Chapter 6

CONCEPT OF POST-HARVEST
MANAGEMENT

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6.1 Introduction

India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world.1
Post-Harvest Management involves all kinds of treatments. Freshly
harvested commodity/horticultural produce are made to undergo these
treatments to minimize losses and increase its shelf-life, and add value to
the product. Efficient techniques for harvesting, transportation, handling,
storage, processing/preservation, packaging, etc., are the components of
post-harvest management. Value addition to food products has assumed
vital importance and involves, in the present context, processing of fruits
and vegetables with a dual purpose: preventing losses that occur due to
lack of appropriate storage facilities and increased income from the
processed commodity. Due to the initiatives of the Ministry of Food
Processing Industries, Govt. of India, the growth of this sector is being
accelerated. However, there is further need to discuss and sort out various
related issues with various stakeholders, including women farmers, to
increase the level of value addition and improve the quality of products
for domestic market as well as export.

The Green Revolution initiated in the late 1960s was a historic watershed
that transformed the food situation in India. Food production tripled over
the next 3-4 decades. It significantly reduced both food insecurity and
poverty by over 50%. The country became self-sufficient in food, and it
was praised as a laudable achievement by the world community. As a
result, the per capita dietary energy supply increased significantly. The
prevalence of undernourishment in the total population has decreased,
though very slightly. Here I must emphasize that the country is still home
to a fifth of the under-nourished population in the world; the problem of

1
National Horticulture Board Database -2015, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India,
www.nhb.gov.in
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hunger persists with the increasing population pressure; infant mortality
rates are high and the situation is far from satisfactory.

The majority of the village population in Uttar Pradesh earn their

subsistence from the sale of fresh fruits and vegetables. For small and
marginal farmers, this is hardly an adequate safeguard for a stable
livelihood, given the vagaries of the monsoon and the pressures from
intermediaries. The utilization of fruits and vegetables both in the form of
fresh (highly perishable) and processed (durable) would help increase
their source of income, thus improving their standard of living. The
success of post-harvest management will depend on the integrated
approach so that nothing goes waste and there is 100% utilization of the
horticulture produce.

Fruits and vegetables not only provide the growers nutritional security but
also high income. Better production practices, careful harvesting, proper
packaging, storage and transport contribute to a good quality produce.
Once a crop is harvested, it is impossible to improve its quality. Because of
the high moisture content, fruits and vegetables are inherently more
prone to deteriorating. Even after the harvest, they are biologically active
and carry out transpiration, respiration, ripening and other biochemical
activities, which deteriorate the quality of the produce. In India, post-
harvest losses of fruits and vegetables vary from 25% to 40%, depending
on the kind of produce and the pre and post-harvest practices they are put
through. This can occur in the field, in packing houses, while in storage,
during transportation and in the wholesale and retail markets. Severe
losses occur because of the poor infrastructure, poor pre and post-harvest
management, and in marketing of the produce.

Biological causes of deterioration of fruits and vegetables include

metabolic changes (respiration, ethylene production and action,
compositional changes), mechanical injuries (cuts, bruises, abrasions,
etc.), the incidence of physiological disorders, and pathological
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breakdown. The rate of biological deterioration depends on various
environmental factors including temperature, relative humidity, and
concentrations of ethylene, oxygen and carbon dioxide.

The loss in food value of fruits and vegetables may be attributed after
harvesting through several ways:

• Water content is reduced with time as there is continuation of the

living processes within the produce, and as a result, the commodity
gets shrivelled and loses its turgidity.
• Vitamin C content decreases with time after harvest.
• Cooking partially destroys water soluble vitamins B and C.
• Peeling may cause significant loss of food value, since most of the
nutrients are engrossed in the epidermis skin, especially in
potatoes, where the protein content adheres to the skin.
• Water used in cooking vegetables dissolves minerals and trace
elements.

6.2 Role of Post-Harvest Management

We daily eat fruits fresh or in the form of salads, and vegetables after
cooking. But many of us hardly know from where they come and how
much care has been taken while handling them. The management of fruits
and vegetables till they reach the hands of the consumer after harvest, is
an important step. We as consumers always look for produce that are
fresh and with least damage. Fruits and vegetables being highly
perishable, and bulky, soft and wet, are more prone to injuries/damages
during handling, and as a result could lose its good appearance and
freshness. In order to reduce damage to fresh fruits and vegetables during
handling, a lot of care has to be taken in terms of better handling
methods, packaging, and good transportation.

Spoilage mainly occurs due to microbial attack, auto-oxidation and

insect/pest attack. According to a study, at least, 25 to 30 per cent of the
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production of fruits and vegetables in the country is lost due to wastage
and value destruction. The wastage cost was estimated to be Rs.67,500
crores each year. Even if just 1% of this is saved by converting them into
value-added products, there will be a saving of Rs.67.5 crores annually.
Further, the cost of reducing spoilage is much lesser than the cost of
producing the same quantity of quality produce. Post-harvest
management of horticultural produce is, therefore, the need of the hour
in order to feed the ever-growing population of the world in general and
India in particular. The most important advantage of post-harvest
management and processing is the reduction of post-harvest losses of
fruits and vegetables.2

It is a well-known fact that fruits and vegetables are perishable in nature

due to its high moisture content, high rate of physiological activity viz.
respiration and ripening, microbial attack, rapid biochemical changes such
as enzyme activity, softening of the texture and many other biotic and
abiotic factors. Harvesting season of almost all fruits and vegetables is
very short, lasting only 1-2 months. During this short period, the
availability of particular fruits and vegetables will be abundant, but at the
end of the harvesting season, the availability of these products decreases
rapidly, and may completely disappear from the market within 1-2
months. Here, therefore, comes the role of post-harvest management of
horticultural commodities such as proper handling, packaging and storage
at safe low temperature, maintenance of the cool chain during
transportation and marketing, pre and post-harvest treatments in order to
increase the shelf-life and reduce the overall spoilage, etc. These practices
make fruits and vegetables available throughout the year. Many modern
technologies such as refrigerated storage and transportation, controlled
and modified storage, irradiation, processing into value-added products
are some of the ways to extend the availability of fruits and vegetables
2
IGNOU: Unit 1, Importance of Post-Harvest Management Pp 1-11 Also see Anjani, Kumar.
et.al. ‘Food Security in India: Trends, patterns, and determinants’. Indian Journal of
Agricultural Economics, Vol. 67, No. 3 July – Sept. 2012
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beyond the end of the harvesting season. The food already produced can
be saved for consumption by applying the techniques of post-harvest
management and thus indirectly increase its availability. Attention was
drawn to the concept of post-harvest food loss reduction as a significant
means to increase the availability of food by the World Food Conference
held in Rome in 1974. The seventh session of the U.N. General Assembly
in 1975 passed a resolution calling for a 50 per cent reduction of post-
harvest losses by 1985. In the FAO, after consultation with its governing
body, food loss prevention became a priority area and an action
programme was put in place in early 1978. The Food Loss Prevention
Programme of FAO till recently focussed mainly on the durable food
grains, because of its prominence in our daily diet. And in May 1980, an
Expert Consultation on Food Loss Prevention in Perishable Crops mainly
covering fruit and vegetables was held in Rome.3

Factors that reduce post-harvest losses encompass the usage of optimum

harvest aspects, reduction of losses in handling, packaging, transportation
and storage using modern infrastructure, processing into a wide variety of
products, and home-scale preservation with low-cost technology.
Different techniques like thermal processing, low temperature, drying and
preservation techniques are applied to enhance the storability of the
produce. Containers and packaging materials confer portability as well as
extend the shelf-life of a product. Adoption of these techniques could
make available a larger quantity of fruits and vegetables, and thus provide
both food and nutrition security. It will also provide more raw materials
for processing, thus ensuring better returns for the women farmers.
Micronutrient deficiencies among women and children are observed to be
very high: as high as in 50% of women and 80% of children. This is the
current status.

3
Ipid 2. Also see Dreze, Jean and A.Sen (1989) Hunger and Public Action, Clarendon Press.
Oxford
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6.3 Importance of Post-Harvest Management

The importance of post-harvest management is that it has the capability

to meet food requirements of a growing population by eliminating losses,
making more nutritive food items from raw commodities, i.e., fruits and
vegetables, and by proper processing and fortification.

Post-harvest management has the potential to create rural industries in

developing countries like India, where 70 per cent of the people live in
villages and 65 per cent of them depend on agriculture4. It is possible to
evolve appropriate technologies for this and establish agriculture-based
rural industries. The women farmers, whose role has been reduced to a
producer, can be transformed into producer-cum-processors, helping
them earn more income for the hard labour, input, the kind of risk taken,
as well as generating a resource for their socio-economic advancement
keeping pace with the modern times.

6.4 Harvesting

A critical time for growers of fruits and vegetables is the period when the
decision is taken on when to harvest a crop. Normally, fruits and
vegetables are harvested when they have developed to the ideal condition
for consumption. This condition is usually referred to as harvest maturity.
Here confusion may arise because of the word maturity since, in the
botanical sense, this refers to the time when the plant has completed its
active growth (vegetative growth) and arrived at the stage of flowering
and seed production (physiological maturity).

4
Planning Commission: Development Scenario Of The Village – Chapter XVI
http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/stateplan/.../sdr_orich16.doc. Also see, GoI (2007a)
Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2006. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Department
of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi and GoI(2007b). Report
of Steering Committee on Agriculture for XIth Plan, Planning Commission, Government of
India.
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Maturity whether viewed as physiological maturity or harvestable
maturity can have a pronounced influence on the quality of fruits and
vegetables. Optimum maturity at harvest depends on the market or
intended use (storage, fresh consumption and processing). For many
vegetables, the optimum eating quality is reached at a tender stage, e.g.
leafy vegetables, cucumber, bottle gourd, green peas, beans, okra, etc.
Delayed harvest will lead to the development of fibre. Good quality fruits
are obtained when harvesting is done at the proper stage of maturity.
Immature fruits, when harvested, will give poor quality and erratic
ripening. For example, mango fruits are harvested based on fullness of
their cheeks and the colour at the pedicel end, whereas banana fruits are
harvested based on fullness of the fingers and disappearance of angularity
on the surface.

The method of harvesting is as important as the time of harvesting. Faulty

harvesting and rough handling at the farm would directly affect market
quality. Injury to the peel may serve as an entry port for micro-organisms
and lead to rotting. For example, banana bunches should be cut leaving
30cm of the stalk.

6.4.1 Post-Harvest Physiology

The quality of the harvested fruits and vegetables depends on the

condition of growth as well as physiological and biochemical changes they
undergo after the harvest. Fruits and vegetable cells are still alive after the
harvest and continue their physiological activity. The post-harvest quality
and storage life of fruits appear to be controlled by their maturity. If fruits
are harvested at the proper stage of maturity, the quality of the fruits
would be good. Poor quality and uneven ripening are due to early or late
harvesting, resulting in extremely poor shelf-life. Respiration generates
heat as sugars, fats, and proteins in the cells of the crop are oxidized. The
loss of these stored food reserves through respiration means decreased
food value, flavour being lost, saleable weight being reduced, and more
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rapid deterioration. The respiration rate of a commodity strongly
determines its transit and post-harvest life. The higher the storage
temperature, the higher the respiration rate will be. Respiration plays a
very significant role in the post-harvest life of fruits. In most of the fruits,
the rate of respiration increases rapidly with ripening. The sudden upsurge
in respiration is called the 'climacteric rise', which is considered to be the
turning point in the life of the fruit. After this, the senescence and
deterioration of the fruit begin.

Climacteric fruits Non-climacteric fruits

Apple, banana, papaya, mango, guava, Litchi, pineapple, grapes, pomegranate,
jackfruit, fig, sapota, tomato, musk lemon, orange, lime, cucumber, etc.
melon, water melon, etc.

To extend post-harvest life of fruits, its respiration rate should be reduced

as far as possible. Thus, an understanding of the factors, which influence
the rate of respiration, is indispensable to post harvest technologies for
manipulating the storage behaviour of fruits and vegetables.

6.5 Post Harvest Handling

6.5.1 Harvesting

Harvest should be completed during the coolest time of the day, which is
usually in the early morning, and the produce should be kept under the
shade in the field. Crops destined for storage should be as free as possible
from skin breaks, bruises, spots, rots, decay, and other deterioration.
Bruises and other mechanical damage not only affect appearance but
provide entrance to decay organisms as well.

Owing to their tender texture and high moisture content, fresh fruits and
vegetables are very susceptible to mechanical injury. Poor handling,
unsuitable containers, improper packaging and transportation can easily
cause bruising, cutting, breaking, impact wounding and other forms of
injury. Post-harvest roots are more prevalent in fruits and vegetables that
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are bruised or otherwise damaged. Mechanical damage also increases
moisture loss. The rate of moisture loss may go up by as much as 400% by
a single bad bruise on an apple, and bruised potatoes may lose three to
four times as much weight as non-bruised potatoes.

6.5.2 Storage

Storage is one of the most important aspects of the post-harvest handling

of fruits and vegetables. A substantial quantity of fruits and vegetables go
waste in our country due to lack of proper storage. The primary purpose
of storage is to control the rate of transpiration, respiration, ripening and
also any undesirable biochemical changes or disease infection. Improper
storage results in deterioration in fruits and vegetables in the following
ways:

• Aging due to ripening, softening, and textural and colour changes.

• Undesirable metabolic changes and respiratory heat production.
• Moisture loss and wilting.
• Spoilage due to invasion by bacteria, fungi, yeasts and insect pests.
• Undesirable growth, such as sprouting of potato.

The field heat of a freshly harvested crop should be removed as quickly as

possible before shipping, processing, or storing. Refrigerated trucks are
not designed to pre-cool fresh commodities but only maintain the
temperature of the produce. Likewise, most refrigerated storage rooms
have neither the refrigeration capacity nor the forced air movement
needed for rapid cooling. Rapid pre-cooling to the product's lowest safe
temperature is most critical for crops with both inherently high and low
respiration rates.

Crops with high respiration rate Crops with low respiration rate
Cabbage, green onions, snap beans, Nuts, apples, grapes, garlic, onions,
asparagus, broccoli, mushrooms, peas, sweet potatoes (mature), sweet potato, etc.
corn, etc.

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Pre-cooling methods and appropriate storage temperature and relative
humidity for fruits and vegetables are important operations just after
harvesting of the produce in order to reduce the post-harvest losses.

6.5.2.1 Storage Temperature

Many vegetables and fruits are stored best at temperatures just above
freezing, while others are injured by low temperatures. Both time and
temperature are involved in the chilling injury. Damage may occur in a
short time if temperatures are significantly below the danger threshold,
but some crops can withstand temperatures a few degrees into the
danger zone for a longer time. The effects of the chilling injury are
cumulative in some crops. Low temperatures during transit, or even in the
field shortly before harvest, add to the total effects of chilling that might
occur in storage. Crops such as cucumbers, eggplant, pumpkin, summer
squash, okra, and sweet potato are highly sensitive to chilling injury.
Similarly, tropical and sub-tropical fruits like mango, banana, papaya,
pineapple, etc. are also sensitive to chilling temperature. Moderately
sensitive crops are snap bean, muskmelon, sweet pepper, winter squash,
tomato, and watermelon. These crops may look sound when removed
from low temperature storage, but after a few days of warmer
temperatures, chilling symptoms become evident: pitting or other skin
blemishes, internal discoloration, or failure to ripen. Tomato, squash,
sweet pepper that have been over-chilled may be particularly susceptible
to decay such as Alternaria rot.

6.5.2.2 Relative Humidity

Relative humidity is also important in the storage of fruits and vegetables.

The relative humidity of the storage unit directly influences water loss in
produce. Water loss can severely degrade quality. For instance, wilted
greens may require excessive trimming. Losing of moisture also leads to
saleable weight loss and reduced profit. Most fruits and vegetable crops
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retain better quality at high relative humidity (80 to 95%), but this level of
humidity level when combined with higher temperature level encourages
growth of diseases.

6.5.2.3 Storage Sanitation

Sanitation is of great concern to handlers of produce, not only to protect

the produce against post-harvest diseases but also to protect consumers
from foodborne illnesses. E. coli, Salmonella, Hepatitis, and Cyclosporin
are among the disease-causing organisms.

6.5.2.4 Ethylene Evolution

Ethylene is a natural hormone produced by some fruits as they ripen. It

promotes additional ripening of the produce when exposed to it.
Damaged or diseased apples produce high levels of ethylene and stimulate
other apples too to age quickly. As the fruits age or ripen, they become
more susceptible to diseases. Ethylene ‘producers’ should not be stored
with fruits and vegetables that are sensitive to it. The result could be loss
of quality, reduced shelf-life, and specific symptoms of injury.

6.5.2.5 Bad effects of ethylene during storage include:

• Russet spotting of lettuce along the midrib of the leaves;

• Loss of green colour in snap bean;
• Increased toughness in turnips and asparagus spear;
• Bitterness in carrots and parsnip;
• Yellowing and abscission of leaves in broccoli, cabbage, Chinese
cabbage, and cauliflower;
• Accelerated softening of cucumbers, acorn and summer squash;
• Softening and development of off-flavour in watermelon;
• Browning and discoloration in eggplant pulp and seed;
• Discoloration and off-flavour in sweet potato;

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 • Sprouting of potato; and
• Increased ripening and softening of mature green tomato.

Ethylene producers include apple, apricot, avocado, ripening banana,

honeydew melons, ripe kiwifruit, nectarines, papayas, peaches, pears,
persimmons, plantains, and tomatoes. By and large, more matured and
ripened commodities produce more amount of ethylene.

In regard to reducing cross-transfer of odours, combinations that should

be avoided in storage rooms include:

• Apples or pears with celery, cabbage, carrot, potato, or onion.

• Celery with onion or carrot.
• Citrus with any of the strongly-scented vegetables.

Pear and apple acquire an unpleasant, earthy taste and odour when
stored with potato. It is recommended that onion, nuts, citrus, and potato
each be stored separately.

6.5.3 Transportation

Inland transportation of horticultural crops is usually carried out by rail or

truck. Overseas transportation is by sea or air. A limited amount of high-
valued produce is sometimes transported overland by air. The basic
conditions during transportation are proper control of temperature and
humidity, and adequate ventilation. In addition, the produce should be
immobilized by proper cushioning in packs, packaging and stacking to
avoid excessive movement or vibration. Vibration and its impact during
transportation may cause severe bruising or other types of mechanical
injuries.

Refrigerated containers and trailers are used more often for long distance
shipping, whether by sea, rail or truck. Shipping by refrigerated trucks is
not only convenient but also effective in preserving the quality of the
product. However, both the initial investment and the operating costs are
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very high. Another possibility is insulated or properly ventilated trailer
trucks. Pre-cooled products can be transported through well-insulated
non-refrigerated trucks for many hours without any significant rise in
product temperature. There can be considerable cost savings without any
sacrifice of quality if the trucks are only insulated, rather than
refrigerated, for short-distance shipping. If the product is not pre-cooled,
or if the shipping distance is long, a ventilated truck is a better choice than
an insulated truck without ventilation and without refrigeration.
Ventilation alone does not usually provide a uniformly cool temperature,
though it may help dissipate excessive field heat and respiratory heat, and
thus avoid high-temperature injury.

6.5.4 Pathological and Entomological Factors

It is one of the most common and obvious symptoms of deterioration that

results from the activity of bacteria and fungi, which are already present
on the surface of fruits or vegetables. Have you noticed cut and bruised
fruits and vegetables deteriorating rapidly compared to their wholesome
counterparts? It is because micro-organisms get access to the
commodities through its physical or mechanical injuries and set
deterioration in motion in the form of rot and softening of fruits.

The presence of fruit fly or stone weevil infestation that mainly occurs in
mango during storage is a major entomological problem and therefore,
damage caused by this pest is most important. Insect infestation in dried
fruits during storage is also a common damage and, therefore,
maintaining appropriate moisture level in dried fruits and moisture-proof
packaging are important aspects in the storage of dried fruits.

6.5.5 Packaging

The packaging of fruits and vegetables should protect them from injury
and water loss, and be convenient for handling and marketing. Packages

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should also provide information about the product, including the grade,
handling instructions, and appropriate storage temperatures when the
product is on display. The cost of the packaging is important, including
whether the container can be recycled or reused.

Packaging provides protection from physical damage during storage,

transportation and marketing. There are variety of packages, packaging
materials and inserts available.

There are two types of packaging. The first is when produce is packed in
containers for transportation and wholesale. The second is when produce
is packed into small retail units. Ideal containers for packing fruits and
vegetables should be easy to handle, providing good protection from
mechanical damage and should have adequate ventilation and should be
convenient for merchandising. They should also be inexpensive and easily
degradable or recyclable. Fancy containers such as fiberboard boxes or
wooden or plastic crates, are often used for high-value products.
Inexpensive containers such as bamboo baskets or nylon net sacs are used
for low-priced produce.5

Pre-packaging or consumer packaging generally provides additional

protection for the products. It is also convenient for retailers as well as
customers, and therefore adds value to produce. However, over-use of
non-biodegradable plastic trays and wrapping materials, as often seen in
modern supermarkets, which creates an extra burden of waste disposal
and damages the environment.6

6.6 Prevention of Losses

The various factors that cause losses include the physiological, including
respiration and ethylene production, metabolic changes after the harvest,

5
Ibid p16
6
Ibid p17 Also see, http://msamb.com/ (for agri-marketing related information) and
http://mswarehousing.com/
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physiological breakdown due to heat injury, chilling injury, freezing injury,
and mineral deficiencies leading to cell wall damage, besides physical
damage and pathological damage. Protection of fruits and vegetables
must begin with cultural practices in the field and continue until they are
consumed. Deterioration or losses can result during production from
improper pruning, thinning, fertilization, disease control and so on. The
various approaches and means by which these losses can be prevented
or reduced:

6.6.1 Least Exposure to Sunlight/Heat and Care during Field Transport

Assembled goods in the field should not be exposed to direct sunlight or

heat and should be stored under the shade before packing and entering
the distribution channel.

Many opportunities for bruising arise during field transportation. This may
occur due to impact, and over or under-filling of containers. Supervision is
needed at all stages of field transportation to minimize the
accumulation/occurrence of physical injuries. All the operations, such as
washing, sorting, grading and waxing are undertaken before packing done
in packing house, where the fruits are assembled after harvest.

6.6.2 Washing

The main purpose of washing is to meet the demand of the consumer for
a clean product, free from external dirt, fruits and vegetables are washed
after harvesting in order to: improve appearance, reduce the primary load
of microorganisms and remove spray residues before the produce is ready
for the fresh market. Low concentration of chlorine is widely used in wash
water in order to prevent the spread of diseases. Chlorine has the
advantage of leaving no chemical residue on fruit and vegetables. Surface
drying is an essential step after washing and must be followed in order to

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remove the excess of surface water from the fruits and vegetables that
would otherwise encourage microbial spoilage.

6.6.3 Sizing and Grading

Essentially all fruits and vegetables sold in modern markets are graded
and sized in two or more grades according to the trade standards.
Depending upon the commodity to be packed, other special treatments,
like pre-sizing and grading may be required. This operation is done by
hand before packing, but machines are also used for this purpose in
modern packaging houses established in this country for fruits like mango,
citrus and a few root or stem vegetable commodities. Such facilities are
available in a few private pack houses and also in the National Dairy
Development Board (NDDB)-owned packaging houses under the ‘SAFAL’
chain. One has to see that no injury or bruising occurs as a result of
dumping or friction or rough handling during the process. Weight, volume,
length, diameter or other parameters are used as the criteria for
separating products into unit size.

Grading is necessary to get suitable returns by marketing uniform quality

of fruit. Most countries have their own set of standard for domestic and
international trade. The main outlet for fruit is usually the fresh market.
Acceptability depends on the size, attractiveness and organoleptic quality
of the particular variety. Fruit show considerable variations in quality
primarily due to genetic, environmental and agronomic factors. Grading
may be done manually or mechanically. Grades are based on soundness,
firmness, cleanliness, size, shape weight, colour, maturity, free from
diseases, mechanical injury, insect damage etc., sizing is primarily done in
order to achieve uniformity in the contents.7

7
Roy S.K., (2012). ‘Influence of Post-Harvest Operations, Packaging and Storage on the quality
of fruits’. Training manual on Post Harvest Technology, Processing and Cold Chain
Management, under project International Network on preserving safety and Nutrition of
Indigenous Fruits and their Derivatives, Leverhulme Trust, UK p17
Page | 17
6.6.4 Sorting

Sorting is almost entirely a manual operation because only vigilant human

sight can detect the unwanted fruits for fresh market. This is not
satisfactorily achieved in ordinary machines. Only highly sophisticated
equipment with an electronic eye can do this job. The fruits for sorting
generally move over belt or roller conveyer. A roller conveyer that turns
the fruits as it moves forward is preferable to a belt conveyer because it
allows the sorter to see all sides of the fruits. Sorting is generally
accomplished in a central packing shed where the purpose is to remove
fruits that are obviously unsuitable for sale, such as fruits with severe
mechanical injury, decay, or not of a typical shape or colour for the
particular variety being sorted for fresh marketing.8 Select the product by
maturity, shape, colour or some other physical parameters. Culling is part
of both sorting and grading. Spoiled and damage fruits and vegetables
should be sorted out from the fresh and healthy lot.

6.6.5 Curing

Vegetables, particularly garlic, onions, potatoes, and sweet potatoes, are

cured after harvest, and before storage and marketing. Don't confuse it
with curing of disease. Onions and garlic are cured to dry its necks and
outer scales. Potatoes and sweet potatoes are cured to develop wound
periderms over cut, and broken or skinned surfaces. Curing helps to heal
harvesting injuries, reduces water loss, and prevents the entry of decay-
causing organisms during storage. In our country, this operation is
generally done in the fields.

6.6.6 Waxing

Cover surface of the product with food grade wax to reduce water loss
through epidermal openings or to replace natural wax removed during
8
Ibid p 16. Also see, Kumar, P. (1998). ‘Food Demand and Supply Projections for India’,
Agricultural Economics Policy Paper 98-01, Division of Economics, IARI, New Delhi.
Page | 18
washing. Don't use commercial candle wax. Waxes are generally applied
only to fruit-type vegetables like tomatoes, eggplant, cucumber, capsicum,
and fruits like mango, banana, citrus, lime, etc. This can be applied by
dipping in waxol (6 to 12%) solution or spraying it on the surface of the
fruit. It also provides protection against decay organisms. Waxing may be
after grading and fungicides may be added to the wax. There is wax
applicators developed for this purpose. Application of wax and post
harvest fungicides must be indicated on each container where the
refrigerated storage facilities are not available, protective skin coating
with wax is one of the methods for increasing the storage life of fresh
fruits.9

6.6.7 Packaging

Package-containers may be earthen pots, bamboo baskets, bags, cartons,

crates, logs or bulk bins. Some products are shipped unpacked to markets
in bulk trucks or railroad cars. Bananas and such other fruits are examples
of this.

Proper packaging is required to allow ventilation and heat exchange to

maintain proper temperature level, to reduce the air and gas exchange
(oxygen, carbon dioxide, ethylene) and to minimise water loss.

Holes in cartons should be at least five per cent of the total box surface to
allow for ventilation. Consumer packages slow the respiration rate by
maintaining low oxygen and high carbondioxyde levels, protect the
produce from ethylene and odour absorption and reduce the waterlogs.
Improper packaging leads to (i) Compression injuries due to over-packing
of crates and boxes; too high stacking of crates; weak packaging. (ii) A high
stack of (weak) crates or baskets leads to bulging and consequently to
compression of the produce inside. (iii) Puncturing injuries resulting from:
9
A HandBook-2008 Indo-US Bilateral Workshop-cum-Training on ‘Post Harvest Technology,
Cold Chain Management and Food Safety Issue’, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Ezeeprint,
New Delhi.
Page | 19
nails or splinters from the crate or box; fingers or nails of a person; other
crates, fork-lifts, etc. hard and sharp stalks of fruit. (iv)Baskets and old
wooden crates and some of the plastic crates often have sharp edges
which can easily damage the produce. Rigid crates with proper grips can
reduce the incidence of puncturing.

6.6.8 Disease Control

Some post-harvest disease preventing treatments may be applied during

packing. Heat treatment or vapour heat treatment has been suggested in
the case of mango, papaya and other fruits to control rot diseases and the
infestation of fruit fly or stone weevil, and industry codes or tariffs.

6.6.9 Ripening or colour initiation

Apply ethylene or ethylene-producing materials to stimulate ripening in

fruits like banana, mango and tomato, or to change the colour in oranges,
lime and lemons. There are specialized chambers/rooms to control
temperature, air composition and humidity for such treatments. Such
facilities are now available with a few private packers and NDDB packaging
houses.

6.7 SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS

6.7.1 Marketing Systems

Growers can produce large quantities of good quality fruits and

vegetables, but if they do not have a dependable, fast, and equitable
means of getting such commodities to the consumer, losses will be
extensive. This is further accentuated by the lack of communication
between producers and receivers, and lack of market information.

Marketing cooperatives should be encouraged among producers of major

commodities in important production areas. Advantages of marketing
through cooperatives include providing central accumulation points for
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the harvested commodity, purchasing harvesting and packing supplies and
materials in quantity, providing for proper preparation for market and
storage when needed, facilitating transportation to the markets, and
acting as a common selling unit for the members, coordinating the
marketing programme, and distributing profits equitably.

Alternative distribution systems such as direct selling to the consumer

(roadside stands, produce markets in cities, local farmers’ markets in the
countryside, etc.) should be encouraged. The Farmer’s Market system is to
be developed for selling their own fruits and vegetables directly to the
consumers. Production should be encouraged as close to the major
population centres as possible to minimize transportation costs.

Wholesale markets in India are in desperate need of improvement in

terms of facilities and sanitation. They are overcrowded, unsanitary, and
lack adequate facilities for loading, unloading, ripening, consumer
packaging, and temporary storage.

6.7.2 Roads

In India, roads are not adequate for proper transportation of horticultural

crops. Also, transport vehicles and other modes, especially those suited
for fresh horticultural perishables, are in short supply during the season.
This is true whether for local marketing or exporting to other countries.
Efficient transporting system can go a long way not only in reducing post-
harvest losses of fruits and vegetables, but also in stabilizing the price
fluctuation of the same commodity seen in different parts of the country.

6.7.3 Government Regulations and Legislation

The degree of governmental control, especially on wholesale and retail

prices of fresh fruits and vegetables, varies from one State to another. In
many cases, price controls are counterproductive. Although intended for
consumer protection, such regulations encourage fraud and provide no
Page | 21
incentive for producing high-quality produce or for post-harvest quality
maintenance due to non-implementation. On the other hand, regulations
covering proper handling procedures and public health aspects during
marketing are, if enforced properly, very important to the consumer.

6.7.4 Use of Specific Tools and Equipment

Even if growers and handlers of fresh fruits and vegetables were

convinced of the merits of using some special tools and/or equipment in
harvesting and post-harvest handling, they most likely will not be able to
find them in the domestic market. This is true of harvesting aids,
containers, equipment for cleaning, waxing, and packing and cooling
facilities. Most of these tools are neither manufactured locally nor
imported in sufficient quantity to meet the demand. Various government
regulations do not permit producers to directly import equipment they
need. It is imperative that tools that will enable handlers to use
recommended technology in a given situation be made available to them.
In many cases, such tools can be manufactured locally at much lower costs
rather than being imported.

6.7.5 Awareness among Common People

The human element in post-harvest handling of horticultural commodities

is extremely important. In developing countries, most handlers involved
directly in harvesting, packaging, transporting and marketing have limited
or no appreciation for the need for the work they do, or know how to
maintain quality. An effective and far-reaching educational (extension)
programme on these aspects is needed critically and will continue to be
essential in the future.

6.7.6 Maintenance of Equipment

In developing countries like India, some good facilities that were built a
few years ago are currently ‘out of order’ or not functioning properly

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because of lack of maintenance and unavailability of spare parts. This
problem is especially true of public-sector facilities. Any new project
should include in its plan, adequate funds for maintenance to ensure its
success and extended usefulness.

6.7.7 Employment Generation

Employment generation of Indian youth is becoming more and more

difficult with the increase in population. It has been observed that job
opportunities in government sectors are shrinking day by day and private
companies are closing fresh recruitment. For rural youth, it is becoming
more and more difficult to get a good or moderate employment in rural
areas, and as a result, unemployed rural youth are rushing to towns and
cities to do any sort of work. This type of migration of population from
rural to an urban area is detrimental to the society. In addition, this
situation is creating big problems in metro cities. Therefore, it is the need
of the hour that these youth start their own ventures that are not only
remunerative and attractive in nature but also easy to operate. Post-
harvest handling and processing of fruits and vegetables is one such area
that has great possibility for employment generation. During the
harvesting season, people can get employment in harvesting, pre-
treatments if any, packaging and transportation of fresh produce to towns
and cities. The surplus production and culled fruits and vegetables can be
converted into pulps and value-added products during the season, and
later it can be used to prepare various tertiary processed products. All
these operations require human resources in large quantity.10

10
Ipid 2 Also see, Comptroller and Auditor General (2007). ‘Performance Audit of the
Implementation of National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, (2005) draft report, New
Delhi.
Page | 23
6.8 Fruits and Vegetable Processing

India has the potential to grow all types of temperate, sub-tropical and
tropical fruits and vegetables because of the varied agro-climatic diversity.
The total production in the country of fruits and vegetable is over 75
million tonnes and 133 million tonnes, respectively.11 The post-harvest
losses, valued at Rs.230 billion, have been estimated to the extent of 20-
40 per cent, and losses occur because the country lacks proper harvesting,
processing and storage facilities. The processed products from fruits and
vegetables are beverages, jams, jellies, candies, preserves, canned fruits
and vegetables, dehydrated fruits and vegetables, pickles, soup mixes,
sauces and ketchup. Products that have growing demand, especially in the
Middle East countries include pickles, chutneys, fruit pulps, canned fruits
and vegetables, concentrated pulps and juices, dehydrated vegetables and
frozen fruits and vegetables.

People in India generally prefer fresh seasonal fruits and vegetables as

they are in abundance throughout the year and are priced low. The
production of pickles and chutneys has traditionally been a rural-level
cottage industrial activity. However, in recent years, processed foods in
the form of canned fruits such as pineapple, mango slices and pulps,
grapes, apple, peaches, etc., have increased considerably. The uses of
fruits in the form of concentrated juice, dry powder, jam and jelly have
also increased. The production of processed fruits and vegetables have
been reported as fruit pulp (27%), jams and jellies (10%), pickles (12%),
ready-to-serve beverages (13%), synthetic syrups (8%), squashes (4%),
tomato products (4%), canned vegetables (4%) and others (18%).

11
National Horticulture Board – Database 2012, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India,
www.nhb.gov.in; Also See, Bharmand, P.S. et.al. (2013). ‘Challenges to Food Security in
India’. Current Science, Vol. 104. No. 7, 10 April 2013.
Page | 24
6.8.1 Value Addition

Horticultural produce in general, and fruits and vegetables, in particular,

generate a large amount of valuable waste such as inedible (for humans)
plant parts that end up as garbage. However, if they are gainfully utilized
at the proper time, they can produce value-added products. Vegetables
such as cauliflower, peas, leafy vegetables, etc., can be primarily /
minimally processed so that inedible parts are removed before being sent
on to metropolitan city markets. They should be unit packed at packing
stations situated at appropriate points in every district. This process will
reduce the transportation and handling cost of inedible parts and help the
consumer by providing a convenient food. The consumers, particularly
working women, would be willing to pay higher prices because these
ready-to-use products would save a lot of their time in the kitchen,
besides labour and space. Similarly, bananas should be transported in
hands as is done in other countries. Each packing station should have the
facility for processing. Physically damaged fruits and vegetables that are
without infection but would be spoiled on storage, can be made into
durable and value-added processed products at this point. Utilising
physically damaged fruits and vegetables after converting them into value-
added processed products can considerably reduce the price of the main
product, and as a result, more processed food products will come within
the reach of the common people.12

Fruits and vegetables are perishable in nature, it cannot be stored for

longer periods. It has been observed that about 25-30% of the total
production is not fit for fresh marketing and is called culled produce. This
produce is the undersized or oversized, malformed/deformed and
physically damaged fruits and vegetables, but are microbiologically sound
at the time of harvest. The produce of this category are either sold at

12
Ipid 2 Also see, Saxena, N.C. (2011). Hunger, Under-Nutrition and Food Security in India,
Working paper 44, Chronic Poverty Research Centre, Indian Institute of Public
Administration, New Delhi.
Page | 25
throw-away prices or left to rot. Thus, a huge quantity of horticultural
produce in the form of cull fruits and vegetables accumulate every year,
which otherwise could be utilized if processed into various value-added
by-products. Fruits and vegetable processing units also generate a large
amount of valuable waste such as peel, stones and other inedible plant
parts that are generally not utilized properly and rejected as such in our
country and finally end up as garbage. However, if they are gainfully
utilized at the proper time, they can become value-added products. Some
of these waste are a rich source of vital constituents like carbohydrates,
protein, fat, minerals, edible fibres, etc., and can be put to commercial use
for producing pectin, starch, colours/pigments, essential oils, sugars,
vinegar, alcohol, and many compounds useful in food and beverage
industries. In addition, such waste may be used as cattle feed that is in
short supply in our country. These waste processing not only gives value-
added products but also reduces the price of the primary processed
products that are sold in our country at premium prices that are beyond
the means of the common people. In general, it improves the overall
economy of the country.

Premature fruit drop due vagaries of the climate such as dust or hailstorm
is also a big problem in India. As a result, a substantial quantity of fruits
and vegetables are lost before they attain proper maturity stage. This
produce can be utilized usefully if processed into value-added products
such as pulp, pickle, chutney, dried powder, etc.

During peak harvesting season, a good amount of quality fruits and

vegetables are available in abundant quantity, resulting in market glut,
and all of this quality produce cannot be marketed in the fresh form. As a
result, there is huge spoilage and wastage of fresh fruits and vegetables.
This wastage can be reduced if they are timely processed into different
value added products, or preserved by different methods during the
harvesting season. After this it can be used throughout the year and can
be transported to distant markets. Value added products are not only
Page | 26
palatable but also nutritious and give economic gain. Nutritional value of
these products can be increased many folds through fortification,
particularly of protein, vitamins and minerals. Processing serves as an
outlet for surplus production and, therefore, acts as price stabilizer. Fruits
are generally consumed fresh, but vegetables, except a few like
cucumbers, tomatoes, etc., are mostly cooked before consumption. Value
addition also includes peeling, slicing, cutting into pieces, processing and
packaging. All such activities increase the value of the products.13

The main fruits that are being exported to the Middle East, the U.K.,
Europe, Singapore and Malaysia from India are mangoes, grapes, apples,
citrus, etc. Exports include other fruits like bananas, sapota, litchis, etc.
The important vegetables exported to the Middle East, Europe, the U.K.
and Singapore are potatoes (28.0%), onions (7.1%), cauliflower and
cabbage (4.0 % each), okra (3.0%), peas (3.0%) and others (50.0 %). At the
rural level, solar-assisted dehydrators could be promoted for the
preparation of ethnic food products like raisins, onion flakes and powder,
chips, vegetables, etc.14

6.9 Rural Industrialisation

Post-harvest management and processing of fruits and vegetables are the

backbones of the horticulture industry as it takes care of gluts and all
possible wastage that occurs during handling, storage, distribution and
marketing. Most growers are rural people. During peak harvesting season,
there is always a glut. There is no preservation units or grading and
packing houses in rural areas. Farmers here cannot hold on to their
produce even for a few days due to lack of storage facilities and are
unable to preserve their produce. This situation forces them to sell their
good quality produce at very low prices to a middleman. Cull fruits and
13
Ipid 2
14
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore; 2014, Department of Agriculture &
Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/
postharvest/pht_intro.html
Page | 27
vegetables generally go waste or are sold at throwaway prices. After the
harvesting season is over, rural people again become jobless. They
generally migrate to cities in search of any sort of jobs. Setting up of small
and cottage-level preservation factories at the village level can not only
reduce losses due to glut, but also provide jobs to the rural people. It can
always fetch growers an additional income and help in stabilizing the
prices and providing an economic return. Hence, fruits and vegetable
processing industry should be encouraged and developed in rural areas;
it’s a path for rural industrialisation.15

6.10 Beneficial to Producers and Consumers

In a country like India, transportation facilities are not so good, and rural
electrification is also at the infancy stage. However, there is huge
production of horticultural produce in different parts of the country,
particularly in rural and underdeveloped areas. There is always an
abundance of produce at the production site but often the same produce
is found to be scarce in places of consumption.

Growers at production sites sell their produce at the lowest minimum

price due to fear of it getting spoiled. However, consumers purchase the
same commodities at a very high price in cities and urban areas due to the
involvement of middlemen. In this way, both producers and consumers
suffer and only the middlemen gain. To overcome this situation, growers
should be trained properly on post-harvest management, storage and
processing of fresh fruits and vegetables. There must be on-farm storage
facilities viz. pusa-zero-energy cool chamber for short duration storage.
Cottage and small scale-level fruit and vegetable processing units must be
encouraged so that cull fruits and fruits and vegetables can be converted
into value-added products, and properly stored and processed products

15
Ipid 2. Also see, Bhalla, G.S. Hazell, P. Kerr, J. (2001). ‘Prospects for India’s Cereal Supply and
Demand to 2020, Food, Agricultural and the Environment’, Discussion Paper 29,
International Food Security Institute, Washington D.C.
Page | 28
can be transported to the places of scarcity during the harvesting season
and after the season is over. In this way, a glut-like situation can be
avoided in production areas. Growers will get a good price for their
produce and consumer will have to pay only a reasonable price.16

Conclusion

Fruits and vegetables are highly perishable in nature and are prone to
rapid spoilage and deterioration in quality. However, proper post-harvest
management can reduce this spoilage. The cost of reducing spoilage is
much lesser than the production on additional land. A good post-harvest
management means preserving seasonal surplus and cull fruits and
vegetables that often lie rotting on the roadside, thus reducing spoilage.

Processing and value addition increase availability of food; generates

cattle feed by converting factory waste, thus reducing accumulation of
garbage. Growers get remunerative price for their produce and consumers
buy it at a reasonable price. Many indigenous fruits and vegetables, which
are not generally marketed as fresh can be processed into value-added
products for export. These products are in demand in the national and
international market due to its medicinal and therapeutic properties.
Fresh as well as processed fruits and vegetables are a rich source of vital
nutrients like vitamins, minerals, fibres, etc. It gives nutritional security to
the forever growing population and protects their health.

The rural women can make a great contribution to our country if they are
trained to convert locally available fruits and vegetable produce to value
added products. This would help them enhance their livelihood as well
reduce the waste accumulating in our environment.

Women’s empowerment is often seen as the key to improving nutrition.

But even though much is known about the roles which both men and
16
Ipid2. Also see, Dyson, Tim and A. Hanchate. (2000). ‘India’s Demographic and Food
Prospects: State level Analysis’, Economic and Political Weekly, November 11, Vol. 35.
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women play in the interaction between agriculture nutrition and health,
many crosslinks are as yet not explained. Which gender-based differences
matter most for nutrition and health related outcomes, and how exactly
do different aspects of empowerment impact on these outcomes? What
unintended consequences of agricultural interventions could arise for
women’s well-being and empowerment?

More than 40 per cent of the just below 1.3 billion people living in India
are vegetarians, and their diets make them particularly dependent on high
quality plant based proteins. With their considerable nutritional value,
pulses offer the best condition to cover this requirement. However, there
is still a huge gap between supply and demand.

The concept of “nutrition-sensitive agriculture” sets out from the

assumption that agriculture has a role in providing food security – which
means access for all people at all times to sufficient, safe, and nutritious
food. However, judging from the number of close to 800 million people
who are classified as chronically hungry and an estimated two billion
people suffering from micronutrient malnutrition, it would appear that
agriculture is not fulfilling this role, or at least not doing so adequately.
How can this be remedied? Our authors show how closely agriculture,
nutrition and health are linked and take a look at the various entry-points
for improving nutrition through agriculture: from the choice of adequate
seed systems and breeding programmes through agricultural policy
interventions to promoting market access, production diversification und
better functioning value chains to capacity building, nutrition education
and gender equality.

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