MAXWELL, MICHAEL, JUSTIN, ARIFIN, WILLEO, JACKY, SHAMIRA

Civics, Management Intl

THE MORE POWER THE HIGHER IS THE CORRUPTION RATE

A. Meaning, Historical Backround, and Theory
● Meaning
Corruption is the abuse of entrusted power for private gain. Corruption has many
types. There are preference, payment, privilege, and power. Corruption is something that
we need to exterminate from this world. That’s why, for many years we already at war
against corruption. It means that we are trying to exterminate the abuse of entrusted
power for private gain.
● Historical Backround
Corruption is something that came from human itself. It happens because the
corrupt behavior, lack in morality, and greed. And it happens throughout history. For
example, in the fall of the great empire of Rome, corruption is one of the factors for the
reason the Rome was fallen. But there are people that still fight against it. Like in
Nigeria, there is a movement of war against corruption that is called Buhari’s
anti-corruption. Buhari's anti-corruption war is an anti-graft war declared by
Muhammadu Buhari, the 4th democratic President of Nigeria. This is a war against all
forms of corruption in Nigeria. During the president's election campaign in 2015, he
vowed to fight against corruption and insecurity if elected. Since his election in April
2015, anti-graft war remains one of his topmost priority. It proves that there is still good
in people.
● Theories
o Rational Choice Theory
In this theory people do corruption when he/she think that the benefit for
doing corruption is bigger than the risk.
o Bad Apple Theory
From this theory, corruption is happening because there is an individual that
have bad character, or we can say “Rotten Apple”.
o Organizational Culture Theory
In this theory, corruption is happening because the system and culture that
exist in the organization that push someone in the organization to do corruption.
o Clashing Moral Value Theory
Corruption happen because there is a conflict between status someone as
individual and as office staff or state administration.
o The Ethos Public Administration Theory
 In this theory, some value and culture in society will push someone to do
corruption.

B. Principles, Forms, and Dilemma

Ten Principles of Effective Corruption Proofing

Principle 1: Scope
Corruption proofing should be possible for all draft laws, enacted laws, laws of all regulatory
levels (statutes and bylaws), laws of all regulatory sources (central, regional, local as well
as parliamentary and executive including presidential acts) and of all sectors
(administrative, criminal and private law). It should also include explanatory notes as
they can play a decisive role in interpreting law.

Principle 2: Prioritization
Ideally, laws are subject to review in their entirety. Any necessary prioritization should be risk-
based, such as legislation from corruption prone areas involving corruption prone
transactions, or from areas with real incidents of corruption. The entity in charge of
corruption proofing should be competent for prioritizing laws centrally; however, all
other state bodies should still be entitled to select additional laws for review.

Principle 3: Regulatory corruption risks

Corruption proofing reviews mainly cover two categories of regulatory corruption risks:
“ambiguity” in language or legal technique and “prevention gaps”, such as a lack of
defined timelines for procedures. In addition, the corruption proofing body should take
note of any indication that the legislative process itself may have been corrupted.

Principle 4: Timing
Corruption proofing should take place at all stages of the legislative process. This includes above
all drafting at the ministerial level and the adoption of the draft by government; it should
also encompass a follow-up review during the parliamentary process and at the signing
into effect.

Principle 5: Responsible entity

At the law drafting stage, all entities drafting laws, in particular ministries and other executive
bodies, have to comply with legal drafting standards that avoid corruption risks.
Similarly, parliamentary committees should take part in reviewing corruption risks. In
addition, a specialized body for preventing corruption should be in charge of reviewing
draft and enacted statutes and bylaws. The specialized body should coordinate with other
state bodies in order to receive early information on draft laws and to obtain background
 information on legislation. Clearly, citizens should be able to review drafted or enacted
laws freely and at their discretion; there should be no qualification or registration
requirements hindering their free participation.

Principle 6: Recommendations
The law-making institutions should have the obligation to consider the recommendations made
by the corruption proofing entity. The law-making institutions should also provide
feedback as to which recommendations they have incorporated and the reasons for not
implementing other recommendations. In cases where civil society has submitted an
anti-corruption assessment their representatives should be heard in person at public
hearings.

Principle 7: Compliance
The corruption proofing entity needs to monitor compliance with the corruption proofing
recommendations. Ideally, the assessment report will have a standardized feedback sheet
attached to it in order to facilitate compliance feedback by the law-making body.

Principle 8: Online publicity

Online publicity is an essential component of corruption proofing and concerns the methodology,
the selection of laws, the assessment reports (including those by civil society), the
compliance feedback, the compliance review reports, annual summaries of corruption
proofing activities and statistical information.

Principle 9: Broader framework on transparency and integrity

In order to achieve a significant impact, corruption proofing requires a sound regulatory
framework. This concerns good general legal drafting, transparent and participatory law
making, lobbying, political finance and ethics in the legislative process. It is particularly
important that law projects and first drafts are made public as soon as possible and not
just tabled to parliament.

Principle 10: Training and public awareness

Interactive, practical training on corruption proofing is necessary for all state bodies in charge of
drafting laws of all levels. Furthermore, the public needs to be made aware of the
methodology of corruption proofing in order to carry out its watchdog function
effectively and to participate in public consultations in a meaningful way.

The catalogue of corruption acts is vast and includes extortion, bribery, fraud,
influence peddling, nepotism, embezzlement and favoritism. Generally speaking, there
 exist two major forms of corruption: Petit and Grand corruption. Petit corruption is the
form in which relatively smaller amounts of money are involved or whose impact holds
lesser effects on the country. This form of corruption is often ignored but its effects are
even more damaging than those of Grand corruption if summed up. Petit corruption
includes such acts as paying undue fees to see a medical doctor, to get a seat in a public
school, to go through a check point, obtain professional promotion or a transfer from one
locality to another or for a judge to reverse a court judgment. Grand corruption on the
other hand involves more outrageous sums of money and its impact on the country is
very huge and long-lasting. For example, government officials who embezzle money
meant for the realization of public projects or the increase of the salaries of law makers to
legislate in the interest to an individual or a group of individuals, conspiracy with impact
assessment officials to award non-environmentally friendly projects to extractive
industries, the award of public contracts to unqualified tenders, the reception of poorly
constructed public projects etc.
Principle
The C2 Principles' 73 (to Combat Corruption) The following principles are
offered to all firms, wherever situated and whatever their lines of business. 174 In
addition, the principles are applicable to all business activities of the endorsing firms. A
corporation endorsing the C2 Principles pledges:
1. To disclose publicly and make widely known its endorsement of the C2 Principles.
2. To establish a dearly articulated written policy prohibiting any of the firm's employees
from paying or receiving bribes or "kickbacks."
3. To implement the policy with due care and take appropriate disciplinary action against any
employee discovered to have made payments in violation of the policy.
4. To provide training for employees to carry out the policy, and to provide continuing support,
such as help lines, to assist employees to act in compliance with the firm's policy.
5. To record all transactions fully and fairly, in accordance with clearly stated record-keeping
procedures and accounting controls, and conduct internal audits to assure no improper
payments are made.
6. To report annually on the firm's bribery and corruption policy, along with a description of the
firm's experiences implementing and enforcing the policy.
7. To have the annual report in principle six audited either by an independent financial auditor or
an independent social auditor, or both.
8. To require all agents of the firm to affirm that they have neither made nor will make any
improper payments in any business venture or contract to which the firm is a party.
9. To require all suppliers of the firm to affirm that they have neither made nor will make any
improper payments in any business venture or contract to which the firm is a party.
10. To establish a monitoring and auditing system to detect any improper payments made by the
firm's employees and agents.
11. To report publicly any solicitations for payments, or report privately to a monitoring
organization or a social auditor.
12. To establish a system to allow any employee or agent of the firm to report any improper
payment without fear of retribution for their disclosures.

Form of corruption
o Bribes​​: This includes bribery carried out directly or through third parties, including
subsidiaries, joint ventures, agents, brokers, suppliers or any other intermediary under a
company's effective control
o Political contributions​​: This includes any direct or indirect contributions to political
parties, party officials, candidates, or organisations/individuals involved in politics, as a
subterfuge for bribery
o Charitable contributions and sponsorships​​: This is again aimed at restricting
opportunities for such payments to be made as a subterfuge for bribery
o Facilitation payments​​: These include small payments made to secure or expedite the
performance of routine actions to which a company is already entitled
o Gifts, hospitality and expenses​​: This includes the offer and receipt of gifts, hospitality or
expenses whenever such arrangements could improperly affect, or might be perceived to
improperly affect, the outcome of business transactions
Dilemma
The Dilemma is written on the basis that the realisation of a wide range of human rights
is likely to be undermined to a greater or lesser degree by the presence of public and
private corruption. By extension, corrupt activities carried out by MNCs or their
employees are likely to contribute to this process by acting as the ‘supply-side' in the
corruption equation.

​C. Corruption, the rule of law and morality/ethics.

How do we define corruption?
Generally speaking as “the abuse of entrusted power for private gain”. Corruption can be
classified as grand, petty and political, depending on the amounts of money lost and the
sector where it occurs.
Grand corruption consists of acts committed at a high level of government that distort policies or
the central functioning of the state, enabling leaders to benefit at the expense of the public
good. Petty corruption refers to everyday abuse of entrusted power by low- and mid-level
public officials in their interactions with ordinary citizens, who often are trying to access
basic goods or services in places like hospitals, schools, police departments and other
agencies.
Political corruption is a manipulation of policies, institutions and rules of procedure in the
allocation of resources and financing by political decision makers, who abuse their
position to sustain their power, status and wealth.

What are the costs of corruption?

Corruption impacts societies in a multitude of ways. In the worst cases, it costs lives. Short of
this, it costs people their freedom, health or money. The cost of corruption can be divided
into four main categories: political, economic, social and environmental.
On the political front, corruption is a major obstacle to democracy and the rule of law. In a
democratic system, offices and institutions lose their legitimacy when they’re misused for
private advantage. This is harmful in established democracies, but even more so in newly
emerging ones. It is extremely challenging to develop accountable political leadership in
a corrupt climate.
Economically, corruption depletes national wealth. Corrupt politicians invest scarce public
resources in projects that will line their pockets rather than benefit communities, and
prioritise high-profile projects such as dams, power plants, pipelines and refineries over
less spectacular but more urgent infrastructure projects such as schools, hospitals and
roads. Corruption also hinders the development of fair market structures and distorts
competition, which in turn deters investment.
Corruption corrodes the social fabric of society. It undermines people's trust in the political
system, in its institutions and its leadership. A distrustful or apathetic public can then
become yet another hurdle to challenging corruption.
Environmental degradation is another consequence of corrupt systems. The lack of, or
non-enforcement of, environmental regulations and legislation means that precious
natural resources are carelessly exploited, and entire ecological systems are ravaged.
 From mining, to logging, to carbon offsets, companies across the globe continue to pay
bribes in return for unrestricted destruction.
The moral dimensions of corruption;
We addressed the question of what can be done about it and discussed the role of economic
policies in developing the right sorts of incentives and institutions to reduce its incidence.
This will provide some thoughts on the moral dimensions of corruption.
In his erudite and all-encompassing study of bribery through the ages, Noonan (1984) observes
that “the common good of any society consists not only in its material possessions but in
its shared ideals. When these ideals are betrayed, as they are betrayed when bribery is
practiced, the common good, intangible though it be, suffers injury.” Bribery and
corruption—however much the experts may wish to disguise them in the language of
costs and benefits and economic choices—have a moral dimension. We ignore it at our
own risk and at considerable cost to society in terms of the effectiveness of measures
taken to limit or ameliorate their corrosive effects. Noonan gives several reasons to
support the thesis that bribery has a strong moral dimension. By now, it has been
criminalized in virtually every country in the planet, although enforcement of the laws
condemning it may be weak. As we have seen, corruption itself may have weakened the
state and its capacity to punish violations of the law, but there is little ambiguity that
bribery is regarded everywhere as a perversion, hence the need for secrecy, for deception,
and the use of euphemisms (gifts, contributions) by the guilty when it explodes into the
open.
Bribery interacts with power. He who is willing to pay the most will be granted the exemption,
will shut out the competitor, will gain the advantage. A plutocracy, a world in which
wealth and money rule, is not a system likely to capture the popular imagination. Bribers
understand this, and for that very reason they do not advertise their actions and are
condemned to act behind the scenes, on the margins of legality and morality. Of course,
bribery and corruption are betrayals of trust. Noonan puts it elegantly when he says: “the
social injury inflicted by breaches of trust goes beyond any material measurement. When
government officials act to enrich themselves they act against the fabric on which they
depend, for what else does government rest upon except the expectation that those chosen
to act for the public welfare will serve that welfare?” Equally important, bribery and
corruption are deeply at odds with the moral basis of most of the world’s great religions,
which have often provided the moral underpinnings of the modern state, as is clear, for
instance, by reading the U.S. Constitution and other such founding documents.
In many of the measures discussed in previous blogs aimed at combating corruption, the
underlying philosophy is one of eliminating the opportunity for corruption by changing
incentives, by closing off loopholes and eliminating misconceived rules that encourage
corrupt behavior. If, for instance, the budget is formulated, approved and executed in an
 environment of clear rules and transparent procedures, it is far less likely to be a
mechanism for abuse and personal enrichment. But an approach that focuses solely on
changing the rules and the incentives, accompanied by appropriately harsh punishment
for violation of the rules, is likely to be far more effective if it is also supported by efforts
to buttress the moral and ethical foundation of human behavior. A strategy in the struggle
against corruption that is based solely on the design of better rules and harsher
punishment for offenders is likely to be expensive and inefficient: expensive because of
the need to build an infrastructure of enforcement that is credible and which catches and
deals with offenders, but inefficient because it immediately pits the regulators/enforcers
against the offenders in a cat-and-mouse game. And we have seen that the mice are often
well-equipped to win, because the stakes are so high and the cat (regulator) is underpaid,
overstretched, and outsmarted. The 2008-2009 global financial crisis revealed huge gaps
in the regulation of the “shadow” banking system (hedge funds, investment banks, other
off-balance sheet vehicles), but also showed that poorly-paid regulators are no match for
the creativity of bankers willing to stretch the rules in an effort to disguise reality and
boost short-term profits.

This means that in the long-term perspective, anticorruption strategies have to be supported by
moral education and the strengthening of the ethical principles underpinning society.
Appropriate policies and the right sorts of incentives may, in the end, go some way in
addressing the problem of corruption but may in many places not be enough. This may
mean reinforcing the civic responsibility component of secular education. It may require
religious leaders—who bear such heavy responsibility for the decline of religion as a
force for social cohesion—to set aside narrow doctrinal differences and return to the
spiritual roots of their respective faiths to revitalize their ability to lead individuals and
societies to a stronger identification with the spiritual rather than the material dimension
of human nature. In particular, it will involve partnerships with all the organizations and
social forces that have a strong ethical foundation. In a society with stronger ethical
standards, the struggle against corruption will gain a new source of strength that will
complement the progress made in recent years in improving the legal framework
designed to combat bribery and corruption.
The rule of law
The rule of law, which distinguishes a civilised society from an uncivilised one, is indispensable
but not a sufficient condition for the elimination of corruption. In an uncivilised society,
the law of the jungle or the right of might prevails. In such a society there is no security
for the weak and the poor who live at the mercy of the powerful and the rich. On the
other hand, in a civilised society, dealings between the individuals as well as between the
individual and the state are governed by laws which establish the rights and the
obligations of each side. Corruption, when it takes the form of misuse of state authority
 and resources for personal gains, generally implies a violation of the law of the land. Its
antidote, therefore, is the rule of law which dictates equality of citizens before law and
their entitlement to a fair trial and due process in case of any criminal charges or
determination of their civil rights and obligations.
The rule of law is crucial for stable democracy, social justice and domestic peace. Equally
important is the confidence that citizens have in state institutions and their
representatives. Good governance and the fight against corruption require oversight not
just from institutions, but also from civil society.
The importance of having a separation of powers and an independent judiciary that enforces laws
and protects citizens from indiscriminate decision-making. It is also particularly
important to have rule-based “integrity of management” and guaranteed property rights.
Corruption, on the other hand, undermines the faith that citizens have in the state and
causes enormous economic damage. Although the fight against corruption is increasingly
taking center stage in reform debates, there is a lack of solutions.

D. Ways and Strategies Against Corruption.

1. Paying civil servants well

Whether civil servants are appropriately compensated or grossly underpaid will clearly affect
motivation and incentives. If public sector wages are too low, employees may find
themselves under pressure to supplement their incomes in “unofficial” ways. Van
Rijckeghem and Weder (2001) did some empirical work showing that in a sample of less
developed countries, there is an inverse relationship between the level of public sector
wages and the incidence of corruption.

2. Creating transparency and openness in government spending

Subsidies, tax exemptions, public procurement of goods and services, soft credits,
extra-budgetary funds under the control of politicians—all are elements of the various
ways in which governments manage public resources. Governments collect taxes, tap the
capital markets to raise money, receive foreign aid and develop mechanisms to allocate
these resources to satisfy a multiplicity of needs. Some countries do this in ways that are
relatively transparent and make efforts to ensure that resources will be used in the public
interest. The more open and transparent the process, the less opportunity it will provide
for malfeasance and abuse. Collier (2007) provides persuasive evidence on the negative
 impact of ineffective systems of budget control. Countries where citizens are able to
scrutinize government activities and debate the merits of various public policies also
makes a difference. In this respect, press freedoms and levels of literacy will, likewise,
shape in important ways the context for reforms. Whether the country has an active civil
society, with a culture of participation could be an important ingredient supporting
various strategies aimed at reducing corruption.

3. Cutting red tape

The high correlation between the incidence of corruption and the extent of bureaucratic red tape
as captured, for instance, by the Doing Business indicators suggests the desirability of
eliminating as many needless regulations while safeguarding the essential regulatory
functions of the state. The sorts of regulations that are on the books of many
countries—to open up a new business, to register property, to engage in international
trade, and a plethora of other certifications and licenses—are sometimes not only
extremely burdensome but governments have often not paused to examine whether the
purpose for which they were introduced is at all relevant to the needs of the present.
Rose-Ackerman (1998) suggests that “the most obvious approach is simply to eliminate
laws and programs that breed corruption.”

4. Replacing regressive and distorting subsidies with targeted cash transfers

Subsidies are another example of how government policy can distort incentives and create
opportunities for corruption. According to an IMF study (2013), consumer subsidies for
energy products amount to some $1.9 trillion per year, equivalent to about 2.5 percent of
global GDP or 8 percent of government revenues. These subsidies are very regressively
distributed, with over 60 percent of total benefits accruing to the richest 20 percent of
households, in the case of gasoline. Removing them could result in a significant reduction
in CO2 emissions and generate other positive spillover effects. Subsidies often lead to
smuggling, to shortages, and to the emergence of black markets. Putting aside the issue of
the opportunity costs (how many schools could be built with the cost of one year’s energy
subsidy?), and the environmental implications associated with artificially low prices,
subsidies can often put the government at the center of corruption-generating schemes.
Much better to replace expensive, regressive subsidies with targeted cash transfers.

5. Deploying smart technology

Just as government-induced distortions provide many opportunities for corruption, it is also the
case that frequent, direct contact between government officials and citizens can open the
way for illicit transactions. One way to address this problem is to use readily available
technologies to encourage more of an arms-length relationship between officials and civil
society; in this respect the Internet has been proved to be an effective tool to reduce
corruption. In some countries the use of online platforms to facilitate the government’s
interactions with civil society and the business community has been particularly
successful in the areas of tax collection, public procurement, and red tape. Perhaps one of
the most fertile sources of corruption in the world is associated with the purchasing
activities of the state. Purchases of goods and services by the state can be sizable, in most
countries somewhere between 5-10 percent of GDP. Because the awarding of contracts
can involve a measure of bureaucratic discretion, and because most countries have long
histories of graft, kickbacks, and collusion in public procurement, more and more
countries have opted for procedures that guarantee adequate levels of openness,
competition, a level playing field for suppliers, fairly clear bidding procedures, and so on.

6. Speed up the judgement and increase the courts

Many cases of corruption take years to be given a verdict. This delay in cases creates a lack of
fear of being corrupt and also huge time span for court trials gives sufficient time to make
alterations in the witness. Establishing fast-track courts and giving severe punishment for
corruption practice will keep control on corruption.

7. Make media responsible and fix laws to be so

There are many major scams and corruption events involving media. Though the media is well
aware of the corruption happening they stay silent due to their support for some political
parties or else their owners get some monetary benefits from the rulers. Even there are
many reporters who are aware of scam or corruption, they stay silent without revealing it
to the press for having received monetary benefits to do so. If media personnel are found
to be guilty of not having exposed the scam or corruption intentionally, they have to be
prosecuted, and their licenses are withdrawn.

E. Christian Worldview on Corruption

On a strictly theological registry corruption is rooted in the corruption of original
sin and that reflects the will power and the selfish aspirations of human nature. As such,
corruption appears to be the same rejection of the Father's loving plan, of neighbor and a
rejection of social practice in total contradiction with the requirements of the divine Word
(love your neighbor as yourself). However, the discourse that identifies the corruption of
sin and moral failure culminates in the hope of a future free society.
 Amongst many social disorders seen in the Scriptures is Corruption. It is an
ethical problem also addresses in the Bible. Modern day Christian doctrine rests upon the
premise that God preserved the Bible in an absolute infallible and pure state, in order that
all men should know the (historical) truth and believe in the Son of God. Their doctrinal
position is that if God permitted the Bible to have been altered, then the present-day
church could not be genuine. Based upon this dogmatic presumption that the Christian
Church must be maintained in order for man to be saved, they reason that God would not
allow the written word of the scriptures to be corrupted. That said corruption is therefore
one of the many moral issues addressed in the different biblical writings, Like the letters
of the Apostles and the Holy Gospels, not living out the Old Testament. The Bible is a
road-map that leads us to the Gate of the Kingdom, and the Word that is written in our
hearts -- rather than a final revelation from God to man -- that we are able to even begin
to come to terms with the Spiritual Gospel of Christ that can never be corrupted.
Relief organizations, missions and churches are themselves part of both the
problem and its solution. Usually it is called "little corruption acceleration or the small
"corruption of obtaining" practiced for authorizations, churches, with their development
projects and charities, are also affected by the phenomenon of corruption like other
sectors of society. In addition, comes the corruption which is the result of church
managers and executives whose control is not very democratic. These accumulate
excessive power and can develop genuine nepotism. However, over the long-term
development projects form the major if exceptional corruption cases. When they are
discovered, the authors are still often judged and punished by the courts. Rest assured that
checks are carried out by ordinary accounts audit firms, but the reviews often lack rigor
and are not instruments to detect cases of corruption. Corruption presents itself as a
pathological phenomenon to distinguish natural phenomena. But if we seek to understand
this phenomenon it is also with the desire to change, to stop it totally. It is therefore
necessary first to find the cause or causes of corruption before considering ways and
means to act on it. Corruption is indeed a result that depends on a cause, an antecedent.

F. Conclusion
Corruption is a behavior and action that nobody ever should do in every situation
because it is a bad habit, even when the situation allows the person to commit corruption
because nobody will know that corruption had been done, because it is a self-discipline
that we must maintain so we do not cause a greater loss to other people. Corruption is a
crime that inflict a financial loss to others and may effect a greater loss than it should be,
and corruption can effect many aspect of life that will trouble other people especially in
government because the money from the people that’s called taxes must be used to the
maximum for the welfare of the people itself to gain maximum usefulness, but when the
behavior of corruption take place in the government works then it would affect the citizen
of that country that will make the people who pays taxes suffer and gain no advantage
 from the tax they pay. Corruption become a global problem. All Countries all are facing
this issue in fact corruption is one of the main causes of the downfall of the nations in the
past. It’s just liked a disease and So many people are victims of this disease and it must
be cure with strong action. Corrupt person never thinks about country or society welfare
it’s only aims increase their earnings. The way to reduce and stop the act of corruption
came from the people itself whether they choose to do corruption or not. Corruption can
be stopped by the when people are educated, and they know their rights, responsibilities
and self-awareness. each and every people are equal to responsible to put an end to
corruption. And the law of corruption of the country must be strong and cannot be
contested by anyone when someone commit a corruption and the punishment must be
hard enough, so people may scare from doing corruption.

G. References
Kurniawan, Ardeno. ​Korupsi membuka pandora box perilaku korup dan dimensi etika, budaya,
dan keperilakuan​. Yogyakarta: C.V ANDI OFFSET (PENERBIT ANDI),2018
Setiyono, Budi, Adnan, Muhammad, and Astrika, Lusia. Gerakan anti korupsi. Bandung:
PENERBIT NUANSA CENDEKIA,2018.
Journal Contemporary politics > volume 5, 1999 – issue 3
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467954X.1961.tb01093.x?journalCode=sora
http://sunnewsonline.com/the-war-against-corruption-2/
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10611-016-9679-6