CHAPTER 4

CHEMICAL BONDING

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1. Lewis Dot Symbols
o When atoms interact to form a chemical bond, only their outer
regions are in contact. Then, when we study chemical bonding,
we are concerned with the valence electrons of the atoms.
To keep track of valence electrons in chemical rxn, & to make

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o
sure the total no. of electrons does not change, chemist use a
sys. of dots devised by Lewis & called Lewis dot symbols.
 Lewis dot symbols- consists of the symbol of an element and 1
dot for each valence electron in an atom of the element.

Li
1s2 2s1

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1. THE IONIC BOND
o Atoms of elements with low ionization NRG tend to form cations,
while those with high electron affinities tend to form anions.
o The elements most likely to form cations in ionic compunds are
the alkali metals & alkaline earth metals, & the elements most
likely to form anions are the halogens and oxygen.

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o Ionic bond- the electrostatic force that holds ions together in an
ionic compound.
Eg: Rxn between lithium & fluorine to form lithium fluoride(a
poisonous white powder used in lowering the m.p of solders & in manufacturing
ceramics). The electron configuration of Li is 1s2 2s1, & that of F is
1s2 2s2 2p5. When Li & F atoms come in contact with each other,
the outer 2s1 valence electron of Li is transferred to the F atom.

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2. THE COVALENT BOND
H + H H H
o This type of electron pairing is an eg. of a covalent bond- a bond
which 2 e- are shared by 2 atoms.
o Covalent compounds- compounds that contain only cov. bonds.
o Lone pairs- pairs of valence e- that are not involved in cov. dond

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formation (nonbonding electrons)
o Lewis structure- representation of covalent bonding in which
shared e- pairs are shown either as lines or as pairs of dots
between 2 atoms, & lone pairs are shown as pairs of dots on
individual atoms.
o Octet rule- an atom other than H tends to form bonds until it is
surrounded by 8 valence e-.
o Atoms can form different types of cov. bonds:
- Single bond: 2 atoms are held together by 1 e- pair.
- Double bond: 2 atoms share 2 pairs of e- .(eg: CO2 and C2H4)
- Multiple bonds: 2 atoms share 2/more pairs of e- .
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- Triple bond: 2 atoms share 3 pairs of e- .(eg: N2)
COMPARISON OF THE PROPERTIES OF COVALENT & IONIC COMPOUND
Covalent Compounds
o Gases, liquids, or low-melting
solids generally covalent
compounds.
o Low melting point.
o Low boiling point.
o High volatility.
o Cannot conduct electricity in
any states.
o Generally insoluble in water.
o Soluble in organic solvents.
Ionic Compounds
o Ionic compounds are solids at
room temperature.
o High melting point.
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o High boiling point.
o Low volatility.
o Conduct electricity in the
liquid state/aq. soln. but not
in the solid state.
o Generally soluble in water.
o Insoluble in organic solvent.
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TYPES OF BONDS
1. Intermolecular forces: attractive forces between molecules.
2. Intramolecular forces: hold atoms together in a
molecule.(Chemical bonding)
o Types of intermolecular forces:
- dipole-dipole forces

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- dipole-induced dipole van der Waals forces
- dispersion forces
o Ions & dipoles are attracted to one another by electrostatic
forces called ion-dipole forces, which are not van der Waals
forces.
o Hydrogen bonding is a strong type of dipole-dipole interaction.

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i) Dipole-dipole Forces
- attractive forces between polar molecules (molecules that
posses dipole moments)
- the larger the dipole moment, the greater the force.
ii) Ion-dipole Forces
- attract an ion (either a cation/an anion) & a polar molecule to

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each other
- the strength depends on the charge & size of the ion & on the
magnitude of the dipole moment & size of molecule.
- the charges on cations are generally more concentrated, since
cations are usually smaller than anions.
- therefore, a cation interact more strongly with dipoles than
does an anion having a charge of the same magnitude.

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iii) Dispersion Forces (London Forces)
- induced dipole: the separation of +ve & -ve charges in the atom
(or nonpolar molecule) is due to proximity of an ion/a polar
molecule.
a) ion-induced dipole interaction: attractive interaction between
an ion & the induced dipole.

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b) dipole-induced dipole interaction: attractive interaction
between a polar molecule & the induced dipole.
-this kind of interaction produces dispersion forces, attractive
forces that arise as a result of temporary dipoles induced in
atoms/molecules.
- dispersion forces increase with molar mass because molecules
with larger molar mass tend to have more e- & dispersion forces
increase in strength with the number of e-.
- m.p increases as the no. of e- in the molecule increases.
 KEEP IN MIND: Dispersion forces exist among species of all types,
whether they are neutral or bear a net charge & whether they are 8
polar/nonpolar.
iv) The Hydrogen Bond
o Hydrogen bond: a special type of dipole-dipole interaction
between hydrogen atom in a polar bond, such as N – H, O – H, or
F – H, & an electronegative O, N, or F atom.
A H B or A H A
o A & B represent O, N, or F; A – H is one molecule or part of a

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molecule and B is a part of another molecule; & the dotted line
represents the H bond.
o The 3 atoms usually lie in a straight line, but the angle AHB (or
AHA) can deviate as much as 30 ̊ from linearity.
o Normally, b.p of a series of similar compounds containing
elements in the same periodic group increase with increasing
molar mass.
o But, H compounds of elements in Gr. 15, 16, & 17 do not follow
this trend. In each of this series, the lightest compound (NH3,
H2O, HF) has the highest b.p.
o The reason is that there is extensive H bonding between 9
molecules in these compounds.
o Eg: In solid HF, the molecules do not exist as individual units,
instead, they form long zigzag chains:
F F F
H H H H H H
F F F
o In the liquid phase, the zigzag chains are broken, but the

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molecules are still H-bond to one another. It is difficult to break
apart molecules held together by H-bonding. Consequently, liquid
HF has an unusually high b.p.
o The strength of a H- bond is determined by the coulombic
interaction between the lone-pair electrons of the electro-ve atom
and the H nucleus.
o Eg: F is more electro-ve than O, we colud expect a stronger H
bond to exist in liquid HF than in H2O. But the b.p of HF is lower
than that of water because each H2O takes part in 4
intermolecular H bonds. Therefore, the forces holding the
molecules together are stronger in H2O than in HF.
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v) Metallic Bond
o “electron sea” model, the simplest model to explain how metal
atoms are held together.
o It can be imagined as an array of +ve ions immersed in a sea of
delocalized valence electrons.
o The great cohesive force resulting from delocalization is
responsible for a metal strength.

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o The mobility of the delocalized electrons makes metals good
conductors of heat and electricity.

A cross section of a metallic crystal. Each circled +ve charge

represents the nucleus & inner electrons of a metal atom. The
grey area surrounding the +ve metal ions indicates the mobile sea
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of electrons.
Effects on melting (m.p) & boiling points (b.p)
o The m.p and b.p of metals are related to the energy of the metallic
bonding.
o M.p depends on to the attraction between the positive ions in the
metallic crystal & e- sea that surrounds them. The strength of
this bond depends mainly on the number of valence electrons.

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o Since the metals from Gr.2 have two valence electrons & form
ions with 2+ charge, the alkaline earth metals have higher m.p
than the alkali metal (Gr.1)
o However, the metal ions remain attracted to the e- sea although
their relative positions change.
o Boiling a metal reguires each +ve ion & its e- to break away from
the others. Since boiling requires completely overcoming these
bonding attractions, b.p are quite high.
GROUP 1 2 13 1 2 13
No. of valence electrons 1 2 3 1 2 3
Element Na Mg Al Li Be B
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M.P ( ̊C) 98 650 660 180 1280 2300
B.P ( ̊C) 892 1107 2467 1350 2480 3930