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is Lost in Translation
Örebro Studies in Sport Sciences 24
JING LI
ISSN 1654-7535
Abstract
Jing Li 2017: The Culturally Significant Key Component of Qigong, ‘Heart
adjustment’, is Lost in Translation. Örebro Studies in Sport Sciences 24.
1
The use of capital letter is to differentiate the Chinese concept of Heart from
the Anglo-English ‘heart’.
List of Publications
I. Li, J., Ericsson C., & Quennerstedt M. (2013). The meaning of the
Chinese cultural keyword xin. Journal of Languages and Culture, 4(5):
75-89.
1. INTRODUCTION 序論 ...................................................................... 11
1.1 Qigong research ........................................................................... 14
1.1.1 Sociology and anthropology studies ................................. 14
1.1.2 Sports science .................................................................... 15
1.1.3 Medicine and health science .............................................. 16
2.BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF QIGONG 氣功基礎知識 ........................... 20
2.1 The literal translation and history of Qigong ............................... 20
2.2 Concept of Qigong ....................................................................... 22
2.2.1 Philosophy of Qigong and its theoretical basis .................. 22
Qi (氣) ................................................................................ 22
Yin-Yang theory (陰陽) ...................................................... 23
Five Elements (五行) ........................................................... 24
Zang-Fu and meridian (臟腑經絡) ...................................... 25
2.2.2 The practice of Qigong and its basic technical compo-
nents ................................................................................... 26
Body adjustment (tiao xi 調身) ........................................... 27
Breath adjustment (tiao shen 調息) ..................................... 28
‘Heart adjustment’ (tiao xin 調心) ...................................... 29
3. AIM OF THE THESIS 論文目的 ......................................................... 31
4. METHODS 科研方法 ......................................................................... 32
4.1 Method applied in study I ............................................................ 32
4.1.1 Natural semantic metalanguage ........................................ 32
4.1.2 Literature references .......................................................... 33
4.1.3 Research procedure ........................................................... 34
4.1.4 Other considerations ......................................................... 36
4.2 Method applied in study II ........................................................... 37
4.2.1 Case-based comparative method ....................................... 37
4.2.2 Conceptual frame of reference ........................................... 38
Three-adjustments .............................................................. 39
The state of unity/oneness ................................................... 40
Body-Heart practice ............................................................ 40
Skill .................................................................................... 40
4.2.3 Research procedure ........................................................... 40
4.2.4 Other considerations ......................................................... 45
4.3 Research ethics ............................................................................. 47
5. RESULTS 結果 .................................................................................... 49
Study I................................................................................................ 49
Study II .............................................................................................. 52
6.DISCUSSION 討論 ............................................................................... 58
Two paradigms: the Chinese body-Heart holism and the Western body-
mind dualism...................................................................................... 58
6.1 Main findings ............................................................................... 59
6.1.1 Traditional culture of Qigong .............................................. 60
The meaning of xin ‘Heart’ ................................................. 60
‘Heart’ is not ‘mind’ ............................................................ 62
The importance of ‘Heart adjustment’ in Qigong training .. 64
6.1.2 Cultural identity of Qigong .................................................. 66
Consequences of overlooking the ‘state of unity’ ................ 67
6.2 Measure of ‘state of unity’ and its relation to cumulative
knowledge of Qigong ................................................................... 69
Measure of the quality of Qigong aids cumulative study of
Qigong ................................................................................ 70
6.3 Limitations ................................................................................... 71
6.4 Implications.................................................................................. 72
6.5 Future studies ............................................................................... 74
7.CONCLUSION 結論 ............................................................................ 77
8. ACKNOLEDGEMENTS 感謝函 ......................................................... 79
REFERENCES 參考文獻 ......................................................................... 80
1. Introduction
“Ethnic sport is a general concept for those sports that are related more or
less to the traditional culture or contribute to the forging of a specific cul-
tural identity of the people within specific countries, societies, ethnic
groups and areas who perform them.” (Sogawa, 2006:96)
Chart 1. The technical component – ‘Heart adjustment’ in relation with the con-
cept of Qigong and the characteristics of ethnic sport.
The concept of Qigong consists of two parts: theory and practice. The the-
ory of Qigong is based on the principles of traditional Chinese medicine
(TCM), such as qi (vital energy), Yin-Yang, Five Elements, Zang-Fu and
meridian, which are often introduced and discussed in TCM studies.
This dissertation focuses on the practice of Qigong in the context of eth-
nic sport. The practice of Qigong is based on the three basic technical com-
ponents of tiao shen (body adjustment), tiao xi (breath adjustment) and tiao
xin (‘Heart adjustment’), which are also the three main training methods of
Qigong (Ding, 2009; Ng B. Y., 1999; Zeng and Zhang, 2015). In the Chi-
nese language xin means ‘Heart’. However, tiao xin ‘adjusting the Heart’ or
‘Heart adjustment’ is not directly translatable due to the difference in the
conception of ‘heart’ in Anglo-English and Chinese and a corresponding
cultural difference carried by language. Therefore, I will use capital letter
‘H’ for the Chinese concept of xin ‘Heart’ to differentiate it from the word
‘heart’ in Anglo-English.
Qi (氣)
Qi is understood as the animating energy of the universe; a substance that
circulates in and through the body. In its standard usage, the term derives
from the theory of Chinese medicine (Palmer, 2003). Qi is regarded as a
basic vital substance, the essential energy or elemental power of the uni-
verse. It animates infinite physical manifestations with life force, including
minerals, vegetation and animals. The human body and mind are not seen
as mechanisms, but rather as a manifestation of qi (Maciocia, 2005). The
Chinese call qi “the natural energy intrinsic in all things that exist in the
Generating relation
Overcoming relation ------------
←
Qigong makes use of qi-flow meridian theory (Chen K., 2007). Meridians
are the energetic channels of qi and are located throughout the body and
form a connection between the internal organs Zang-Fu (Xie and Ortiz-
Umpierre, 2006). Chinese medicine uses a network of these energetic chan-
nels and reservoirs that transfer, transform, move and store qi. McCaffrey
and Fowler (2003) explain that “Qi flows through channels and reservoirs
like the wires in electrical circuits” (p.112). Blockages in the qi flow in the
The components of
Three-adjustments
Qigong
The classification of
Skill
Qigong
Three-adjustments
The components of Qigong are based on the ‘Three-adjustments’, a Chinese
Qigong term meaning regulation or adjustment of body, breath and Heart.
These three basic components refer to physical movements, breathing pat-
terns and an inner state, all of which are regarded as the practical or basic
Body-Heart practice
In terms of modern science, Qigong is positioned as a ‘body-Heart practice’
that encompasses both the visible and intangible parts of a person, including
physical and mental training. Therefore, the practice belongs to both phys-
iology and psychology, which distinguishes Qigong from pure psychological
training in which the ‘body’ is excluded.
Skill
Modern science classifies Qigong as a branch of knowledge that requires
the mastery of a skill or technique. However, according to Chinese tradi-
tion, Qigong is a ‘skill’ (comparable to cooking) that is useful in everyday
life. It is the learning of skills that differentiates Qigong from purely theo-
retical knowledge and religion. Based on Chinese theories (e.g. qi, meridi-
ans), Qigong involves Chinese body culture and a kind of technical
knowledge that is acquired by repeated practice. In contrast, religion is
founded on piety and conviction.
The conceptual similarities and differences of Qigong in the scientific lit-
erature published in Chinese and English are compared based on this con-
ceptual frame of reference.
The sample size of this study was determined when saturation was
reached, i.e. when the possibility of obtaining additional information about
conceptual formations was fulfilled and when further coding no longer in-
fluenced the explanation pattern (Guest, Bunce and Johnson, 2006;
O’Reilly and Parker, 2013; Walker, 2012). In this study, after the E50 code
the addition of new data no longer affected the explanation pattern. This
was taken as an indication that the English case saturated at a sample size
of 50. The Chinese data was categorized in the same way as the English.
The saturation for the Chinese case was reached well ahead of a sample size
of 50. The decision was then made to reach the sample size of 50 notions in
each case in order to make the cases equal and better facilitate comparison.
JING LI The culturally significant key component of Qigong, ‘Heart adjustment’, 43
is lost in translation
The English case data contains notions of Qigong from 27 medical, 14
psychological and 9 review studies (7 on the physical effects and 2 on the
psychological health effects) published between 2002 and 2012. The Chi-
nese case data contains notions of Qigong from 16 medical, 8 psychological,
8 sociological, 14 pedagogical and 4 sports publications published between
1988 and 2011. Although the cases are not identical in terms of years of
publication or fields of investigation, we argue that, for this comparative
purpose, the two cases are similar enough in terms of their uses of notions
of Qigong.
The Chinese notions were translated into English in three steps. First,
Google Translate was used to translate the texts into English. Then, a man-
ual revision was carried out based on the translation in the previous step.
This step was undertaken by the first author, a native Chinese speaker with
a deep cultural understanding and experience of Qigong for over 20 years.
Finally, the translation was compared and checked by a professional trans-
lator and editor for verification. The translated Chinese data was catego-
rized in the same way as the English data, as described in a previous section.
In data processing, the total number of coded data (E1-E50 and C1-C50)
under each cultural trait was counted. Each coded data could only be
counted once to obtain the “absolute frequency” of each cultural trait. The
frequency was then divided by 50 (total number of data in each case); the
quotient being the “relative frequency” shown in percentages and indicating
the coverage rate of that particular cultural knowledge and corresponding
conceptual structure/variable (Carroll and Swatman, 2000).
The analysis of the data is based on the conceptual frame of reference.
First, the cultural trait is quantitatively compared in the two cases in order
to understand the conceptualization of the cultural traits of Qigong. A
higher percentage indicates a more often addressed cultural knowledge and
characteristic of Qigong, while a lower percentage means an overlooked
cultural knowledge. The figure “0” indicates an absence of the cultural
knowledge of Qigong. The percentage indicates how frequently each cul-
tural trait of Qigong is included in the notion of Qigong in the two cases.
Between the cases, similarity expresses shared cultural knowledge cross-lan-
guage, while distinction pinpoints the cultural differences. Second, the pat-
terns of conceptual structure that result from the truth table (Table 3) are
compared in order to understand the frequency with which each conceptual
aspect (component, aim, position and classification) of Qigong is addressed
As already indicated, the study uses the NSM approach to explicate the
meaning of the Chinese cultural keyword 心 xin, the ‘Heart’ and specifies
the implications and functions of 調心 tiao xin ‘Heart adjustment’ in the
context of Qigong.
(5) ability to • a person can think and know with this part
think and • because of this part, a person can think and know
know • when a person thinks about something, it is good if this person
thinks with this part
(6) concentra- • When a person does one thing, it is good if this part of the
tion person is at the same time on the same thing
(7) desire and vi- • inside this part, a person wants many things
sion • because of this part, a person can want to do many things
• if this part of a person is small, this person thinks small, if
this part of a person is big, this person thinks big.
(8) a way of life • many people think like this: “I want to live well.” If this part
and attitude of a person is good, this happens: this person can live well
with other people and many others living things (beings)
• when a person does one thing, it is good if this person thinks
at the same time in this part like this: “I want to do this thing
well.”
• when a person does something good, it is the best if this per-
son can do it with all of this part, people see this is very good
Table 5. Implications of ‘Heart adjustment’ tiao xin – eight main aspects and
meanings.
Eight main aspects Implications of tiao xin
of xin ‘Heart’ ‘Heart adjustment’
(1) Emotions ‘Heart adjustment’ means using Qigong practice to balance emo-
tions and stay calm, to avoid unbalanced emotions that disturb
the flow of qi.
(2) physical heart ‘Heart adjustment’ points to a dual function of Qigong: if the
practice benefits the physical health, it is also good for balancing
the emotions and vice versa.
(3) mind ‘Heart adjustment’ implies using qi, which is received and refined
by practicing Qigong to calm and nourish the mind. ‘Heart adjust-
ment’ can influence mental activities, because “The Heart... is in
control of the Mind” (Simple Questions, Chapter 9).
(4) virtue ‘Heart adjustment’ means to cultivate virtue and purify the Heart.
In terms of decision-making and behaviour, virtue cultivation can
help one to find and maintain the clarity in the Heart that guides
the person to do things correctly. In terms of physical and mental
health, the body and mind are in harmony when the Heart is pure
and clear without disturbance from obstructions.
(5) ability to ‘Heart adjustment’ means relaxing the Heart in Qigong practice in
think and order to receive and accumulate more energy (qi) for needed work.
know Because the Heart is “an organ for thinking” and “source of wis-
dom”, the purpose of relaxing the Heart also aims to strengthen the
Heart’s capacity to perceive knowledge and gain wisdom.
(6) concentration ‘Heart adjustment’ in Qigong denotes calming the Heart to centre
oneself and learn to focus on the very moment to promote concen-
tration.
(7) desire and vi- ‘Heart adjustment’ implies letting go of destructive desires and de-
sion veloping tranquillity in the Heart. ‘Heart adjustment’ encourages
a person to gain clear vision and find ways to grow beyond the il-
lusion that fiercely focused competitiveness can bring genuine
happiness.
(8) a way of life ‘Heart adjustment’ means cultivating the Heart in order to live in
and attitude harmony with oneself and others. ‘Heart adjustment’ also means
checking and adjusting one’s attitude; this signifies being aware of
an ideal way of life and adjusting one’s attitude with that goal in
mind. A good attitude also earns respect by yielding positive out-
comes that cause no harm to others. It is an aspect of self-cultiva-
tion in traditional Qigong practice.
Study II
Conceptualization of Qigong in Chinese and English scientific literature: the over-
looked cultural knowledge of ‘state of unity’ and ‘Heart’
Study II explores the conceptualization of Qigong in research by comparing
the similarities and differences in the notions of Qigong in Chinese and Eng-
lish scientific literature. The research question is:
• What are the similarities and differences in the notions of Qigong
in Chinese and English scientific literature?
Table 6. Frequency and percentage of conceptual structure and cultural trait as-
pects (N=100).
Conceptual Cultural trait English Chinese Sub-content English Chinese
structure case case case case
n=50 n=50 n=50 n=50
The Adjustments 39 25
components (78%) (50%)
Three-ad- Body 37 21
justments: adjustment (74%) (42%)
Breath adjust- 35 18
ment (70%) (36%)
Heart 0 16
adjustment (0%) (32%)
*Mind 16 7
adjustment (32%) (14%)
The aim State of 5 6
unity/one- (10%) (12%)
ness
The position Body-Heart 0 17
practice (0%) (34%)
Body-Heart as- 0 17
pect (0%) (34%)
*When *Body- mind 22 5
mind is pre- aspect (44%) (10%)
sented
The classifica- Skill 12 6
tion (24%) (12%)
Similarities
When comparing the notion of Qigong as it is described in the Chinese and
English cases, three similarities are identified. The first is that the four as-
pects in the conceptual structure of Qigong are all included in the two cases.
This indicates that the structure and composition of the scientific definition
of Qigong is identical in Chinese and Western academia (see the data in
Table 6). The second is that the three cultural traits ‘Three adjustments’,
‘states of unity/oneness’ and ‘skill’ are mentioned in the two cases. There is
thus a shared understanding in Chinese and Western academia about the
cultural knowledge of this ethnic sport (see the data in Table 6). However,
80%
70%
60%
50%
40% English
30% Chinese
20%
10%
0%
The The position The The aim
components classification
As the components of Qigong has the highest percentage in each case and
the aim of Qigong has the lowest percentage. This means that the four as-
pects in the conceptual structure and their corresponding cultural aspects
are not equally perceived and understood in academia.
The percentages of the four aspects in the conceptual structure show
(ranked from high to low) that: 1) the components of Qigong to introduce
the content of Qigong have the highest percentage in each case (78% in
English case and 50% in Chinese case), 2) the position of Qigong, which
confirms that Qigong is both a physical and mental practice, differentiates
Qigong from psychology or mental training where physical practice is not
involved and is the next frequently mentioned aspect (44% in English case
and 44% in Chinese case), 3) the classification of Qigong transmits the con-
cept that Qigong is seen as a ‘skill’, which is based on regular practice and
training, and that Qigong ‘skill’ training differentiates this ethnic sport from
Differences
In the comparison of the conception of Qigong in the two cases, the cultural
trait of ‘Heart’ is excluded in the English case.
80%
60%
English
40%
Chinese
20%
0%
body adjustment breath Heart adjustment
adjustment
This is found in the components of Qigong (see Diagram 2): ‘Heart adjust-
ment’ together with ‘body adjustment’ and ‘breath adjustment’ are known
as the ‘Three-adjustments’ in the conceptual frame of reference of Qigong.
Although ‘body adjustment’ and ‘breath adjustment’ are addressed in 74%
and 70% of the English notions, ‘Heart adjustment’ is excluded (0%) in the
English case.
50%
40%
30%
English
20%
Chinese
10%
0%
body-Heart aspect
body- mind aspect
In the discussion that follows these four main findings are structured under
the two characteristics of ethnic sport noted by sports anthropologist
Sogawa Tsuneo (2006): traditional culture and cultural identity.
This concept of ‘Heart’ bridges the body-Heart holistic and body-mind du-
alistic views of the great thinkers of the past.
1
A capital ‘H’ is used to differentiate the Chinese cultural concept of Heaven from the Western
religious concept of heaven.
Three-adjustments Three-adjustments
(in Chinese) (in English)
6.4 Implications
Six main implications have emerged as a result of the study. These are: 1)
the place of Qigong in the field of sport science, 2) the understanding of
Overall, this dissertation finds that missing out ‘Heart adjustment’ and the
‘state of unity/oneness’ affects the entire conception, practice and applica-
tion of Qigong.
This dissertation has both identified and reiterated the meaning of ‘Heart
adjustment’ and the enumeration of the eight techniques and functions
(study I). In future studies, these eight techniques should really be clarified
further. For example, the technique of balancing emotion, the technique of
quieting the mind, the technique of enhancing concentration and the tech-
nique of cultivating virtue will all contribute to the understanding of ‘Heart
adjustment’ and the ‘state of unity/oneness’ in Qigong and improve the con-
ception, practice and application of Qigong.
It is important to highlight that ‘Heart adjustment’ contains psychologi-
cal factors. Improper practice may induce “mental disorder” (Ng, 1999; Xie,
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