ELEKTROMAGNETIK

APC Electromagnetism
A. A Guide to Biot-Savart Law

A Guide to Biot-Savart Law
Probably one of the hardest, and most confusing, of the four electromagnetic equations is the
Biot-Savart Law (pronounced bee-yo-suh-var).
This law is easily seen as the magnetic equivalent of Coulomb's Law. What it basically states
is that the magnetic field decreases with the square of the distance from a "point of current"
or current segment. Where it differs is the fact that a point of current is much harder to
achieve than a point charge.
As mentioned earlier, the Biot-Savart law deals with a current element. A current element is
like a magnetic element in that it is the current multiplied by distance. However a current
element, by its very definition, cannot exist in a single point. Therefore, we must take the
derivative of the current element and integrate a path of point-current elements. Stay with me,
this becomes less confusing as it goes on.
Initially, let's try to derive the Biot-Savart Law from its similarity to Coulomb's Law and
other facts that we already know. First, we'll start with an expression for an electric field
around a point charge based on Coulomb's Law:
If we exchange
 q with I dl (I is always constant in a wire) and dl makes it a point-current element or

current segment
 E with dB (infinitesimals must be conserved),
then we get the very basics of the Biot-Savart Law.
Our next step will be to decide what expression will replace "k". Since k in Coulomb's Law is
, and is always on the opposite side of the fraction with on these laws, the
"k" for Biot-Savart law should be
Thomas P.U. August’10 1

So we now have
One final consideration that we must consider is that the current element has something that a
point charge doesn’t have -- a direction. Since a magnetic field is strongest when it is at right
angles to the current, we have to include the cross product of the direction of the radius,
where is the angle between r and I.
That wasn’t so hard, was it? You might want to take a breather before continuing. Rested?
Then let's use the Biot-Savart Law to find the magnetic field around a current carrying wire
and at the center of a current loop.
Magnetic Field Around a Current Carrying Wire
First we are going to find the magnetic field at a distance R from a long, straight wire
carrying a current of I. To do this, we must determine the proper use of Biot-Savart.
Pulling out all of the terms that aren’t related to distance will give us
This wire is long, so we are going to pretend that it is infinite in length - ain’t physics great?

where
 is the distance from the point-current

element to the closest point of the wire to
the point, and
 R is the distance from the point to the
wire, and
 r is the distance from the point-current
element to the point.
and
Furthermore, if we use the trigonometry relationship, sin = /r, we can conclude our
derivation with the following integration
which you should recognize from our previous lesson on Ampere's Law.
Magnetic Field at the Center of a Current-Carrying Loop
Let’s try something else. What would be the magnetic field at the center of a current carrying
loop? Let us assume that the wire is a loop with a radius R and carries a current of I.
image courtesy of John Hopkins University

Physics Lecture Demonstrations

Since r is always perpendicular to the direction of the current, we do not need to worry about
messy integration.
Furthermore, since we are in a circular loop, is equal to . So we end up with
It is easily possible to find the magnetic field in many other geometries. The Biot-Savart Law
is much, much, much more accurate than Ampere's Law (as its applications involve fewer
assumptions). However, it is also much harder to apply. Therefore, it will tend to be the law
used when Ampere's Law doesn't fit. For more practice, find other geometries of wires to
practice with because nobody likes Biot-Savart.
B. A Special Case of Induction

A Special Case of Induction
We are going to investigate how you would calculate the induced emf in a rectangular wire
loop that lies parallel to a current-carrying wire having a variable current.
Experience tells us that we should use Ampere's Law to calculate the strength of the magnetic
field passing through the wire. However, this field is not uniform, but varies inversely as the
perpendicular distance from the wire.
Next, we need to calculate the flux passing through the loop, by referencing the equation

Finally, to calculate the induced emf, we would reference Faraday's Law
Let's begin by developing an expression for the flux passing through the loop. since the
magnetic field is not uniform throughout the area, we need to build areas through which it is
uniform and add these areas up to determine the total flux.
In the diagram, we see a strip that has an area of A = x(dy). If dy is small, the magnetic field
will be uniform in this smaller area. Its flux contribution, would be
Now all we need to do is add up all of these contributions to calculate the total flux through
the loop. To do this we will set up an integral with limits from a to a+y.
Our next step will be to develop an expression for the induced emf using Faraday's Law.

C. Dielectrics: Beyond the Fundamentals
Dielectrics: Beyond the Fundamentals
Gauss' Law has shown us that the electric field between two parallel plates
can be calculated with the formula
If the strength of the electric field between the plates becomes too strong, then the air
between them can no longer insulate the charges from sparking, or discharging, between the
plates. For air, this breakdown occurs when the electric field is greater than 3 x 106 V/m. In
order to keep this from happening, an insulator, or dielectric, is often inserted between the
plates to reduce the strength of the electric field, without having to reduce the voltage being
placed across the plates.
A dielectric is a polar material whose electric field aligns to oppose the original electric field
already established between the plates. The dielectric is measured in terms of a dimensionless
constant, κ ≥ 1, whose value is usually referenced from a table.
Material κ
air 1.00054
ethanol 24.3
glass 5-10
mica 3-6
paper 2-4
paraffin 2.1-2.5
polystyrene 2.3-2.6
porcelain 5.7
rubber 2-3
teflon 2.1
water 80

If this insulating material is insufficient then the capacitor can still leak allowing current to
flow between the plates. When this occurs the electric device "smells as if something is
burning."
κ = Eoriginal / Edielectric
κ = Eo / Ed
κ = Cdielectric / Coriginal
κ = Cd / C o
When the battery is removed, the

dielectric will decrease the
electric field strength and the
voltage between the plates while
it increases their capacitance.
E = V/d
Using the fact that V = Ed and that capacitance is the ratio of the charge stored per unit volt
we derived the following formula for the capacitance based on the geometry of a parallel-
plate capacitor.
Refer to the following information for the next five questions.
A 90 µF capacitor is initially charged to 12 volts without a dielectric in place.

If the battery remains connected while a paper dielectric having a constant of κ = 2.0
is inserted between the capacitor's plates, then what will be its new capacitance?
180 µF
How much charge will be on its plates?
0.00216 C
If instead, the capacitor is disconnected from the battery before the paper dielectric is
inserted, what would be the capacitor's new capacitance?
180 µF
How much charge would be on its plates?
0.00108 C

What would be the new voltage across its plates?
6V
For more practice with capacitors and both connected and disconnected batteries, reference
this worksheet.
Dielectric Configurations
Often capacitors can have complicated dielectric configurations based on available materials
and circuit requirements. The good news is that they can be solved based on the principles of
capacitors in series and in parallel, in combination with the formulas for the electric field and
the geometry of a parallel plate capacitor.
If the capacitors are arranged in series (one after another along a single path), then
Cseries = (1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3)-1
If the capacitors arranged in parallel (strung along multiple paths that cross the same section),
then
Cparallel = C1 + C2 + C3
Let's work a few examples.
Refer to the following information for the next seven questions.
In each of the following cases, the charged plates are 10 cm by 20 cm and the gap between
the plates is 6 mm.
 cream signifies a gap only filled with air, κ = 1.0

 orange represents a dielectric with κ = 2.0
 yellow represents a dielectric with κ = 3.0
 purple represents a dielectric with κ = 4.0
What is the capacitance of this air-filled capacitor?
2.95 x 10-11 F

If a metal conducting slab 2 mm thick is placed in the air gap between the plates,
what would be the capacitor's new capacitance?
4.43 x 10-11 F
What is the new capacitance if the gap is completely filled with a dielectric having κ
= 3.0?
8.85 x 10-11 F
What is the capacitance when its gap is only half-filled with a dielectric having κ =
3.0?
4.43 x 10-11 F

What is the capacitance when its gap is half-filled with a dielectric having κ = 3.0
and the other half is filled with a dielectric having κ = 2.0?
7.08 x 10-11 F

How is the capacitance changed when the gap is half-filled with a dielectric having κ
= 3.0 and the other half is filled with a dielectric having κ = 2.0 but in this new
orientation?
7.38 x 10-11 F
And what is the capacitance of this final configuration?

9.44 x 10-11 F

D. Electric Field Strength vs Electric Potential
Electric Field Strength vs Electric Potential
When two charged objects are brought into proximity they either attract or repel each other
with an electric force described by Coulomb's Law. Since this force is conservative; that
is, path-independent, it can be expressed as the negative derivative of its associated potential
energy function.
As in gravitation where an object's gravitational potential energy is proportional to its mass,

m,
a charged object's electrical potential energy is proportional to the magnitude of its charge.
The greater the charge placed on an object in a given position in an electric field, the larger
its electric potential energy.
The ratio of electric potential energy per unit charge is therefore a property of the electric
field and is called the field's electric potential, or voltage (volt = joule/coulomb). If you were
to connect together a series of positions having the same voltage you would produce an
equipotential surface. Electric potential is a scalar quantity.
Electric Field Strength and Potential
We are now going to derive two important relationships between the quantities electric field
strength and electric potential.
To derive an expression for the local electric field, E, in terms of its electric potential,
V, we begin with the definition of a conservative force and the following two facts:
1. the force exerted on a charge by an electric field equals the product of the
charge times the field strength (F = qE)
2. a volt is defined as electric potential energy per unit charge,

This expression gives rise to an alternate unit for measuring electric fields, volt/meter.
 The electric field is the negative gradient of the potential; that is, field lines point from
positions of high potential to points of low potential. The more rapidly the voltage
changes the stronger the electric field in that region.
 Note that knowing the potential of one position in a field is insufficient to allow you
to calculate the electric field strength at that position. You must know the equation for
the potential over a region to take its derivative (rate of change with respect to
position) and calculate E.
 Also recall that the negative sign in this formula was originally introduced since a
conservative electric force reduces a charged object's electric potential energy as it
accelerates the object to positions of lower potential: Δ KEgained + Δ Ulost = 0.
Now, instead of solving for the electric field strength, let's solve for the change in the
potential between two positions, a and b, in an electric field.
 Note in this expression that we are starting at a and going to b. The integral notation
is read as "the negative integral from a to b of E dr."

Point Charges
Use the formula for the electric field surrounding a point change to calculate an
expression that would allow you to evaluate the electric potential (or voltage) at a given
distance from the point charge.
How does the graph of E vs r for a charged spherical conductor of radius R compare to its
graph of V vs r?
Observe the properties of E vs r from the perspective of it being a gradient, or negative
derivative of V vs r.
For a conducting sphere,For a conducting sphere,

V = kQ/r E = kQ/r2
In a hydrogen atom, an electron (q = -e = -1.6 x 10-19 C) orbits a proton (q = +e = +1.6 x 10-19

C) at a radius of 0.53 x 10-10 meters.
Considering the proton to be the central charge, what is the electric potential at the
electron's orbital radius?
27.2 volts

How much electric potential energy does the electron have by virtual of its position
in the proton's electric field?
-4.35 x 10-18 J
This question could have also been phrased as "how much electric potential
energy is stored in a hydrogen atom?"
How much kinetic energy does the electron have as it orbits the proton?
2.17 x 10-18 J
What is the electron's total energy?
-2.18 x 10-18 J
This energy is negative since the electron is trapped in the energy well of the
atom. Recall that you the same scenario when you are working with satellites
orbiting planets (link).
How much additional energy would the electron need to escape from its energy well -
that is, to be ionized?
+2.18 x 10-18 J
Given an electric field function, determine the potential difference
In a certain region of space the electric field is defined as E = 1500 i - 800 j. Use this
information to answer the following questions.
Is this a uniform field?
yes, it has a magnitude of 1700 N/C pointing in a constant direction of -28.1º
Find the potential difference VB - VA if A is at the origin and B is at (0, -4).
6000 volts
ΔVx(A to B) = - Es = (-1)(1500)(-4) = 6000 volts

Find the potential difference VC - VA if A is at the origin and C is at (-4, 0).
-3200 V
ΔVy(A to C) = - Es = (-1)(-800)(-4) = -3200 volts
Find the potential difference VC - VB.
-9200 V
ΔV(B to C) = ΔVx + ΔVy
ΔV(B to C) = (-1)(1500)(4) + (-1)(-800)(-4)
ΔV(B to C) = -6000 + -3200
ΔV(B to C) = -9200 volts
How much work would be required to move an electron from point B to point C?
9200 eV = 1.47 x 10-15 J

W = qΔV
W = (-1.6 x 10-19)(-9200)
W = 1.47 x 10-15 J
Since the electron would be moving towards a point of lower electric potential, this
work would have to be done by an external agent
Outside of a long charged wire, the electric field is pointing radially inward and is defined by
the function
Er = -1200/r N/C
for r > R, the radius of the wire.

Is this field uniform?
no, its magnitude depends on the distance from the center of the wire.
Is the wire positively or negatively charged?
negatively charged, it states that the field lines point inward
Find VB - VA if rB = 60 cm and rA = 20 cm.
1320 V
Is A or B at the higher potential?

at B since a positive test charge would accelerate along the field line from B to A;
remember that when charges move ALONG a field line they move from points of
high potential to points of low potential
How much work would be required to move a proton from point A to point B?
Given a potential function, determine the electric field
Refer to the following information for the next six questions.
A charge distribution creates an electric potential that obeys the function
V(x) = 3(x - 1)2 + 5
along the x-axis.

What is the electric potential at x = 2.00?
8.00 volts
What is the electric potential at x = 2.10?
8.63 volts
What is the voltage gradient in this region around x = 2.05?
6.3 V/m
[V(2.10) - V(2.00)]/0.1 = 6.30 V/m
Differentiate to determine the associated electric field function along the x-axis.
E = -6x + 6

Evaluate your electric field function to determine the x-component of the electric field at
x = 2.05?
-6.30 V/m
How closely does the value of the voltage gradient approximate your previous answer for
the electric field at x = 2.05?
E(2.05) equals the negative of the voltage gradient

E. Inductors and RL Circuits
Inductors and RL Circuits
An inductor is a device placed in a circuit to oppose a change in current; that is, to maintain,
and regulate, a steady current in that section of the circuit. Generally an inductor is thought of
as a coil of wire wound around either an air or ferromagnetic core. Shown below is the
symbol for an inductor.
The unit used to measure the inductance, or the size of an inductor, is a henry (H). We will
now derive an expression for inductance.
The flux through an area, A, resulting for a perpendicular field, , is expressed as
If there are N coils, then the total flux would be expressed as
where
where
 n is the number of loops per meter,

 is the length of the inductor, and
 N is the total number of loops.
When current is running through the coils, a uniform magnetic field is produced down the
center of the inductor. That is, a given amount of magnetic flux is present. If the current were
to change, the amount of flux would change. This changing flux induces an opposing emf in
the coil. This self-induced emf is sometimes called a back emf.
Using Ampere's Law we can derive an expression for the magnetic along the axis of a tightly
wound inductor as

Substituting in this expression for the magnetic field we get
This expression of total flux per unit current is known as the inductance of the coil, L.
One henry of inductance occurs when 1 weber of flux is generated by 1 amp of current
circulating through the coil(s). Notice that the inductance of a coil is a constant for its
geometry or physical characteristics: permeability (µo), coils per unit length( ), and cross-
sectional area, A.
Faraday's Law
Faraday's Law states the emf induced is a coil is proportional to the rate of change of flux.
Later, Lenz added that the induced emf will be established in such a way as to oppose these
changes and return the coil to its original condition. (This is actually a statement of
conservation of energy. If the flux generated by the coil did NOT oppose the change in
external flux then the induced emf would continue without limit.)
Substituting in our previous results we can develop an expression for the emf induced in an
inductor.

Notice that the faster the current tries to change, the greater the self-induced emf will
become. When the current is steady, , there will be NO self-induced voltage in the
solenoid, or inductor .
RL Circuit
Let's begin by looking at an example of an inductor-resistance circuit, an RL circuit.
When the switch is initially closed, we can use Kirchoff's loop rule to write an equation for
the loop ABCDA where I represents the current in the circuit.
Since the inductor opposes change, it will initially act to thwart any current flowing through
the circuit. The expression L/R is called the LR time constant.

How many many seconds will it take for the current in an RL circuit composed of a 36-
volt battery, a 120-ohm resistor, and a 0.001-henry inductor to reach 90% of its final
value?
1.92 x 10-5 seconds
Energy Stored in an Inductor
As the current builds, the battery is supplying power to run the circuit. The energy not
dissipated across the resistor is stored in the inductor's magnetic field. To derive an
expression for this energy, we begin by multiplying every term by I.
where each term now represents power, or the rate at which work/energy is done/stored. In
particular, for our inductor,
The magnetic energy density is the energy per unit volume stored in a magnetic field.

Recall that the electric energy density stored in an electric field (presented when we studied
the energy stored in a charged capacitor) is
Once a maximum current is reached, the inductor can no longer resist change and
it effectively disappears - having no further impact on the circuit. Notice that if the battery
were to be removed from the circuit, the current should ordinarily immediately fall to zero.
However, when the switch is closed the inductor would once again want to resist the change
in current. Consequently the current would fall off in agreement with an exponential decay as
dictated by the time constant, L/R.

F. Magnetic Field Along the Axis of a Current Loop
Magnetic Field Along the Axis of a Current Loop
Now that you have become familiar with the Biot-Savart Law for calculating the magnetic
field around a current-carrying wire and at the center of a current loop, let's expand our
investigations to calculations of the magnetic field along the axis of a current loop.
In the following shockwave animation, a continuous current in a horizontal loop has be

"divided" into multiple "current elements." Using the principle of superposition and the Biot-
Savart Law each discrete element generates its own magnetic field which, when integrated,
produce a resultant field that is aligned parallel to the axis of the loop.
images courtesy of MIT open courseware
Derivation of the Magnetic Field Along the Axis of a Current Loop
Note in the diagram that the magnetic field contribution, dB, of each current segment, ,
is perpendicular to the radius vector .
Let's begin with a basic statement of the Biot-Savart Law.

As shown in the animation, the components perpendicular to the loop's axis, dBy, will cancel
as we integrate around the loop. Thus, we will focus on only the horizontal components, dBx.
Using the Pythagorean Theorem, we can express r in terms of x and R,
giving us
Our last step is to calculate the resultant magnetic field by adding up all of these
contributions.

Notice that when x = 0, this formula reduces to our former expression for the magnetic field
at the center of a current loop derived in an earlier lesson.

G. Maxwell's Equations
Maxwell's Equations
Maxwell's Equations are to electromagnetism as Newton's Laws are to mechanics. They form
a basic set of equations that can be used to solve virtually any problem in classical
electromagnetism.
 Gauss' Law for electric fields
 Gauss' Law for magnetic fields
 Faraday's Law
 Ampere's Law (modified with Maxwell's displacement current)

Faraday's Law states that a changing magnetic field through a closed curve will induce an
electric field that is proportional to the magnetic field's rate of change. Maxwell's
modification of Ampere's Law states that a changing electric field through a closed surface
will induce a magnetic field that is proportional to the electric field's rate of change. This
amazing set of symmetric dependencies indicates that an electromagnetic wave, once
initiated, would be self-propagating.
image courtesy of MIT's OpenCourseWare
Although the actual derivation is beyond the scope and mathematics of this introductory
course, when Maxwell combined these equations he discovered a wave equation for the
electric and magnetic field vectors. In 1886, Maxwell postulated that his waves could be
generated by accelerating electric charges and that they would travel at a speed equal to the
speed of light. This extraordinary result would prove to be the unifying link between
electricity and light.
where
 the permittivity of free space used in Coulomb's Law and Gauss' Law -
 the permeability of free space used in Ampere's Law and the Biot-Savart Law -
In 1887, Heinrich Hertz actually produced the first radio waves in his laboratory at the
Karlsruhe Polytechnic in Germany. Today broadcasting rights for bands of the
electromagnetic spectrum are licensed in the United States by the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC).

H. Spherical, Parallel Plate, and Cylindrical Capacitors
Spherical, Parallel Plate, and Cylindrical Capacitors
In this lesson we will derive the equations for capacitance based on three special types of
geometries: spherical capacitors, capacitors with parallel plates and those with cylindrical
cables.
Spherical Capacitors
Consider an isolated, initially uncharged, metal conductor. After the first small amount of
charge, q, is placed on the conductor, its voltage becomes as compared to V = 0 at

infinity. To further charge the conductor, work must be done to bring increments of charge,
dq, to its surface:
The amount of work required to bring in each additional charged-increment, dq, increases as
the spherical conductor becomes more highly charged. The total electric potential energy of
the conductor can be calculated by

The capacitance of the spherical conductor can be calculated as
Notice that a spherical conductor's capacitance is totally dependent on the sphere's radius.
Refer to the following information for the next three questions.
A spherical conductor has a diameter of 10 cm.
What is its capacitance in farads?
5.56 x 10-12 F
If the conductor holds 6 µC of charge, then what is the electric potential at its surface?
1.08 x 106 V
How much work was required to charge the capacitor?
3.24 J
Parallel Plate Capacitors
Since we know that the basic relationship Q = CV, we must obtain expressions for Q and V
to evaluate C.
Using Gauss' Law,

We can evaluate E, the electric field between the plates, once we employ an appropriate
gaussian surface. In this case, we will use a box with one side embedded within the top plate.
This box has six faces: a top, a bottom, left side, right side, front surface and back surface.
Since the top surface is embedded within the metal plate, no field lines will pass through it
since under electrostatic conditions there are no field lines within a conductor. Field lines will
only run parallel to the area vector of the bottom surface. They will be perpendicular to the
area vectors of the other four sides. Thus,
The total charge enclosed in our gaussian box equals
Thus,
We also know that the potential difference across the plates is equal to
Since plate B is defined to be at V = 0,

we can rewrite this as
Substituting into Q = CV yields
To relate the energy per unit volume stored in a capacitor to the magnitude of its electric
field, we will build on our relationship for the energy stored in a capacitor developed in a
previous lesson.

Cylindrical Capacitors
Now let's consider the geometry of a cylindrical capacitor. Suppose that our capacitor is
composed of an inner cylinder with radius a enclosed by an outer cylinder with radius b.
Since we know that the basic relationship Q = CV, we must obtain expressions for Q and V
to evaluate C.
Again, we will use Gauss' Law to evaluate the electric field between the plates by using a
gaussian surface that is cylindrical in shape and of length L. The cylinder has a
uniform charge per unit length of .

We also know that the potential difference across the cylinders is equal to
Since the outer plate is negative, its voltage can be set equal to 0, and we can state that the
potential difference across the capacitors equals

Returning to Q = CV
This represents the capacitance per unit length of our cylindrical capacitor. An excellent
example of a cylindrical capacitor is the coaxial cable used in cable TV systems.

I. Torque on a Current-Carrying Loop
Torque on a Current-Carrying Loop
Remember that when a current-carrying wire is placed in an external magnetic field then it
will experience a magnetic force that can be calculated with the equation
and obeys the right hand rule.
 thumb points in the direction of the current, I

 fingers point in the direction of the external magnetic field, B
 palm faces the direction of the force, F
This physlet by Walter Fendt illustrates this Lorentz force.
Example #1: Now let's place a freely-pivoting loop carrying a clockwise (red arrow) current
in an external (+x) magnetic field.
i. as the current flows up the left side, it will experience a force in the -z direction.
ii. as the current flows across the top of the loop, no force is exerted since the current
and the magnetic field are parallel.
iii. as the current flows down the right side, it will experience a force in the +z direction.
These forces will result in the right side of the loop rotating towards the reader.
Example #2: Now let's place the same freely-pivoting loop carrying a clockwise (red arrow)
current in an external (+z) magnetic field.

i. as the current flows up the left side, it will experience a force in the +x direction.
ii. as the current flows across the top of the loop, it will experience a force in the -y
direction
iii. as the current flows down the right side, it will experience a force in the -x direction.
Since the lines of action of both forces along the vertical sides pass through the axis of
rotation they will not produce a torque. Note that the line of action of the force along the top
section of the loop runs parallel to the axis and consequently can also not produce a torque. In
this orientation, the coil will not rotate about the specified axis.
Every current-carrying coil has an area vector, A, that is oriented perpendicular to is cross-
sectional area and points in the direction dictated by the right hand curl rule:
I circulates clockwise I circulates counter-clockwise

A points in the -z direction A points in the +z direction
B points in the +x direction B points in the +x direction
the right edge of the coil would the right edge of the coil would
rotate towards the reader rotate away from the reader
aerial view aerial view

Take a moment and investigate the following physlet modeling the rotation of the current-
carrying loop in a magnetic field by Dr. Scott at Lawrence Technological University in
Southfield, Michigan. Notice how the direction/magnitude of the current, direction/magnitude
of the magnetic field and the size of the angle between the magnetic moment (area vector)
affect the loop's rotation.
When the area vector is at right angles to the magnetic field the torque is maximized.
Conversely, when the area vector is parallel to the magnetic field no torque is produced as
evidenced in our second introductory example.
So how do we calculate the magnitude of the torque on a current-carrying coil?
Returning to our initial example,
We see that the torque
can be calculated using the appropriate values for r and F as
If there was more than one loop, the expression would be multiplied by the number of loops,
N.

The expression NIA is called the magnetic moment of the loop and it measured in Am2.
Although we have derived this equation for a rectangular loop, it can be used with any planar
loop of any geometry - in particular, circular loops whose areas are .
Suppose you have a circular loop of radius 0.25 meters that has 100 turns of wire. The coil
carries 2 amps of current while in a magnetic field having a magnitude of 10 T.
What is the coil's magnetic moment?
NIA = 100(2)(0.196)= 39.3 Am2
What is the maximum torque the coil experiences?
= 393 Nm
Which would have a greater effect: reducing the radius by a factor of 2 or reducing the
number of loops by a factor of 2?
radius - remember that the area is proportional to the r2
To see an application of the torque on a current-carrying loop, investigate this physlet by

Walter Fendt of an electric DC motor.

J.
www_kutl_kyushu-u_ac_jp
yanti_7598@yahoo.com

ELEKTROMAGNETIK

Cargado por

Información del documento

Título original

Derechos de autor

Formatos disponibles

Compartir este documento

Compartir o incrustar documentos

Opciones para compartir

¿Le pareció útil este documento?

¿Este contenido es inapropiado?

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

ELEKTROMAGNETIK

Cargado por

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

APC Electromagnetism

A. A Guide to Biot-Savart Law

 q with I dl (I is always constant in a wire) and dl makes it a point-current element or

then we get the very basics of the Biot-Savart Law.

Thomas P.U. August’10 1

where is the angle between r and I.

Magnetic Field Around a Current Carrying Wire

Thomas P.U. August’10 2

 is the distance from the point-current

Magnetic Field at the Center of a Current-Carrying Loop

image courtesy of John Hopkins University

Thomas P.U. August’10 3

Furthermore, since we are in a circular loop, is equal to . So we end up with

B. A Special Case of Induction

Thomas P.U. August’10 4

Thomas P.U. August’10 5

can be calculated with the formula

Thomas P.U. August’10 6

When the battery is removed, the

Refer to the following information for the next five questions.

A 90 µF capacitor is initially charged to 12 volts without a dielectric in place.

How much charge will be on its plates?

How much charge would be on its plates?

Thomas P.U. August’10 7

Cseries = (1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3)-1

Let's work a few examples.

Refer to the following information for the next seven questions.

 cream signifies a gap only filled with air, κ = 1.0

What is the capacitance of this air-filled capacitor?

Thomas P.U. August’10 8

Thomas P.U. August’10 9

Thomas P.U. August’10 10

And what is the capacitance of this final configuration?

Thomas P.U. August’10 11

Thomas P.U. August’10 12

Electric Field Strength vs Electric Potential

As in gravitation where an object's gravitational potential energy is proportional to its mass,

Electric Field Strength and Potential

2. a volt is defined as electric potential energy per unit charge,

Thomas P.U. August’10 13

Thomas P.U. August’10 14

For a conducting sphere,For a conducting sphere,

Refer to the following information for the next five questions.

In a hydrogen atom, an electron (q = -e = -1.6 x 10-19 C) orbits a proton (q = +e = +1.6 x 10-19

Thomas P.U. August’10 15

What is the electron's total energy?

Given an electric field function, determine the potential difference

Refer to the following information for the next five questions.

yes, it has a magnitude of 1700 N/C pointing in a constant direction of -28.1º

Find the potential difference VB - VA if A is at the origin and B is at (0, -4).

ΔVx(A to B) = - Es = (-1)(1500)(-4) = 6000 volts

Thomas P.U. August’10 16

ΔVy(A to C) = - Es = (-1)(-800)(-4) = -3200 volts

Find the potential difference VC - VB.

9200 eV = 1.47 x 10-15 J

Refer to the following information for the next five questions.

for r > R, the radius of the wire.

Is the wire positively or negatively charged?

negatively charged, it states that the field lines point inward

Find VB - VA if rB = 60 cm and rA = 20 cm.

Is A or B at the higher potential?

Thomas P.U. August’10 17

Given a potential function, determine the electric field