20

CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL ORIENTATION AND REVIEW OF PAST STUDIES
Chapter Title Page
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Theoretical Orientation 22
2.2.1 Definition of culture 22
2.2.2 Definition of political culture 37
- Political beliefs 42
- Political Values 44
- Political attitudes 44
2.2.3 Political orientations 46
2.2.4 Different typologies of political culture 50
2.2.5 Political culture in relation to political socialization 57
2.2.6 Political socialization 58
2.2.6.1 Definition of political socialization 58
2.2.6.2 Agent of political socialization 60
2.2.7 Summary 65
2.3 Review of the past studies 71
2.3.1 Importance of review of the past studies 71
2.3.2 The past researches studied related to political culture 73
2.4 Uniqueness of the present study 88
References 90
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CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL ORIENTATION AND REVIEW OF PAST STUDIES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
All research contains theory in some form. Much research is clear about the
theories being used, and the ways they are applied within the formation of the project. Theory
will manifest itself to some degree in:
 the theoretical approach itself (the methodology)

 the arguments about what might happen

 the approach to the fieldwork or data-gathering

 the analysis and synthesis of the findings.

Lomax et al. (2010)1 mentioned that theory can be explanatory or predictive, and
can underpin interventions as well as be used within research frameworks. Coming up with
theories is at the heart of the scientific process. Ritzer, George (2007)2 states that theoretical
orientation is the important part of the research studies. It states the theoretical concepts or
the basic ideas on the topic and the work already done in the research studies, to attain an
overall relevance and purpose. Theory is used to craft the null hypothesis, which is either
proved or disproved by the research itself and illuminate the significance for the new study.
The theory is the source of concepts and the connections among them that made it possible
to produce hypotheses identify confirmations or refutations.

Merton, Robert K. (1979)3 suggests that the researcher can summarized the
relevant theory from books and past studies. The theoretical orientation thus becomes a link
between the research proposed and the studies which was already done. The value of theory
depends on the clarity and coherence of their formulation and their adequacy to their
conceptual frameworks.

For the present research, the second chapter is concerned to the theoretical
orientation concerning the political culture. For better understanding, the researcher has
summed up the scopes of documents and researches regarding the political culture as follow:
 22
2.2 THEORETICAL ORIENTATION
The sociality is rather complex with sub-systems, with turns of importance
regarding the structure, function, and different kinds of factors. The culture is another sub-
system in a community. With a complex and dominant character, the culture has its own
structure and function in its system. At the same time, the culture system is also important
and influential to other systems in the community. The community and the culture are,
therefore, relatively close. The culture has formed up a pattern of behaviour for the people
according to the social procedure. It also designates the attitude, beliefs, and values for the
people, building up their characteristics. All these have been conformed into a public format
of culture, or in another word, the community.

The present study is to state about political culture i.e. definition of culture and
political culture, different typologies of political culture, political orientation, political
socialization, and review of the past studies.
2.2.1 Definition of culture
Culture is a concept based on a term first used in classical antiquity by the
Roman orator Cicero: "cultura animi" (cultivation of the soul). This non-agricultural use of the
term "culture" re-appeared in modern Europe in the 17th century referring to the betterment or
refinement of individuals, especially through education. During the 18th and 19th century it
came to refer more frequently to the common reference points of whole peoples, and
discussion of the term was often connected to national aspirations or ideals (wikipedia,
2013)4.

The word culture has many different meanings and it affects everything people do
in their society. The term of culture was first used by the pioneer English Anthropologist
Edward B. Tylor in his book, Primitive Culture, published in 1871. Edward Tylor (1873)5 said
that culture can be referred to a universal human capacity. It is the complex whole which
includes knowledge, belief, art, ethics, morals, law, traditions, traits, custom, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. Culture is a powerful human
tool for survival, but it is a fragile phenomenon. It is constantly changing and easily lost
because it exists only in one’s minds.
 23
The generic sense of the word culture is that of cultivation or of becoming cultured.
'This is associated with the older meaning of civilization, or of becoming civilized, and both
refer to the process as that which is, undertaken by an individual. "Culture" is a derivative of
the German word "Kultur". "Kultur" indicated the distinctive "higher" values of enlightenment of
a society (Kroeber and Kluckhohn, 1952)6. "Kultur" was also a label applied to an episode in
German thought which placed great emphasis on distinguishing between the terms culture
and civilization as, separate concepts in order to achieve large abstractions of meaning. The
separation of the words from an interchangeable definition gave each a more precise
meaning. Culture was defined as "the sway of man over nature. "Civilization was defined as
"the sway of man over himself."

From the 1860s to the 1940s Arnold, Powys, Patten, Burns, and Lowell, all
speaking and writing in English, took a humanistic point of view toward culture. They believed
culture to be an expression of individual personality rather than based on the dead weight of
custom. The humanistic sense of the word culture clashed with the anthropological sense:
description or enumeration of content, the historical influence of traditional heritage, and the
complex of ways and expressions of the life of a nation. The humanists believed in a known
perfection, an absolute, which knowledge they "inherited" as a hierarchy of values; the
anthropologists made out of the original concept pf values a descriptive Category (Kroeber
and Kluckhohn, 1952) 7.

To the anthropologist, values play an important role in describing a culture. This

attitude toward values is relativistic due to the attempt to study values in the social context
and to determine their range, variety, constancy, and interrelations.

In 1931 the American sociologist R.M. MacIver contrasted, as had the Germans,
civilization and culture. He equated civilization with means and. culture with ends. Means he
perceived as the "apparatus of living" and ends as "the expressions of our life." (MacIver,
1931)8. He associates the realm of values with culture as it is the expression of our nature.
Civilization as viewed by MacIver is that which man devises in an attempt to control his life;
and culture MacIver views as the antithesis of civilization.
 24
Quite a number of people have given the definition for the term ‘culture’ as follow:
Edward Tylor (1873)9 defined “culture” as the way of life of a social group, the
group's total man made environment including all the material and nonmaterial products of
group life that are transmitted from one generation to the next. Culture refers to the
ensemble of various things with a complicate character. It is the full range of learned human
behavior patterns.

Since Tylor's time, in the 20th century, the concept of “culture” has become the
central focus of anthropology, encompassing the range of human phenomena that cannot be
directly attributed to genetic inheritance. Specifically, the term "culture" in American
anthropology had two meanings:
a. the evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with
symbols, and to act imaginatively and creatively; and
b. the distinct ways that people, who live differently, classified and
represented their experiences, and acted creatively.

Linton, Ralph (1945)10 stated that “culture” of a society is the way of the life of its
members; the collection of ideas and habits which they learn, share and transmit from
generation to generation.

Alfred, K. and Clyde, K. (1952)11 compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in “A

Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions of culture" that “Culture” is most commonly used
in three basic senses:
 Excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities, also known as high

culture
 An integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behaviour that

depends upon the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning
 The set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes

an institution, organization or group

Paul A.F. Walter (1952)12 mentioned that culture is the totality of group ways of
thought and action duly accepted and followed by a group of people.
 25
Kroeber (1953)13 stated his opinion that “Culture” is composed of formats
achieved from learning and conveying from one generation to another, using the symbolic
system. It is the patterns, explicit and implicit of and for behaviour acquired and transmitted
by symbols constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups including their
embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and
especially their attached values.

Coon (1954)14 gave a view that “Culture” is the ensemble of various methods by
which men can survive; and this knowledge has been communicated.

Robert M. McIver (1970)15 “Culture is the expression of nature, in modes or living

and thinking, inter course, literature, religion, recreation and enjoyment”. Culture is the realm
of final valuations and human beings must interpret the world, including their own devices,
techniques and power in the light of their valuations. In the culture live the valuation that
create group and group unites that narrow and widen the range of community and that
organize the means and power of society to the service of all common ends.

White (1974)16 inferred that the term ‘culture’ means; to regulate various
phenomenon’s; to organize the knowledge which associates to various things such as
attitude and other symbols. All these means of organizations depend upon the use of
symbols. Hence the culture can be transferred from one man to another.

Paitoon Kruakaew (1975)17 gave an opinion that ‘culture’ differentiates human from
animals, and this is also the men’s characteristics apart from the physical and the biological
nature. With respect to this characteristic or the culture, men had collaborated in the creating
and accumulating as a procedure for their pattern of behaviour for a very long time.

Hoebel and Frost (1976)18 describes culture as the sum total of integrated system
of learned behaviour patterns which are characteristic of the members of a society and which
are not a result of biological inheritance. Culture is central to the experience and engages
with all aspects of human lives. Thus, definitions of culture are shaped by the historical,
political, social, and cultural contexts in which the people live.
 26
Hall (1976)19 defined culture as one of the complicated words in the English
language. Culture has many definitions, and it affects everything people do in their society
because of their ideas, values, attitudes, and normative or expected patterns of behaviour.
Culture is not genetically inherited, and cannot exist on its own, but is always shared by
members of a society. It can be said that “Culture” is the system of shared beliefs, values,
customs, behaviours, and artifacts that the members of society use to cope with their world
and with one another, and that are transmitted from generation to generation through
learning.

Heobel, E. Adamson and Thomas Weaver (1979)20 gave the definition that
“culture” is the integrated system of learned behaviour patterns which are shared by
members of a society. It is the sum total of the material and intellectual equipment whereby
they satisfy their biological and social needs and adopt themselves to their environment. This
means that the culture is the learned behaviour pattern, formed up by members of each
society under a most harmonious system, comprised of a material part, and a behavioural
part. These two parts amalgamated and eventually become various standards and criteria
enable people to know how and when to act.

Hofstede (1980)21 defined culture as “the collective programming of the mind

which distinguishes the members of one group from another”, which is passed from
generation to generation, it is changing all the time because each generation adds something
of its own before passing it on. It is usual that one’s culture is taken for granted and assumed
to be correct because it is the only one, or at least the first, to be learned.

Cuber (1985)22 cited that “culture” is a pattern of behaviour occurred from the
learning which gradually changes. This also includes the output of the learning such as the
attitude, and values of various things that men invented, as well as the knowledge of one tribe
that has been communicated to other members of the community.

Kluckhohn and Kally (1945)23 mentioned that “culture” is everything that man
invented for the implementation of their subsistence. Whether rationally or unreasonably, it
has culture is the rule in the pattern of behaviour, occurred from the learning, which is a
characteristic of the community. Culture is a 'design for living' held by members of a
 27
particular society. It consists of the values the members of given society hold, the norms they
follow, and the material goods they create.

Lundberg, C.C. (1990)24 mentioned that culture refers to the social mechanism of
behavior and to the physical and symbolic products of their behaviours.

Brown, A (1995)25 described that "Culture is a system for differentiating between

in-group and out-group people." As a shared meaning, “Culture” is very much about
groups, and a basic need of groups is to be able to communicate, both at a superficial level
(for which ordinary language largely suffices) and also at a deeper level of meaning. At this
deeper level, words, actions and things can become imbued with special and specific
meaning for the group. Culture as behavioural rules when a group of people are to exist
together, they need a set of rules that helps everyone know what to do in various
circumstances, from arguing with one another to dealing with outsiders. These rules help to
propagate the shared meaning and also use the systems of meaning to make sense of what
is happening and what is done.

Edgar Schein (2001)26 stated that “culture is the deeper level of basic assumptions
and beliefs that are shared by members of an organization, that operate unconsciously and
define in a basic ‘taken for granted’ fashion an organization's view of itself and its
environment.”

Li and Karakowsky (2001)27 defined several definition of culture as follow:

 Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs,

values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations,
concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of
people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.
 Culture is the systems of knowledge shared by a relatively large group of

people.
 Culture is communication, communication is culture.
 28
 Culture in its broadest sense is cultivated behavior; that is the totality of a
person's learned, accumulated experience which is socially transmitted, or more briefly,
behavior through social learning.
 A culture is a way of life of a group of people--the behaviors, beliefs, values,

and symbols that they accept, generally without thinking about them, and that are passed
along by communication and imitation from one generation to the next.
 Culture is symbolic communication. Some of its symbols include a group's

skills, knowledge, attitudes, values, and motives. The meanings of the symbols are learned
and deliberately perpetuated in a society through its institutions.
 Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior

acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human

groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of
traditional ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand,
be considered as products of action, on the other hand, as conditioning influences upon
further action.
 Culture is the sum of total of the learned behavior of a group of people that

are generally considered to be the tradition of that people and are transmitted from
generation to generation.
 Culture is a collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the

members of one group or category of people from another.

Robert A. Cooke (2004)28defined “Culture” as the behaviors that members

believe is required to fit in and meet expectations within their organization.

Weerachai Sukkamol (2006)29 said that “culture” is whatever men invented, and
not whatever men acted instinctively. This may be a usable artifact, or the designing of
behavior and/or concept, as well as the working method and procedure. Therefore, the
culture is a human social system constructed by men, and not a system of intrinsic instinct.

According to Dictionary.com (2010)30, “Culture” is a term that has various

meanings as follow:
 “Culture” can be defined as “the behaviors and beliefs characteristic of a
 29
particular social, ethnic, or age group."
 “Culture” refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs,

values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations,
concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of
people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.
 “Culture” is the systems of knowledge shared by a relatively large group of

people.
 “Culture” in its broadest sense is cultivated behavior; that is the totality of

person's learned, accumulated experience which is socially transmitted, or more briefly,

behavior through social learning.
 “Culture” is a way of life of a group of people--the behaviors, beliefs, values,

and symbols that they accept, generally without thinking about them, and that are passed
along by communication and imitation from one generation to the next.
 “Culture” is symbolic communication. Some of its symbols include a

group's skills, knowledge, attitudes, values, and motives. The meanings of the symbols are
learned and deliberately perpetuated in a society through its institutions.
 “Culture” consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior

acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human

groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of
traditional ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand,
be considered as products of action, on the other hand, as conditioning influences upon
further action.
 “Culture” is the sum of total of the learned behaviour of a group of people

that are generally considered to be the tradition of that people and are transmitted from
generation to generation.
 “Culture” is a collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the

members of one group or category of people from another.

Cuber, R.M. (2013)31 defined “culture is the continually changing patterns of

learned behavior and products of learned (including attitudes, values, knowledge and
material objects) which are shared by and transmitted among the member of society”.
 30
Culture is a socially standardized, way of feeling, thinking and acting that man acquires as a
member of society. It includes everything that man learns or acquired as a member of
particular society. To summarize, culture is continually changing it is learned behaviour which
has been organized into patterns, it includes products of learned behaviors – ideas,
knowledge, values and material objects and is shared and transmitted among members of
society.

Hepple et al. (2014)32 say “culture includes all the material and non material traits
in our environment which are man made or modified by man and transmitted from one
generation to another by the process of learning”.
Culture can be defined as historically derived pattern of living of an individual. It includes
traditions, customs, folkways and mores. All these ideas integrated together for pattern of
living called culture.

Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952)33 classified definition of culture into six groups as
follow:
Group A: Descriptive (Emphasis on Enumeration of Content)
(1) Tylor (1873)34 : "Culture, or civilization,...is that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by
man as a member of society."

(2) Wissler (1920)35 : Culture refers to all social activities in the broadest sense,
such as language, marriage, property systems etiquette, industries, art, etc...."

(3) Benedict (1931)36 : Culture is the complex whole which includes all the habits
acquired by man as a member of society."

(4) Boas (1930)37 : "Culture embraces all the manifestations of social habits of a
community, the reactions of the individual as affected by the habits of the group in which he
lives, and the products of human activities as determined by these habits."

(5) Malinowski (1944)38 : "Culture is the integral whole consisting of implements

and consumers' goods, of constitutional characters for the various social groupings, of
human ideas and crafts, beliefs and customs."
 31
(6) Linton (1945)39 : Culture is the sum total of ideas, conditioned emotional
responses, and patterns of habitual behavior which the members of that society have
acquired through instruction or imitation and which they share to a greater or less degree."

(7) Kluckhohn and Kelly (1945)40 : "Culture is that complex whole which includes
artifacts, beliefs, art, all the other habits acquired by man as a member of society, and all
products of human activity as determined by these habits. Culture is in general as a
descriptive concept means the accumulated treasury of human creation: books, paintings,
buildings, and the like; the knowledge of ways of adjusting to the surroundings, both human
and physical; language, customs, and systems of etiquette, ethics, religion, and morals that
have been built up through the ages."

(8) Herskovits (1948)41 : "Culture refers to that part of the total setting'(of human
existence) which includes the material objects of human manufacture, techniques, social,
orientations, points of view, and sanctioned ends that are the immediate conditioning factors
underlying behavior." Culture is essentially a construct that describes the total body of belief,
behavior, knowledge, sanctions, values, and goals that mark the way of life of any people.
That is, though a culture may be treated by the student as capable of objective description, in
the final analysis it comprises the things that people have, the things they do and what they
think."
(9) Kroeber (1953)42 : Culture is the mass of learned and transmitted motor
reactions, habits, techniques, ideas, and values---and the behavior they induce---is what
constitutes culture. Culture is the special and exclusive product of men, and is their
distinctive quality in the-cosmos...Culture...is at one and the same time the totality of products
of social men, and a tremendous force affecting all human beings, socially and individually."

Group B: Historical (Emphasis on Tradition or Social Heritage)

(1) Park and Burgess (1921)43 : "The culture of a group is the sum total and
organization of the social heritages which have acquired a social meaning because of racial
temperament and of the historical life of the group."

(2) Sapir (1921)44 : “Culture is the socially inherited assemblage of practices and
beliefs that determines the texture of our lives..."
 32
(3) Myres (1927)45 : “Culture is not a state or condition only, but a process; as in
agriculture or horticulture we mean not the condition of the land but the whole round of the
farmer's year, and all that he does in it; 'culture', then, is what remains of men's past, working
on their present, to shape their future."

(4) Malinowski (1931)46 : "This social heritage is the key concept of cultural
anthropology. It is usually called culture...Culture comprises inherited artifacts, goods,
technical processes, ideas, habits, and values."

(5) Mead (1937)47 : “Culture means the whole complex of traditional behavior
which has been developed by the human race and is successively learned by each
generation. A culture is less precise. It can mean the forms of traditional behavior which are
characteristic of a given society, or of a group of societies, or of a certain race, or of a certain
area, or of a certain period of time."

(6) Kluckhohn (1942)48 : "Culture consists in those abstracted elements of action

and reaction which may be traced to the influence of one or more strains of social heredity."
He said that "by 'culture' anthropology means the total life way of a people, the social legacy
the individual acquires from his group."

(7) Linton (1945)49 : "The social heredity is called culture. As a general term,
culture means the total social heredity of mankind, while as a specific term a culture means a
particular strain of social heredity."

(8) Kroeber (1948)50 : “Culture might be defined as all the activities and non-
physiological products of human personalities that are not automatically reflex or instinctive.
That in turn means, in biological and physiological parlance, that culture consists of
conditioned or learned activities and the idea of learning brings us back again to what ig
socially transmitted, what is received from tradition, what is acquired by man as a member of
societies. So perhaps how it comes to be is really more distinctive of culture than what it is."
 33
Group C: Normative (Emphasis on Rules of Way; on Ideals or Values plus
Behavior)
(1) Wissler (1929)51 : "The mode of life followed by the community or the tribeis
regarded as a culture...(It) includes all standardized social procedures...a tribal culture
is...the aggregate of standardized beliefs and procedures followed by the tribe."

(2) Linton (1945)52 : "The culture of a society is the way of life of its members; the
collection of ideas and habits which they learn, share, and transmit from generation to
generation."

(3) Kluckhohn and Kelly (1945)53 : "By culture we mean all those historically
created designs for living, explicit and implicit, rational, irrational, and non-rational, which
exist at any given time as potential guides for the behavior of men."

(4) Herskovits (1948)54 : "A culture is the way of life of a people; while a society is
the organized aggregate of individuals who follow a given way of life. In still simpler terms a
society is composed of people; the way they behave is their culture."'

(5) Bidney (1946)55 : "An integral or holistic concept of culture comprises the
acquired or cultivated behavior; feeling, and thought of individuals within a society as well as
the patterns or forms of intellectual, social, and artistic ideals which human societies have
professed historically."

(6) Sorokin (1947)56 : The cultural aspect of the super organic universe consists of
the meanings, values, norms, their interaction and relationship, their integrated and un-
integrated groups as they are objectified through overt actions and other vehicles in the
empirical socio cultural universe."

Group D: Psychological (Emphasis on Adjustment, on Culture as a Problem-

Solving Device; on Learning, on Habit)
(1) Small (1905)57 : “Culture* is the total equipment of technique, mechanical,
mental, and moral, by use of which the people of a given period try to attain their
ends...'culture*consists of the means by which men promote their individual or social ends."
 34
(2) Sumner and Keller (1927)58 : "The sum of men's adjustments to their life-
condition is their culture, or civilization. 'These adjustments are attained only through the
combined action of variation, selection, and transmission."

(3) Panunzio (1939)59 : “Culture is a man-made or super organic order, self-

generating and dynamic in its operation, a pattern-creating order, objective, humanly useful,
cumulative, and self-perpetuating. It is the complex whole of the systems of concepts and
usages, organizations, skills, and instruments by means of which mankind deals with physical,
biological, and human nature in the satisfaction of its needs”.

(4) Ford (1942)60 : "Culture consists of traditional ways of solving-problems.

Culture is composed of responses which have been accepted because they have met with
success; in brief, culture consists of learned problem-solutions".

(5) Kluckhohn and Leighton (1946)61 : "There are certain recurrent and inevitable
human problems, and the ways in which man can meet them are limited by his biological
equipment and by certain faces of the external world but to most problems there area variety
of possible solutions. Any culture consists of the set of habitual and traditional ways of
thinking, feeling, and reacting that are characteristic of the ways a particular society meets its
problems at a particular point in time".

(6) Wissler (1916)62 : "Cultural phenomena are conceived of as including all the
activities of man acquired by learning. Cultural phenomena may, therefore, be defined as the
acquired activity complexes of human groups."

(7) Benedict (1947)63 : “Culture is the sociological term for learned behavior,
which in man is not given at birth, which is not determined by his germ cells but must be
learned a new from grown people by each new generation."

(8) Murdock (1941)64 : “Culture, the traditional patterns of action which constitute a
major portion of the established habits with which an individual enters any social situation".
 35
Group E: Structural (Emphasis on the Patterning or Organization of Culture)
(1) Willey (1929)65 : "A culture is a system of interrelated and interdependent habit
patterns of response."

(2) Linton (1945)66 : “Culture is the configuration of learned behavior and results of
behavior whose component elements are shared and transmitted by the members of a
particular society."

(3) Kluckhohn and Kelly (1945)67 : "A culture is a historically derived system of
explicit and Implicit designs for living, which tends to be shared by all or specially designated
members of a group."

(4) Turney-High (1949)68 : "Culture is the working and integrated summation of the
non-instinctive activities of human beings. It is the functioning, patterned totality of group-
accepted and transmitted inventions, material and non-material."

Group F: Genetic (Emphasis on Culture as a Product or Artifact; on Ideas; on

Symbols
(1) Willey (1927)69 : Culture is the part of the environment which man has himself
created and to which he must adjust himself".

(2) Sorokin (1937)70 : "In the broadest sense, culture may mean the sum totai of
everything which is created or modified by the conscious or unconscious activity of two or
more individuals interacting with one another or conditioning one another's behavior."

(3) Reuter (1939)71 : "The term culture is used to signify the sum-total of human
creations, the organized result of human experience up to the present time. Culture includes
all that man has made in the form of tools, weapons, shelter, and other material goods, and
processes, all that he has elaborated in the way of attitudes and beliefs, ideas and judgment,
codes, and institutions, arts and sciences, philosophy and social organization. Culture also
includes the interrelations among these and other aspects of human as distinct from animal
life. Everything, material and in material, created by man, in the process of living, comes
within the concept of culture."
 36
(4) Kluckhohn (1949)72 : “Culture may be regarded as that part of the environment
that is the creation of man". Culture designates those aspects of the total human environment,
tangible and intangible, that have been created by men".

(5) Kluckhohn and Kelly (1945)73 : “Culture is a summation of all the ideas for
standardized types of behavior".

(6) Wissler (1946)74 : “Culture is a definite association complex of ideas".

(7) Ford (1949)75 : “Culture may be briefly defined as a system of ideas that
passes from individual to individual by means of symbolic action, verbal instruction; or
imitation".

(8) Taylor (1948)76 “Culture consists of the increments which have accrued to
individual minds after birth. When the increments of enough minds are sufficiently alike, we
speak of a culture. Culture traits are manifested by cultural agents through the medium of
vehicles. These agents are human beings; the vehicles are 'objectifications of culture
observable behavior and its results. Culture processes are the dynamic factors involving
culture traits. They do not constitute culture but comprise the relationship between culture
traits. Culture, consisting of mental, constructs, is not directly observable; it can be studied
solely through the objectifications in behavior and results of behavior. Culture traits are
ascertainable only by inference and only as approximations. It is for this reason that context is
of such tremendous importance in all culture studies."

From the definition mentioned above, it can be concluded that “culture” is the way
of life of a social group, the group's total man made environment including all the material
and nonmaterial products of group life that are transmitted from one generation to generation
through learning and community by symbol. It is a wide range of influences on how people
behave in organization, communities and even nations. Culture is the integration pattern of
human knowledge, a set of common values, attitudes, goals, beliefs, norms, customs, art,
music, ethics, morals, law, traditions, traits, behaviors, artifacts and any other capabilities and
habits acquired and shared by members of society.
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2.2.2 Definition of political culture
The emergence of the contemporary study of political culture occurred in the late
1950s and the early 1960s the history begins the term "political culture" in the most famous
study of political culture which has been made by the two science American political
scientists Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba (1963)77. For them, this is a special type of
orientation to political action, the specifics of this or that political system. On the one hand,
the political culture is part of a society's culture and it is associated with a particular political
system. They defined political culture as "a subjective flow policy, which gives the value of
political decisions, orders, institutions, and social meaning attached to individual actions."
Almond, Gabriel A. and Verba, Sidney wrote that: "When we talk about the political culture of
society, we are referring to the political system, internalized in the knowledge, feelings and
assessments of its members."

Political culture is often seen as the foundation of all political activity, or at least as
a factor determining the nature, characteristics and level of political activity. The concept of
"political culture" includes historical experience, memory, social communities and individuals
in politics, their orientation, skills, influencing the political behavior. This experience contains
a summary, transformed form impressions and preferences in foreign and domestic policy.

Almond, Gabriel and Verba, Sidney (1963)78 states that political culture refers to
the specifically political orientations and attitude towards the political system and its various
parts, and attitude towards the role of the self in the system. In Verba’s work, he defined
culture as “the system of beliefs about pattern of political interaction and political institutions”
and those beliefs are fundamental, usually unstated, and unchallengeable, assumptions or
postulates about politics. He also established a denotative criterion of political culture for
subsequent political culture studies by distinguishing it from other specific political
psychological constructs such as partisan affiliation and attitudes or beliefs about domestic
and international policy issues.

Political culture is a distinctive and patterned form of political philosophy that

consists of a set of widely beliefs, values, norms and assumptions concerning the ways on
how governmental, political, and economic life ought to be carried out. Political culture
 38
creates a framework for political change and is unique to nations, state, and other groups.
They further explain that political culture consists of people’s shared, learned beliefs about
their political system and their role within that system. Political culture influences the way
people see their political world. It also influences what people value most in their political
world. Some political cultures place a high value on individual freedom while other cultures
prize community solidarity. These political values shape people’s roles and behavior within
their political world. Gabriel and Verba identified five important dimensions of political culture:
a. a sense of national identity
b. attitudes toward one’s self as a participant in political life
c. attitudes toward one’s fellow citizens
d. attitudes and expectations regarding governmental output and performance,
and
e. attitudes toward and knowledge about the political process of decision
making.
According to Pye (1965)79, in the Heuristic (Intuitional) definition, political culture
involves with these attributes including attitudes, feelings, sentiments, beliefs, and values
which concern to the nature of politics. Politics is a construct of pattern of psychological
orientations that will predominant between populations to create or craft pragmatic pattern of
liaison.
Almond and Powell (1966)80, defined political culture as a set of attitudes, beliefs,
feelings about political current in a nation at a given time. The nation’s history has been
constructed through ongoing processes of social, economic, and political movement.
Political roles of individuals are conduct and will be affects by political culture; individuals will
have their own political demands and response to laws. Political culture constructs the
movements of entities acting as part of political roles through political system. The pressures
and opportunities can be established by the ongoing political structures which will form those
cultures.
 39
Political culture is also established as specifically political orientations,
configuration of individual attitudes and orientations toward politics between the members of
a political system. The political culture of a society is the political system as suppressed in
the understandings, feelings and assessments of its population.
Political culture is defined by the International Encyclopedia of the Social
Sciences (1968)81as "the set of attitudes, beliefs and sentiments that give order and meaning
to a political process and which provide the underlying assumptions and rules that govern
behavior in the political system". It encompasses both the political ideals and operating
norms of a polity. Political culture is thus the manifestation in aggregate form of the
psychological and subjective dimensions of politics. A political culture is the product of both
the collective history of a political system and the life histories of the members of the system
and thus it is rooted equally in public events and private experience".
Robert A. Dahl. (1971)82, gives an opinion that political culture as a factor
explaining different patterns of political opposition whose salient elements are:
I. Orientations of problem solving.
II. Orientations to collective action.
III. Orientations to the political system and
IV. Orientations to other people.

A political culture is a product of many inter-related factors, traditional as well as

modern elements. Changes in political culture come under the influence of these factors. A
study of these factors is essential for an understanding of the political culture. The political
culture provides guides for political behaviour, and for the society as a whole it constitutes a
structure of values and norms which helps to ensure coherence in the operation of institutions
and organizations. The stability of a political system is underlined by the relative success or
failure of the assimilation of new attitudes into the existing value structure and for this there is
the need to examine the means of effective transmission of the political culture from
generation to generation. The political culture is the product of the history of both the political
system and the individual members of the system, and thus is rooted in public events and
private experience. By having establish and develop political culture a nation will benefit in
 40
various ways, shapes, and forms. In this sense, the development of the concept of political
culture is an attempt to bridge the gap between micro and macro sociological analysis.

Elkins and Simeon (1979)83 advanced that political culture is “the property of a
collectivity” such as nation, region, class, ethnic, community, formal organization, and so on.
They argued that one must develop precise means of identifying the culture-bearing unit in
different situations in order to refine its utility as an explanatory concept beyond a descriptive
category.

Inglehart (1997)84 defined political culture as “the subjective aspect of a society’s

institutions, beliefs, values, knowledge, and skills that have been internalized by the people of
a given society, complementing their external systems of coercion and exchange”.

Harrison and Huntington (2000)85defined culture in purely subjective terms as the

values, attitudes, beliefs, orientations, and underlying assumptions prevalent among people
in the society. Political culture has been considered psychological to the extent that it
involves psychological constructs regardless of the reference levels, that is, the individual of
the aggregate.

Hofstede (2001)86 concurred by claiming that “culture presupposes a collectivity”

and refine it as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of
one category of people from another” and use similar definitions in his other works including
the first edition of “Culture’s Consequences”. He reserved the term “value” and “personality”
to refer the comparable concept of culture at the individual level.

Suresh, M Kumar (2008)87 illustrates that culture is regarded as a complex

phenomenon which includes knowledge, art, belief, morals, law, custom and other
capabilities acquired by man as a member of society. Culture may be said to have composed
of two parts, i.e. material culture and non-material culture. Material culture includes all the
material and tangible equipments and objects which are made and produced by human
beings. On the other hand, non-material equipment and capabilities made and acquired by
man in group life are included in non-material culture.
 41
The people of a society share a common human nature like emotional drives,
intellectual capacities and moral perspectives. The common human nature expresses itself in
the form of certain values, belief and emotional attitudes which are transmitted from one
generation to another, though with greater or lesser modifications, and they constitute the
general culture of that society. Social relationships are subject to an endless process of
transformation, of growth and decay of fusion and separation. Since they are all expressions
of human nature, the social relationships of the present are found in germ at least in the past
and those of the past survive, if only as relics in the present.

Culture, is therefore, a profound possession that ramifies throughout human life.

No matter what aspect or part of society is considered, the presence of a cultural mode of
transmission is of paramount importance. Politics is one of the unavoidable circumstances/
facts of human existence/relations. Everyone is involved in some fashion at some time in
some kind of political system. Each political system is embedded in a sociological and
psychological environment- the set of values, beliefs, orientation and attitudes of the people
toward politics i.e. the political culture. The political culture of a society defines the situation in
which political action takes place. It provides the subjective orientation to politics. The
political culture is of course but one aspect of politics.

However, the political culture encompasses both the political ideals and the
operating norms of a polity. Political culture includes not only the attitudes to the politics,
political values, ideologies, national character and cultural ethos, but also the style, manner
and substantive form of politics. The political culture of a people gives them an orientation
towards their polity and its processes. One way to learn about political beliefs is to observe
the ways in which political structure operates. These beliefs affect and are affected by the
way in which the structures operate and there is a close circle of relationship between culture
and structure. Political culture is thus the manifestation in aggregate form of the
psychological and subjective dimensions of politics. A political culture is the product of both
the collective history of a political system and the life histories of the members of that system.
In brief, political culture is to the political system what culture is to the social system.
 42
Sombat Thamrongthanyawong (2010)88 described that political culture is part of
social culture; therefore, the process of culture development is explained first. Culture is a
social process which results from lifelong, direct and indirect socialization; in this process,
members of society learn and accept (perception) the ways of life (knowledge) as
philosophies of life. The knowledge is learned and accepted to become collective beliefs,
values, and attitudes of the members of society which influence individuals’ behaviours.
When they behave according to their beliefs, their behaviors become patterns and obvious
identities of individuals and social groups form, and finally the culture of that society emerges.
Political culture then refers to patterns of political behaviors that result from the political
beliefs, values, and attitudes of individuals.

According to Britannica Encyclopedia (2011)89, political culture may be defined as

the political psychology of a country or nation. Political culture studies attempt to uncover
deep-seated, long-held values characteristic of a society or group rather than ephemeral
attitudes toward specific issues that might be gathered through public-opinion surveys.
Political culture is the traditional orientation of the citizens of a nation toward politics, affecting
their perceptions of political legitimacy.

From the literature mentioned above, it can be summarized that political culture is
defined as specifically political orientations and patterned form of political philosophy that
consists of a set of widely complex phenomenon which includes belief, values, and attitude
concerning the ways on how government and political system ought to be carried out.
Political culture then refers to patterns of political behaviors that result from the political
beliefs, values, and attitudes of individuals. In this process, a set of political beliefs, values,
and attitudes influences people’s political behaviors, and their political behaviors then
become a pattern and their political culture.

Political beliefs
Political belief is a set of ideas that characterize a particular culture which may
motivate the actors in a political system to resist change in the name of traditional belief or
may lead to fundamental modifications of innovative institutions. It refers to the generalized
ideas, to basic assumptions about politics held by individuals about the general goals of a
 43
political system. Significant differences in the nature of generalized political beliefs are found
in various political cultures. These beliefs are pertinent to the study of change, for they
strongly influence the directions in which social institutions develop and alter. Generally,
such beliefs tend to reinforce existing political patterns. Political beliefs lead one to enquire
into the types of different political culture and associated with such concepts as political
ideology, political opinions, model personality and national character (Gilbert Abcarian and
George Musannat, 1970)90.

Almond and Verba (1963)91 argued that political culture is strongly linked with
political belief. He said that political culture refers to the system of system of beliefs. This
refers to the belief of what is right or wrong, the valuation of what is good or bad, and the
belief of methodology as well as work target or the desirable. The belief influence man’s
behavior casting to omit doing what society presumed, in the mean time, they arouse social
members to do what the society believed. The belief is then basically adopted as alternatives
as one likes or the concrete expression of one's belief.

On the basis of definition of “belief”, Almond and Verba (1963)92 has recognized
three types of beliefs:
 Empirical beliefs: This refers to the beliefs that deal with the actual state of

political life. The empirical beliefs are the fundamental beliefs about the nature of political
systems and about the nature of other political actors. In particular, political beliefs are the
fundamental and usually unstated assumptions or postulates about politics.
 Evaluation beliefs: This refers to the beliefs that deal with the goal or values

that ought to be pursued in political life. In terms of the evaluative mode of orientation, it is
concerned with the most general level of values that set the general goals of a political
system rather than with the preferences for specific kinds of policies.
 Expressive beliefs: This belief deals with important expressive or emotional

dimensions of political life. The term expressive deals with the fundamental symbols of
political integration and the fundamental patterns of loyalty rather than the specific
satisfactions and dissatisfactions concerning politics.
 44
Political value
Political values are the ideas expressing the opinions of social groups as a whole,
toward the needs of other social groups and of the whole of that society. The political value
system is always the value system of a particular class, race, and social group. Political
values are of a dual nature, which is both the source of an inner conflict and is also overcome
on the basis of a system of political values. The political value system is always the value
system of a particular class, of a specific stratum as an organized social force. Thus political
values are ideas expressing the attitude of large social groups as wholes toward the needs of
other large social groups and of society as a whole. Each social group has its own set of
political values. Political value is a kind of permanent belief of the people in the society.

Nicolae Kallos and Ovidiu Trasnea (2013)93 defined political values as political
relationships, institutions, organizations, views and ideas resulting from the transforming,
creative sociopolitical practices of the social forces that meet the requirements of social
progress and of the development of human personality on a social scale.

Political attitude
Attitude is one of the most important factors influential in the way of life. It sets the
people upon the right path or the wrong one and creates emotions either positive or negative,
and those emotions cause the people to act. A variety of definitions have been developed in
an attempt to conceptualize the term "attitude" both in theoretical and operational terms.
Jung (1921)94 described that attitude is a "readiness of the psyche to act or react
in a certain way". The main definition of attitude defines by Jung are as follow:
 Consciousness and the unconscious: The "presence of two attitudes is

extremely frequent, one conscious and the other unconscious. This means that
consciousness has a constellation of contents different from that of the unconscious, a duality
particularly evident in neurosis"
 Extraversion and introversion: This pair is so elementary to Jung's theory of

types that he labeled them the "attitude-types".

 Rational and irrational attitudes: The rational attitude subdivides into the

thinking and feeling psychological functions, each with its attitude. The irrational attitude
subdivides into the sensing and intuition psychological functions, each with its attitude.
 45

Allport (1935)95 defined attitude as an expression of favour or disfavour toward a

person, place, thing, or event. Attitude can be formed from a person’s past and present. It is
also measurable and changeable as well as influencing the person’s emotion and behavior.
It is a mental or neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive
or dynamic influence on the individual's response to all objects and situations to which it is
associated. Attitude is determined by experience and impacts upon the individual’s behavior.

Aggarwal (1964)96 argued that “attitude” are likes and dislike. It is a position
toward outer objects, either for or against. There are individual differences in attitudes. It is
the basis of behavior which integrated into an organized system.

Ajzen and Fishbein (1980)97 illustrated that attitude is one of the determining
factors in predicting people’s behavior. That is to say by understanding an individual’s
attitude towards something, one can predict with high precision the individual’s overall
pattern of behavior to the object.

Exforsys Inc. (2007)98 explained that attitude is the likes and dislikes towards
particular people, things, and occurrences. Attitudes can be positive, negative, or neutral. It
is also common to have more than one of these feelings towards something. Attitudes are
typically derived from judgments, which everyone makes. In psychology, it is believed that
attitudes are rooted in an ABC approach (Affective, Behavioral Change, and Cognitive). The
affective response to something is a physiological response to a particular stimulus that
effectively expresses that person’s preference. The behavioral component is that individual’s
verbal indication of what they intend to do. It is believed that the attitude formation process as
described above tends to happen as the result of observational learning in a person’s
environment. Since a lot of human behavior is irrational, it is tough to characterize what the
exact connection is between one’s attitude and one’s behavior.

It can be concluded that attitude is a psychological tendency that expressed by

evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favour or disfavour, like or dislike towards a
person, place, thing, event or occurrences. It is a positive or negative feeling or mental or
neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic
 46
influence on the individual's response to all objects, persons and situations to which it is
associated or related.

From the above discussion, political attitude can be defined as the mental and
feeling that expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favour or
disfavour, like or dislike towards politics. It sets the people upon the right path or the wrong
one and creates positively or negatively evaluations, emotional feelings, and action
tendencies with respect to politics. It is the system of human trust that was collected for a
long time and affects responses with individual feeling, satisfaction and response to political
system. It is a mental state relative to personal beliefs and dispositions, but possessed to
different degrees, which impels to react to political situations or propositions in ways of entire
life.
2.2.3 Political Orientations
As mentioned above that Almond and Verba (1963)99 define political culture as a
specifically political orientation, attitudes toward the political system and its various parts, and
attitudes toward the role of the self in the system. Therefore, political orientation is a set of
orientations that characterized the thinking and behavior of people in individual, group, and
nation toward the political system and its various parts, and attitudes toward the role of the
self in the system. Political orientation is an integrated set of beliefs, values and attitudes
toward politics.

Almond and Powell (1966)100 elaborate the concept of political culture in three
directions: (1) Substantive content, (2) Varieties of orientations (cognitive, affective, and
evaluative), and (3) Systemic relations among these components.
For the first and second directions of concept of political culture, the details are
given as follow:
(1) Substantive content: This can be interpreted as system culture, process
culture, and policy culture.
 System culture includes attitudes toward the national community, regime, and

authorities. There are five characteristics involve in system culture as follow:

 47
 Legitimacy: Political authorities are legitimate if the citizens are willing to
obey the rules made and implemented by the authorities not just because the citizens will be
punished, but because they believe they ought to obey. If the latter is the case, laws could
be implemented with relative ease.
 In a traditional society, legitimacy may depend on the rulers’ inherited

status or on obedience to certain religious customs.

 In a modern (democratic) society, legitimacy will depend on authorities’

being elected and on their following the constitutional procedures.

 In contemporary societies, there is a connection between rulers’ actions

and the constitution that generates those actions reflect citizens’ interests. In such polities,
the support for the regime is affected quickly by the performance of the authorities in meeting
the preferences of the citizens.
 In a traditional society, the claim to legitimacy may rest on less immediate

promises of beneficial performance. The belief that individual can do little to change the
circumstances places much less pressure on the political authorities.

 Process culture means attitudes toward the self in politics (parochial-subject-

participant) and attitudes toward other political actors (trust, co-operative competence,
hostility). There are seven characteristics involve in process culture as follow:
 Views of the self in politics: Set of orientations toward the political process.

 Parochial: This refers to citizens with little or no awareness of the political

system, with no perception of their possible influence or obligation regarding it.

 Subject: This refers to citizens who become part of the political system and

perceive its impact on their lives. But their views are passive, do not shape the political
system, rather are affected by governmental action.
 Participant: The citizens are aware of the input processes of the society

and hence facilitate their own involvement in politics.

 Views of relationship with other political actors: Set of perceptions, beliefs,

feelings, and judgments that people have of other political actors.

 Political trust: Affects the willingness of citizens to work with others for

political goals and the willingness of leaders to form coalitions with other groups.
 48
Hostility: An emotional component of inter group and interpersonal relations.


An awareness of difference from each other might lead to a strong sense of mutual hostility,
which can be a part of the political culture.

 Policy culture is a distribution of preferences regarding the outputs and

outcomes of politics, the ordering of such values as welfare, security and liberty. There are
three characteristics involve in policy culture as follow:
 The image of a good society: How do the citizens view the ideal society:

material welfare, security, and liberty in domestic and international arenas? If the majority of
the society is satisfied with the present social system, the course of politics is likely to run
smoothly
 Regulative areas includes individual freedoms and needs of security (the

extent to which individual (and group) actions should be observed and regulated in the
interest of controlling crime), environment and health (battle over production efficiency and
consumer and environment protection), and political liberties (politicians might be tempted to
suppress liberties to prevent people from learning about potential alternatives, or potential
opposition coalitions thereby preserve the status quo).
(2) Varieties of orientations (cognitive, affective, and evaluative)
Almond and Verba (1963)101 asserted that there are three kinds of political
orientation:
 Cognitive orientation: This includes knowledge and information about the

political system, its roles and the incumbents of these roles, and its inputs and outputs.
 Affective orientation: This refers to reflecting the sentiments, feelings, emotion

about the political system, whether positive or negative. Affective orientation also includes its
functions, participants and their activities.
 Evaluative orientations: This refers to the judgments and opinions about political

objectives that typically involve the combination of values standards and criteria with
information and feelings. It expresses the personal relationship of man to the political system
and its components. It is carefully study of positive and negative feature.
 49
Rosenbaum (1975)102 proposed three core elements of the orientation of political
culture:
(1) Orientations toward governmental structures: This includes regime orientation
(how an individual evaluates and responds to the basic governmental institutions of his
society, its symbols, officials and norms) and orientations toward governmental inputs and
outputs (how individuals feel and respond). Regime orientation can be refers to: (a) the
economic regime (socialist, current, future); (b) the political regime (communist, current,
future) and the value regime orientation (preferences for the communist rule, the rule by the
army, the choice between a strong leader or the parliament).

(2) Orientations toward others in the political system: This includes political
identifications (the political units, geographic areas and groups to which one feels he or she
belongs); political trust (the extent to which one feels an open co-operative, or tolerant
attitude in working with others in civic life); rules of the game (an individual's conception of
what rules should be followed in civic life).

Political systems are divided into two groups by social researchers: totalitarian
and pluralistic.
A totalitarian system as a type of political culture based on the idea that social,
economic and spiritual life should be of one type. It suppresses the intention to change the
existing system of ideas in the society. The totalitarian political culture of the former time did
not allow social groups to express openly their ideas and preferences. It also restricted the
possibilities of choice in political life. In this way from the very beginning it did not allow
people to act freely, but insisted upon only one type of ownership, one party, and one
candidate. This condition in its turn brought the society to stagnation and, as a result, to
collapse.
A pluralistic culture has the following important features: stable democratic
principles and standards of life; consistent directives; vital practical democratic norms, skills
and traditions; the need and inevitability of pluralistic ideas; tolerance of different thinking and
of those who think in new or even contrary ways, etc. In this culture democratic goals are
sought only by democratic methods and mechanisms. Between classes, groups and other
social strata there is political cooperation, which is typical of this type of social tradition. Vital
 50
present problems are: the development of practices corresponding to the socio-political life
of leading foreign states, preservation of Eastern features and national distinctiveness,
developing research and practical activities in this field.

(3) Orientations toward one’s own political activity: This includes political
competence (how often and in what manner a person participates in civic life) and political
efficacy (the feeling that individual political action can have an impact on political process
and evaluating the political system and the government as open and responsive to the
citizen’s demands).
2.2.4 Different Typologies of Political Culture
From the process culture that means attitude towards the self in politics, Almond
and Verba (1963)103 outlined three pure types of political culture: Parochial, subject, and
participant.
(1) Parochial political culture: (Low awareness, expectations, and participation)
Parochial political culture refers to those people who have no political orientations
towards political objects. This type of political culture, citizens is only remotely aware of the
presence of central government, and lives their lives near enough regardless of the decisions
taken by the state. Citizens have no cognition orientations towards political system and
unaware of political phenomena. They have neither knowledge nor interest in politics. They
have no orientations towards all components of politics input, output, political system, or self-
role. This type of political culture is congruent with a traditional political structure. This exists
in a traditional society. Parochial approach is a limited approach. In parochial approach there
is limited frame of reference. People are unaware of politics, they do not have a secular
understanding of the world, and there are no well differentiated political structures. In this
model, people have no cognitive orientations toward the political system. Societies
characterized by this type of political culture do not expect anything positive of government,
nor do they expect to participate in politics because it is seen as the elite domain. Further
more, the government is seen as the enforcer of its own rules and consequently, the realm of
politics is seen as one to be avoided.
 51
(2) Subject political culture: (Higher level of awareness and expectation but low
participation)
Subject political culture refers to the people have passive orientation towards a
political system and conceive themselves as having minimum influence on the political
process. In this type of political culture, citizens are aware of central government, and are
heavily subjected to its decisions with little scope for dissent. The individual is aware of
politics, its actors and institutions. It is affectively oriented towards politics, yet he is on the
"downward flow" side of the politics. Citizens have orientations toward the out put aspects of
the system. They have some orientations towards output and political system. People know
about decision-making mechanism. There is a political awareness but no confidence to air
political views, thus there is an absence of participatory norms. This type of political culture is
congruent with a centralized authoritarian structure. In this model, the people have cognition
orientations towards only the output aspects of the system. This tends to be manifested in a
citizenry that expects positive action from government, but that does not tend to be politically
active themselves. They see politics as an elite domain only to be engaged in by those with
power and influence.

(3) Participant political culture: (High levels of awareness, expectation, and

participation)
Participant political culture refers to people who respond positively to all political
objects. Regarding this type of political culture, citizens are able to influence the government
in various ways and they are affected by it. The individual is oriented toward the system
towards all four components of politics (input, output, political system, and self-role). Here,
emphasis is on the role of the self. This encourages more and more participation and
participation is the highest value. There is an ability to criticize the authority and hold positive
orientation towards action. In this mode, people have cognitive orientations toward both the
input and output aspects of the system. Societies which possess this type of political culture
tend to have citizens with high expectations of government and personally participating in
politics, if at no other time than voting in an election.

These three types of political culture influence one another. Besides the above
mentioned three main types of political culture, there exist in political life special subcultures
 52
which express the interests and viewpoints of social, ethnic, territorial and other groups.
These subcultures are characterized by their different outlooks, attitudes towards government
and ruling elite, and involvement in governing activity and in the formation and control of
political life. Political culture in some respects restricts the activity of the members of society
due to the beliefs, feelings and values of the political processes and behavior which are
important parts of political culture. In spite of the fact that a political system and political
culture are independent parts of a polity they are closely connected with one another. One of
the sources of the development and activity of political culture is the legitimating of the
existing power and the political regime characteristic of that period of development. Its
constituents, such as values, directions, stereotypes, play a major role in preserving the
existing political system.

Almond and Verba (1963)104 argue that there is never a single political culture.
The three categories of political orientations are not always present in a pure form rather; they
are intermixed in many situations of political culture. The nature of a national political culture
is a mixture of several political cultures. The categories of political culture can be classified
into three sub-types of political culture as under:
(1) Parochial and subject
This type of political culture represents a shift from the parochial orientation to
subject orientation. In such a political culture more and more people are oriented to a
centralized authority than the village and tribal authority. Here the parochial loyalties
gradually get weathered and the inhabitants develop a greater awareness of the central
authority.
(2) Subject and participant
This type of political culture represents a shift from subject political orientation to
participant political orientation. In such a political culture people generally, on the one hand
develop an activist tendency and participate in the process, but on the other hand there are
those individuals too, who possess passive orientations and remain at the receiving end of
the decision-making process.
 53
(3) Parochial and participant
This type of political culture represents the parochial orientation in the individuals
whereas the norms introduced require a participant political orientation. In such type of a
political culture, there emerges a problem of harmony between the political culture and
political norm.

However, they suggest that a participatory political culture fits a liberal democratic
regime. The participant political culture is the type of political culture is congruent with a
democratic political structure and it can be called “Civic Culture”.

“Civic Culture” project of Almond and Verba was considered groundbreaking for
social sciences. It was the first attempt to systematically collect and codify variables
measuring citizen participation across five different states. Those variables, based on cross-
sectional surveys, measured the qualities used for assessing the degree of political
participation of citizens in the United States, Mexico, Great Britain, Germany and Italy.
Through their project, Almond and Verba wanted to create a theory of civic culture, a political
culture explaining the political involvement of citizens or lack thereof in democratic states.
In their work, the authors discussed the historical origins of the civic culture and the functions
of that culture in the process of social change. They compared and contrasted the patterns of
political attitudes in the five countries and contended that, across states, a democratic
system required a political culture encouraging political participation. The theory employed
by Almond and Verba was based on Harold Lasswell’s personality characteristics of a
‘democrat’ including the following features: “open ego” (a warm and inclusive attitude toward
other human beings; a capacity for sharing values with others; a multi-valued rather than a
single-valued orientation; trust and confidence in the human environment; and relative
freedom from anxiety. The authors used a methodology of experimentation rather than
inferring a theory from the institutional systems prevalent in the discussed states in order to
make a valid contribution to the scientific theory of democracy.

Finer (1988)105 gave his concept of political culture and discusses different
categories in terms of his typology of political culture. He has identified the following four
categories in the typology of political culture:
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(1) Mature political culture
This type of political culture exists when there is a widespread public approval of
the procedure for transfer of power; a belief that the persons in power have the right to
govern and issue orders; the people are attached to the political institutions and there is a
well mobilized public opinion.

(2) Developed political culture

This type of political culture occurs where the civil institutions are highly
developed and the public is well organized into powerful groups but from time to time there
arises a dispute on the questions of who and what should constitute the sovereign authority
and how power should be transferred.

(3) Low political culture

This is one in which political system is weakly and narrowly organized; there is a
lack of consensus on the nature of the political system and the procedures and the public
attachment to political system is fragile.

(4) Minimal political culture

This is found in a country where articulate public opinion does not exist and the
government can always ignore public opinion, political culture are decided by force of the
threat of force. A person or institution capable of asserting itself can enforce its will and the
extent of one’s authority is directly related to the degree of force at one’s disposal.

Arshad Karim (1988)106 classified political culture into three main angles:
(1) Rural-Urban distinction
Arshad Karim analyzes the political culture of a country in terms of rural-urban
distinction. To him though people are aware of the central government, they are deeply
influenced by their traditions and still live under the supremacy of their elders. Their socio-
cultural structures are authoritarian and thus their attitude towards power politics and the
government are passive and so they are at the receiving end of the decision making process.
The people in the rural areas live under a deep influence of local norms, values and social
pressures and passively believe in giving a great respect to authority. The rural population is
either unwilling or unable to participate in the decision making process. Thus the passivity
 55
leaves a minimum impact on the input; and thus they are only oriented to the output side. In
such circumstances the rural political culture can be regarded as parochial-subject political
culture.

In the urban political culture according to Arshad Karim, socio-cultural values are
usually different, mainly because of the higher rate of education, exposure of the people to
various means of communication and the economic system which is fundamentally industrial
in nature. The people of urban political culture are more aware of their participatory
significance in decision-making process. The people participate, to a greater extent, in
political activities and have enough confidence to pass judgment on the system performance.
According to this characteristic, urban political culture can be regarded as combination of
subject and participant political culture, however, part of the people remains passive in their
political behavior by accepting decision and part of them become active in the input process
by passing judgment on the systems performance.

(2) Mass and Elite political culture

Rahmat Khan (1996)107 stated that political societies, as a whole, are never static.
Exchange of political ideals from rest of the world, changing group associations and role of
interest articulation and interest aggregation have far-reaching effects on the changes of
political societies. The political mobility enhances the sense of political participation. Thus
the parochial political culture, subject political culture and the participant political culture
develop new angles of viewing the political culture of a society such as elders and people
depending upon or following the elders. This is referred to as mass-elite political culture.

In societies where a systematic national leadership is taking, rise of elite politics is

a must. The traditional rural set-up, resulting in parochial orientation of the individuals,
develops local leadership. This leadership influences the political behavior of the rural
populace. However, in the urban areas there emerge group of economic elites, religious
elites and power elites from civil and military bureaucracy. The net impact of the
circumstances is a widening of the gap between the two classes, masses and elites in both
rural and urban areas.
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In mass-elite distinction of political societies, masses represent parochial-
participant political culture and elites represent a parochial-subject political culture, which in
turn results in centralization of decision-making, influenced by the elite. The elites, in such a
set up are more and more concerned with protesting their vested interests whereas masses
behave both in intense and moderate ways depending upon the issues and also the
directions given by the elite. In societies where politicization of masses is on the increase,
various classes and divers interest groups are gradually forged into alliances to achieve their
political objectives, resulting in a change of the largest segment of population from parochial
to subject to participant orientation. In most societies, where mass*elite distinction is highly
marked, there exists a lack of trust between masses and elites and also within various elite
groups. This, on the one hand creates an obstacle in political development and, on the other,
makes the output functionaries to play a decisive role in the decision-making process. This
situation is enhanced due to centralization of authority. In mass-elite political culture, though
masses have a parochial culture; they are oriented towards subject political culture whereas
elites represent parochial-participant political culture.

(3) Cultural pluralism

Rahmat Khan (1996)108 described that the political culture of a society can also be
analyzed through another angle such as the study of uniformity of political culture. The
pluralistic thinkers have been thinking of a society where no internal crime or disorder exists
and no external pressure or opposition prevails; to these thinkers, even in such an idealistic
society, dominant forces of large social groups of religion, trade unions, business
associations and education, scientific and cultural associations would exist. Members of
such groups would be held together by their major interests in life. These groups would
make the society a pluralistic society and each of them would devote its efforts to the pursuit
of its own major interests. Developing this concept of a pluralistic society, Arshad Karim
explained that a country, which is inhabited by people of different origins with differences in
languages, behaviors, tribal origins and religions and political beliefs, exhibits
conglomeration of different political cultures and thus the society, is referred as a society of
cultural pluralism. A culturally pluralistic society, in general, shows segregation into parochial
political culture and subject political culture.
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2.2.5 Political culture in relation to political socialization
Political culture refers to “attitudes toward the political system and its various parts,
and attitudes toward the self in the system”. The political culture of a nation is the particular
distribution patterns of orientation toward political objects among the members of the nation.
It may or may not be congruent with the structures of the political system. Almond and Verba
asked if there is such a thing as a political culture: a pattern of political attitudes that fosters
democratic stability. They came to the conclusion that a civic culture is a mixed political
culture: individuals are not always perfectly active or passive. In their research, Almond and
Verba struggled with a discrepancy between the participants’ actual behavior, their
perceptions and political obligations.

A civic culture or civic political culture is a political culture characterized by

"acceptance of the authority of the state" and "a belief in participation in civic duties". Civic
political culture is a mixture of other political cultures namely parochial, subject and
participant political cultures. The term civic culture is used to identify the political culture
characteristics that explain the stability of a democratic society's political structure. Almond
and Verba state that the following are characteristics of a civic culture:
 Orientation toward political system in both the political and governmental

senses
 Pride in aspects of one's nation

 Expectation of fair treatment from government authorities

 Ability to talk freely and frequently about politics

 An emotional involvement in elections

 Tolerance towards opposition parties

 A Valuing of active participation in local government activities, parties, and

in civic associations
 Self-confidence in one's competence to participate in politics

 Civic cooperation and trust

 Membership in the political associations

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It is to be concluded that the proper combination of the various types of political
culture and the belief in participation in civic duties will provide a culture that has a positive
implications for the growth of democracy.

Almond and Verba also questioned the socialization of the citizenry into the civic
culture. They asserted that civic culture is transmitted by a complex process that includes
training in many social institutions: family, peers, school, work, and the political system itself.
They argued that political culture is a result of the social processes throughout the life of
individuals, namely, a learning process or the process of socialization.

2.2.6 Political socialization

People are inducted into the political culture of their nation through the political
socialization process. Most often older members of society teach younger members the rules
and norms of political life. However, young people can and do actively promote their own
political learning, and they can influence adults’ political behavior as well (Michael McDevitt
and Steven Chaffee, 2002)109.

Almond and Coleman (1960)110 stated that “we do not inherit our political behavior,
attitudes, values, and knowledge through our genes. Instead, we come to understand our
role and to “fit in” to our political culture through the political learning process”. Political
learning is a broad concept that encompasses both the active and passive and the formal
and informal ways in which people mature politically (Carole L. Hahn, 1998)111. Individuals
develop a political self, a sense of personal identification with the political world. Developing
a political self begins when children start to feel that they are part of a political community.
They acquire the knowledge, beliefs, and values that help them comprehend government
and politics (Dawson and Prewitt, 1969)112. The sense of being which includes feeling that
one belongs to a unique nation in which people share a belief in political ideals, is conveyed
through the political learning process. People develop attitudes toward the political system
through the socialization process.

2.2.6.1 Definition of political socialization

Political socialization is the process of acquiring and changing culture of one’s
own political environment by which people form their ideas about politics. It's the lifelong
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development of a person's political values. Political socialization is measured through the use
of indexes, the most important of which are political efficacy, political trust, citizen duty,
expectation for political participation, and political knowledge. The interactions an individual
has with others have a major impact on the formation of individual opinion. Though most
political socialization occurs during childhood, people continue to shape their political values,
belief, and attitude throughout their lives and hold expectation in politics (Dawson and Prewitt,
1969)113.

Political socialization is the “study of the developmental processes by which

people of all ages (12 to 30) and adolescents acquire political values, beliefs, attitudes, and
behaviors” (Powell, L., & Cowart, J., 2003)114. It refers to a learning process by which norms
and behavior acceptable to a well running political system are transmitted from one
generation to another. It is through the performance of this function that individuals are
inducted into the political culture and their orientations towards political objects are formed.

Political socialization is a particular type of political learning whereby people

develop the attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors that are conducive to becoming good
citizens in their country. Socialization is largely a one-way process through which young
people gain an understanding of the political world through their interaction with adults and
the media. The process is represented by the following model: (Fred I. Greenstein, 1969)115.
Subjects Learns political attitude, values, beliefs, and behaviors From agents

In conclusions, it can be said that political socialization is a lifelong

development process by which individuals learns political attitudes, values, beliefs and
behaviors through the process of acquiring and changing culture of one’s own political
environment. It is part of the broader socialization process whereby an individual becomes a
member of a particular society and takes on its values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. The
social and cultural interactions an individual has with others have a major impact on the
formation of individual opinion. Most political socialization occurs during childhood and
continues to adulthood to shape their political culture throughout their lives and hold
expectation in politics. Though, people develop their political culture i.e. political values,
beliefs, attitude and orientations through interactions with agents of socialization.
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2.2.6.2 Agent of political socialization
Agents of socialization, which include parents, teachers, family, peers, education,
religion, faith, race, gender, age, geography and mass media, convey orientations to
subjects, who are mostly passive. These agents of socialization influence to different degrees
an individual's political view, political attitude, political value and political beliefs throughout
the rest of their lives. Agents can convey knowledge and understanding of the political world
and explain how it works. They can influence people’s attitudes, values and beliefs about
political actors and institutions. They also can show people how to get involved in politics and
community work. No single agent is responsible for an individual’s entire political learning
experience. That experience is the culmination of interactions with a variety of agents.
Parents and teachers may work together to encourage students to take part in service
learning projects (Dawson and Prewitt, 1969)116.
There are lots of different factors affect a person’s political socialization. The
followings are focused only the important agents of socialization:
(1) Family
Foremost among agencies of socialization into politics is the family. Family is the
major context within which the individual’s development of political attitude, values, and
beliefs take place. The pioneering political-socialization researcher Herbert Hyman (1959)117
proclaimed that “foremost among agencies of socialization into politics is the family.” He said
that the family has the primary responsibility for nurturing individuals and meeting basic
needs, such as food and shelter, during their formative years. Glass (1986)118 recognizes
family as a primary influence in the development of a child’s political orientation, mainly due
to constant relationship between parents and child. Family is the most important shaper of
basic attitudes; teaches basic political values and loyalty to particular political party to their
family members. A hierarchical power structure exists within many families that stress
parental authority and obedience to the rules that parents establish. The strong emotional
relationships that exist between family members may compel children to adopt behaviors,
attitudes, values, and beliefs.

Children often take on the political culture of their older family members. This
refers to the system of general political traditions, customs and beliefs of the family. Though
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most parents include their children in political discussions, kids pick up on casual remarks
made between adults and acquire the same political beliefs. Parents can teach their children
about government institutions, political leaders, and current issues. They can influence the
development of political values and ideas, such as respect for political symbols or belief in a
particular cause. By listening to parents’ talk at the breakfast table, children begin to form
their ideas of the world. R.M. MacIver (1931)119 also admits that the family is "the primary
agent in molding of the life habits most of human beings.

The family as an agent of political socialization is most successful in passing on

basic political identities. Children can learn by example when parents act as role models.
Young people who observe their parents reading the newspaper and following political news
on television may adopt the habit of keeping informed. Adolescents who accompany parents
when they attend public meetings, circulate petitions, or engage in other political activities
stand a better chance of becoming politically engaged adults. Children can sometimes
socialize their parents to become active in politics. Parents who take an active role in politics
and vote in every election often influence their children to do the same. Young people who
see television coverage of their peers volunteering in the community may take cues from
these depictions and engage in community service themselves. Young people can be
socialized to politics through dinner conversations with family members, watching television
and movies, participating in a Facebook group with friends. The effects of these experiences
are highly variable, as people can accept, reject, or ignore political messages (Richard M.
Merelman, 1986)120. The home environment can either support or discourage young people’s
involvement in political affairs. Children whose parents discuss politics frequently and
encourage the expression of strong opinions, even if it means challenging others, are likely to
become politically active adults. Young people raised in this type of family will often initiate
political discussion and encourage parents to become involved. Alternatively, young people
from homes where political conversations are rare, and airing controversial viewpoints is
discouraged, tend to abstain from politics as adults (Saphir, M. N. and Steven H. Chaffee,
2002)121.
It can be said that political learning begins early in childhood and continues over
a person’s lifetime. The development of a political self begins when children realize that they
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belong to a particular town. Awareness of politics as a distinct realm of experience begins to
develop in the preschool years.

(2) School
Most influential of all agents, after the family, due to the child's extended exposure
to a variety of political culture (political attitudes, values, and beliefs), such as friends and
teachers, both respected sources of information for students. Schooling plays an important
role in early political socialization. Formal education plays a critical role in the process of
political socialization. Each political system must develop supportive expectations of and
behaviors among its members. Formal education serves as a conductor of such support to
the younger generation. In school, students learn about meaning of the common cultural
goals of freedom, equality and liberty. Especially in upper-level high school and college
courses, students also examine important political events and are encouraged to form their
own opinions. Experiences, like class elections, also help students form opinions about the
fairness of the political process. Children can develop patriotic values through school rituals,
such as singing the “national song” at the start of each day. As children mature, they become
increasingly sophisticated in their perceptions about their place in the political world and their
potential for involvement: they learn to relate abstract concepts that they read about in
textbooks like this one to real-world actions.

Some scholars consider the school, rather than the family, to be the most
influential agent of political socialization (Hess and Torney, 1967)122. Schools can stimulate
political learning through formal classroom instruction via civics and history classes, the
enactment of ceremonies and rituals such as the flag salute, and extracurricular activities
such as student government. The most important task of schools as agents of political
socialization is the passing on of knowledge about the fundamentals of government, such as
constitutional principles and their implications for citizens’ engagement in politics. Students
who master these fundamentals feel competent to participate politically. They are likely to
develop the habit of following politics in the media and to become active in community affairs.
The college classroom can be an environment for socializing young people to politics.
Faculty and student exchanges can form, reinforce, or change evaluations of politics and
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government (Norman H. Nie at al., 1996)123. It can be said that schools are powerful opinion
shapers, where students are given an introduction to politics.

(3) Peer Group

Peers mean a group of people who are linked by common interests, equal social
position, and similar age. Peers can be influential in the political socialization process. Young
people desire approval and are likely to adopt the attitudes, viewpoints, and behavior
patterns of groups to which they belong. Unlike the family and school, which are structured
hierarchically with adults exercising authority, the peer group provides a forum for youth to
interact with people who are at similar levels of maturity. Peers provide role models for people
who are trying to fit in or become popular in a social setting (Lawrence Walker et al., 2000)124.
Peer-group influence begins when children reach school age and spend less time at home.
Middle-childhood (elementary school) friendships are largely segregated by sex and age, as
groups of boys and girls will engage in social activities such as eating together in the
lunchroom or going to the mall. Such interactions reinforce sex-role distinctions, including
those with political relevance, such as the perception that males are more suited to hold
positions of authority. Peer relationships change later in childhood, adolescence, and young
adulthood, when groups are more often based on athletic, social, academic, and job-related
interests and abilities (Judith Rich Harris, 1995)125. The pressure to conform to group norms
can have a powerful impact on young people’s political development if group members are
engaged in activities directly related to politics, such as student government or working on a
candidate’s campaign. Young people even will change their political viewpoints to conform to
those held by the most vocal members of their peer group rather than face being ostracized.
Still, individuals often gravitate toward groups that hold beliefs and values similar to their own
in order to minimize conflict and reinforce their personal views (Eric L. Dey, 1997)126.
(4) Media
Media plays general influences role in political socialization. In a modern era,
there are numerous ways of communicating political ideas. Thus newspapers, magazines,
books, the radio, television and films play an important role in creating intelligent public
opinion. As early as the 1930s, political scientist Charles Merriam observed that radio and
film had tremendous power to educate: “Millions of persons are reached daily through these
 64
agencies, and are profoundly influenced by the material and interpretations presented in
impressive form, incessantly, and in moments when they are open to suggestion” (Charles
Edward Merriam, 1931)127. The capacity of mass media to socialize people to politics has
grown massively as the number of media outlets has increased and as new technologies
allow for more interactive media experiences. Most people’s political experiences occur
vicariously through the media because they do not have personal access to government or
politicians.

Since the advent of television, mass media have become prominent socialization
agents. Young people’s exposure to mass media has increased markedly since the 1960s.
Studies indicate that the typical aged two to eighteen spends almost forty hours a week
consuming mass media, which is roughly the equivalent of holding a full-time job. In one-third
of homes, the television is on all day. Young people’s mass-media experiences often occur in
isolation. They spend much of their time watching television, using a computer or cell phone,
playing video games, or listening to music alone. Personal contact with family members,
teachers, and friends has declined. More than 60 percent of people under the age of twenty
have televisions in their bedrooms, which are multimedia sanctuaries (Kaiser Family
Foundation, 2006)128.

The use of more personalized forms of media, such as text messaging and
participation in social networking sites, has expanded exponentially in recent years. Young
people using these forms of media have greater control over their own political socialization:
they can choose to follow politics through a Facebook group that consists largely of close
friends and associates with similar viewpoints, or they may decide to avoid political material
altogether. Young people, even those who have not reached voting age, can become
involved in election campaigns by using social media to contribute their own commentary
and videos online. Media are rich sources of information about government, politics, and
current affairs. People learn about politics through news presented on television, in
newspapers and magazines, on radio programs, on Internet websites, and through social
media. The press provides insights into the workings of government by showcasing political
leaders in action. People can witness politicians in action, including on the campaign trail,
through videos posted on YouTube and on online news sites. Entertainment media, including
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television comedies and dramas, music, film, and video games also contain much political
content. Television programs offer viewers accounts of how government functions that,
although fictionalized, can appear realistic. Media also establish linkages between leaders,
institutions, and citizens. In contrast to typing and mailing a letter, it is easier than ever for
people to contact leaders directly using e-mail and Facebook.

(5) Political generations

A political generation is a group of individuals, similar in age, who share a general
set of political socialization experiences leading to the development of shared political
orientations that distinguish them from other age groups in society. People of a similar age
tend to be exposed to shared historical, social, and political stimuli. A shared generational
outlook develops when an age group experiences a decisive political event in its
impressionable years. The period from late adolescence to early adulthood begins to think
more seriously about politics. At the same time, younger people have less clearly defined
political beliefs, which make them more likely to be influenced by key societal events
(Michael X. Delli Carpini, 1986)129.

From the discussion mentioned above, it can be summarized that political

socialization is the process by which people learn and acquire about the political culture i.e.
beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors associated with good citizenship. Agents, including
family, school, peers, mass media, and generation pass on political orientations. Political
socialization differs over the life course. Young children develop a basic sense of
identification with a country. College students can form opinions based on their experiences
working for a cause. Older people can become active because they see a need to influence
public policy that will affect their lives.
2.2.7 Summary
From the literature discussed above, it can be summarized that political culture is
defined as specifically political orientations and patterned form of political philosophy that
consists of a set of widely complex phenomenon which includes belief, values, and attitude
concerning the ways on how government and political system ought to be carried out.
Political culture then refers to patterns of political behaviors that result from the political
 66
beliefs, values, and attitudes of individuals. In this process, a set of political beliefs, values,
and attitudes influences people’s political behaviors, and their political behaviors then
become a pattern and their political culture. Political culture then refers to patterns of political
behaviors that result from the political beliefs, values, and attitudes of individuals. It is the end
result of the process of political socialization involving political beliefs, values, and attitudes
which influence people’s political behaviors and their political behaviors then become a
pattern and their political culture. In short, political culture refers to the distinguishing beliefs,
values, and attitudes patterns that characterize a political community. Political culture is
made up of political orientation towards political system.

 Political belief is a set of ideas that characterize a particular culture which may
motivate the actors in a political system to resist change in the name of traditional belief or
may lead to fundamental modifications of innovative institutions. It refers to the generalized
ideas, to basic assumptions about politics held by individuals about the general goals of a
political system. Significant differences in the nature of generalized political beliefs are found
in various political cultures.

 Political values refer to the ideas expressing the opinions of social groups as a
whole, toward the needs of other social groups and of the whole of that society. The political
value system is always the value system of a particular class, race, and social group. Political
values are of a dual nature, which is both the source of an inner conflict and is also overcome
on the basis of a system of political values. The political value system is always the value
system of a particular class, of a specific stratum as an organized social force. Thus political
values are ideas expressing the attitude of large social groups as wholes toward the needs of
other large social groups and of society as a whole. Each social group has its own set of
political values. Political value is a kind of permanent belief of the people in the society.
 Political attitude refers to the mental and feeling readiness that expressed by

evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favour or disfavour, like or dislike towards
politics, after long accumulated experience, influencing direction of responses to others or
any concerning circumstances. It is the system of human trust that was collected for a long
time and affects responses with individual feeling and satisfaction. An attitude is a mental
state relative to personals believe and disposition common to individuals, but possessed to
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different degrees, which impels to react to objects, situations or propositions in ways of entire
live. It is a tendency to respond positively or negatively to politics, to other people, to
decisions, to institutions and organizations. An attitude is an enduring system of positive or
negative evaluations, emotional feelings, and action tendencies with respect to social objects,
ideas, events or other people.

Almond and Verba (1963)130 define political culture as the specifically political
orientations, attitudes toward the political system and its various parts, and attitudes toward
the role of the self in the system. Later, Almond and Powell (1966)131 elaborate the concept of
political culture in three directions:
(1) Substantive content: This can be interpreted as system culture, process
culture, and policy culture.
(2) Varieties of orientations (cognitive, affective, and evaluative)
 Cognitive orientation: This includes knowledge and information about the

political system, its roles and the incumbents of these roles, and its inputs and outputs.
 Affective orientation: This refers to reflecting the sentiments, feelings,

emotion about the political system, whether positive or negative. Affective orientation also
includes its functions, participants and their activities.
 Evaluative orientations: This refers to the judgments and opinions about

political objectives that typically involve the combination of values standards and criteria with
information and feelings. It expresses the personal relationship of man to the political system
and its components. It is carefully study of positive and negative feature.

Rosenbaum (1975)132 proposes three core elements of the orientation of political

culture:
(1) Orientations toward governmental structures: This includes regime orientation
(how an individual evaluates and responds to the basic governmental institutions of his
society, its symbols, officials and norms) and orientations toward governmental inputs and
outputs (how individuals feel and respond).
(2) Orientations toward others in the political system: This includes political
identifications (the political units, geographic areas and groups to which one feels he or she
belongs); political trust (the extent to which one feels an open co-operative, or tolerant
 68
attitude in working with others in civic life); rules of the game (an individual's conception of
what rules should be followed in civic life).
(3) Orientations toward one’s own political activity: This includes political
competence (how often and in what manner a person participates in civic life) and political
efficacy (the feeling that individual political action can have an impact on political process
and evaluating the political system and the government as open and responsive to the
citizen’s demands).

From the political orientation, Almond and Verba (1963) 133 outlined three pure
types of political culture:
(1) Parochial political culture: This refers to political culture which people have no
political orientations towards political objects. They are only remotely aware of the presence
of central government, and live their lives near enough regardless of the decisions taken by
the state. They have neither knowledge nor interest in politics. They have no orientations
towards all components of politics input, output, political system, or self-role. This type of
political culture is congruent with a traditional political structure. This type of orientation is
found in a passive society where there is hardly any specialization of roles, and therefore,
people are indifferent towards governmental authority. In this model the people have low
awareness, expectations, and participation.

(2) Subject political culture: This refers to the political culture in which people
have passive orientation towards a political system and conceive themselves as having
minimum influence on the political process. In this type of political culture, citizens are aware
of central government, and are heavily subjected to its decisions with little scope for dissent.
The individual is aware of politics, its actors and institutions. Citizens have orientations toward
the out put aspects of the system. People know about decision-making mechanism. There is
a political awareness but no confidence to air political views, thus there is an absence of
participatory norms. This type of political culture is congruent with a centralized authoritarian
structure. In this model the people have higher level of awareness and expectations, but low
participation.
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(3) Participant political culture: This type of political culture refers to people who
respond positively to all political objects and have active in political activities. Regarding this
type of political culture, citizens are able to influence the government in various ways and
they are affected by it. The individual is oriented toward the system towards all four
components of politics (input, output, political system, and self-role). This encourages more
and more participation and participation is the highest value. There is an ability to criticize the
authority and hold positive orientation towards political system. In this model the people have
high level of awareness, expectations, and participation.

Almond and Verba (1963)134 argue that there is never a single political culture.
The three categories of political orientations are not always present in a pure form rather; they
are intermixed in many situations of political culture. The categories of political culture can be
classified into three sub-types of political culture as under:

(1) Parochial and subject: This type of political culture represents a shift from the
parochial orientation to subject orientation. In such a political culture more and more people
are oriented to a centralized authority than the village and tribal authority. Here the parochial
loyalties gradually get weathered and the inhabitants develop a greater awareness of the
central authority.

(2) Subject and participant: This type of political culture represents a shift from
subject political orientation to participant political orientation. In such a political culture
people generally, on the one hand develop an activist tendency and participate in the
process, but on the other hand there are those individuals too, who possess passive
orientations and remain at the receiving end of the decision-making process.

(3) Parochial and participant: This type of political culture represents the parochial
orientation in the individuals whereas the norms introduced require a participant political
orientation. In such type of a political culture, there emerges a problem of harmony between
the political culture and political norm.
 70
However, they suggest that a participatory political culture fits a liberal democratic
regime. The participant political culture is the type of political culture is congruent with a
democratic political structure and it can be called “Civic Culture”.

Finer (1988)135 identified the following four categories in the typology of political
culture:
(1) Mature political culture: This type of political culture happen where there is a
widespread public approval of the procedure for transfer of power; a belief that the persons
in power have the right to govern and issue orders; the people are attached to the political
institutions and there is a well mobilized public opinion.

(2) Developed political culture: This type of political culture occurs where the civil
institutions are highly developed and the public is well organized into powerful groups but
from time to time there arises a dispute on the questions of who and what should constitute
the sovereign authority and how power should be transferred.

(3) Low political culture: This is one in which political system is weakly and
narrowly organized; there is a lack of consensus on the nature of the political system and the
procedures and the public attachment to political system is fragile.

(4) Minimal political culture: This is found in a country where articulate public
opinion does not exist and the government can always ignore public opinion, political culture
are decided by force of the threat of force. A person or institution capable of asserting itself
can enforce its will and the extent of one’s authority is directly related to the degree of force at
one’s disposal.

Arshad Karim (1988)136 classified political culture into three main angles:
(1) Rural-Urban distinction
(2) Mass and Elite political culture
(3) Cultural Pluralism

People develop their political culture i.e. political belief, values and attitudes and
orientation through interactions with agents of socialization.
 71
Political socialization is a lifelong development process by which individuals
learns political attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviors through the process of acquiring and
changing culture of one’s own political environment. It is part of the broader socialization
process whereby an individual becomes a member of a particular society and takes on its
values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. Most political socialization occurs during childhood
and continues to adulthood to shape their political culture throughout their lives and hold
expectation in politics.

Agents of socialization, which include family (parents and family members),

school (teachers and educational materials), peers, mass media and others (i.e. religion, faith,
race, gender, age, geography), influence to different degrees of an individual's political
attitude, political value and political beliefs throughout the rest of their lives. No single agent
is responsible for an individual’s entire political learning experience.

Base on the literature discussed above, the present study intends to study
political culture which includes political beliefs, political values, political attitudes, political
orientations, and political socialization.

2.3 REVIEW OF THE PAST STUDIES

The review of related literature is needed for the research work as it link between
the research proposed and the past studies. There is hardly any research project which is
totally unrelated with research that has been already taken place. The review of literature is
very important aspect of any research both for the work planning as well as to show its
relevance and significance.
2.3.1 Importance of review of the past studies
The effective literature review helps the researcher to understand the existing
body of knowledge including where excess research exists. It provides a solid theoretical
foundation for the proposed study. The effective literature review also help to substantiate
the presence of the research problem, justify the proposed study as one that contributes
something new to the body of knowledge, and frame the valid research methodologies,
 72
approach, goals, and research questions for the proposed study (Leedy and Ormrod,
2005)137
Kumar, V. (2009)138 states that a large part of review of literature actually needs to
be done even before the research project is formalized. This is essential to make sure that the
researches are not repeating the work that someone has already done earlier. Sometimes, if
the research has already been undertaken earlier, then it provides an option of modifying the
work by adding a new perspective or altering some of the methods of research to obtain a
perspective that will be different from earlier works and thus more valuable. Occasionally, the
work may be exact repetition of the work done earlier, but with a different set of data or
sources of facts, and purpose of the research may just be seen if the results are similar to
earlier works.

A good researcher usually goes through a lot more literature than is actually
incorporated in the paper. This is because different literature may have differing relevance for
the current project and all of it may not worth reporting in the end, but in the initial phase,
when the researcher is looking for all aspects of an issue that could be relevant one would
like to extensively explore the literature and see if any relevant findings are already available.
Some of the literature reviewed is directly relevant and hence used as a preface to explain
the background of work. Then other reports may be relevant from the point of view of the
project as they provide some clues to the puzzle by suggesting a hypothesis, which may be
the subject matter of your research project.

The review of the related literature is necessary to show the available evidence to
solve the problem adequately and thus the risk of duplication can also be avoided. It
provides ideas, theories, explanations or hypotheses valuable in formulating the problem. It
also suggests methods of research appropriate to the problem, to locate comparative data
useful in the interpretation of results and to contribute to the general scholarship of the
researcher. Review of literature is also important to highlight difference in opinions,
contradictory findings or evidence, and the different explanations given for their conclusions
and differences by different authors. Thus review of literature is a very important part of one's
research.
 73

2.3.2 The past research studies related to the political culture

This chapter has presented ten past researches related to the political culture.
Study 1: A Study of Roles of Political Culture of Parliamentary Officers (Panya Chaiheng:
1995)139
Objectives of the study:
The objectives of this research were to find out the political culture of
parliamentary officers and to compare their social qualities with the democratic political
culture of which 8 aspects as follow:
- Confidence and faith in the principles of democracy
- Importance of the personal equality and prestige
- Respect for the rules of democracy
- Participation in political and administrative activities
- Sense of citizen duties and self-confidence
- Optimism and trust in fellow men
- Creative and reasonable criticism
- Non-dictatorial mind

Sample of the study:

The sample who participated in the study was 200 parliamentary officials of the
secretariat of representatives and secretariat of senate. Purposive sampling method was
used for selection of sample.

Tool used in the study:

Questionnaire was used to the tool of the study. It consisted of two parts. The first
part was the respondent’s information and the second part was 45 items of rating scale which
measure the political culture of parliamentary officers.

Technique of analysis of data:

The study was conducted by quantitative analysis (descriptive research). In
order to study the political culture of parliamentary officers, the data which obtained from the
tool was scored and analyzed for finding out mean (  ), standard deviation (S.D.). t-test
 74
(independent) and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were used to test the difference between
mean scores of the political culture of parliamentary officers with regards to different
variables i.e. sex, age, educational qualification, position and work experience.
Major findings:
The results of the study were found as follow:
1. The democratic tendency in political culture of parliamentary officials was at
high level while a sense of citizen duties and self-confidence of the said officials was ranked
at highest level.
2. Social qualities of the parliamentary officials which vary in sex, educational level,
professional position, work experience, membership of a club, association, social foundation
and participation in political and academic activities cause these officials to have confidence
or faith in the principle of democracy differently.
3. Social qualities of the parliamentary officials which vary in the participation in
academic activities cause these officials to be different in attaching importance to the
prestige and quality of person.
4. The social qualities of the parliamentary officials which vary in sex, age
educational level, work experience, social foundation and the participation of the said officials
in academic activities make them different in respect for the rules of democracy.
5. The social qualities of the parliamentary officials which vary in sex, and
membership of a club, association, social foundation make the said officials different in their
participation in political and administrative activities.
6. The social qualities of the parliamentary officials which vary in age, educational
level, work experience, membership of a club, association, social foundation and the
participation of these officials in academic activities cause them to have a sense of citizen
duties and self-confidence differently.
7. The social qualities of the parliamentary officials which vary in sex, educational
level, and membership of a club, association, social foundation and the participation of these
officials in academic activities make them different in their optimistic view and trust in fellow
men.
 75
8. The social qualities of the parliamentary officials which vary in sex, age,
educational level, work experience, and the participation of these officials in academic
activities make them different in their creative and reasonable criticism.
9. The social qualities of the parliamentary officials which vary in sex, educational
level, position, work experience, membership of a club, association, social foundation, and
the participation of these officials in academic activities cause them different to have a non-
dictatorial mind differently.

Study 2: Political Culture of Ramkhamhaeng University Graduate Students: A Comparative

Study of Political Science and Business Administration Students. (Sirivimon Piamwitthayakun:
2004)140
Objectives of the study:
The objective of this research was focused on the comparative study concerning
to the political culture between political culture between the Political Science and Business
Administration students of Ramkhamhaeng University.

Sample of the study:

The sample who participated in the study was 300 Political Science and Business
Administration students of Ramkhamhaeng University. Stratified random sampling method
was used for selection of sample.

Tool used in the study:

Questionnaire was used to the tool of the study. It consisted of two parts. The first
part was the respondent’s information and the second part was the rating scale which
measures the political culture of Political Science and Business Administration Students of
Ramkhamhaeng University.

Technique of analysis of data:

The study was conducted by quantitative analysis (descriptive research). In
order to study the political culture of Political Science and Business Administration students
of Ramkhamhaeng University, the data which obtained from the tool was scored and
analyzed for finding out the percentage (%), mean (  ), standard deviation (S.D.). t-test
 76
(independent) was used to test the difference between mean scores of the political culture of
Political Science and Business Administration students of Ramkhamhaeng University.
Major findings:
The results of the study were found as follow:
1. In relation to their respect for and belief in democratic rule, it was found that
Business Administration students had stronger belief and respect than Political Science
students.
2. In regard to their own rights and respect for the rights of others, the Business
Administration students valued these principles higher than the Political Science students.
3. When their political participation was examined, it was found that Political
Science students obtained more involved in politics than Business Administration students.
4. When considering their commitment to civic duty, it was found that both
Business Administration students and Political Science students obtained the same level.
5. It was found that Business Administration students had higher ability to think
critically about issues than Political Science students.
6. Finally, in regard to anti-authoritarian behavior, the Political Science students
were more rebellious than Business Administration students.

Study 3: Analysis of Political Culture Factors as a Motivator Influencing the Performance of

Municipal Employees in Public Service Delivery. (Gamolporn Sonsri: 2006)141
Objectives of the study:
The objective of the study concerned itself with the state of service delivery of
local governments in Thailand, in particular the municipal government’s performance in the
delivery of public health and sanitation services. One angle to find out such state of service
delivery is to know the motivational factors of employees and thus be able to assess and
evaluate the extent that the motivational factors under study influence employees to perform
better in the delivery of such services. The important point is that if these motivational factors
are determined as well as their influences on performance, then the road to better service
delivery to the people will not be far behind.
 77
Sample of the study:
In the study, the local government unit chosen is the metropolitan municipality.
The two metropolitan municipalities: Nonthaburi in Central Thailand very near to Bangkok, a
more urbanized area, and Ubon Ratchathani located in Northeast Thailand near the
boundary of Laos, a less urbanized area, are chosen for study on the basis of purposive
sampling.
Two main groups of respondents for the study are:
(1) The employees of the municipality which in Thailand are classified into three:
municipal employees, regular municipal workers, and the temporary municipal workers; and
(2) Clients who are the people in the municipal area who are availing of the public
health and sanitation services of the municipality.
The first group of respondents was chosen on the basis of stratified random
sampling and the actual number of respondents totaled 402 broken down into 45 municipal
employees, 52 regular municipal workers, and 300 temporary municipal workers. The clients
group was chosen through cluster random sampling and the respondents numbered 757,
distributed into 380 in Nonthaburi and 377 in Ubon Ratchathani.

Tool used in the study:

Data collection instruments included the interview guide for the administrator and
key employees and the survey questionnaire administered personally by the researcher to
the employees and the clients. The survey questionnaire included questions that are open-
ended, yes-no statements, and those which requires response using 5-rating Likert scale.
Technique of analysis of data:
Data were analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative methods. The latter
used regression analysis and multiple regression analysis to analyze and interpret the
findings. There were 4 variables of Thai political culture factors examined as to their influence
on motivation of employees to perform better in their jobs. They are classified into: Hierarchy,
Buddhist beliefs and practices, collectivism, and Thai characteristic.
Major findings:
The findings show the motivational factors that correlate with services delivery performance
by kind of municipal employee/worker the results are as follows;
 78
1. Hierarchy: Most effective motivator for performance everywhere for all
employees. Everyone is influenced by respect and high regard to elders and superiors.
2. Buddhist beliefs and practices: Motivator in rural and less urbanized areas, but
not in more urbanized areas. Tradition is more rooted in more rural areas of Thailand.
3. Collectivism: Strong motivator influencing unity in work places, group work,
teamwork.
4. Thai Characteristics: Not as strong as motivator this depends on personal
attitudes, kind of work, and workload.

It is also found that the motivational factors had differential effects. The
differences lie on the influence of other intervening variables. Thus, motivation either is strong
or weak depending on the certain circumstances, location, and personal variables of the
respondents. In general, the relative strength of a Thai Political Culture Factors as a motivator
may be influenced by employment status (permanent and temporary employed) and the
degree of development of the municipality.

This may make the results less universal and less applicable to other countries,
but only country-specific or culture-specific. The study emphasizes that there are in Thailand
elements in its culture that, while it shapes a group orientation or the play of centrifugal forces
which may count to its blessing (in other countries, the culture may contain more centripetal
elements that in the end spell out disintegrative forces destroying the culture and the nation).
Thailand has a strong and solid nationalistic foundation that as already mentioned, may be its
blessing and therefore its road to more prosperity and more economic and social
development.

Based on the findings, the study recommends measures to the municipal

government concerned:
1. The present hierarchical structure in Thailand is characterized by top-down
communication in which the supervisor implements his decisions and influences employees
lower in the organizational hierarchy. The municipality may apply bottom-up communication
which allows employees at lower levels to communicate their ideas or feelings to higher level
decision makers.
 79
This succeeds if an employee feedback program is instituted. The Division may
design such employee feedback program to give employees a chance to participate in the
organization. In addition, it could also give employees a voice in decision making and policy
formulation through feedback. The most common form of feedback is employees’ perception
surveys.
2. Collectivism as a motivator may be tapped if the Division encourages more
teamwork, or empower team members to decide among themselves how to accomplish the
work. Financial and non-financial reward for teamwork may also be considered.

Study 4: Guideline for Encouraging Communal Strength and Development of Political

Culture: A Case Study of Meng Rai Sub-District, Chiang Mai Province (Nipapan Pipat:
2006)142
Objectives of the study:
The objective of this research was to investigate the guideline for encouraging
communal strength and development of political culture: A Case Study of Meng Rai Sub-
District, Chiang Mai Province.

Sample of the study:

The sample who participated in the study was 200 people Meng Rai Sub-District,
Chiang Mai Province. Stratified random sampling method was used for selection of sample.

Tool used in the study:

The interview and a set of questionnaire were used for data collection. It
consisted of two parts. The first part was the respondent’s information and the second part
was the rating scale which measures the guideline for encouraging communal strength and
development of political culture.

Technique of analysis of data:

The study was conducted by quantitative analysis (descriptive research). In
order to study the guideline for encouraging communal strength and development of political
culture, the data which obtained from the tool was scored and analyzed for finding out mean
(  ), and standard deviation (S.D.).
 80
Major findings:
The results of the study were found that local people of Meng Rai Sub-District,
Chiang Mai Province possessed the political culture that blended proletariat format together
with participatory role; those highly-educated folks tended to have more part to play in
political arena than that of those with less-educated ones. The external contexts had
influences upon the supports of communal strengthening and the public political culture.
Different social contexts affected the different attitudes in certain areas.

This study showed the participatory role in politics of Meng Rai Sub-District,
Chiang Mai Province. They had political culture that blended together with participatory role
in politics. All of these could be fruitful applicable guidelines for the development of
participatory roles in politics for the local folks; they could be urged to participate in political
activities at higher level. By doing so, the development of democracy among the public could
be initiated in the long run.

Study 5: The Political Culture of Private School Teachers in Chiang Mai Province. (Wattana
Khattiwong: 2007)143
Objectives of the study:
The objective of this research was to explore the political culture of private school
teachers in Muaeng district, Chiang Mai Province as well as the factors explaining their
political culture.

Sample of the study:

The sample who participated in the study was 121 private school teachers in
Meaung District, Chiang Mai Province. Stratified random sampling method was used for
selection of sample.

Tool used in the study:

The questionnaire was used for data collection. It consisted of two parts. The first
part was the respondent’s information and the second part was 40 items of the rating scale
which measures the political culture of private school teachers.
 81
Technique of analysis of data:
The study was conducted by quantitative analysis (descriptive research). In order
to study the guideline for encouraging communal strength and development of political
culture, the data which obtained from the tool was scored and analyzed for finding out
percentage (%), mean (  ), standard deviation (S.D.), and Chi-square.
Major findings:
The results of the study were found that the sample group under the study mainly
comprised of female, age 20-35 years old, bachelor degree holders, and single with an
average salary of 5,000 – 10,000 Baht. The employment period was less than 10 years. Most
obtained their political information through radio, newspaper, and television.

The private school teachers in Meaung District, Chiang Mai Province hold high
level of the democratic political pattern. Their political culture was not influenced by gender,
age, duration of employment or revenue.

Study 6: Political culture and political participation of the electorates in Kuala Berang,
Terengganu: A Post-election survey Wan Rohila Ganti Binti & Wan Abdul Ghapar.
(Ahmad Reza: 2008)144
Objectives of the study:
This research studied the political culture and political participation of the
respondents in N23 state-seat, Kuala Berang, Terengganu, with particular reference to the
2004 general elections. Specifically, it examines the respondents’ orientations to politics and
their levels of political culture and political participation.

Sample of the study:

The sample who participated in the study was 571 respondents from the list of
voters provided by the Suruhanjaya Pilihanraya. Stratified random sampling method was
used for selection of sample.

Tool used in the study

Questionnaire was used for data collection. It consisted of two parts. The first part
was the respondent’s information and the second part was the rating scale which measures
the political culture and political participation of the electorates in Kuala Berang.
 82

Technique for analysis of data

In order to study the political culture and political participation of the electorates in
Kuala Berang, the data which obtained from the tool was scored and analyzed for finding out
percentage (%), mean (  ), standard deviation (S.D.), t-test (independent), and F-test.

Major Findings
It was found from the study that the people in Kuala Berang know the significance
of elections for their constituency. However, they seem unsatisfied with the political aspects in
Kuala Berang. They judge the government’s performance based on party identification, not
on the basis of thorough inspections.
Majority of them are willing to vote against a corrupt government. Overall,
respondents are categorized as belonging to ‘subject’ political culture. Studying their level of
political participation, they are classified as spectators. Nevertheless, these people are ready
to change the status-quo, depending on the political climate. Men dominate the politics of
Kuala Berang. Age, education, occupation and income do play some role but their influence
is minimal in shaping the political culture and political participation of the people of Kuala
Berang.

Study 7: Political Culture of Chiang Mai University Lecturer in Science nad Technology and
Health Science (Wuttichai Tanjapatkul: 2009)145
Objectives of the study:
The objectives of this study were to examine the political culture as well as the
relationship between political training and political culture of Chiang Mai University lectures in
Science and Technology and Health Science Departments.
Sample of the study:
250 lecturers in Science and Technology and Health Science Departments of
Chiang Mai University were the sample of this study. The stratified random sampling method
was used for selection of sample.

Tool used in the study:

Two types of questionnaire were used to the tools of the study. The first one
consists of close-ended question about knowledge on Thai politics, political training and
 83
democracy political culture, while the second one consists of open-ended question about
Thai politics. In data analysis, 6 independent variables were set as sex, age, education,
department, family monthly income and political training while the dependent variable was
political culture.

Technique of analysis of data:

The study was conducted by quantitative analysis (descriptive research). In order
to study the political culture of lecturers in Science and Technology and Health Science
Departments, the data which obtained from the tools were scored and analyzed using various
descriptive statistics techniques such as, frequency distribution, percentage (%) and chi-
square value of correlations.

Major findings
It was found from the study that the lectures in Science and Technology and
Health Science, Chiang Mai University have democracy political culture at medium level.
They have good knowledge and understanding on politics, but they only have legal politic
participation without relationship between political training and political culture. Besides,
different personal factors such as sex, age, education, department and family monthly
income do not differentiate political culture among them.

This study reveals that lectures in Science and Technology and Health Science,
Chiang Mai University have democracy political culture at medium level. In developing
democracy politics, it seems that lecture’s role should be clearly supporting democracy in
terms of providing political training to students along with their expertise knowledge to
stimulate their students’ political interests. Lecture’s social role should also be more involved
with politics, since Thai society accepts their roles as a social leader in terms of thinking.
Therefore, lectures should have more political participation such as presenting their existing
knowledge to share political ideas to lead the community to resolve existing social problems.
In order to promote democracy politic improvement, lectures should increase their
democracy politic such as express their opinion directly and non-directly to political issues.
For example, they should act as a student leader in resolving current political problems, or
 84
express their idea via written or academic essay to point out the solution via clear rational to
the society in order to promote democracy politics onward.

Study 8: Political Culture of Bank Officers in Mueang Chiang Mai District, Chiang Mai
Province (Kittiphong Keawrouenkham: 2009)146
Objectives of the study:
The objectives of this study were to investigate the characteristics of political
culture, knowledge and understanding, attitudes, and political participation of commercial
bank officers in Mueang Chiang Mai District, Chiang Mai Province.
Sample of the study:
355 commercial bank officers were the sample of this study. The stratified
random sampling method was used for selection of sample.

Tool used in the study:

The questionnaire was used to the tools of the study. It consisted of 2 parts. The
first part involved the closed-ended questions to explore political knowledge and
understanding, attitudes, and participation whereas the second involved the opened-ended
questions to examine political opinions.

Technique of analysis of data:

The study was conducted by quantitative analysis (descriptive research). In order
to study the political culture of commercial bank officers, the data which obtained from the
tool was scored and analyzed using various descriptive statistics techniques such as,
frequency distribution, percentage (%), mean (  ), standard deviation (S.D.), t-test and F-test.

Major findings
The results of the study revealed that bank officers in Mueang Chiang Mai District,
had knowledge and understanding concerning Thai politics in the medium level. To clarify,
bank officers held a political opinion in a democratic orientation since they apprehended in
democracy. However, the political participation was in the low level as they were engaged
only in political activity required by law. Moreover, the results showed that informants’
personal characteristics with regard to gender did not relate to Thai political understanding,
 85
but age, educational level, monthly income and position did relate to the Thai political
understanding at statistical significant level.

This study indicated that bank officers in Mueang Chiang Mai District, Chiang Mai
Province obtained Subject –Participant political Culture. In terms of democratization the bank
officers aware of democratic system and interested in politics. They also had a democratic
political attitude. However, their level of political participation was lower than their knowledge
and understanding. The results revealed that bank officers had fair knowledge but low
political participation. Therefore, the government should promote and support the political
information circulation by using propagation channel through the bank branches.

Furthermore, bank officers should be trained, encouraged and supported so as to

participate in political activities, not just only as the law enforcement. Finally, bank officers
should be the middle men in publicizing political information between the government sectors
and people in general.
Study 9: Relationship between Political Culture and Voting Behaviour of Chiang Mai
University Students (Nuansri Likit-Anurucks: 2011)147
Objectives of the study:
This study dealt with the relationship between political culture and the voting
behavior of Chiang Mai University students from three different disciplinary groups involving
science and technology, health science and humanity and social science studies. The
objectives were to gain understanding about:
(1) Political culture of Chiang Mai University students in the three disciplinary
groups,
(2) Voting behavior of the samples under study, and
(3) Relationship between political culture and voting behavior in the context
given above.
Sample of the study:
394 undergraduate students were the samples representing those in the three
disciplinary groups. The stratified random sampling method was used for selection of sample.
 86

Tool used in the study:

The questionnaire was used to the tools of the study. It consisted of 2 parts. The
first part involved the political culture whereas the second involved the voting behavior of
university students.

Technique of analysis of data:

The study was conducted by quantitative analysis (descriptive research). In order
to study the political culture and voting behavior of university students, the data which
obtained from the tool was scored and analyzed using various descriptive statistics
techniques such as, frequency distribution, percentage (%), mean (  ), standard deviation
(S.D.).

Major findings
The results of the study revealed that the undergraduate students in the three
different disciplinary groups had difference in political culture but they had no difference in
voting behavior. Those enrolling for science and technology studies exhibited their political
culture in the nature of subject combined with participation, those studying health science
fields demonstrated their subject political culture, and those in the group of humanity and
social science areas appeared to have parochial and participation.

The findings also revealed that students in health science and humanity and
social science disciplines had their political culture conformed with and influenced to their
voting behavior while their counterpart in science and technology discipline had the political
culture with no influence to their voting behavior.

Study 10: "Political Participation of Thai People and the Political Culture” (Saowanit Mana:
2013)148
Objectives of the study:
The objectives of the study were to examine the following:
1. The political culture of Thai people
2. The political participation of Thai people under Thai political culture
3. The comparison of the political participation of Thai people under Thai
 87
political culture classified by different groups of variables i.e. sex, age, monthly income,
occupation, level of education, and level of political culture.
Sample of the study:
830 Thai people in the Central part of Thailand were the sample of the study. The
sample has been classified by different variables i.e. sex, age, monthly income, occupation,
level of education, and level of political culture.

Tool used in the study

There were two tools used in this study.
(1) The scale to measure the political participation of Thai people. This tool
consisted of 60 statements involving three aspects i.e. cognitive participation, media
participation, and discussion participation
(2) The scale to measure the political culture of Thai people. This tool consisted
of 60 statement involving three aspects i.e. political beliefs, political values and political
attitudes.
Technique of analysis of data:
The study was conducted by quantitative analysis (descriptive research). In order
to study the political participation and political culture of Thai people, the data which obtained
from the tools were scored and analyzed using various descriptive statistics techniques such
as, frequency distribution, percentage (%), mean (  ), standard deviation (S.D.), t-test, and
F-test.

Major findings
The results of the study revealed that the mean scores of political participation
and political culture of Thai people was at moderate level. The mean scores of political
participation vary from high to moderate level. There was the significant different between
mean scores of political participation of Thai people belonging to different groups of sex, age,
monthly income, occupation, level of education, and level of political culture. It was indicated
that sex, age, monthly income, occupation, level of education, and level of political culture
does effect on the mean scores of political participation of Thai people.
 88
It was further seen that the mean scores of political participation of male have
greater value than that of female. The mean score of political participation rated by people
belonging to older age and youngest age has smaller value than that of the middle age. The
mean score of political participation rated by people belonging to low monthly income group
has smaller value than that of higher group of monthly income. The mean score of political
participation rated by people belonging to agriculture group has smaller value than that of the
labour, business, and government service group. The mean score of political participation
rated by people belonging to government service group of occupation have higher mean
scores on political participation. The mean score of political participation rated by people
belonging to low level of education has smaller value than that of the higher level of education.
The mean score of political participation rated by people belonging to low level of political
culture has smaller value than that of the higher level of political culture.
2.4 UNIQUENESS OF THE PRESENT STUDY
After the review of ten past researches related to the political culture, it can be
seen the uniqueness of the present study as follow:
(1) The present investigation aims to investigate the political culture of Thai
labourer. This is the only one research which is not repeating work that someone has already
done earlier. Currently Thailand is in the period of political reform. The political system which
rules by the military will be change into the democratic system in future. Thai labourer is one
of the majority groups of Thai people who have powerful effect on political culture and
democratic development. Their beliefs, values and attitudes influence from political
orientations and political socialization in individual or as a group also influence on their
political behavior. The Thai labourers movement under their political culture will submit a
number of demands to the government during this crisis, including demands to establish a
national committee to solve the political problem. The study is the only one which emphasizes
on the study of political culture of Thai labourers in order to shape the politics in Thailand.

(2) Political culture in the present study refers to political beliefs, political values,
and political attitudes. It also includes political orientation and political socialization which
were related and influence to each others. As Almond and verba said “political culture refers
to the specifically political orientation which is results from the process of socialization, the
 89
present research is only one research to study the political culture and further to examine the
political orientation and political socialization.

(3) Mean (  ), standard deviation (S.D.), t-test (independent), and ANOVA were
used to test the significant between mean scores of the political culture rated by Thai
labourers belonging to different groups of sex, age, level of education, and monthly income
of family. Therefore, this research is a unique research or only one research which indicates
the difference between mean scores of the political culture rated by Thai labourers belonging
to different variables.

Five aspects concerned to political culture i.e. political beliefs, political values,
political attitude, political orientation, and political socialization were analyzed in total group of
sample and classified by different variables i.e. sex, age, level of education, and monthly
income of family. This is also a uniqueness of the present research which is not appeared in
any research.

(4) The scale which measures the political culture was constructed by the
researcher and test for the item analysis (i.e. validity, discrimination, reliability).
Construct validity was used for establishment of validity of the scale. Item-Test
Correlation was applied to the data obtained from 100 Thai labourers. The Pearson Product
Moment was calculated for the ‘ rxy ’ value from the total scores and the score of each item.
t-test (independent) was used to test the discrimination index whereas test-retest method was
used to prove the reliability of the scale.

After viewing the tool used in past and present research, one can says that the
tool used in present research was a unique tool which was not appearing in any research.
This tool was the first construction. It cannot be seen this tool in the market before.

The next chapter will discuss about the research methodology of this study.

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