Submitted on: 6/11/2018

Supervisor: Danielle Schmidt

Group: Brooklyn Fox Daniela Moreno

Lab Report
Energy Storage – Fuel Cell.

Performance Date
23/10/2018

Interview 22/10/2018

Introduction

Theory

Methodology

Presentation & Description of Results

Data Analysis & Discussion

Conclusion

Report Writing incl. Reference section

Bonus points

Result: Date: Sig.:

1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................... 5
2. THEORY ....................................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Electrolyser Principles .............................................................................................................. 5
2.2 Fuel Cell Principles .................................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Faraday’s Laws and Energy Efficiency ...................................................................................... 7
Faraday’s 1st Law........................................................................................................................ 7
Faraday’s 2nd Law ...................................................................................................................... 7
Faraday Efficiency ....................................................................................................................... 7
2.4 Energy Efficiency ....................................................................................................................... 8
2.5 Ohms Law & Power .................................................................................................................. 8
3. METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................................... 8
3.1 Equipment................................................................................................................................. 8
3.2 Experimental Procedure ........................................................................................................... 8
4. RESULTS..................................................................................................................................... 10
4.1 Electrolyser ............................................................................................................................. 10
Characteristic Curve of the Electrolyser................................................................................... 10
Bubbling Observations ............................................................................................................. 10
Characteristics Curves .............................................................................................................. 10
Dependency on time ................................................................................................................ 11
Dependency on Current ........................................................................................................... 11
Produced 𝑯𝟐 and 𝑶𝟐 ratio ...................................................................................................... 12
Faraday and Energy Efficiency.................................................................................................. 12
4.2 Fuel Cell ................................................................................................................................... 12
Characteristic Curves ................................................................................................................ 12
5. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................... 13
5.1 Electrolyser ............................................................................................................................. 13
I-U Curve ................................................................................................................................... 13
Power vs Voltage and Current ................................................................................................. 13
Dependency on Time ................................................................................................................ 13
Dependency on Current ........................................................................................................... 14
Produced 𝑯𝟐 and 𝑶𝟐 ratio ...................................................................................................... 14
Faraday and Energy Efficiency.................................................................................................. 14

2
 5.2 Fuel Cell ............................................................................................................................. 15
I-U Curve ................................................................................................................................... 15
Power Curve.............................................................................................................................. 15
6. CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................................... 15
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................... 17
APPENDIX A ...................................................................................................................................... 18

3
TABLE OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1.SCHEMATICS OF AN ELECTROLYSER [3]. .......................................................................................................... 5
FIGURE 2. CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF ELECTROLYSER [2]. .............................................................................................. 6
FIGURE 3. CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN A FUEL CELL [4]. ...................................................................................................... 6
FIGURE 4. VOLTAGE AND POWER DENSITY AS A FUNCTION OF CURRENT DENSITY [6]. .......................................................... 7
FIGURE 5. EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEM (HYDRO - GENIUS TEACH) .......................................................................................... 9
FIGURE 6. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR THE CONFIGURATION OF WARM UP STAGE. ................................................................ 9
FIGURE 7. ACCESSORIES FOR VOLUME MEASUREMENTS. ................................................................................................ 9
FIGURE 8. VISIBLE BUBBLING AT A) 1.7V, B) 2.0V AND C) 2.3V. .................................................................................... 10
FIGURE 9. I-U CURVE FOR THE ELECTROLYSER............................................................................................................. 10
FIGURE 10. VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VS POWER IN AN ELECTROLYSER. ............................................................................ 11
FIGURE 11. DEPENDENCY ON TIME. VOLUME OF H2 PRODUCED VS TIME. ........................................................................ 11
FIGURE 12. DEPENDENCY ON CURRENT. MOLES OF GAS (MEASURED AND THEORICAL) VS CURRENT. .................................... 11
FIGURE 13. CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF THE FUEL CELL. ................................................................................................ 12
FIGURE 14. COMBINED I-U CURVE AND POWER VS CURRENT CURVE OF THE FUEL CELL. .................................................... 13

4
 electric current causes an oxidation-reduction
1. INTRODUCTION
reaction. The electrolyser consists of two
The environmental challenges caused by the
electrodes: an anode and a cathode. The
world’s dependency on fossil fuels, along with
oxidation reaction takes place at the anode,
the finitude of its resources, puts a high
resulting in a loss of electrons. The reduction
priority on the renewable energy market.
reaction takes place at the cathode, where
Renewable energy systems have a much
electrons from the negative terminal of the
lower impact on our environment, and unlike
DC power source flow to, resulting in the gain
fossil fuels, the source is infinite. The inherent
of electrons. These two zones are divided and
intermittency of supplied energy from
separated by the diaphragm. Gas receivers
renewable energy sources creates problems
are used to collect the hydrogen and oxygen
when: energy production does not meet the
gases.
demand, and when the amount of energy
produced exceeds what can be consumed by The overall reaction of water electrolysis is
the utility grid [1]. One viable solution to given by the following equation:
these inconsistencies is the storage of
2H20  2H2 + O2 (Eq 1) [2]
renewable electricity in the form of chemical
energy. This can be achieved by using
electrical energy to produce hydrogen, which
can be easily stored and re-converted into
electricity. An electrolyser is a device which
splits water (h20) into hydrogen and oxygen
using an electric current. The hydrogen can be
collected and stored for later use. A fuel cell is
a device which then converts the stored
chemical energy (in this case hydrogen) into
electrical energy. The oxidation of hydrogen
generates electrical energy [1]. In this
experiment, we will analyze the chemical and Figure 1.Schematics of an Electrolyser [3].
electrical characteristics of an electrolyser
and a fuel cell. We will investigate the I(U) Electrochemical reactions occurring at the
characteristics of both devices as well as the cathode and anode in an alkaline electrolyte
effective voltage and respective efficiencies given by the following equations:
according to Faraday’s Laws and Energy Cathode: 2H20 + 2e-  H2 + 2OH- (Eq 2) [4]
Efficiency.
Anode: 2OH-  ½ O2 + 2e- (Eq 3) [4]

Based on the above calculations, the

2. THEORY
2.1 Electrolyser Principles
The basic principle of a water electrolysis
system is the decomposition of water
molecules into H2 and 02, by passing an
electric current through the water. When a
direct current is applied to the system, the
stoichiometric ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is
2:1. In our experiment we will expect to see a
molar mass ratio of 02/H2 = 0.5.
The characteristic curve of an shown in figure
2 can help define what voltage the system
requires to conduce the redox reaction, it also

5
provides information on the response of
current with an increased voltage.
Figure 2. Characteristic Curve of Electrolyser [2].
The standard potential for water electrolysis
is obtained from the standard potentials E0 for
the half reactions. These values are under
standard conditions of temperature, 298 K,
and 1 bar of pressure.
4OH-(aq) ↔ O2(g) + 2H2O + 4e- E0 = -0.40 V
4H2O + 4e- ↔ 2H2(g) + 4OH-(aq) E0 = -0.83 V
[Source: Ref. [5]]
Combining these reactions yields a total of -
1.23 V. With this calculation, it is expected
that if 1.23 V is applied to our electrolyser, the
water molecule will begin to decompose.
Electrolysis is an endothermic reaction,
meaning the reaction absorbs heat, which
contributes to the rate at which the
decomposition occurs. The variation in
enthalpy and entropy is linked to the variation
of Gibbs Free energy ∆G by the following
equation:
∆G= ∆H - T *∆S [5]
Where Standard Enthalpy change (∆H) is
285.8 kJ/mol and Standard Entropy term,
(T∆S) is 48.7 kJ/mol.
Gibbs Free energy ∆G represents the amount
of useable energy in the system, while the
overall change of enthalpy ∆H is the amount
of energy needed in water electrolysis. The
difference between ∆H and ∆G is supplied as
heat (T*∆S) [5].
2.2 Fuel Cell Principles
In a fuel cell, chemical energy is converted to
electrical energy. This is done by the reversal
process of an electrolyser. The components of
a fuel cell are an anode, cathode, electrolyte
membrane, and an external circuit (shown in
figure 3) – allowing the current to flow
through.
Figure 3. Chemical reactions in a fuel cell [4].
At the anode, the hydrogen gas loses an
electron, creating H+ ions. This process
releases energy. At the cathode, O2 reacts
with electrons from the electrode and is
reduced to 02-. The ionized hydrogen H+ and
reduced oxygen O2- react to form water. The
electrons which are released at the anode
pass through the electrical circuit to the
cathode. The H+ protons pass through the
electrolyte membrane to react with the O2—as
shown in figure 3. The electrolyte membrane
is a proton exchange membrane, which is a
specific material designed to conduct protons
(Eq 4)
[6]. The chemical reactions in the fuel cell can
be summarized as:
Oxidation at the Anode:
2H2 - 4e- → 4H+ [4] (Eq 5)
Reduction at the Cathode:
O2 + 4H3O+ + 4e-  6H2O [4] (Eq 6)
6
 It is important to know the electrolyte
membrane only allows proton mobility. This
forces the electrons to flow around the
external current, rather than through the
electrolyte. The negative electrons flow from
anode to cathode, and the cathode is the
electrically positive terminal [6].
Figure 4. Voltage and Power Density as a function of
Current Density [6].
The performance of a fuel cell is most often
analyzed in terms of current density and
power density (see figure 4). By increasing the
surface area of where the chemical reactions
take place, the current density (A/cm^2) is
increased [4]. The characteristic I-V curve of a
fuel cell shown in figure 4 is a result of
unavoidable losses. Activation losses due to
electrochemical reactions, ohmic losses due
to ionic and electronic conduction, and
concentration losses due to mass transport
[6]. The maximum voltage of one fuel cell is
roughly 0.7 V and can be increased by
increasing the number of fuel cells operating
in series. In our experiment, we expect to see
the regions of activation loss, ohmic loss and
mass transfer loss on our IV Curve. We expect
the power to increase with increasing current,
and we expect a maximum voltage of no more
than 0.7 V, as we increase the load.
2.3 Faraday’s Laws and Energy Efficiency
Faraday’s 1st Law
The mass of a substance consumed or
produced at an electrode during electrolysis,
is directly proportional to the time (t) and the
electrical current (I). From the first law of
electrolysis, it should be observed that there
is a linear relationship between mass, time,
and electric charge [4]. Faraday’s 1st law can
be summarized as follows,
n~t & n~I & n~Q [4].
Faraday’s 2nd Law
Within a specific chemical reaction, the ratio
of the overall molar charge, 𝑄 of each
substance with its valency 𝑧 is a constant. This
constant, known as the FARADAY (F) is the
product of the Avogadro Number (𝑁 ) and the
elementary electrical charge (𝑒) [4]. Faraday’s
2nd law can be summarized as follows:
𝑄 ⁄𝑧 = 𝑁 ∙ 𝑒 [4] (Eq 7)
Where NA= 6.02214179 ± 0.000 000 30
·1023mol-1 and e = 1.602176462 ± 0.000 000
063 ·1019C). Then, FARADAY (F) = NA·e, where
1 F = 96485 C/mol.
Faraday Efficiency
Alternatively stated, an electric charge (𝑄)
should produce n moles of a substance,
𝑄 =𝑛 ∙𝑄 [4] (Eq 8)
𝐼 ∙𝑡 =𝑛 ∙𝑧∙𝐹 [4] (Eq 9)
By knowing the current (𝐼) and time (𝑡), it is
possible to calculate the theoretical number
of moles (𝑛) of a substance.
To calculate the number of mols technically
achieved, the assumption that we deal with
ideal gases must be made. Ideal gases take a
molar volume (𝑉 ) of 24 l/mol at 20°C. We can
convert our volumetric measurement (𝑉 )
to number of moles technically achieved as
follows,
η = [4] (Eq 10)
By rearranging and substituting volumetric
values, we are also able to calculate the
7
theoretical volume (𝑉 ) achieved for H2 or
O2
𝑉 = [4] (Eq 11)
The relation between theoretical and real
volumes is known as the FARADY efficiency
(𝜂 )
𝜂 = [4] (Eq 12)
Faraday’s laws provide relationships which
allow us to quantitatively measure the
expected volumetric gas produced in our
experiment. During our experiment, we will
measure the volume of gas produced, while
recording the current and time, to determine
the efficiency of our process. Based on the
above equations, we can expect the volume
of gas produced to be proportional to time.
2.4 Energy Efficiency
Defining the energy efficiency as the ratio
between the amount of useful energy that
can be extracted from the process and the
total energy supplied to the system [7], the
energetic efficiency 𝜂 of the electrolyser is
given by,
𝜂 = [8] (Eq 13)
Where LHV is the Lower Heating Value of
hydrogen (𝐿𝐻𝑉 = 120000 [9]).
2.5 Ohms Law & Power
Ohms law is the most fundamental law when
dealing with electric circuits. Ohms law simply
states that the current (𝐼) through a
conductor (𝑅) at two points is proportional to
the voltage (𝑈) across those points [4], this
relation is given by the equation,
𝐼= (Eq 14)
The electrical power (𝑃) is the rate at which
energy is produced or absorbed in a circuit.
𝑃 =𝑈∙𝐼 [4] (Eq 15)
From this equation, we can expect a linear
relationship between the current and power
produced by our system. By measuring the
voltage and current within our system, we can
observe the power output and discuss the
characteristics of the fuel cell and
electrolyser.
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Equipment
o Digital Multimeters PM110 [10].
o Hydro-genius Teach School (Heliocentris)
[11].
o PHYWE Power Supply.
o ABB SE 120 x-t plotter.
o Decade resistor Box UO 280/04.
o Decade Resistor Box UO 244/06.
o Shunt Resistor (1ohm, 2 W)
o Accessories for volume measurement: 2
Test tubes (16 mL), bended pipes,
support, bowl.
o Caustic Potassium Solution.
o Water.
o Cables.
3.2 Experimental Procedure
The experimental system (Hydro-Genius
Teach) used to characterize the electrolyser
and the fuel cell is shown in the figure 5. In
this system the solar cell provides electricity
to the electrolyser, which uses the current to
split water molecules and generate 𝐻 and 𝑂 .
Plastic pipes lead these gases to the fuel cell,
where they react, generating electric energy,
and finally this energy is used to move a
ventilator as an electric load.
8

Figure 5. Experimental System (Hydro - Genius Teach)
In all the stages of this experiment, instead of
using the solar cell, a power pack supplied the
electric power to the electrolyser.
Warm up: A preliminary revision of the
system was made to check its correct
operation. For this, it was necessary to
measure a voltage that was enough to
operate the electrolyser by creating visible
gas bubbles inside the device. After setting
this voltage (1,9V) on the power pack, the gas
pipes were connected from the electrolyser
to the fuel cell. Then, the voltage and the
current at the fuel cell output were observed
by using voltmeters. The entire configuration
is shown in figure 6. Simultaneously, an x-t
writer was recording the same data (U and I).
The ventilator was expected to move once the
voltage in the fuel cell was enough to carry
out the reaction between 𝐻 and 𝑂 .
Figure 6. Schematic diagram for the configuration of
warm up stage.
All current measurements in this and all other
stages of this experiment were taken
measuring the voltage drop across a shunt
resistor (SR in figure 6).
Characteristic curve electrolyser: After
removing the gas connections between the
electrolyser and the fuel cell, current and
voltage measurements at the electrolyser on
different settings were registered. The
voltage was changed until 2,3V.
Dependency on time: During this stage, the
volume of gas produced was measured to
analyze its relationship with time. For these
measurements, plastic pipes of 𝐻 and 𝑂
from the electrolyser were connected to the
bended pipes on the support. Test tubes were
filled with water, leaving no air gaps, and
turned upside-down underneath the
waterline of the bowl, and finally the other
ends of both bended pipes were introduced
into the test tubes. Figure 7 shows the
configuration described above.
Figure 7. Accessories for Volume Measurements.
Production of 𝐻 gas was measured as the
volumetric displacement of water in the test
tubes every 30 seconds, for 4 mins with a
constant current of 800mA. Measurements
were made twice to have more accurate
results. Time dependency of Faraday´s first
law and efficiencies of electrolyser were
calculated with the data registered.
Dependency on current: Volume of 𝐻 and
𝑂 gas produced was measured using the
same configuration as the previous stage
(shown in figure 7), but now changing the
9
current at the power pack from 100 to
600mA, during a constant interval of 3
minutes for each current input value. With
these measurements, current dependency of
Faraday´s law was determined, as well as
another approach to efficiencies of the
electrolyser.

Characteristic curve of fuel cell: Because the

fuel cell requires hydrogen and oxygen
supplies, the plastic pipes from the
electrolyser were connected to the fuel cell
again. In order to determine the characteristic
curve of the fuel cell, the voltage and the
current were measured across different
resistances connected to its output. With a
set voltage of 2.12V feeding the electrolyser
from the power pack, varying resistance loads
from 2 to 680 Ω were connected to the
system using resistance boxes.

The configuration to take these readings was

the same as described in the warm-up stage
(shown in figure 6), but the ventilator is
replaced with the varying resistance loads.

Figure 8. Visible bubbling at a) 1.7V, b) 2.0V and c)

2.3V.
4. RESULTS
Characteristics Curves
4.1 Electrolyser The I-U Curve of the electrolyser was plotted
Characteristic Curve of the Electrolyser in figure 9 from the data given in Appendix A,
Bubbling Observations Table A.
A chemical process was visibly detected in the
electrolyser in the form of 𝑂 bubbles rising.
Figure 8 shows photographs of bubble
formation at three different voltages.

At 1.7 V (photo a in Figure 8) bubbles started

to emerge; at 2.0V (photo b) an increased rate
of chemical reactions was observed and
finally, at 2.3V (photo c) faster gas bubbling
could be appreciated.
Figure 9. I-U Curve for the Electrolyser.

From Figure 9, the voltage required to

disassociate the H20 molecule is around 1.7

10
Volts. After 1.7 volts, the current has an
exponential relationship to the applied
voltage.

The power in the electrolyser was calculated

using the equation 15 with the U and I
measured values. The voltage and current
were plotted as a function of the calculated
power in Figure 10.

Figure 11. Dependency on time. Volume of H2 produced

vs time.

The graph shows that the measured volume is

much less than the expected values. In
addition, it is possible to state that the volume
of produced hydrogen is proportional to the
time due to the linear behavior of the curve.
Figure 10. Voltage and Current vs Power in an
Electrolyser. Dependency on Current
Assuming output 𝐻 and 𝑂 as ideal gases, the
From Figure 10, we have determined the number of technically achieved moles 𝑛 in
optimum working point of the electrolyser to measured volume was calculated following
be at our maximum applied voltage (U= 2.3 the equation 10.
V), providing a maximum power of 1.3915 W.
In theory, the electrolyser could have been Figure 12 shows the dependency of the
tested using an applied voltage of up to 2.5 produced number of moles of 𝐻 and 𝑂 with
Volts [4]. the current, as well as the theoretical values
for both produced gasses.
Dependency on time
The relation between measured volume
(𝑉 ) of hydrogen and time was plotted in
the figure 11. Moreover, the theoretical
values of produced volume at the same
working points are also showed. These
theoretical volumes were calculated from
equation 11, using z=2 as valency number of
𝐻 and the data are registered in Appendix A,
Table B.

Figure 12. Dependency on current. Moles of Gas

(Measured and Theorical) vs Current.

11
From the graph it is evident that both gases Faraday Energy
Efficiency Efficiency
increase linearly with the current,
(H2) (H2)
furthermore the slopes of the trends suggest Time [s]
that the production of hydrogen is almost 2 30 0,44 0,48

Depend. On Time
times that of oxygen. 60 0,43 0,47
90 0,43 0,47
Produced 𝑯𝟐 and 𝑶𝟐 ratio 120 0,42 0,46
150 0,40 0,43
The precise relationship for produced gases in 180 0,39 0,42
the electrolyser is given by the ratio between 210 0,38 0,41
the oxygen and the hydrogen measured in Current [A]

Depend. On Current
0,1 0,67 0,82
volumes or moles. The table 1 presents this
0,2 0,44 0,51
ratio for each current input. 0,3 0,45 0,51
0,4 0,40 0,45
O2 Measured H2 Measured
0,5 0,42 0,46
Current (I) Volume Volume Ratio
0,6 0,44 0,48
[A] O2 [mL] H2 [mL] O2/H2
Avg 0,42 0,46
0,1 0 3 0,00
Std. Deviat. 0,02 0,03
0,2 1,4 3,9 0,36
0,3 2,6 6 0,43 Table 2. Dependency on Time and Current Efficiencies
0,4 4 7,2 0,56 of Electrolyser.
0,5 3,6 9,4 0,38
0,6 6 11,8 0,51 According to the calculated values, energy
Ratio Avg 0,45 efficiencies are slightly higher than faraday´s
Std. Deviat. 0,08 efficiencies and their values are close to 0,42
Table 1. Produced gases ratio at different current and 0,47 respectively.
inputs.

An average ratio of 0,45 suggest that the 4.2 Fuel Cell

electrolyser produces almost two moles of 𝐻 Characteristic Curves
for every mol of 𝑂 . From the measured data in Appendix A, Table
D, the characteristic curve of the fuel cell was
Faraday and Energy Efficiency
plotted in the Figure 13.
Faraday and energy efficiency of time and
current dependency stages of the experiment
were calculated using equation 12 and
equation 13 , respectively, and their values
are registered in table 2. To calculate energy
efficiencies with equation 13, the LHV value
was multiplied by the molar mass of 𝐻
(2,016 g/mol [12]). (See Apendix A, Table
Band C to intermediate calculations).

Figure 13. Characteristic curve of the Fuel Cell.

From figure 13, we can conclude that as the

current increases, the voltage drops. We see
the largest loss in voltage between 110-140
mA. Between 40 – 110 mA, the voltage drop

12
appears to be somewhat linear. The
maximum voltage reached by the system
from Appendix A, Table D is 0.635 V.
The power for the fuel cell was calculated in
the same way as for the electrolyser, by using
the equation 15 and the measured values of
current and voltage. From the measured data
and calculated power, the I-U curve and
power curve were plotted in Figure 14.
Figure 14. Combined I-U Curve and Power vs Current
Curve of the Fuel Cell.
From Figure 14, it can be seen that the
maximum power of the fuel cell was 36,3 mW.
The measured optimum voltage and current
at maximum power output were 330 mV and
110 mA, respectively.
5. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Electrolyser
I-U Curve
In our experiment, the voltage required to
dissociate the water molecule was determine
as 1.7 Volts. Based on standard electrode
potentials for the half reactions, the expected
required voltage to decompose a water
molecule should be 1.23 V. There was a 0.47
Voltage (38%) discrepancy between expected
and actual measured values. A few
experimental conditions may have
contributed to the variance. During the
preliminary phase of our experiment (warm
up), the electrolyser was supplied 1.94 Volts.
After disconnecting the power source from
the electrolyser, the current across the shunt
resistor was dropping at an unusually slow
rate. When voltages below 1.7 V were applied
to the electrolyser, a fluctuating current was
observed across the shunt resistor. When the
applied voltage was low, the current was
reading a negative value. For this reason, we
propose chemical reactions were occurring
with the remaining gas in the collectors of the
electroylser. We understood the behavior of
the electrolyser to be acting as a fuel cell, with
an applied voltage below 1.5 V. During our
experiment, we concluded the supplied
voltage must be 1.7 Volts to combat the
remaining chemical reactions occurring from
the warm up phase. After increasing the
supplied voltage, the current across the shunt
resistor behaved as expected. Once the H20
molecules were decomposed, the current
increased exponentially with respect to
increased voltage applied as shown in Figure
9. The exponential increase in current
describes the relationship between the
voltage and rate at which the H20 molecules
are decomposed.
Power vs Voltage and Current
The power vs. voltage and current curve
shows a linear relationship between current
and power, as expected from the power
equation. Due to a time restraint, we stopped
measuring the current at a supplied voltage of
2.3 V. Had we continued to 2.5 V, we would
have expected the power and voltage
functions to meet at a point of 2.5 Volts,
where that would have been the optimum
working point of the electrolyser. To exceed
beyond 2.5 V, could have damaged the
electrodes.
Dependency on Time
Regarding the trend of the data in figure 11,
the amount of produced hydrogen is
proportional to time by a factor of 0,074.
13
However, although its linear behavior is
consistent with faraday´s first law statement,
its value is 0,37 times lower than the
theoretical one given by the term
0,202 from equation 9.
The divergence of the measured and
theoretical values may be caused by the
efficiency of the electrolyser and the
experimental errors. Two relevant potential
sources of experimental error were identified,
the first one is the variable pressure at the gas
cylinders in the electrolyser because of the
movement of the rubber stoppers; and the
second one is the observational error of
volume measurements from the test tubes.
Dependency on Current
The linear increasing of measured 𝐻 and 𝑂
in figure 12 verifies that the amount of
produced gas is proportional to current, as
expected from the Faraday´s first law.
Nevertheless, comparing with theoretical
behavior showed in the same graph, the
values of the proportional measured factors
are significantly lower. Particularly for the
hydrogen, it’s theoretical relation moles-
current, given by the term from equation
9, is 1,87 ∙ 10 , while experimental value
from the slope of the line is 0,73 ∙ 10 . That
means, experimental proportional factor is
0,4 times lower. As before, the difference
between measured and theoretical values
may be due the efficiencies of the device and
the experimental errors from volumetric
measurements.
Produced 𝑯𝟐 and 𝑶𝟐 ratio
Additionally, measured moles of 𝐻 and 𝑂 in
the figure 12 shows that the electrolyser
production of hydrogen is twice that of the
oxygen. Theoretically, this ratio should always
be 0,5 since the products in the electrolyser
basic reaction (see Equation 1) are two
molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of
oxygen. According to data presented in Table
1 for each working point, the average
= measured ratio between produced gases
is 0,45 ± 0,08. This means that the measured
value is consistent with theory.
It is important to mention that the first line of
data in table 1 (I=100A) was not included in
average ratio calculation because the amount
of produced 𝑂 was so small that it was not
possible to read it from test tube.
Faraday and Energy Efficiency
The relation between theoretical and
experimental volume given by “Faraday´s
efficiency” column in table 2, suggest that the
electrolyser produces around 42 ± 2% of the
hydrogen volume that it should produce.
On the other hand, “energy efficiency”
column in table 2 shows that the output
energy of the electrolyser is approximately 46
± 3% of the electrical energy supplied. The
efficiency of alkaline electrolysers for industry
use is roughly 70%. This efficiency is
determined with an electrolyser
concentration between 20 - 40%, and
increased operating temperatures [13]. The
result of our lower than expected efficiencies,
could be a result of the low concentration of
electrolyser used in our experiment (6%). In
addition, the efficiency of our system would
be increased with an increased temperature,
but that was not in the scope of our objective.
The obtained values for 0,1A in current
dependency experiment were considered
outliers and they were not included in the
efficiency calculations.
Both Faraday´s and Energy efficiencies of time
dependency results trend to slightly decrease
with time. This behavior may be caused by the
fact that in this experimental stage, the timing
measurement was gradually higher.
14
Therefore, the effect of the experimental
error caused by the movement of the rubber
stoppers was also gradually higher.
5.2 Fuel Cell
I-U Curve
The fuel cell I-U curve from our measured
data -Figure 13 follows a similar behavior as
expected in theory – Figure 4. The activation
losses are represented between 0-30 mA.
Here, the voltage drop is due to the required
energy needed to generate the chemical
reactions on the electrodes. In theory, the
activation region should have been
characterized by an exponential decline in the
voltage, which is not seen in our graph. During
this step of our experiment, the readings were
not recorded promptly. Had the
measurements been recorded punctually, the
activation losses may have been more
distinguishable in our data. The region
between 30-110 mA is identified as our ohmic
loss region. As expected, the voltage drop is
essentially proportional to the current in this
region. As the current increases and the
surface area remains the same, the resistance
to flow of the charge carriers will increase.
This resistance is proportional to the current
density. The region between 110 and 140 mA
is identified as our concentration loss region.
In this region, as the reactants are depleted,
there will be a change in pressure of the
system. As the current increases, the H2 is
being depleted more, and causes a larger
change in pressure. The reduction in pressure
results in a corresponding voltage drop. On
Figure 13, the mass loss region is
characterized by just 2 data points. Although
an increasing drop in voltage is observed, the
region would be better defined had we
collected sufficient data points. The average
voltage of a single cell in a stack is
theoretically between 0.6 – 0.7 Volts. From
Appendix A, Table D, our measured maximum
Voltage output was 0.635 V, which is
congruent to our expectations. Overall, the
data obtained was based on rapidly
fluctuating recorded values, which may have
contributed to the variances in expected and
actual I-U curve characteristics. The operating
characteristics of the fuel cell were very
fluctuating, affecting the soundness of the
experiment.
Power Curve
The power of our fuel cell behaves as
expected. Since power is a product of the
current and voltage, and the voltage output is
limited by the current density, the power
output is limited. From our results, we can see
in Figure 14 the power output increases with
increasing current, until it reaches a
maximum point and then decreases. When
the current is operating above the maximum
power, the efficiency of both the voltage and
power of the system fall. The maximum
power our fuel cell can produce is 36.3 mW.
6. CONCLUSIONS
In our experiment, the electrolyser begins
conducting current at 1.7 V. At this point, the
water molecules are being decomposed into
H2 and O2. From our data, the electrolyser I-U
curve shows an exponential relationship
between the increase in supplied voltage and
increase in current. At 2.3 Volts, the highest
amount of hydrogen is being produced,
without damaging the electrodes (we defined
this as our optimal working point).
Faraday´s first law was verified in the
electrolyser by measuring the proportional
increase of H2 and O2 produced with current
and time. The amount of produced hydrogen
is proportional to time by a factor of 0,074.
The amount of hydrogen produced in n mols
is proportional to the current by a factor of
0,73 ∙ 10 .
The average ratio of 0,45 ± 0,08 between
produced gases means that the hydrogen
15
produced by the electrolyser is almost twice
the amount of output oxygen.
The Faraday efficiency or the efficiency in
terms of volume that the electrolyser should
produce is 42 ± 2%. Meanwhile, the efficiency
related with the input and output energy is 46
± 3%. Experimental errors in the volume
measurements could strongly affect the
obtained efficiencies, therefore it is
recommended to have better control of the
pressure in gas cylinders to obtain more
precise volume readings.
The fuel cell curve displays both linear and
non-linear behavior. The most significant
decrease in voltage was observed at the tail of
our graph. The voltage drop was due to
variations in pressure as either a result of
depletion of reactants, or a build up of
products in the system. From our measured
data, it can be concluded that the limit to a
single fuel cell is 0.635 Volts. A fuel cell
voltage drops with increasing current, and
power increases until reaching a maximum
point. After reaching a maximum of 36.3 mW,
the power output will decrease with
increasing current density. It is clear the fuel
cell is controlled by its current density. To
increase the current density of the fuel cell,
you must increase the surface area. This is
achieved by connecting multiple fuel cells in
series. In the future, we recommend more
data points to be collected, specifically to
better characterize the fuel cell curve. It is
recommended to use an electronic device,
such as an Arduino board, which can record a
large amount of data promptly.
16
REFERENCES

[1] A. Habib, L. Ling and B. Abbas, "Demand and Application of Energy Storage Technology in
Renewable Energy Power System.," American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering,
Technology and Sciences., vol. 36, pp. 75-84, 2017.

[2] S. Bespalko, A. Kachymov, K. Koberidze and O. Bespalko, "Hydrogen Production by Water

Electrochemical Photolysis Using PV-Module," International Journal of Sustainable and Green
Energy, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 182-186, 2015.

[3] Energy., U.S Department of Energy: Ennergy Efficiency & Renewable, "Hydrogen Production:
Electrolysis.," [Online]. Available: https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-
production-electrolysis. [Accessed 3 November 2018].

[4] R. Knecht, Physical Principles of the Renewable Energy Converters, Reader for the Winter
Laboratory Course, PPRE, Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg, 2017.

[5] N.A. KELLY, Macomb Community College, USA, "Hydrogen Production by Water
Electrolysis.," in Advances in Hydrogen Production, Storage and Distribution., 2014, pp. 159-
185.

[6] J. Larminie and A. Dicks, Fuel Cell Systems Explained, West Sussex: Wiley, 2003.

[7] O. Ryan, S.-W. Cha, C. Whitney and F. Prinz, Fuel cell fundamentals, New Jersey: WJohn
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016.

[8] I. Papagiannakis, "Studying and Improving the Efficiency of Water Electrolysis,"

STRATHCLYDE UNIVERSITY, 2005.

[9] Y. Cengel and M. Boles, Thermodynamics, Mc Graw Hill, 2012.

[10] [Online]. Available: https://manuall.de/pollin-pm110-multimeter/. [Accessed 1 November

2018].

[11] "Heliocentris," [Online]. Available: ftp://ftp.heliocentris.fta-

berlin.de/pdfs/datasheets/Datasheet_ScienceKit04.pdf. [Accessed 1 November 2018].

[12] "Lanntech," [Online]. Available: https://www.lenntech.es/periodica/tabla-periodica.htm.

[Accessed 3 November 2018].

[13] R. Mamoon, M. Al Mesfer, H. Naseem y M. Danish, «Hydrogen Production by Water

Electrolysis: A Review of Alkaline Water Electrolysis, PEM Water Electrolysis and High
Temperature Water Electrolysis.,» International Journal of Engineering and Advanced
Technology (IJEAT), vol. 4, nº 3, pp. 80-93, 2015.

17
APPENDIX A

A – Electrolyser Voltage Current and Power Measurements

Electrolyser: Voltage- Current- Power

Voltage Current Power Comments:
R*I V/R V*I
V A W
1.7 0.0053 0.00901 slight gas bubbling Picture 1
1.72 0.0049 0.008428
1.8 0.0123 0.02214
1.97 0.079 0.15563
2 0.105 0.21 more gas bubbling Picture 2
2.2 0.35 0.77
2.3 0.605 1.3915 significantly more bubbles Picture 3

B – Dependency on Time Calculations (Electrolyser)

Dependency on time
I (A) U (V) P (W)
0,814 2,3 1,8722
VH2 avg nH2 Meas VH2 Theo Energy Energy Faraday Energy
t [s]
Meas. [ml] [mol] [ml] out[J] In [J] Eff (H2) Eff
30 15 0,0001125 6,07 27,216 56,166 0,444 0,485
60 30 0,0002167 12,15 52,416 112,332 0,428 0,467
90 45 0,0003250 18,22 78,624 168,498 0,428 0,467
120 60 0,0004250 24,30 102,816 224,664 0,420 0,458
150 75 0,0005042 30,37 121,968 280,830 0,398 0,434
180 90 0,0005875 36,45 142,128 336,996 0,387 0,422
210 105 0,0006667 42,52 161,28 393,162 0,376 0,410

C – Dependency on Current Calculations (Electrolyser)

Dependency on Current
Current Voltage Measured Volume Theoric Volume Measured Moles Theo Moles Faraday Eff Energy In Energy out Energ Eff
[A] [V] O2 [mL] H2 [mL] O2 [mL] H2 [mL] O2[mol] H2 [mol] O2[mol] H2 [mol] H2 [J] [J] H2
0,1 2,05 0 3,00 2,24 4,48 0 0,000125 9,328E-05 0,000186557 0,670 36,9 30,2 0,82
0,2 2,14 1,4 3,90 4,48 8,95 5,83E-05 0,000163 0,0001866 0,000373115 0,436 77,0 39,3 0,51
0,3 2,2 2,6 6,00 6,72 13,43 0,000108 0,00025 0,0002798 0,000559672 0,447 118,8 60,5 0,51
0,4 2,24 4 7,20 8,95 17,91 0,000167 0,0003 0,0003731 0,00074623 0,402 161,3 72,6 0,45
0,5 2,28 3,6 9,40 11,19 22,39 0,00015 0,000392 0,0004664 0,000932787 0,420 205,2 94,8 0,46
0,6 2,31 6 11,80 13,43 26,86 0,00025 0,000492 0,0005597 0,001119345 0,439 249,5 118,9 0,48
t[s] 180

18
D – Fuel Cell Voltage, Current and Power Measurements
Characteristic Curve Fuel Cell
R [ohm] I [mA] U [mV] P (mW) Comments:
2 110 330 36.3 ..+/- 5% accuracy on
4 82 420 34.44 resistor boxes
6 140 150 21 Supplied Voltage= 2.12V
8 55 480 26.4
10 50 550 27.5
20 28 575 16.1
40 15 635 9.525
68 8.7 605 5.2635
90 6.2 605 3.751
100 6.8 605 4.114
220 2.9 605 1.7545
330 2 605 1.21
470 1.4 605 0.847
620 1 605 0.605
680 0.9 605 0.5445
Motor

19