Disasters resulting from flash floods, dust storms and war related incidents are common within
Israel. Constructed to control war related disaster management, Israel has applied its system
successfully to control other natural and man-made disasters.

Local spotters and listeners work throughout the day in shifts listening to distress calls. Once the
distress call is located the local resource (single or multiple units) rushes to the point of disaster.
The whole country is linked into one single system of emergency wavelength, which makes the
distress call is heard in all sectors of disaster management at once. But the higher levels do not
respond until they are called-in by the local group.

Local spotters then call all the local resources together to find the place or magnitude of the
disaster. If the disaster is beyond the capacity of the local group they will call for outside help.

As soon as the local-group call is received by the National Centre it acts with a full assistance
programme. As the disaster management is the responsibility of the Armed forces in Israel it
works with the highest efficiency possible. Their training in search and rescue is one of the
highest in the world, if not the highest. The duty officer in the centre is authorised to use any
resource available to him for the job at hand and ask for approval later.

Israel System

Listener / Spotters

Information
Local resources (local systems
guides and trained
response teams – University/
research
Institutions

44
This system works very National
well asDisaster
local resources are utilised with precision. For example
this system utilises theControl
supportCentre
of Bedouin tribesmen in search and rescue missions in
the desert areas, where footprints are covered by wind blown sand or flash floods.
(Controller on duty)
The local military facilities are utilised in local disaster management activities making
access and transportation of victims much easier for the controllers. This is possible as
all adults in Israel are trained in military activities and mobilised for disaster
management.

Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka is yet to establish a people friendly disaster management system on flood and
flash flood management, though we have formed ministerial level organisations.
However lack of coordination and inefficiency in various public sector departments and
officials makes flood and flash flood disaster response a highly inefficient activity.

Firstly the studies on flood and flash flood disaster probability in Sri Lanka are not
properly studied even after warned by the scientists. Exact reason for this is unknown
but author’s experience is that the corruption in the institutional system refuses to listen
to scientific and local advice and people have very limited knowledge on flood and
flash flood disaster due to poor information system in primary and secondary systems
of education, where most of them have obtained their highest educational qualifications.

Secondly, complaints, protests and reports made by local people on local situations of
flood and flash flood are not properly analysed and evaluated by most of the authorities
responsible. For example, there were serious warnings by scientists, on the probability
of increased effect of flood and flash flood since around 2005, but even by 2018 there is
no national plan to obtain solutions.

Flood and flash flood of various kinds have a disastrous effect on village and urban
economies of Sri Lanka, but lack of national Plan prevents the establishment of a
disaster reduction system. Flood and flash flood disasters originating from Illegal Gem
mining, sand mining and tree felling continue unabated.

Financial corruption is the major societal disaster and number one national disaster in
all the developing countries including Sri Lanka. As 84 percent of the respondents in a

45
sample of 1700 indicate that there is a connection between financial corruption and
inability to prevent the increase flood and flash flood.

63 percent indicate that it is the construction on floodable land and wetland filling
which causes most of the localize flash floods. They, question, how can it happen when
there are environmental regulations preventing farming on this type of land, but an elite
can fill it and use it for a commercial enterprise.

46
Chapter 6

Problem environment: 21st century and beyond

Formation of new hydrological environment

Observation of the recent major floods in various countries and in Sri Lanka indicates that the
global flood cycles are changed by climatic change. Research between 1980 and 2000 has
confirmed that the Climate has changed in Sri Lanka. Major changes of the Sri Lanka climate
can be identified as;

1. increased rainfall intensity

2. increase in dry periods and frequency of annual drought
3. changing seasonal climatic events

In Sri Lanka, the form and character of the settled environment has also changed in the period
between 1980 and 2000, resulting in the following

1. Increased soil erosion and sedimentation

2. Increased sedimentation of all types of water ways (streams, rivers, canals) and
drainage lines (drains and ditches)
3. Barrier construction to natural flow by various types of constructions (roads,
buildings) and reclamation (wetland filling and cultivation).

Therefore by 2010 in Sri Lanka there began a chaotic situation in relation to river flow and
drainage, as climatic change has established its changed nature on the island. This resulted in
the occurrence of high intensity thunderstorms and increased vulnerability to long duration rain
from weak depressions associated with line squalls.

Studies made from 1996 to 2010 and the 2010 JICA assisted plan indicate that
A) Storm drainage system does not exist in any town or village in Sri Lanka
The old systems of storm drainage built by the Brtish rulers and since independence to
about 1980 are now
Either
Not maintained properly
Abandoned
Filled with sediments, waste and mud

47
 Filled and built upon
B) The wetlands which were left as floodable land or collection ponds for flood water
Are forgotten and treated as wasteland by authorities and people
Converted into farm
Used for settlement areas, sometimes given to low and middle income people as
buildable land

Survey of 7 districts in 8 provinces and 62 urban areas (MC, TC and small town
centers) produced following data

Site Strom drainage level Percentage of filling,

blocking water flow and
sedimented wetland
Municipal areas (6) Poor 84
Town councils (12) Very poor 77
Small town centers (43) Very poor 70

Information on Strom drainage level and wetland situation was calculated with the
information collected from responses to the question on damage occurred to them
during flooding or flash flooding.

Reasons given in percentage values

Reason Low Middle income

income
Poor drainage 94 99
Climate change 78 89
No planning 46 62
No knowledge on proper drainage in 84 89
authorities
No knowledge on proper drainage in 32 65
people
Scarcity of land 87 66
Scarcity of land as big land owners prevent 71 45
town expansion into good quality building
land
Political interference 34 91
Sedimentation of drainage (waste, building 32 100
materials, road wash, slope wash, weed
covered waterways)

48
The response of low income people and middle income indicate the following

Poor drainage and Climate change are identified as the major reason for the crisis
Low income people believe that scarcity of land and ownership of good quality land by
rich contributes to their living in floodable areas.
Middle income people identify that lack of proper planning, design and political
interferences as major reasons for flooding.

49
Chapter 7

Problem solving

There are two major problems to solve in any flood mitigation and adaptation programme.

There should be a concerted effort to manage and when possible to control flow systems.

There is a need for a restructuring of infrastructure systems, based on data on climatic and
geological changes, which have been predicted by scientists.

There should be a concerted effort to manage and when possible to control flow systems

In general, people are individualistic and illiterate with reference to protection of water sources
and use of water. That is why, from the time immemorial the community leaders have imposed
guidance and restrictions through tradition and regulation on water consumption and use. The
edicts taken from the inscriptions of Rajarata civilization indicate that it was guidance and strict
regulation which kept the water supply and use in the ancient kingdom within an acceptable
level of availability.People were directed and governed in the process of use of water. Similar,
guidance and regulations were common in all other ancient civilizations and later under
modernization today rules and regulations strictly govern water use in all developed nations.

Therefore, the belief that people will voluntarily use and protect water sources is a myth. In Sri
Lanka people and rulers both break guidance and rules and regulations constantly and
politicians are in the forefront of failure to secure a safe drinking water and sufficient amounts
of water for cultivation.

Restructuring of infrastructure has to be conducted with the changed climate and expanding
settlements as variables.

The rivers, streams, canals of all types and sizes, weirs and dams have to be kept clean and the
flow lines should not be disturbed by unscientific activity. In Sri Lanka illegal sand mining,
gem mining and constructions on the banks of the waterways lead to flash flooding in the settled
areas. This is because, the above activities are not conducted scientifically, allowing the
waterways to flow freely. Sand and gems have to be mined and constructions have to be
conducted, but the planner and authorities have to allow the free flow of the waterways. People,
by themselves will not follow the rules and regulations and it is the responsibility fo the
authorities aho should enforce them.

The storm drainage systems have to be installed and maintained well. Today in all developing
nations and in Sri Lanka, there is a case of design failure due to low level of environmental
literacy of the authorities and people.

50
For examples, the storm drainage system in Sri Lanka is not properly constructed. For example
most of the storm drainage systems in the urban areas and roadsides of Sri Lanka are blocked by
people for the purpose of waste dumping, material storage, making a road or path to their
housing. In some cases the alignment of storm drainage is insufficient or discontinuous by
design.

As affected indicate all these damaging activities occur due to inefficiencies and corruption in
the public service organizations. This is the general factor responsible for flash floods and
unexpected flooding from floods in all the nations where environment literacy is low and
governance is poor.

Therefore, reduction of disasters related to floods and flash floods can be reduced by about 70
percent with the use of scientific planning as shown by the western model of flood and flash
flood control. However, the developing nations including Sri Lanka is yet to find the proper
system of flood and flash flood management.

For some reason, in Sri Lanka where we boast of a literacy rate of about 92 percent, the damage
from floods and flash floods are continuing to increase due to low level of environmental
literacy of the population and inefficient and corrupt practices of the authorities.

New Reality : Population, Governance and Society

World is overpopulated

Developed world has managed its population and grow at a rate they can provide planning and
limit the effect of floods and flash floods and other disasters of similar nature.

Developing world is heavily overpopulated, due to lack of modernization and belief in tribal
ideas and corrupt governance the incidents of floods and flash floods and other disasters of
similar nature increases on an annual basis.

Developing world is unable to plan properly for the rising population as there is no will to plan
its population and infrastructure.

Therefore, people in people of the developing world face many disasters including floods and
flash floods. These people live on floodable land as they are fertile or they are situated near to
urban areas where they work to earn a living. They, return to the same areas of risk as they have
no safe place to go to earn a decent living. When subjected to flooding they survive with
immediate help from emergency relief and then they receive some help to rehabilitate from the
government. Government, have no definite plan for the areas as it is extremely expensive to
provide alternate areas and it is cheaper to provide relief and rehabilitation assistance. Media
and NGO’s will indicate the damage and loss of life as unfortunate and forget it soon. The

51
government will show their concern and quickly forget it. It is the cycle of poverty and corrupt
society which increases the disaster vulnerability.

Plan for future in the Mitigation and Management of the Problem of Flood and
Flash Flood in Sri Lanka

Flood in the Rriverine Lowlands

Trans basin River diversion and excess water transfer by canals

Construction of lakes and ponds

Solar powered pumping stations

Resettlement in places where settlement has a serious and a continuing problem after
establishment of all the above mentioned programmes

Flash floods

Storm drainage in all settled areas has to be kept in order. All blockages to storm dain
systems have t be removed.

Rehabilitation of weir and canal system –weirs and canals transport excess water and
delay flooding

Construction of lakes and ponds – Riverine lowlands have natural lakes and pond, but
these are mostly filled and settled. However, there is room for new designs.

Resettlement in places where settlement has a serious and a continuing problem after
establishment of all the above mentioned programmes

Flood in the Rriverine Lowlands

Trans basin River diversion and excess water transfer by canals

Middle and lower reaches of Maha oya and rivers Kelani , Gin and Nilwala are situated
in the most densely populated area in Sri Lanka. Following the Colombo Plan aid

52
programme in the late 1950s, proposals were prepared for flood control in these areas
through trans basin water transfer.

Construction of flood water diversion by pumping or construction of parallel flood

water canal in the lower reaches of the rivers of the wet zone. These canals can be used
for a transport system, which will reduce traffic congestion in the urban area.

Finally, the most important adjustment is to reduce inefficiency and corruption in the
public sector management and planning. In addition, new innovative designs have to be
utilized for long term avoidance of continuing problem of floods and flash floods.

Any plan on management of flood and flash floods in Sri Lanka has to consider, slowly
rising sea levels, which will increase the flood levels in major seaside urban areas in the
next 30 to 50 years.

It is cheaper to forget about long term solutions and continue the relief payment model,
(as in all the developing nations including Sri Lanka) but long term planning will
reduce the total damage cost into the future and increase the amount of safe areas for
future settlement development.

As indicated by Rajarata civilization and nations with low damage from floods and
flash floods today, indicate that management of floods and flash floods is achieved by
utilizing scientific environmental management within a National Strategic Plan
operated in an environment of good governance.

53
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(http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0024281.html
http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc99/11_13_99/fob5.htm
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Erosive power of flash floods

Fillings made without proper cover or storm drainage can remove massive amount of material
in a single storm of 60 millimeters an hour intensity.

Major destroyer of roads in Sri Lanka – no storm drains and accesses made without facility for
drainage
ISBN 978- 955- 52362- 5- 6

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