EconomicGeology

Vol. 82, 1987, pp. 546-570

Strata-Bound Cupriferous Sulfide Mineralization Associatedwith

Continental Rhyolitic Volcanic Rocks, Northern Chile:
I. The JardlnCopper-SilverDeposit
RALPH B. LORTIE

LAC MineralsLtd., Suite485, 146 FrontStreetWest,Toronto,Ontario,CanadaMSJ2L7

AND ALAN H. CLARK

Departmentof GeologicalSciences,
Queen'sUniversity,Kingston,Ontario, CanadaK7L 3N6

Abstract

The JardlnarsenianCu-Ag depositof the Copiap6miningdistrict,northernChile, is in

many respectsrepresentativeof the volcanic-associated,
disseminated,cupriferousmanto
mineralizationcharacteristic
of thissegment of the centralAndeanorogen.Containing ca. 1
to 2 millionmetrictonsof ore with a gradeof 1.75 percentCu and140 g/metrictonsAg, the
crudelystratiformdepositis hostedby the upper,brecciatedand unweldedpart of a •75-
m-thick,continentalrhyoliticignimbriteandby an overlying•2-m succession of tuffaceous
lacustrinesedimentaryrocks.The ignimbriterepresentsthe localbasalunit of the Paleocene
HornitosFormation.The reduced,ore-hosting,sedimentaryhorizonswere depositedin an
ephemeralsalinepond and comprisecoarseand fine breccias,tuffaceoussandstones and silt-
stones,andcalcareous-carbonaceous shalescontainingthin coalyseamsandaccumulations of
plant debris.
The greaterpart of the mineralizationoccursasdisseminations,
discontinuous
veinlets,thin
concordantlensesand, moststrikingly,cylindricalbodies,1 to 8 mm in diameter,oriented
perpendicular to bedding.Chalcocite,bornite,andtennantite(ca. 1-4.3% Ag) are the major
ore mineralsandare associated with minorsphalerite,digenite,covellite,chalcopyrite, wit-
tichenite,nativesilver,acanthite,stromeyerite, mckinstryite, jalpaitc,andthe ruby silvers.
Pyriteandmarcasite are subordinate
constituents of the ore andwidelydisplayevidenceof
replacementby the Cu andAg minerals.Mineralizationin boththe ashflowandsediments is
associated with moderateargillicandcarbonatealteration.The hangingwall of the orebody
lies within a red fanglomerate,encroachment of which terminatedthe accumulationof the
lacustrine strata.
Thesulfidicpipescommonly displayconcentricmineralzonationsuggestiveof thesuccessive,
in part open-space, precipitationofpyrite andthe Cu-Agminerals.Texturalevidencesuggests
that at leastthe introductionof pyrite into thesebodiesoccurredprior to the depositionof
theimmediately overlyingstrata.Thepipes,bothindividually
andin aggregate, donotresemble
rhizolithsor dewateringstructures.More probableoriginsare asScolithussp.lebensspuren
or as gregarioushydrothermalconduitsdirectly reflectingthe upwardpenetrationof ore-
formingfluids.Sulfide-free pipesare extremelyrare, andwe favorthe latterinterpretation.
The Jardlnmineralization displaysfeaturescharacteristic
of severalore deposittypes,par-
ticularlyof the red-bedandepithermalclans.Althoughthe temporalrelationships of Cu-Ag
mineral depositionand lacustrinesedimentationare uncertain and direct evidence of the
conditions of mineralizationunavailable, ourpreferredgeneticmodelinvolvesthe convective
flow of metal-bearinggroundwatersthroughthe permeableupper zone of the ignimbrite
intothemantlinglacustrinestrata,duringboththe fumarolicstageof the tuff andthe deposition
of thesediments.
If thisbe thecase,theemplacement
of thedisseminated
mineralization
may
havetakenplacein lessthan,a century;the temporalconstraintswouldbe reducedif the Cu-
Agminerals formedlargelythroughreplacement of earlydiagenetic
pyrite.Thehydrothermal
fluidsareinferredto havebeenC1rich,low temperature, neutralto weaklyalkaline,andwith
anfo• exceedingthe hematite-magnetite
buffer;theyprobablyderivedtheir metalsandarsenic
fromnearby,weathered,UpperCretaceous baseandpreciousmetaldeposits exposed by the
sub-HornitosFormationerosionsurface.Ore depositionoccurredin responseto reduction,
neutralizationand moderatecoolingon contactwith the roof zone of the ignimbriteand the
carbon-and sulfur-richsediments;there is no evidencefor sulfidereplacementof organic
detritus.
The Jardlnmantomayperhapsbestbe interpretedasan unusual,Ag-rich,red-bedcopper
depositnucleatedin partby an ashflowcoolingon the floorof anintermontanebasin.However,

0361-0128/87/663/546-2552.50 546
 JARDiNCU-AGDEPOSIT:
N. CHILE 547

the Paleoceneepochin the Copiap6districtsawthe developmentof numerousAg-Cu-As

epithermalvein systems,andthe depositcouldalsorepresentan analogous
centerin which
ore depositionwascontrolledby a sequenceof permeablereducedsedimentsratherthanby
faults.

Introduction shipsstronglysuggestive
of an originthroughhydro-
THE wide spectrumof hydrothermalbaseand pre- thermalactivitybroadlycontemporaneous with the
consolidation of subaerial felsic flows. In this and a
cious metal mineralizationconstitutingthe central
Andean metallogeneticprovince (Petersen,1970; secondpaper (in prep.) we presentdescriptionsof
Sillitoe, 1976) includesa group of unusualstrata- two suchmineralizedsystemsin whichthe environ-
boundcopperand copper-silverdeposits,in which mentof sulfidedeposition ismostclearlydefined:the
chalcociteandother sulfidemineralsoccurlargelyas JardlnCu-Ag andAmolanasCu deposits(Fig. 1). Par-
disseminations within submarine or subaerial volcanic ticularattentionis paidto the stratigraphic andlith-
flowsand, locally, in associated sedimentaryrocks. ological relationships of the host rocks and to the fab-
Severalof thesemanto-typedepositsin northernand ric of the ores. A brief summary of our preliminary
centralChile havemadea significantcontributionto conclusions hasbeenpresentedelsewhere(Lortieand
copperproduction.Carter (1960), Rulz et al. (1965, Clark, 1976).
1971), Oyarz6n (1975), and Sillitoe (1977) have Geologichistoryof the region
drawnattentionto theseintriguingdeposits,andthe
last-namedauthor(1978) hassuggested that they may The predominantlyvolcanicandvolcaniclastic su-
indeed be characteristic of mineralization formed pracrustalsequences in the axialdomainof the central
alongAndean-typeconvergentplate margins.Carter Andean orogenin northern Chile constitutea com-
(1960), Losert(1972), and Camus(1980) have pro- parativelythin coveron a pre-Andean,i.e., pre-Mid-
vided descriptionsof individualmanto depositsin die Triassic,basement(Clark et al., 1976). The An-
Mesozoicmarine strata,but the lessimportantsub- deansedimentaryandvolcanicstrataexposedon the
aerial centers in Chile have received little documen- presentPacificslopeof the CordilleraPrincipalare
tation. in generalonlygentlyfoldedbut are affectedby very
We have carried out (Lortie, 1979) field and lab- numerous, high-anglenormaland reversefaults.
oratoryinvestigations of severalcupriferousmantos Followingitsinitiationin the Early Jurassic(Quirt,
of thisclassin the Copiap6miningdistrictofnorthern 1972; Zentilli, 1974; Clark et al., 1976), plutonicand
Chile (ca.27ø S;Fig. 1) in the courseof researchinto associated, broadlyconsanguineous, volcanicactivity
the metallogeneticevolutionof the 26ø to 29ø Stran- has occurred at closelyspaced intervalsto the Recent.
sectof the Andeanorogen(Clark et al., 1976). The The majorfocusof magmatismshows,overall,anun-
coppermineralization,with or without economicsil- usuallysystematiccontinent-wardmigration (Farrar
ver, occurswithin the entirelycontinental,Paleocene et al., 1970; Clark et al., 1976). A transitionfrom
Hornitos Formation and displaysgeologicrelation- dominantlymarineto subaerialdepositionalenviron-
ments,in the now-exposedsupracrustal assemblage,
took placein the early Late Cretaceous(Segerstrom
and Parker, 1959), during depositionof the Chaff-
arcilloGroup.The earliestfelsicignimbriteflowsrec-
ognizedin the area (Zentilli, 1974) were erupted
during the accumulationof the succeedingUpper
CretaceousCerrillosFormation(Segerstrom andPar-
ker, 1959). The Cerrillos Formationis overlain,with
low- to high-angleunconformity,by over 2,500 m of
continentalvolcanicand sedimentarystrataassigned
to the HornitosFormationby SegerstromandParker.
The age of this formationhasbeen shownby K-Ar
dating(Quirt, 1972; Zentilli, 1974) to be Paleocene:
the bulk of the succession was laid down between 60
and 63 m.y., and the lowestmembersare probably
ca. 65 m.y. in age. Thick ignimbrites,largely of
rhyodaciticand rhyolitic composition,constitutea
major and characteristic
componentof the Hornitos
Formation.

FIG. 1. Locationsof the JardlnandAmolanascopperdeposits Subsequentto the depositionof thisformation,ep-

in the Copiap6miningdistrict,AtacamaProvince,northernChile. isodicigneousactivitypersistedthroughthe Ceno-
548 R. B. LORTIE AND A. H. CLARK

zoic, culminatingin the developmentof enormous surrounding the Jardlndeposit.The almost-continu-

andesitic-dacitic stratovolcanoesof earlyMioceneto ousbedrockoutcropsin the mineareaare dominated
Pleistoceneage (Quirt 1972; Mortimer, 1973). Fur- by continentalvolcanicandsedimentarystrataof the
ther eruptionof regionallyextensivefelsicignimbrites Cerrillos and Hornitos Formations. These are intruded
and lesswidespreadrhyolitic lavasoccurredepisod- by epizonalstocksof Paleocenegranodiorite,with
ically in the earlyEoceneandin the middle Miocene- whichare associated numerousvein andbrecciapipe
earlyPlioceneinterval (e.g., Clark et al., 1967; Mor- baseand preciousmetal deposits.Althoughsuchin-
timer, 1973), closelycoincidingwith periodsof epei- trusiverockscropoutwithin10 kmof theJardlnmine,
rogenicuplift of the cordillera. Strata-boundsulfide we considerthem to have no direct relationshipto
mineralization,however,hasbeenencounteredonly the strata-bound mineralization.
in the Paleocenerhyolites. The oldestrocksin the areaof the Jardlnmineare
thoseof the Upper CretaceousCerrillos Formation,
The]ard(n mine:Location,production, which underlies the northwestern and southeastern
and dimensions
portionsof the maparea(Fig. 2). Thisformationcom-
In the Copiap6 district, the Jardln (or E1 Jardln) prisesa greatvarietyof andesiticlavasandpyroclastic
Cu-Ag depositis the only substantialconcentration breccias, with subordinate volcanic sandstonesand
of ore-gradesulfide mineralizationwhich displays conglomerates.To the southeast,the Cerrillos strata
both spatialandtemporalrelationships to a rhyolitic have been intruded by a number of smallstocksof
ignimbrite. Sulfidedepositionhere took place both intermediateto basiccomposition andby manydio-
in the upper 1 to 2 m of the ash-flowtuff, whichcon- ritic dikes.North of Jardln,the Cerrillosrocksare
stitutesthe local baseof the Hornitos Formation, and steeplyfoldedand intenselyfaulted.
in a 2- to 3-m-thick succession of tuffaceous sedimen- In the centralportionof the maparea,sedimentary
taryrocksimmediatelyoverlyingthe ignimbritesheet. and volcanic rocks of the Hornitos Formation form a
The Jardlnmine (27ø45'30"S; 70ø11'30"W) is sit- northeast-trendingbelt. The Hornitos-Cerrilloscon-
uated on the southwestmarginof the valley of the tact is conformableto slightlyunconformableor, in
Copiap6River, 50 km south-southeast of the city of places,faulted. The Hornitos Formation succession
Copiap6(Fig. 1). The mine is reachedfrom Copiap6 is characterizedby ash-flowtuffs of variousthick-
by wayof the principalvalleyroad.Productionfigures nesses anddegreesof welding,whichareintercalated
for the mine are incomplete, but over the period with conglomerates, sandstones, and andesiticlavas.
1969-1972, output was increasedfrom 100 to ca. Alongthe easternmarginof the belt, Hornitosstrata
200 to 250 metric tonsper day. The averagegrade havebeen intrudedby subvolcanic plugsanddomes
oforeproducedto dateisestimatedtobe 1.75 percent of rhyoliticandtrachyticcomposition, andby andes-
Cu and 140 g/metricton Ag; r'i•her zonesattain3.7 itic hornblende-porphyry dikes.
percentCu and over 200 g/metricton Ag (Ortlz and OtherthantheJardlndeposit,the hypogenesulfide
Franquesa,1964). Lortie (1979) hascalculatedthat depositsof the immediateareaarevery smallandfew
the exploredpart of the depositoriginallycontained in number.The Elisa(deBordos)mine(Fig.2) worked
ca. 0.5 X 106 metric tons of ore. However, the ore fault-controlledAg-Cu mineralizationin the vicinity
zoneincreasesin width at depth, and the mineraliza- of the Cerrillos-HornitosFormationsunconformity
tion is continuous for at least 3 km to the south of the (Lortie, 1979).
Jardlnmine. Thus,the depositis estimatedto aggre-
i to 2 X 106metrictonsof ore Stratigraphyof the HornitosFormation
gateapproximately
over a strikelengthof 1,000 m and a breadthof 200 The Hornitos Formation, named after the hacienda
m, includingpastproductionandprobablereserves. situatedin the center of the map area (Fig. 2), was
In 1969-1970, the Jardln mine comprisedfour first describedby Segerstromand Parker (1959). In
separateworkings;they are fromnorthto south,Zu- the Jardln-Elisade Bordosarea,our mappingshows
lema,Candelaria,SanPedro,andSofia.Only Zulema that the formation can be subdivided into six litho-
and Candelariawere being exploited at the time stratigraphicmembers(Table 1): (1) a basalwelded
(CandelariawasrenamedSanAntonioin 1971). The ignimbrite,with which both the Jardlnand Elisa de
depositis stratiform,dipsat 15ø to 40 ø, andis mined Bordosdepositsare spatiallyassociated,(2) a thick
by the room and pillar system,via an inclinedshaft lensof coarsevolcanicconglomerate,(3) a member
(Pique Maquina).Sulfideconcentrates,producedat consisting predominantly of volcanic sandstones
the nearbyElisade Bordosplant, are smeltedat Pai- whichis the thickest,(4) a unit of andesitcflowsand
pote, near Copiap6. breccias,(5) an upper ignimbritesheet,and (6) an
upper volcanicsandstoneunit similar to the thickest
District Geology member of the formation. The total thickness of the
Segerstrom(1967) providesa succinctdescription HornitosFormationin this area rangesfrom about
of the geologyof the areaof centralAtacamaProvince 1,100 to almost 2,000 m.
 JARDiNCU~AG
DEPOSIT:
N.CHILE 549

Geology of the
•' MINE
JARD•N- ELISA DE BORDOSAREA •( CU PROSPECT

! ß EXPLORATORY
SHAFT
COPIAPO DISTRICT CHILE
• FAULT

0 1 2 3
,OAD
74•7
ELEV
METERS
km
• ANTICLINE
/"•/SYNCLINE
27ø43 • S

• /'
-_

//

Th
Ba, Bb

. • •ZU•e•LEM

•/Ba

STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS

• QUATERNARY
ALLUVIUM
• MIOCENE
PEDIMENT
GRAVELS

Ba, DOMES, Bb .LAVAS

•UPPER
SANDS
MEMB
UPPER IGNIMBRITE

ANDES•TE MEMBER
INTRUSIONS
LOWER SANOSTONE MEMBER
•o corbonate-fe im

'• SODA
TRACHYTE
MAGNETITE
F•FANGLOMERA
'• REMATITE-APATITE-
PIPES
MEMBERBZ•SA L IGN•MBRITE

/['•'1 -• CBET•CEOLJS
ANDESITIC
DIKES CFRRrLL¸S
r•

FIG. 2. Geologicmap of the Jardin-Elisade Bordos-CerroBuenosAires district (modified after

Segerstromand Parker, 1959, and Lortie, 1979).

The stratigraphyof the formation,relativelysimple stratigraphicinterval between the andesitic(4) and

in the southernand northernparts of the map area, upper ignimbrite(5) membersis occupiedby a thick
is considerably morecomplicatedin the centralarea, succession of rhyoliticlava and pyroclasticdeposits
where a north-south belt of intrusive and extrusive interbeddedwith clasticsedimentaryrocks, chiefly
rhyolitic rocksis exposed(unit B in Fig. 2). In the ferruginoussandstones. Discordantrhyolite bodies
vicinity of the BuenosAires ravine (quebrada),the associatedwith these extrusive rocks, herein termed
550 R. B. LORTIE AND A. H. CLARK

TABLE 1. Stratigraphyand Lithology of the Hornitos Formation, Jardln Mine Area

Unit Lithotypes Thickness(m)

6 Upper (volcanic)sand- Fine- to medium-grainedsandstones;

conglomeratelenses <50
stone member
5 Upper ignimbrite Welded and unweidedrhyolitic ash-flowtuff 100
4 Andesitic member Andesiticflowsandbreccias;intercalatedsiliceoussedimentsandair-fall tuffs,locally 100-250
interdigitatedwith underlyingunit
3 Lower (volcanic)sand- Coarse,greenandbuff iithic sandstones;
intercalatedconglomeraticlenses,bedsof 500-80O
stone member calcareousmudstoneand ferruginouslimestone,thin (<1 cm) gypsumhorizons,
and felsic air-fall tuffs
2 Volcanicconglomerate Polymicticconglomerate:variousvolcaniclithologiesin poorly sortedmatrix of crystal <200
(fanglomerate) and lithic fragments;thinsfrom north to south,fining to lithic sandstonein mine
area

I Basalignimbrite (a) Basalthin-beddedunweldedash;(b) intermediate+ 40-m welded zone; (c) upper <75
+ 25-m unweldedzone;aphaniticrock fragments(< 3 mm), feldsparcrystals,and
matrix of devitrified shards

Unconformity
Cerrilios Formation

the BuenosAires Complex,haveintrudedthe lower this contacthasnot been faulted,but the ignimbrite
sandstone (3) andandesitic(4) membersto the south and the fanglomeratehavebeen brokeninto several
of HaciendaHornitos.Around theseintrusivedomes, blocksby a systemof normalfaultswhichstrikenorth-
thin ash-flow and air-fall tuffs and coarser breccias are northeastto east-southeast (Fig. 2). An east-westset
locallyintercalatedin the upperpart of the sandstone of thesefaults,which dip steeplynorthward,hasan
member.The largestsingleunit of the rhyolitecom- estimated vertical throw of 50 to 75 m, with a down-
plex, underlyingthe BuenosAires dome, is 350 to throwonthe northside.The fanglomerate in thisarea
500 m thick. The maximum total thickness of the is cut by a very prominentset of fractureswith an
BuenosAires complex,includingthe BuenosAires orientation(N 30o-35 ø E/90ø-85 ø SE)very closeto
domeflow, is probablyabout1,000 m. that of the majority of the veinsand stringersin the
Jardln mine (see below). The northern part of the
Structuralgeologyof the area Jardlnorebodyis cut by a fault alongthe ignimbrite-
Over much of the area shownin Figure 2, the fanglomeratecontact.Although this postore fault
structuralgeologyof the HornitosFormationis un- couldnot be tracedto the northwestacrossthe Jardln
complicated.In general,strataare tilted at smallto valley, it is probablypart of the systemdescribed
moderateanglestowardthe southeast.Southof the above.Thus,it is evidentthat a faultsystemextending
Jardlnmine, small-scale foldingis locallyevidentin fromJardlnto the Elisamineparallelsa zoneof over-
beds of the sandstone member. To the southeast of turningand reversefaultingin evaporitebedsex-
the mine,a broadshallowtroughanddomestructure, tendingfromJardlnto Mina de Yeso,andbeyond.
probablyrelatedto localintrusions, hasbeenmapped.
The basalignimbriteand fanglomeratemembersof Mine Geology
the formationhavenot been folded,exceptfor a gen- Host-rockstratigraphyand petrography
tle deviationin attitudeimmediatelynorth of the Jar-
din gorge.The gypsiferous bedsof the volcanicsand- The geologyof the immediatemine areais shown
stonemember, however, have been steeply folded in Figure 3. Throughoutthe Zulema,Candelaria,San
andoverturnedalongan axisextendingfromthe Jar- Pedro,andSofiaworkings,severallithologicallydis-
din mine to a point about6 km to the northeast.On tinct sedimentaryhorizonslie within I to 3 m of the
the eastsideof thisfold, youngerHornitosstrataare uppersurfaceof the basalHornitosignimbrite.Above
not overturned,indicatingthat the synclinemustbe the ignimbrite,sevenunitshavebeen distinguished;
paralleledby a reversefault.Thisfault,althoughonly six of these contain,at least locally, copper-silver
vaguelydiscerniblenorth of the river valley, is wellmineralization.In order to reconstructthe deposi-
exposedon the southeastsideof Jardlngorge,where tionalhistoryandsedimentaryenvironmentsof these
the fanglomerate isthrustoverthe youngerevaporitic beds,over 40 stratigraphicsectionswere measured
beds. in the mine area.The salientlithologicalfeaturesand
Another persistentfault followsthe lower contact stratigraphicrelationshipsof unitsI to VIII are sum-
of the basalignimbritesouthwardfromthe Elisamine marized in Table 2. The areal distribution of the lith-
to the Copiap0River.On the southsideof the valley, ologicalunitsobservedin the ZulemaandCandelaria
 JARDiN
CU-AG
DEPOSIT:
N. CHILE 551

o lOO

meters

LEGEND

• Alluvium
HORNITOS FM.

• Calcareoussandstone
:' :.•:i[]
Conglomerate,
c.g.sst.
] Ash- flow
tuff
CERRILLOS FM.

'•:'"'"' '::•:•..':.:•
Andesites
...[:•Dum13s
•o/ To0ogra0hic contours Cm

• Pits • Stratigra13hic
orientation

Ore
manto • Adit

FIG. 3. Geologyof the Jardlnmine area (Lortie, 1979: modifiedafter Ortlz and Franquesa,1964).
C.g. sst. -- conglomeraticsandstone.

sectionsof the mineis shownin Figure 4A to C, and an alluvial fan, encroachedfrom the northeast and
a schematic northeast-southwest section across the eastduringthe accumulation of finersediments with
depositin Figure 5. Units II throughVII are not a local or westerlyprovenance,and eventuallyter-
knownto occurbeyondthe mine areaandwouldin- minatedthe ephemerallacustrineenvironment.Units
tervenebetweenunitsi and2 in the largerscalestra- II to VI are slightlyto markedlyreduced.
tigraphyofTable1. MineunitsI andVIII correspond, The upper 1 m of the tuff (unitI) is widelybroken
respectively,to units i and 2 of Table 1. alongirregularlyspacedfractureswhichare filled in
Of the stratigraphic unitsexposed in the mine,sev- by fine sediment;blocksof up to 50 cm in diameter
eral (II, III, IV, and V) apparentlycoveredvery re- have been only slightlydisplaced.The ignimbrite
strictedareasor displayradicalfacieschanges outside sheetwasevidentlyerodedfor onlya shorttime be-
ofthe minearea:e.g.,thebuffsiltstone unit(VI) shows fore being coveredby sediment.Unit II, the intra-
a southward transition from dominant siltstone, formational tuff-slabbreccia(Fig. 7A andB), clearly
throughcalcareous shale,to interlaminated calcareous formedthroughlimiteddownslope transportof locally
shaleandgypsumhorizons.The arealdistributions of deriveddebrison the surfaceof the ignimbriteand
the units stronglysuggestthat they were deposited wasprobablyconcentrated within shallow,northeast-
in a shallowtopographicdepression,on the locally trendingtroughs(Fig. 4A). The overlyinggreenpeb-
hummockyuppersurface(Fig. 6) of the ignimbrite ble conglomerate(unit III) comprises(Fig. 7C and
sheet(unit I), which wasthe site of a restrictedlake D) a widerrangeof clastlithologiesthandoesunit II
or pond.Interdigitationof unitsV, VI, andVII with and is inferred to have been depositedby a small
unit VIII demonstrates that the latter, representing streamor by periodic run-off, flowing toward the
552 R. B. LORTIE AND A. H. CLARK

TABLE2. Petrologyand StratigraphicRelationshipsof Ore-HostingStrata,JardlnMine

Strati-
graphic
unit Dominantlithotypes Lithology Stratigraphicrelationships
VIII Boulderconglomerate Subangularto roundedbouldersandcobbles Regionalunit (seeTable 1); directlyover-
of andesiticporphyriesin grit matrix lyingunit I to north of mine;interbed-
ded with unitsV and VI in southZulema;
overlying V in north Candelaria
VII Red sandstone Single massivebed 50-100 cm thick; fine Directly overlyingunitsIV andV in
(siltstone);max siliceousashrich in Fe+a,with lenticular north Zulema;locallyoverlappingunit
thickness, 1 m calcareousconcretions;negligible VI; unit representedby siltstonein
organiccomponentbut sparsereduced Pique Maquina
intervals;siltstoneshowswavy graded
bedding
Buff siltsone Tuffaceoussiltstone,with argillizedigneous Interbedded with unit VIII in south
(mudstone, detritus in calcite-quartz-pyritecement, Zulema; mudstone forms small fan in
sandstone);max locallyglauconitic;generalupward north Zulema; sandstonerestricted to
thickness, 1-1.5 m coarseningfrom darker green mudstone, Zulema; siltstonesextend from north
throughgreenishto buff siltstone(0-90 Zulema to south Zulema; distal
cm) to sandstone(0-40 cm); planar calcareous-gypsiferous faciesin south
crossbedding widespreadin sandstones directly overlies unit I
and flame and slumpstructuresin
siltstones;shalesand limey mudstonesin
south Candelaria, calcareous mudstone
and gypsumhorizonspredominateto
south of mine
Black shale; max Thin-beddedfissilerock, lackingtuffaceous Overlying unit IV, with slightly more
thickness,0.5 m clasts• 1 mm in size;wide rangeof restricted and westerly areal
lithotypes,includingsilicatedetritus-, distribution; Interbedded with units
carbonate-,plant stem-,and III and VI in upper Zulema
carbonaceous (coaly)-dominated
IV Black breccia; max Massiverock comprisingangularfragments Thickens southward from ca. 35 cm
thickness, 3 m of tuff in black matrix of finer tuffaceous (north Zulema) to 3 m (south
material, organiccarbon,and fine- Candelaria);usuallydirectly overlying
grainedcarbonate;tuff fragments unit II, with similar areal distribution
stronglycarbonatizedandargillized
III Green pebble Subroundedto roundedpebblesof Restrictedto upper north Zulema; thin
conglomerate;max rhyolitic tuff in gritty to silty matrix rich lens, tapering to southeast
thickness, 1 m in pumice fragments,and with abundant
chlorite-richargillaceousmaterial;
vertically oriented streaksof carbon
abundantin groundmass
II Tuff-slab breccia; max Angular slabsof unit I (to 10 )< 4 cm) in Overlying unit I in much of Zulema and
thickness, 1.5 m fine, ashy(-carbonaceous) matrix; Candelaria sections; areal distribution
fragmentsdisplayargillizationand suggestsrestrictionto northeast-
carbonatizationof variable intensity, trending, shallowtroughs
which predatedand postdated
sedimentation
I Basalignimbrite Unwelded upper zone comprising1 to 2 Regionalunit (seeTable 1).
percent of exoticrock fragmentsand
cognatepumicesin groundmass of fine-
grained quartz, carbonate,clay minerals,
and sulfides;shardtexturesrarely
observed,but someare preserved,
replacedby calcite

Averageaggregatethicknessof unitsII throughVII is 2 m

gentle depressionin which the earlier unit had ac- breccia attainsca. 15 percent in finer facies.The
cumulated. brecciacommonlydisplaysan abrupt contact(Fig. 8)
Units IV, the black breccia, and V, the black shale, with the overlying,thin-bedded,carbonaceous shale.
representa distinctlycarbonaceous interval. Unit IV Unit V showsa wide variationin lithology,beingrep-
(Fig. 7E and F) is an unusualrock of mixed organic resentedlocally by carbonates,coaly seams,or mats
and tuffaceousorigin, its massivenature and poor of plant remains.The latter are carbonizedrods,0.5
sortingimplyingrapid depositionand a local prove- to 1.0 mm in diameter, with crescentic crosssections
nance(largelyfromunit I). The carboncontentof the (Fig. 9A and B), similarto celery stalks,and with a
 JARDiNCU-AGDEPOSIT:
N. CHILE 553

A
ZULEMA CANDELARIA o so
met res

;';•::
::: ";'•
• Tn
:F•]

(inclined shall)

FIG. 4. A-C. Serial plansshowingareal distributionof units I through VIII in the Candelaria and
Zulema sectionsof the Jardlnmine. Note that the vertical separationof plansA (lowermost)and C
(uppermost)doesnot exceed2 m (compareFig. 5).

simplevascularsystem(Fig. 10). They probablyrep- includesbedsof coalymaterialup to 5 mm in thick-

resent either a sedge(R. G. Greggs,pers. commun., ness.The carbonatefraction of the unit comprises
1973) or eel-grass("wild celery") of the genusZos-laminaeconsisting of tabularor lenticularfragments
tera (Chapman, 1960). Well-preserved stems in of microcrystalline
carbonate,quartz,andsubordinate
greenish-gray siltstonein the uppermostpart of Zu-
claymineralsanda smallproportionof shredded,car-
lemaare mattedin parallelgroups,possiblyreflectingbonized, plant stems.Someof the clastshave relict
originalgrowthpositionsor clustersof detachedstemsvesicles,filled with chalcedonyand/or relatively
washed onto a near-shore silt bank. coarse-grained calcite.Theselaminaeevidentlyrep-
In the upper levels of northern Candelaria, the resentdetrital accumulations of chemicallyprecipi-
blackshaleis very rich in carbonaceous
matter and tatedcarbonateandmetasomatized pumice.They are
554 It. B. LORTIE AND A. H. CLARK

teristicof the "Chile-type"copperdeposits.Asnoted

previously,the mantoiscrudelystratiform.It extends
from the upper part of the-ignimbrite(unit I) to the
buff siltstone(unit VI), or locally,the red sandstone
(unitVII). In additionto disseminations, the orebody
comprises narrowveins,irregulargangue-freestring-
ers, both crosscutting and parallel to bedding,rare
massivelenses,and moststrikingly,thin steeplyin-
clinedpipes.The generaldistributionof the ore min-
eralsis illustratedhighly schematically in Figure 5,
and the characteristic format of the mineralization in
T Basal Ignimbrite •' Black Shale
each stratigraphicunit is detailed in Table 3. The
Tr Intraformational Tuff-Slab Breccia 'vr Buff Siltstone
overall distributionof ore minerals,and especially
Tl'r Green Pebble Conglomerate • Red Sandstone
their localemplacementin unitVII, demonstrates the
lv Black Breccia VI-13 Boulder Conglomerate closecorrelation between mineralization, the oxida-
FIG. 5. Northeast,southwest
sectionthroughthe Jardlnde- tion stateof iron in the rocks,and the presenceof
posit,schematically
showingthe mutualrelationships of the ig- oxidizableorganicdetritus.The red sandstonerecords
nimbriteandtheoverlyingsedimentaryunits,andthe formof the the transition from Fe +2 and sulfide-rich to Fe+a-riCh
mineralization.
No attemptis madeto indicatepreciselythe dis- andsulfide-deficient
environments.
The leaching,or
tribution of the ore minerals;the dimensionsof the sulfidecon-
centrations havebeengreatlyexaggerated. at least the reduction, of ferric iron around sulfide
bodiesin thishorizon(Fig. 14) showsthatthe sulfide-
generatingsystemwassuperimposed on the oxidized
sediment.Supergeneoxidationis very restrictedin
interpretedas slightlyreworkeddepositsof tufa or the Jardlndeposit,andsupergenesulfideenrichment
travertine.The blackshaleis thereforea depositof is essentiallyabsent.
interlaminatedplant remains, tuffaceousdetritus, Argillicandcarbonatealterationiswidespreadand
carbonatized pumices, platesof precipitated
carbon- locallymoderatelyintensein the mineralizedrocks,
ate,anddiagenetic carbonateandsilicacement.These particularlyin unitsI, II, and III.
materials accumulated at a time when the influx of
clastic sediment was much reduced. Ore mineralogy
The overlyingsedimentsof unit VI reflect a re- Chalcocite,bornRe,andtennantite(argentian)are
sumptionof predominantly clasticsedimentation.The the mostabundantandwidespreadore minerals:ten-
unit coarsensupward(Table 2). The buff sandstones nanriteis the major disseminatedmineralin the ash-
areclearlytuffaceous andarecomprised of subangular flow tuff and the "carbonaceousunit," whereaschal-
quartz grains, shards,minute biotite and sericite cociteandbornReare apparentlypredominantin the
flakes,andshredsof carbonaceous matter,in a matrix greenpebbleconglomerate andthebuffsiltstone.
The
ofcalcite,quartz,anddisseminated pyrite.Rockfrag- mineralogyof sulfidicstringersisgenerallysimilarto
mentsandshardsare intenselyargillized.The sand- that of the disseminated ore which surrounds them.
stoneslocallydisplay(Fig. 11E) ripple crosslamina-
tionsindicative,in thiscontext,of extremelyshallow
waterconditions.
The siltstones,
similarin composi-
tion to the sandstones,are well bedded; flame and
slump structuresoccur in finer, greener, facies,
whereasthe coarserbuffsiltstonescommonly exhibit
small-scale
planarandtroughcrosslaminations.
The red sandstone (unit VII) is a singlemassive
bed,generallyrichin ferricironandlackingcarbo-
naceousmatter;the contact(Fig. 12) betweenunits
VI andVII thereforerepresents an abrupttransition
fromreducedto relativelyoxidizedconditionsofsed-
imentation.The occurrenceof ill-definedgrayinter-
vals in unit VII is ascribed to fluctuations in the oxi-
dationpotentialof theporewaterduringcontinuous
deposition
or earlydiagenesis.
FIG.6. Underground photograph showing the uppersurface
Ore Mineralization of theignimbrite,with 30 to 40 cmof relief,overlainby black
breeeia(unitIV). Fissures
in the ignimbritesurfacecontaincar-
Muchof thesulfide-sulfosalt
mineralization
at Jar- bonaceous materialandsmalllenses of massiveehaleoeite
(knife
d•nis strictlydisseminated
(e.g.,Fig. 13), a charac- is 20 cm in length).
 JARDiNCU-AGDEPOSIT:
N. CHILE 555

•" 1cm
I , I

• •re
-, p

I cm
!

ß , F

FIG. 7. Lithotypesof units H to IV. A. Unit H: tuff-slabintraformationalbreccia,composedof

ignimbriticclastsandtuffaceousmatrix.B. Unit H: tuff-slabbreccia,with angularandp]atyignimbrite
clasts.C. Unit IH: green pebbleconglomerate,composedof ignimbriticclastsand tuffaceousmatrix.
Note irregularblack "pipes" and seamsorientednormalto the indistinctbedding.D. Unit IH: green
pebbleconglomerate
withverticallyorientedcarbonaceous
pipesandirregularseams.
E. UnitIV: black
brecciacomprisingsmallignimbriticclastsin a gritty, carbonaceous
matrix.F. Unit IV: blackbreccia
with smallclastsanda greaterproportionof carbonaceous groundmass
(beddingapproximatelynormal
to scale).

Quantitative analysesof the tennantite have not Copper

minerals
ofminorimportance
aredigenite
been undertaken,but semiquantitative electronmi- (possiblyanilite), covellite (probably supergene),
croprobeanalysis of severalgrainsshowsthatthe Ag chalcoPYrite,and wittichenite(very rare). Enargite
andSbcontentsare in the ranges,1.5 to 4.3 wt per- has not been observed. Native silver occurs as fine
centand1.2 to 6.1 wt percent,respectively.
The sfiver disseminations,
oftenasclustersof smallspecksin the
contentsare apparentlyhigh for suchSb-poormem- ash-flowtuff and the earbonaeeousunit, and alsoin a
bers of the tennantite-tetrahedrite series,but com- few carbonate veins. Where silver occurs as discrete
parablecompositions havebeenreportedelsewhere grainsnot in contactwith coppersulfide,it is asso-
by, e.g., Chen andPetruk (1980). ciatedwith minoracanthite.In the Ag-Cusulfidicas-
556 R. B. LORTIE AND A. H. CLARK

10mm
! J

FIC..9. Plant debris in black shale (unit V). A. Carbonized

plantstems(specimenslabbedparallelto bedding).B. Plantstems
showingcrescenticor "celery stalk" crosssections(specimen
FIG. 8. Ignimbrite (bottom of photograph,with limonite- slabbednormalto bedding).
coatedjoint surfacesand troughedupper cuntact)overlainby
blackbreeeia(unitIV: medium-grayzone,60-65 emthick),black
shale(unit V: darkestzone, 15 em thick), andbuff siltstone.(unit veinscontainsubordinate
quartzanda fewhaveminor
VI: pale,upperzone)units.Note verticallyorientedsulfidepipes barite. One vein in the San Pedro section contains
in the siltstonebeds(peneft,18 em long).
globulesof a hard bituminoussubstance.The vein
carbonates show a wide variation in color. The calcite
occursin colorless,
white,pink,anddarkred varieties,
semblage,native silveris accompanied by stromey- the latter two probablybeingmanganoan. Dolomite
erite, and lesser jalpaite and mckinstryite. Small variesfrom white to yellow-brownand is probably
amountsof proustReoccur with ehaleopyriteand ankeritie.Sideriteoccursin a few barren veins.Barite,
tennantitein calciteveins,but the ruby silveris more althoughscarce,alsodisplayswide color variations,
abundantin the sulfidepipes,where it is associated fromwhite to yellow-brownto salmonpink.
with ehaleoeite,tennantite,andbornite,or with py-
rite. Rare pearceReoccursin the veins.Sphalerite,
galena,and cinnabarare foundin smallquantitiesin
a few of the calciteandquartz-carbonate veinswhich
cut the disseminated ore.
The iron sulfides,pyrite and martasite,are minor
mineralsat Jardlnbut occurin severalhabits.Pyrite
occurs:(a) as very fine disseminationsin the upper
meter or two of the ash-flowtuff (scarce);(b) in car-
bonateveinswith ehaleopyrite,sphalerite,cinnabar,
and minormartasite(uncommon);(c) asa coatingon
fragmentsin the blackbreccia(rare); (d) asrounded
masses in blackbreccia(uncommon);(e) asdissemi-
nations in crossbedded sandstone and as framboidal
aggregates in sulfidepipes;and (f) disseminated,
in
pipes, and aroundconcretionsin green mudstones,
commonlywith martasite.
The gangueof theveinsat Jardlnismineralogically FIG. 10. Photomicrograph (plane-polarized
transmittedlight)
simple.Carbonates formthe bulkof mostveins.Many showingvascularstructurein carbonizedplantstemsin blackshale.
 JARDiN
CU-AG
DEPOSIT:
N.CHILE 557

ß :

L 20mm , • 20mm •

D
• 5mm • 5mm

i 20mm , ß_
20ram
--
F '
FIC. I 1. Suifidicpipesin buffsiltstone(unitVI). A. Chalcodte-tennantite pipes.Note the diffusion
of suifidesandsuifosalts into the siltstoneadjacentto the pipes(beddingfacesright). B. Pyrite pipe in
fine sandstone. Carbonaceous material (black)is concentratedat the core of the pipe (beddingfaces
left). C. A pyritic silt-filled pipe. Beds are upturned adjacentto pipe. D. Minute pyritic pipe (left-
center)with mushroomtop beneathdomedmudstonelaminations.Note the smallpyritic rings;these
havea cylindricalform and were probablyderivedfrom localerosionof pipesduringsedmentation.

Ore mineral textures strictedto theuppersandstone bedsof the crossbed-

The texturalrelationships
betweensulfideandsul-'
fosaltmineralsin manysamples of theJardlnoresre-
veala fairly consistentsuccession
of mineraldeposi-
tion.The texturesmostsignificant in thisregardare
observedin the pipesandveins,whereasthe sulfide
disseminations in the varioushostrocksare largely
monomineralie on the small scale.
The predominantlypyritie pipes of Zulema, re-
ded siltstoneunit, containvery minor quantitiesof
tennantite,ehaleoeite,and proustitc,which appear
to havecoatedandreplacedthe ironsulfide.Textures
clearlyindicatingthe replacementof framboidalpy-
rite have been observedin the copper sulfide-rich
pipesin the siltstonebedsof thisunit (Fig. 15A and
B);in general,pyritehasbeenreplacedby tennantite,
whichwassubsequently replacedby ehaleoeiteand
bornitc(Fig. 16A). In somepipes,minoramountsof
558 R. B. LORTIEAND A. H. CLARK

FIG. 12. Red sandstone (unit VII: darkerzone),overlyingbuff FIC. 13. Photomicrograph(plane-polarized
transmittedlight)
siltstone(unit VI) (knife, 20 cm in length). of ignimbrite(unweldedtuff), showingoutlinesof carbonatized
shards(palestgray),secondaryquartz,andsulfidegrains(black).

rubysilver
rimthecopper
sulfide
masses.
Fromthese
relationships,it is apparentthat the sulfidesandsul- bornitcandchalcocitein some specimens mayimply
fosaltswere depositedin the order:pyrite,tennantite, contemporaneous deposition.
chalcociteandbornRe,and proustitc. Texturesin veinscontaininglargeproportionsof
Texturalrelationships amongthe varioussulfides ehaleopyriteand tennantitegenerallyreveal that
and sulfosalts in the veins are similar and allow ex- ehaleopyrite
wasdeposited beforeandafterthe ten-
trapolationof the parageneticsequenceto include nanrite.Somegrainsof ehaleopyrite containverymi-
lessabundantmineralssuchas chalcopyrite,sphal- nor (<5 vol %) lamellaeof bornitc,but wherebornitc
erite, andcinnabar]In veinsdominatedby the assem- is locally predominant,the reverserelationshipis
blagetennantite-chalcocite, earlyformedtennantite common.Chaleopyrite-riehveinsgenerallycontain
bandsare coatedwith youngerchalcocitelayersand minoramounts ofsphalerite
andverysmallquantities
cutby stringers of chalcocite.Apparentreplacement of galena.One bandedvein containsa 2 to 3-mm-
texturesbetween chalcociteand bornitc commonly wide layerof eolloformblacksphaleriteandthinner
indicatereversalsin depositional order.The mutual bandsof calcite,ehaleopyrite,and pyrite. Mareasite
boundarytexturesandmyrmekiticintergrowths of occursmostcommonlyasminuteinclusionsin pyrite

TABLE3. Mode of Occurrenceof SulfideMineralization,JardlnMine

Stratigraphic
unit Extent of mineralization Mode of occurrence

VH Very local VerticallyorientedCu sulfide-bearing

pipes,ca. 2 mmin width(Fig. 14), with
bleached,Fe+a-poor halos
VI Considerable Cu sulfidedisseminations;
thin laminations;roundedto irregular aggregates;verti-
(esp.Zulema section) cal pipes
V Considerable and wide- Cu sulfidedisseminations;beddingplanestringers; verticalpipes;myriadsof verti-
spread calpolygonal cracksin coalyseams, filledby calcite,clays,goethite,covellite,
andchalcocite;bedsof coalymaterialcontainfinelydispersedcalcite,chalcocite,
and sphalerite
IV Considerable and wide- Disseminated su!fides
in tuff fragmentsandmatrix,in association with claysand
spread carbonates;mineralizedtuff cut by discontinuous sulfidestringers(0.5 mm
wide), carbonate-pyriteveinlets,andbranchingfractures
III Erratic Minutesulfidegrainssparsely or denselydisseminated in matrix;sometufffrag-
mentsintensely
mineralized;
roundmasses
(max.1 cm,diam)
of chalcocite,
py-
rite, bornitc,andearthyhematite;quartz-clay-carbonate
alterationin manytuff
fragments
II Erratic Disseminatedsulfidesin hydrothermally
alteredtuff fragments andbrecciamatrix,
associated
with secondaryquartz,calcite,and chlorite
I Moderate Disseminatedsulfidesin tuff groundmass,
associated with clustersof relatively
coarse-grained
quartz,extremelyfinesericite(?illitc), andcarbonates (Fig. 13)
 JARDiN
CU-AG
DEPOSIT:
N.CHILE 559

on the surfacesof carbonates in vugs.In somecases,

thecavitiesarelinedwithchalcopyrite andfilledwith
cinnabar.The vugsin onecarbonate veinin the Can-
delariaworkings contain radiatingclustersoffinegol-
denneedlesof goethite,aswell ascinnabarcrystals.
Fromthe mineralassemblages andtexturesof the
veins,threedepositional sequences canbe inferred
reliably.Excludingthe exsolvedphases,theseare:
pyrite-sphalerite-chalcopyrite (galena)-cinnabar,
chalcopyrite-tennantite-sphalerite-pyrite, and ten-
nantite-chalcocite(bornitc).Tennantite,chalcocite,
andbornitchavethe samerelationships in bothveins
andpipes.Theveinsaredistinguished by thepresence
of relativelyabundant chalcopyriteandsphalerite and
FIG. 14. Red sandstoneunit (VII) of Zulema mine section. by smallquantities of galenaandcinnabar.Although
Left: three samplesof sandstone with sulfidepipesandbleached pyrite occursin both typesof mineralization, it was
aureoles;right: characteristicred silty sandstone.
the first-formedmineralin sulfidicpipesbut a late
phasein veins.Bornitcandpyriteappearnowhereto
but also formsthin discontinuous bandsin pyrite- constitutean equilibriumassemblage.
chalcopyriteveins.
Pipes,veins,and stringers
Nativesilveroccursassmall(ca.0.2 ram:Fig. 16b)
discretegrains(commonly rimmedby tennantiteand Thegenetic model tobepropos edfortheJardln
chalcocite-bornite) or asinclusions in chalcocite,bor- mantodrawsextensivelyon the detailedstructures
nitc, tennantite,chalcopyrite,and the copper-silver displayedby the disseminatedmineralization(see
sulfides.Stromeyerite, jalpaitc,andmckinstryiteoc- above),and more critically,by the sulfide-bearing
cur as blebs and lamellae in tennantite and in chal- pipes.
cocite-bornite intergrowths,fromwhichtheyappear Sulfidepipes:The mostunusualbodiesof sulfidic
to have exsolved,implyingthe existenceof tie lines mineralizationin the Jardln depositare the rod-
betweenbornitcandjalpaitcandmckinstryite in the shapedstructures,orientedapproximatelynormalto
systemAg-Cu-Fe-S at low temperatures.PearceRe bedding,in the buff siltstoneunit of the Zulema
is observedalong contactsbetween native silver workings(Fig. 11A-F). The sulfidepipesvary in di-
and chalcociteand as irregulargrainsin tennantite ameterfromaboutI to 8 mm andattainlengthsof at
stringers. least15 cm. Mostpipesconsistof a coreof nearly
cinnabar,it wasclearlythe massivesulfides,with only minorsiliceousdetritus,
In all veinscontaining
lastsulfideto be deposited,
occurringassmallcrystals andanouterzoneof extremelyfinesulfidegrainsdis-

FIG. 15. Microscopic

ore textures.A. Photomicrograph (plane-polarized incidentlight) showing
sphericalbornite-chalcocite
bodiesin a sulfidepipe. Left-handfield (dark)is the inner part of pipe,
filledwith sediment;
right-handdarkdomainiswallof pipe.Noteremobfiized bornite-chalcocite stringer
on right. B. Photomicrograph(plane-polarizedincidentlight) showingpyrite framboids,displaying
variousdegreesof replacementby tennantite,bornitc,andchalcocite(seealsoFig. 16A).
560 R. B. I.,ORTIEAHD A. H. CLARK

CC

t 100p.m

FIG. 16. A. Bornitc(bn),chaleocite(cc),andtennantite(tn) spheroids,with irregularatollsofpyrite

(plane-polarizedincidentlight). B. Native silver(palestgray),rimmedby tennantite(tn) andchalcocite
(ce), in black shale(plane-polarizedincidentlight).

seminated in the sedimentaryrock(Fig. 11A andB). Mineralogieally,

thepipesfall intotwogroups:py-
In partsof the Zulemasection,where the pipesare ' rite rich and coppersulfiderich. Pyritie pipesare
developedto the extentof hundreds per cubicmeter muchlessabundantandareiestrietedto a smallarea
of siltstone,this mineralization
constitutes
rich ore of the Zulemaoperations. In the copper-richpipes,
(Fig. 17). whichcommonlycontainminorpyrite, the latter has

FIG. 17. Swarmof chalcocite-and tennantite-richpipesin buff siltstoneunit, overlyingblack shale

(Zulemamine section:knife, 20 em in length).
 JARDiN
CU-AG
DEPOSIT:
N. CHILE 561

clearlybeenreplacedby the copperminerals.

Some
of the pipesexhibita concentricmineralogical
zo-
nation from a core of tennantite and chalcocite,
throughrichly-disseminated chalcociteand bornitc,
to an outerzoneof sparselydisseminated pyrite.
In mostinstanceswhere the beddingof the sedi-
mentadjacentto the pipeshasbeenvisiblydisturbed,
the laminationsare warpedupward(Fig. 11C), sug-
gestingthat the bedswere penetratedfrom below.
Upwardwarpingmight,however,be causedby dif-
ferentialcompaction of thepipe materialandthe host
rocks,andthispossibility
cannotbe discounted.
In
mostof the rare casesin whichthe beddingis down-
warpedtowardthe pipes,the tubularstructurescon-
tain onlytracesof sulfides,beingmainlyfilledwith
silt.We inferthatsuchtubesmayhavebeenfilledby
sedimentslumpinginward,afterintroductionof some
sulfide,from the wallsor topsof the pipes.
Apparentlyfeaturesof thisnaturehaveonlyrarely
beenrecordedfromdisseminated copperdepositsin
either sedimentaryor volcanichostrocks.Because
the sulfidicpipesare entirelyenclosedin clasticsed-
imentaryrocks,theydifferfromthe chimneyclusters
associatedwith the more massive sulfide-sulfate min-
eralizationat oceanicspreadingcenters(Hekinianet
al., 1980) andin the Ballynoe-Silvermines Pb-Zn-Ba
deposit,Eire (Larter et al., 1981). The Jardlnsulfide
pipeshave,we consider,fourpossible modesof origin. FIG. 18. An upward-branchingchalcocite-tennantite pipe in
Theseare (1) by replacementof rhizoliths,(2) by en- finesiltstoneof the buffsiltstoneunit (specimen,15 cm in length).
trainmentin, or replacementof, fluid-escapeor de-
wateringstructures,(3) by filling or replacementof
animalburrows,and (4) assmall'hot springs,which
were directlyfilled in by sulfidesprecipitatedfrom representreplacementsof rhizoliths, even of sand-
ascendingwater. These mechanisms,of which we filledrootcasts(see,e.g.,BrackenandPicard,1984).
consider(3) and(4) to be the mostprobable,are con- An origin through replacementof fluid-escape
sidered in order below. structures merits more extensive consideration.
Although
(seeabove)
plants
flourished
intheJardln Broadlytubular dewateringstructuresin clay-rich
lacustrinebasin,perhapsparticularlyduringdeposi- sedimentarymaterialshave been generatedexperi-
tionof the blackshale(unitV), the pipeshavea mor- mentally(e.g.,Gill andKuenen,1958;Kuenen,1968)
phologydifferingsignificantly
fromthoseofrhizoliths. and, moreover,the "pillars" of Lowe andLoPiccolo
Three featurescharacteristicof root systems(Cony- (1974) sharefeatureswith theJardlnpipes.However,
beareandCrook, 1968, p. 46), i.e., the presenceof no tabularpillarsor associated dish structureshave
carbonaceous matter,a branchingform,anda lackof beenobservedin the deposit,andthe pipesare not
disturbed bedding,are not generallyshownby the rootedin specificsedimentary horizonswhichmight
bodiesunderdiscussion. A few of the pyriticpipesin haveactedassemipermeable unitsduringsediment
the Zulemaworkingscontainsmallquantitiesof car- accumulation. Further, the annular zonation of the
bonaceous material,but the vastmajority,including majorityof the pipescontrastsmarkedlywith the
thosefilledmainlywithsilt,containnone.In addition, massiveor chaoticinternal fabricsof dewatering
there is no evidence in the carbonaceous shale un- structures.Mostcritically,two featuresargueagainst
derlyingthe siltstones to suggestthat direct sulfide an originthroughsedimentdewatering:the extreme
replacementof organicmatterwasa factorin ore de- rarity of crosscutting structuresdominatedby sedi-
position.Branching of the sulfidepipeshasonlyrarely mentarydetritus,andthe improbabilitythatthe thin,
been observed,and in suchcases,the structuresbi- generallyslowlydeposited,underlyingsedimentary
furcateupwardintotwopipesofapproximately equal succession could have entrained sufficient water to
diameters(Fig. 18); rhizolithsinvariablybranch generatethe swarmsof pipes observedin the silt-
downward.Finally, the buff siltstoneprobablycon-' stones.Thus, thesestructurescould representde-
stitutedanunfavorable environment forplantgrowth. wateringsystemsonly if the fluid involvedwasthat
We thereforeconsiderit improbablethat the pipes directlyinvolvedin metaltransport.
562 R. B. LORTIE AND A. H. CLARK

Manyof the Jardlnpipesbear a resemblance to the 7. Fragments of undoubted pyritizedtubeslying

slendercylindricalverticalshaftsof the nonmeniscate alongbeddingplanesnearthetopof thesiltstone unit
endostrataltrace fossil,Skolithussp., which in con- (Fig. 11D) indicatethat localerosionof pipescon-
tinental environmentscommonlyrepresentsthe pas- taining,at least,pyritetookplaceat severalstages in
sivelyfilled burrowsof oligochaeteannelids.Such the accumulation of the siltstone.
burrows are, for instance,a characteristiccomponent 8. Sulfidemineralscommonlyshowa small-scale
of the Scoyeniaichnofacies(Seilacher,1967; Frey et texturalandmineralogicalzonation withinandabout
al., 1984), which has been documentedin settings thepipes,particularly
inthebuffsiltstones
wherethey
rangingin agefromTriassicto Holocene,andinclud- arebestdeveloped.The closecontrolof ore textures
ingbraidedstream,floodplain,andshallowlacustrine andstructures
exertedby the pipesstronglysuggests
environments(e.g., Brackenand Picard, 1984; Rat- that ore depositiontookplaceprior to lithification
cliffe and Fagerstrom,1980). Scolithussp. concen- andprobablyevenpriorto burialof the siltstones in
trations with a density similar to that of the pipe whichthe pipesoccur.Thiswouldsuggest, then,that
swarms in the Zulema mine have been commonly the pipeswere conduitsfor ascending mineralizing
documented.Ripley et al. (1980) have briefly de- fluids.
scribedapparentlysimilarsulfidestringersfromred-
bed copperdepositsin south-centralKansas,noting Althoughnoneof the abovefactorsconclusively
(p. 724) that, although"difficultto interpret[they] argues againsta tracefossiloriginfor the pipes,we
may representstructuresformedby burrowingor- considerthat a more satisfactoryinterpretationis they
ganisms." are abioticand representconduitsformed and min-
Sucha genesisispossiblefor the Jardlnpipes,but eralizedby gasor waterrisingthroughwet sediment.
in ouropinion,theydisplaynumerous featureswhich Indeed,the moststrikingaspectof the pipelikestruc-
implyaninorganic ratherthanorganicorigin(seeEk- tures in the sedimentsis their almostinvariablysul-
dale et al., 1984, for an excellentreview of trace fossil fide-dominatedconstitution,in itself strongevidence
We draw attentionto the following for a geneticrelationship
characteristics). betweenpipe formationand
mineralization. The immediate source of the fluids
aspectsof the pipes:
may havebeen one of the following:the siltstoneit-
1. The pipeshavea comparativelylarge rangein self,the waterbeingexpelledduringcompaction; the
diameter (1-8 ram). carbonaceousshale which underlies the siltstone, the
2. Somepipeshavevery irregularlyshapedcross fluidrepresentingexpelledpore-waterandgases
sectionsand includeseveralwhich comprisesetsof rivedfromthe decomposition of plantremains;or the
short radial fractures. ignimbritesheet,the fluid (possiblyof meteoricori-
3. No otherstructures of possibletracefossilorigin gin) havingrisenfrom the ashflow, duringits com-
have been observed either in the enclostratal domain pactionandwelding,asfumarolesandhydrothermal
or lying within the plane of sedimentation. springs.
4. Numerous pipelike structuresoccur in sedi- Because thepipesextendto thebaseofthe siltstone
mentswhich,becauseof their coarseness, were prob- unit, thesesedimentsmustbe excludedasa dominant
ably inhospitableto burrowingorganisms; e.g., the sourceof the fluid agentof pipe formation:clearly,
green pebble conglomerate,tuff-slabbreccia, and the gasor water musthave risenfrom beneaththe
black breccia. silt, either from the shale or from the ash flow. For
5. Only the sulfidepipesin sandstone andsiltstone two reasons,the black shale seemsto represent an
convincinglyresembleburrows. inadequate source.The shalehasanaveragethickness
6. Many pipesshowevidenceof havingbeenmin- of only 15 cm; its thicknessbefore compactionwas
eralized with pyrite, and perhaps,copper sulfides probablyno morethan 50 cm. The volumeof fluid
while sedimentation wasin progress,namely,(a) some necessary to borethe tubesandkeepthemopen,and
pyritic pipeshavemushroom-shaped tops(Fig. 11D), to depositthe sulfidestherein, would certainlybe
over which mudstone beds are almost thinned out; severalordersof magnitudegreater than the pore
(b) somepipeshavesilt-filledcoresandpyrite-coated waterandthe gaseswhichcouldhavebeenproduced
walls; and (c) somehave copper or copper-arsenic- by the decompositionof plant remainsin this sedi-
rich cores,detrital outer zones,and copper sulfide- ment. The blackbrecciadoesnot containenoughor-
or pyrite-cementedwalls.Theserelationships indicate ganiccarbonto accountfor a substantial volumeof
that pyrite depositionandinternalsedimentation and gas.Furthermore, the gasesproduced by plantdecay,
burial of the pipeswere contemporaneous and over- althoughcapableof boringtubesin wet sand,would
lapping.The intimateassociation of a lacustrineanimal not be effectiveagentsof metal transportand depo-
communityandfluidscontaininghigh,probablytoxic, sition.
levelsof sulfur, copper, and even arsenic,seemsim- The ashflowremainsthe logicallocalsourceof the
probable. gasand/orwaterwhich,we infer, boredthe tubes
 JARDiN
CU-AG
DEPOSIT:
N.CHILE 563

and depositedthe sulfidesin the crossbeddedsilt- andcommonlylessthan 5 m in length,whereasthe

stonesand sandstones of the Zulema workings.Ash latter do not exceed i mm in width and 10 cm in
flowsare indeedknownto havegeneratedfumarolic length.Mosttrend N 30o-55 ø E/85 ø SE, the largest
activityof long duration(e.g., Katmaiflow, Valley of quartz-carbonate structureshavinga more variable
the Ten ThousandSmokes,Alaska:Zies, 1929). In orientation.The smallsulfidestringersgenerallyoccur
orderto haveproducedfumarolesin the buffsiltstones in zones,someup to 100 m in lengthand 2 to 3 m in
and sandstones, fluidsrisingfrom the basalHornitos width, within which thousandsof stringers,spaced
ash flow should have left evidence of their ascent in 0.5 to 5.0 cm apart,are aligned(seeFig. 20). A few
the sediments which lie between the ash-flow tuff and sparselymineralizedcarbonateveinletsof the same
the siltstoneunit, i.e., the tuff-slab intraformational orientationtypicallyoccurwithin the stringerzones.
breccia, the green pebble conglomerate,the black Sulfidestringershavebeen found only in the black
breccia, and the black shale. The breccia and the breccia-shale unit and, rarely, in the upper few de-
greenconglomerate are probablytooheterogeneous cimetersof the ignimbrite.Someof the veinscutting
in grainsizeto havepermittedthe formationof simple the black unit showclear evidencethat wideningor
cylindricaltubes.However,eachunit contains,at least reopeningof fracturestookplacewhilemineralization
locally, a smallnumberof vertically oriented linear progressed(Fig. 19B). The bandsare separatedby
structures.Theseirregular, blade-shapedseamscom- thin layersof carbonaceous materialtorn from the
monlycontaincarbonaceous flakesanddust,andsul- wall rockat eachstageof fracturedevelopment.
fide grains.They occuronly in the groundmass of the The sulfide-bearingveinsand stringersappearto
rocks;in no instancedo they cut acrosspebblesor be restrictedverticallyto the mantoof disseminated
cobbles(e.g.,Fig. 7B).A few short,sulfide-richpipes, ore.Theydefinitelydonotextenddownwardfor more
more or less circular in crosssection, have been ob- thana meterintothe ignimbritesheet.Their upward
servedin the more even-grainedsandyor silty beds extent is not so well known because,owing to their
of the black breccia. erraticdistribution,they havegenerallybeenignored
The black shale contains no rodlike structures ori- asa sourceof copperand are left in the roof of the
entednormalto bedding.The absenceof suchstruc- mine.At a few localities,however,both stringersand
tures, however, does not deny the possibilitythat veinsare seento pinch out at the top of the black
fluidspassedthroughthe shale.In the uncompacted shaleor are truncatedby carbonatestringerswhich
state,the matted plant debriswould probablyhave lie along(sheared?)beddingplanesin the shale.No
been sufficientlyporousto allowa more diffuseper- mineralized veins occur in the sedimentarybeds
colationof fluid, and any vapor channelsformed in abovethe ore-bearingveinsof the mine on the east
the organicmuck would probablyhave been totally flankof the Jardlnvalley.
obscuredby compaction. The majorityof the veinsand stringersin the de-
Someaspectsof pipe genesisremainproblematic, posithavethe sameorientationasa prominentsetof
includingthe relativeconsistency in their dimensions fracturesin the Hornitosconglomerateon the north-
(1-8 mm):persistentfluid flowthroughthe sediments westsideof the Jardlnvalley. Thesetensionalstruc-
might be expectedto have been channelledprefer- tures are apparentlyrelated to bedding plane, dip-
entially,leadingto the enlargementof somepipesat slipfaultingabovethe ignimbriteat the mine andto
the expenseof others,or to sheafiikeclustersof con- faultingalongthe baseof the ignimbritenorthof the
tiguouspipes(cf. Larter et al., 1981). Moreover,sys- river valley. However, becausethe fracturescontain
temsof gregarious,but separate,fluid escapepipes carbonate, hematitic alteration, and malachite, the
with a morphologycomparableto that at Jardlnhave faultsare interpretedto be youngerthan the sulfide-
not, to the authors'knowledge,been recordedelse- bearingveinlets.The developmentof tensionfrac-
where. tures,andthe depositionof sulfides,quartz, andcal-
Veinsand stringers:In additionto numerousbed- cite therein, apparentlytook place during the early
ding-parallel,dip-slipfaultsof postmineralization age, stagesof strain. As carbonatedepositionpersisted,
the Jardlnworkingsexposea largenumberof discon- faultingoccurred.
tinuous, m•neralized and barren veins which "cut" The black shale in the mine contains numerous
the disseminatedmineralization
(Fig. 19A andB). The stringersof carbonateandsulfidesalongits bedding
barrenveins,dominatedby carbonateminerals,have planes.The carbonatestringersare 1.0 to 1.5 mm in
variableorientationsand are developedin all litho- thickness andupto i to 2 m in length.Sulfidestringers
logicalunitsin the mine, aswell asin youngerHor- are lessthan 0.5 mm thick and rarely more than 10
nitos Formation strata. cm in length.Sulfideseamssensiblyparallelto bed-
The ore-bearingveins may be subdividedinto: ding are commonlyassociatedwith sulfidepipes in
quartz-carbonateand carbonateveins with subordi- the buffandgreensiltstones of Zulema.Thesestring-
nate coppersulfides;and sulfidestringerswith little ers are less than i mm thick and no more than 3 or 4
or no gangue.The former are 0.2 to 5.0 mm wide cm in length (Fig. 19C and D).
564 R. B. LORTIE AND A. H. CLARK

' •" •' ? 20mm

A 50mm ,, I j B

20mm
• 2omm
c I I D I

FIG.19. Sulfide-bearing veinsandbeddingplanestringers.A. Blackshalecutby bandedcarbonate-

quartz veinlet and parallelsulfidestringer.B. Complexcarbonate-quartz-sulfide
vein cuttingblack
breccia.Zonesof earbonaeeous materialin vein demonstrate
multipleopeningof the fracture.C.
Sulfidepipesandbeddingplanestringersin buff siltstone(beddingfacesright). D. Chaleocite-rich
pipesandbeddingplanestringersin buff siltstone(beddingfacesright).

Implicationsof orefabrics sulfosaltdisseminations andthepipesdevelopeddur-

The texturalrelationships
describedaboveare in- ing and/or shortly after depositionof the immediate
terpretedasevidencethat:the widespreadsulfideand hostrocks;and the veinsand stringersformedsub-
sequentto lithifieationof the sediments.It shouldbe
emphasized that the texturalevidencerelatingsulfide
emplaeement to the periodof sedimentaccumulation
is strongerfor pyrite thanfor the Cu-As-Agminerals.
Thosesulfidesandsulfosalts formed,in general,later
thanthe pyrite andcould,therefore,be strictlypost-
sedimentary with respectto the overallsuccession of
lacustrinestrata.It is probablethat the mineralized
veinswere relatedto later faultingalongor imme-
diatelyabovethe ignimbrite-sediment contactandto
foldingin evaporitiebeds400 to 500 m higherin the
HornitosFormationsection.The proposedlate-stage
hydrothermal activitymayhavebeencoevalwith the
emplaeementof the BuenosAires rhyolite domes
(Fig. 2).
Fluid inclusionthermometry
FIG. 20. Swarmof thin, tennantite-richvertical stringers,
Candelariamine section(scale,3 em long);lookingupwardat Aspartof theeffortto characterizetheJardlncop-
roofof working.Palebandabovescaleis a carbonatevein, par- per depositand to determineits origin,we haveat-
allelingthe stringers. temptedto establishthe temperatureof deposition
 JARDfNCU-AGDEPOSIT:N. CHILE 565

of the ores.Becausesubsolidus phaserelationsin the

relevantregionsof the Cu-Fe-S,Cu-As-S,Cu-Ag-S,
and Cu-Bi-Ssystemshave little applicationas tem-
perature indicators(see, e.g., Skinner, 1966), fluid
inclusion thermometry appearedto offerthebestop-
portunityto determineore formationtemperatures.
Fluidinclusion studiesof the pipesareunfortunately
precludedby the absenceof gangueminerals.Fine-
grained secondaryquartz associatedwith dissemi-
natedsulfides in the tuffcontainssporadic liquid-gas
inclusions,but their exceedinglysmallsize makes
them unsuitablefor opticalstudy.
A very smallnumberof two-phase(liquid+ gas)
aqueousinclusions were detectedin quartzcrystals
in sulfide-bearing
veins.Theseinclusions
yieldedho- + lkm
mogenizationtemperaturesclustering around 140 ø I - J

+_20øC,but in a few casesattaining200ø to 250øC. F•C.21. The inferredenvironment

ofmineralization
atJardln.
Thesetemperatures,
andthe lackof evidencefor fluid Approximatehorizontalscaleasindicated;considerablevertical
boiling,aretentativelyinterpretedasrecording
the exaggeration.Sketch showsthe areal distribution of sulfide and
sulfate facies within the mineralized horizon beneath the floor of
approximate
conditions
underwhich,followingburial
oftheBuenos the
oftheoredepositandtheemplacement saline
surface
pond,theencroachment ofplantsontothestill-steaming
of theignimbrite,andanearlystagein thedevelopment
Aires rhyoliticcenter,the disseminatedand pipe of the fanglomerate
wedge.
mineralizationunderwentlocalre-solutionand pre-
cipitation in fractures.
the eastby a majorescarpment
fromwhicha large
GeologicSettingand GeneticModel volumeof coarsedebriswasshed,astalus,debrisflows
In the absence of direct evidence of the conditions andwater-transporteddetritus,to forma thickalluvial
(T, P, andfluid composition) of ore deposition,our fan. Othersedimentary materialdeposited directly
preferredmodelfor the originof the disseminated,onthe ignimbritesurfacewasderivedmainlyby re-
strata-bound, JardlnCu-Agdeposit isbasedessentially workingof theash-flow tuffduringitscooling. Asthe
on inferenceand analogy.However, we consider fanglomerate depositspreadacross the ashflow,tuff-
muchof the mineralization to be the productof an aceousdetrituswasmovedabouton the ignimbrite
environment,both local and, probably,ephemeral, surface' by intermittentrunoffand minorstreams.
directlyrelatedto the coolingof the basalHornitos Stream incision into the ash flow would have been
ash-flow tuff. The restriction of the sulfide mineral- minimal because itssurface remained thetopographic
izationto the uppermostpart of the ignimbritesheet low. However,shallowpondsdevelopedlocallyin
and to the immediatelysuperjacentreducedlacus- closed depressions onthissurface, soonbecoming salt
trine sediments aswell asthe texturalrelationships lakes and evaporite(gypsum)fiats. With the en-
of the oreandthe hostrocksareregardedascritical croachmentof vegetationonto the ash-flowsheet,
features.Themineralization isstrictlyepigenetic,but plantdetritusbeganto accumulate alongthe edgeof
in considering thekeyaspects oftheore-forming pro- at least one of these salt lakes and was carried into
cess,the contemporaneity of initial sulfideemplace- the pondby periodicrunoff,alongwith fine clastic
mentandtheaccumulation of sediment uponthe still- materialof localderivation.The resultingorganic-
hotflowisassumed. We inferthathydrothermal fluid rich mulchsupportedcoloniesof anaerobicbacteria.
temperatureswere low, probablybelow 100øC. Gypsumwasdirectlyprecipitatedin lacustrinemuds
Geologicenvironment farther
outin the pond,in moreoxygenated areas.
The geologicsettingin whichthe Jardlndeposit Sourceof metals
formedcanbereconstructed in somedetail(Fig.21). The copper,silver,arsenic,andzincin the Jardln
The absence of markedrelief on the pre-Hornitos oresmayhavebeenderivedin part fromthe ignim-
unconformityin theJardlnareaindicatesthatthebasal brite sheetitself, with or without the involvementof
ignimbrite,
at anunknown butprobably notgreat(15 subaerialfumarolic encrustations(see Oftedahl,
km?)distancefrom its source,wasdepositedon a 1958), but a sourcein the CerrillosFormationis more
broadplainwithgentleslopes andonlymoderate to- probable.This predominantly andesiticsuccession,
pographichighs,developedby erosionof deformed whichprobablyunderlaysubdued highlands imme-
strata of the Cerrillos Formation. Climatic conditions diatelyto the westof the Jardlnarea at the time of
were semi-arid.The plain,probablynotfar abovesea mineralization, contains oxidized volcaniclastic and
level(Mortimer,1973),wasapparently borderedon clastic horizons and hosts numerous small- and me-
566 R. B. LORTIE AND A. H. CLARK

dium-sizedcopper-richveins and mantos,some of creasein temperature,but relatively reducingcon-

which are Ag andAs bearing(Rulz et al., 1965). Sur- ditionswouldalsobe expectedin the essentiallyfresh
ficial oxidation of both the andesites and associated volcanic rock.
ore deposits,immediatelyprecedingdepositionof the The role of early formedpyrite (andmarcasite)in
unconformably overlyingHornitosFormation,would the reducedsedimentaryrocksin the nucleationand
presumablyhave releasedconsiderableamountsof precipitationof the Cu-Agmineralsis uncertain.Py-
Cu and Ag into the ground-watersystemwhich, we rite is considerablysubordinateto the ore minerals
infer, includedan elementof downslopeflow toward andthere is apparentlyno pyritic fringeoverlyingor
the developingJardlnbasin. adjacentto the orebody.Althoughthere is extensive
microscopicevidencefor the replacementof pyrite
Metal transport
by the associated tennantiteandchalcocite,the iron
Althoughjuvenilewatersmayhavecontributedto sulfideappearsto representan integral component
the ore-formingprocess,it is probablethat ground of the ore assemblage.
waters,includingsurfacerunofffrom the hill slopes The generalized paragenetic sequence,pyrite-
surroundingthe local basin and water from the tennantite-chalcocite-bornite,in the ores may be
ephemeralpond, constitutedthe dominantagentof broadlymodeledupon the thermodynamiccalcula-
metal transport.Some direct sulfide precipitation tionsof Knight(1977), who examinedaspectsof the
couldhavetakenplacewhere streamscarryingmetals phaserelationshipsof tennantite,enargite,bornite,
enteredareasof the pond underlainby reduced,or- chalcocite,chalcopyrite,andthe iron sulfidesat low
ganic-rich sediments,but the major processwas temperatures.His figure 7, depictingthe stability
probablythe shallowsubsurface convectionof ground fields of these mineralsat 100øC in terms of log
watersthroughthe coolingignimbrite.The discharge a(cu+)/a(H+)
andloga(Fe+•)/a•m•,
isprobablyapplicable
of the hydrothermalfluidswould havebeen focused to the Jardlnassemblages (Fig. 22). Only minor in-
by permeablezonesin the unweldedupper part of creasesin the two log-ratioparameters,suchaswould
the ashflow and in the overlyingsediments. be promptedby reductionand neutralizationof the
The fluidswere probablyin equilibriumwith he- fluid duringreactionwith reduced,andprobablyS-
matite, quartz, calcite,and illite and/or kaolinite:a
rich, sediments,would be required to causethe suc-
neutralto weaklyalkalinepH andanfo• higherthan cessiveprecipitationof pyrite, tennantite,and chal-
that of the magnetite-hematite
buffer are indicated.
Relativelyhigh chloridecontents(ca. 0.5 M NaCI?)
would be expectedin the groundwatersin view of i i i

the extensiveevidencefor sulfate-richevaporitefor-

mation in the area at the time of initial mineralization
and would have permitted the low-temperature
transportof copper as cuprouschloride complexes
(Rickard,1974; Rose,1976). Silvertransport,alsoas • 6 CHALCOPYRITE

chloridecomplexes,hasbeen shown(Rose,1976) to
be feasiblein suchsolutions.Arsenicmayhavebeen • PYRRHOTITE
transportedas either arsenite or arsenateaqueous
speciesunderthe inferredconditionsof low temper- TENNANTITE

ature, relatively high fo•, and near-neutralpH

(Knight,1977). The fluidswere probablypoorin both
iron and reducedsulfurspecies. CHALCOCITE

Ore deposition
100ø0
Within the sedimentaryunits(II to VI, andlocally, -2
VII), Cu and Ag depositionis inferred to havetaken log o_._
(H2S)= -3

placein responseto a decreasein temperatureasthe ENARGITE

fluidsroseabovethe ignimbrite,and probablymore -4

critically, to reductionand neutralizationon contact

with concentrations of decomposing
thoughnodirectreplacement
plant debris(al-
of organicmaterialtook
place).The restrictionof abundantsphaleriteto lith-
-6
-14 -12 -10
log
o__
(H+).
o__
(As(OH
-12
I -;, -2
log a(Cu +)/ a__(H+)
ologies(especiallyin unit V) unusuallyrich in organic
materialisin conformitywith the highersolubilityof FIG. 22. Phaserelationshipsin a portion of the FeO-Cu•O-
H•S-SOs-As•O3-H•O-HC1 systemat 100øC (after Knight, 1977,
zinc relative to Cu and Ag (e.g., Rose, 1976). In the fig. 7). Conditionsareinferredto be broadlycomparable to those
upper,brecciatedpart of the ignimbrite,Cu andAg prevailingduringinitialmineralizationin Jardln,andthe indicated
depositionmay havebeen in part the resultof a de- path to be that followedby the ore-formingfluids.
 JARDI• CU-AGDEPOSIT:
N. CHILE 567

cocite-bornite.The moderatedegreeof argillicalter- ignimbriteshavebeenshownto continuefor at least

ation associated with mineralization,particularlyin sevenyears(Valleyof Ten ThousandSmokes;Sheri-
unitsI, II, and III, would be in conformitywith a dan, 1970) andmaypersistfor up to 25 to 50 years
limited neutralizationof the ore-formingfluid. The (Riehle, 1973). If we assumea hydrothermalcircu-
variableparageneticpositionof chalcopyritein the lationperiodof 40 years,anaveragerateof sedimen-
veinsimpliesthat, at leastin the later stagesof min- tationof 5 cm/annumwouldbe requiredto generate
eralization,the fluid followeda chemicalpath close the Jardlnsuccession. FergusonandLambert (1972)
to the boundarybetweenthe chalcopyriteand ten- have documented a rate of tuffaceous sedimentation
nantiteequilibriumfields,periodicallyenteringthat of 1.2 cm/annumover 35 yearsat Matupi Harbor,
of the former. The bornite field is inferred to have Papua New Guinea, an environmentbroadly com-
beenintersectedin proximityto the chalcocitesat- parableto that at Jardlnbut one more extensive
urationline, becausethesetwo mineralsgenerally areallyandmorevegetated.It is our opinionthat the
displaytexturessuggestiveof simultaneous deposi- observedthicknessof sedimentarystratahostingthe
tion. The aboveore mineral depositionalsequence Jardlnorebodycouldindeedhaveaccumulated during
could have occurredunder isothermalconditions,but the coolinghistoryof the underlyingashflow.
a decreasein temperaturewould alsohave favored The occurrenceof fragmentsof vascularplantsin
the transitionfromFe to Cu sulfides(Knight,1977). the carbonaceous sediments at Jardlnwouldnot nec-
Several (5) tennantite + chalcociteconcentrates essarilybe in conflictwith suchrigoroustime con-
fromthe oresyield fi34Scompositions
of-20.61 to straints.Beaman(1960; and see Segerstrom,1961)
-31.92 per mil (M. L. Jensen,pers.commun.,1970). hasrecordedthat only sixyearsafter the 1952 erup-
No data are availablefor strictlycoexistingsulfate tion of Parlcutin,Mexico, the conehadbeen colonized
minerals,but unweatheredgypsum(Mina de Yeso) by at least 14 vascularplant species.Thus, plant
in an evaporitichorizon higher than that of Jardln growthcouldhave begunat an early stageon the
gavefi34S= 7.44 permil, andbaritefroma veinletin debris-covered, steamingsurfaceof the ignimbrite
brecciatedignimbriteattheElisadeBordos mine(Fig. closeto the pond.
2) hasthe composition fi34S= 6.79 per mil. If these The major episodeof sulfidedepositionof Jardln
sulfideandsulfatedatareflectequilibrium,the very may have terminatedwhen the area was blanketed
large A values(ca. 33-34%) would indicatelow to by the thick wedge of oxidizedfanglomerate(unit
very low temperatures.In the more probablecaseof VIII). However,ore formationcouldhavebeenreac-
nonequilibriumreduction of sulfate by bacteria tivatedduringa laterperiodof faultingassociated with
(OhmotoandRye,1979),thedatawouldbein general the emplacement of theBuenosAiresrhyoliticcenter.
agreementwith conditionsintermediatebetweenthe The problematic,relativelyhigh, temperaturesre-
SO•2-openandSO•2-closed modelsof Schwarzand cordedfrom the late veinsmay reflect a pervasive
Burnie(1973); i.e., the rate of supplyof sulfatefrom heating of the entire area at this time. The overall
the pondwater may have been approximately bal- mineralogyand chemistryof the veinsare similarto
ancedby that of sulfatereduction,resultingin frac- thoseof the early ores.Thesesimilaritiesandthe re-
tionations of •4Sin the range50 • x • 20 per mil. strictionof the veinsto the originalmantoof dissem-
However,the apparentabsenceof sulfidefi34S values inated and veinlet ore are interpreted as evidence
in the range-20 to +6 per mil mayimplythat con- that localresolutionandprecipitationof ore minerals
ditionsweremorecomparable to the SO•2-open case, occurredduring renewedcirculationof groundwa-
in which sulfateis continuouslysuppliedfrom the ters, in responseto modestheating abovethe tem-
overlyingwater, but reductionwithin the sediment peratures ofinitialdeposition.Lessstringenttemporal
is slowerand/orepisodic.In generalterms,the few constraintson the disseminatedcopper-silvermin-
dataare in permissive agreementwith a bacterialre- eralizationwould, clearly,obtainif only the pyrite
ductionsystem,implyingthat temperaturesdid not crystallizedduringsedimentation and early diagen-
exceedca.50øC(OhmotoandRye, 1979). Numerous esis,andsubsequently controlledthe precipitationof
studies(e.g.,White, 1968;Ferguson et al., 1974)have the oreminerals. Thismodelcannotbe adequately
shownthatbacteriamaythrivein the vicinityof sub- evaluated.
aerialhot springs.
Analogsof theJardfndeposit
Time constraints
The Jardlndeposit,althoughlimitedin sizeandof
Our preferredgeneticmodelis thatthe majorpe- onlymodestgrade,isintriguingin thatit exhibitsfea-
riodof oreformation occurred: duringthe fumarolic tures characteristicof severalwell-knowntypes of
stageof a thick (ca. 75 m) ash-flowtuff sheet,and mineralization:the red-bed,sedimentogenic, volca-
duringtheaccumulation ofupto 2 m ofvolcaniclastic nogenic,and epithermalclans.
and clastic lacustrine sediments. We admit that the Althoughpart of the orebodyoccursin a volcanic
latterconstraint appears, atfirstsight,tobeunlikely. unit,the similarities
with red-bedcopperdeposits are
Fumarolicprocesses associated with large subaerial perhapsmost striking,particularlywith regard to
568 R. B. LORTIE AND A. H. CLARK

thosehostedby continentalclasticrocks(e.g., Cor- nogenicand sedimentogenic basemetal sulfidede-

ocoro, Bolivia: Entwistle and Gouin, 1955; Naci- positclans.In detail,theemplacement
ofconsiderable
miento, New Mexico:Woodward et al., 1974). Sub- ore beneath the sediment surface is also matched in
aerialevaporitehorizonsmayhaveplayeda key role suchenvironments. However,absenceof significant
in suchsettings,asat Jardln.The broadlyconcordant thicknessesof massivesulfideand of primary sedi-
stratiformnatureof the Jardlnorebody,aswell asits mentaryfabricsandthe continentalanddistalsetting
smallerscalecrossstratalextension,iscloselymatched of mineralizationat Jardln are persuasivepoints of
by the majorityof red-bedcopperdeposits. The dis- contrast. In this context it is of interest that, at Cor-
seminated to veinlet form of the sulfide concentra- ocoro, Ahlfeld and Schneider-Scherbina(1964, p.
tions,the closeassociation with organicdetritus,the 256) inferred that, whereaschalcocitemineralization
dominanceofchalcociteandbornitcandcorrespond- (the "vetas") formed below surfacein permeable
ingpaucityof ironsulfides, andthe localpresenceof beds,the nativecopper-rich"ramos"ore lensesmay
sphaleriteare all featuressharedby red-beddeposits havebeen directlyemplacedon the floorsof small
(see Gustafsonand Williams, 1981). Moreover, in- lakes in which gypsumwas being precipitated.A
terpretationof the Jardlndepositis impededby a "pene-exhalative"model,involvingprecipitationin
problemfamiliarto red-bedcopperresearchers: the a subsurfaceaquifer,asadvocatedby Brown (1981,
lack of clear evidence of the conditions of mineral- 1984) for somered-beddeposits,may alsobe appli-
izationandof fluid compositions. However,we infer cableto Jardln.
that the metal-transporting waterswere comparable Finally,in view of the shallowcontinentalsetting
to thoseconsidered(Rose,1976; Gustafson andWil- of the JardlnCu-Ag deposit,its possiblestatusas an
liams,1981) to havegivenrise to red-beddeposits: unusualtype of epithermalbaseand preciousmetal
i.e., they were of low temperature(probablybelow deposit(Sillitoe,1977) mustbe considered. The as-
100øC),neutralto weaklyalkaline,oxygenated,and sociationof copperandsilveris characteristic of the
comparatively saline.Nucleationof the coppersul- upperMesozoicandCenozoicsilverdepositsof this
fidesby earlier formeddiageneticpyrite, a possible transectof the Andes(e.g., Chafiarcillo;Whitehead,
ore-formingmechanism at Jardln,would alsobe in 1919), locallyoverridingthe morewidespreadasso-
conformitywith prevailingmodelsfor red-bedcopper ciation of silver with lead. Moreover, numerousepi-
depositgenesis. thermalsilvervein depositsof Paleogeneage in this
The Jardlndepositis distinctlyenrichedin silver districtdisplaya markedenrichmentin arsenicand/
(absolutely,and relative to Cu) when comparedto or lowmetal/sulfurratios.Theseinclude:the SanAn-
most red-bed copper deposits(Gustafsonand Wil- toniodeposit,ca. 21 km southeast of Jardln(Steen-
liams, 1981), but occurrenceswith comparableCu/ berg, 1938: Lortie and Clark, in prep.), which is
Ag ratiosare known (Rose,1976). The marked en- dominated bytheassemblage chalcocite-a domeykite,
richment of arsenicin the ore is, however, a feature andlike Jardln,is spatiallyassociated with the basal
exhibitedby few, if any,red-beddeposits:very minor HornitosFormationignimbrite;andthe PampaLarga
amounts of arsenian minerals occur, for instance, in vein system(Parkeret al., 1963), ca. 18 km north-
the Corocoroand Alderley Edge, U.K. (Warrington, northeastof Jardln,whichcontainsa wide rangeof
1965), deposits,but it is perhapsof moresignificance hypogene arsenicmineralsincludingrealgar,"aAsS,"
that the White Pine red-bed deposit,Michigan(En- orpiment,nativearsenic,arsenolamprite, andsmithitc
signet al., 1968), lacksarsenic,althoughthatelement (e.g.,Clark, 1970) andis associated with a Paleocene
is locallyconcentratedin one potentialsourceof the hornblendegabbrostock.The Jardlndepositwasem-
copper,thestratigraphically underlyingnativecopper placedunder conditionsbroadlysimilarto thoseof
deposits(White, 1968). theseessentially coevalCu- andAs-bearingsilverde-
The closeassociation,and postulatedgenetic re- positsand couldbe regardedas a comparableepi-
lationship,with felsicvolcanismat Jardlnis alsoa fea- thermalsystemwhichventedinto a lacustrine,rather
ture not sharedby red-beddepositsin general.How- thana strictlysubaerial,setting.
ever, Brown (1981, 1984) and other workers have The Paleogeneenargite-richveinsconstitutea mi-
stressedthat basicvolcanismand dike emplacement nor,late-stage faciesof the Potrerillos(March,1935)
may have been instrumentalin the localizationof andE1Salvador(Gustafson andHunt, 1975) porphyry
somered-bed deposits,in addition to servingas a Cu (-Mo) deposits,on the northernedgeof the Co-
sourceof metals (see also Ahlfeld and Schneider- piap6miningdistrict;they form a part of the Cerro
Scherbina,1964, p. 253 fir). BlancoCu-Ag-Au-Pb-Znepithermalvein system(Se-
In that metaltransportat Jardlnis inferredto have gerstrom,1959),ca.35 km south-southeast ofJardln.
occurred,at least in part, via hydrothermalpipes However,suchveinsformedunderoxygenandsulfur
penetratingthe sedimentarycoverand that someore fugacityconditionsmuch higher than thosewhich
depositiontookplaceat or closeto the sediment-water prevailedin the depositsunder discussion: bornite-
interface,parallelsare also evident with the volca- pyrite is a characteristicstableassemblage and he-
 ]ARDI•N
CU-ACDEPO$1T:
N. CHILE 569

matitc is locallyabundant.Moreover,ore deposition promptedand facilitatedby the EconomicGeology

at Jardlnoccurredin response to reductionof the hy- reviewers.We are, however,solelyresponsiblefor
drothermal fluids rather than the oxidation which the overallinterpretationof thisunusualore deposit.
dominatesthe late-stage,near-surfaceregimein por-
phyry deposits(e.g., Knight, 1977; Gustafsonand March 15, 1985; May 2, 1986
Hunt, 1975). Thus,the overallparageneticsequence REFERENCES

in the Jardlnoreis the reverseof that in the enargite- Ahlfeld, F., and Schneider-Scherbina,
A., 1964, Los Yacimientos
bearingveins. Mineralesy de Hidrocarburosde Bolivia:BoliviaDept. Nac.
From the aboveobservations,it will be evident that Geol.,Bol. 5,388 p.
Beaman,J. M., 1960, Vascularplantson the cinder coneof Pari-
highly unusualconditionswere responsiblefor the cutinvolcanoin 1958: Rhodora,v. 62, p. 175-186.
developmentof the Jardlndepositwhich,although Bracken, B., and Picard, M.D., 1984, Trace fossilsfrom Creta-
sharingnumerous featureswith, particularly,red-bed ceous/TertiaryNorth Horn Formationin centralUtah: Jour.
andepithermaldeposits,appearsto be uniquewhen Paleontology,v. 58, p. 477-487.
Brown,A. C., 1981, Stratiformcopperdepositsand pene-exhal-
consideredasa whole.Mineralizationof thisspecific ative environments[abs.]:Geol. Soc. America Abstractswith
type is likely to be both rare and of limited extent, in Programs,v. 13, p. 418.
thatthe favorableenvironment wasareallyrestricted -- 1984, Alternativesourcesof metalsfor stratiformcopper
andof limitedpersistence.Evenif theCu-Agminerals deposits:Precambrian Research,
v. 25, p. 61-74.
formedentirelythroughreplacementof diagenetic Camus,F., 1980, Possiblemodelogen6ticoparalosyacimientos
de cobredel distritomineroPuntadel Cobre:Rev.Geo16gica
pyrite,we considerthat the conjunctionof a cooling Chile, v. 11, p. 51-76.
ignimbriteand a district-scaleintramontanebasinwas Carter,W. D., 1960, Originof "manto-type"copperdepositsof
instrumentalin focusingthe inferred shallowcircu- theCabildominingdistrict,centralChile:Internat.Geol.Cong.,
lationof metal-bearing groundwaters.The possibility 21st,Copenhagen,1960, Rept., pt. 16, p. 17-28.
that Skolithussp.lebensspuren mayhavecontrolled Chapman, V. J., 1960, Salt marshesand saltdesertsof the world:
London,Hill Ltd., 392 p.
sulfideemplacement in partof thedepositisintrigu- Chen,T. T., andPetruk,W., 1980, Mineralogyandcharacteristics
ing,implyingbroadparallelswith the involvementof that affect recoveries of metals and trace elements from the ore
ventwormburrows in hotsprings atoceanic
spreading at Heath SteeleMines,New Brunswick:CanadianMining Me-
centers(Haymonet al., 1984), but, as noted above, tall. Bull., v. 73, no. 823, p. 1-13.
our preferenceremainsfor an abiotichydrothermal Clark, A. H., 1970, Alpha-arsenic sulfidefrom Mina Alacrftn,
PampaLarga,Chile: Am. Mineralogist,v. 55, p. 1338-1344.
conduitoriginfor the sulfide-filledpipes. Clark,A. H., Mayer,A. E. S.,Mortimer,C., Sillitoe,R. H., Cooke,
Significantly,
thenearbyAmolanas copperdeposit R. U., andSnelling,N.Y., 1967, Implicationsof the isotopic
(Fig. 1), broadlycomparableto Jardlnin its ore min- agesof ignimbrite flows, southernAtacamadesert, Chile: Na-
eralogy,its largelydisseminatedfabric,andits close ture, v. 215, p. 723-724.
Clark,A. H., Farrar,E., Caelles,J. C., Haynes,S. J., Lortie,
spatialassociationwith a subaerialrhyoliticextrusive R. B., McBride, S. L., Quirt, G. S., Robertson,R. C. R., and
unit at thebaseof the HornitosFormation,wasprob- Zentilli,M., 1976,Longitudinal variations
in the metallogenetic
ablynucleated
by controls
differingfromthosepre- evolutionof the centralAndes:A progress
report:Geol.Assoc.
vailing in the depositunder discussion.Thus, min- CanadaSpec.Paper 14, p. 23-58.
Conybeare,C. E. B., and Crook, K. A. W., 1968, Manual of sed-
eralizationat Amolanas
is containedentirelywithin imentary structures:Canberra, Australia,Dept. Nat. Devel.,
a rhyolitic lava flow and is inferred to havebeen em- Bur.MineralResources,
GeologyGeophysics,
327 p.
placedduringits primarycooling(Lortie andClark, Ekdale,A. A., Bromley,R. G., andPemberton,S. G., 1984, Ich-
1976; andin prep.). nology:The useof tracefossils in sedimentology
andstratig-
raphy:Tulsa,Oklahoma,
Soc.Econ.Paleontologists
Mineralo-
Acknowledgments gists, 317 p.
Ensign,C. O., Jr., White, W. S., Wright, J. C., Patrick,J. L.,
Fieldworkin Chilewasfundedby grantsto A.H.C. Loene,R. J., Hathaway,D. J., Trammell,J. W., Fritts, J. J., and
fromthe NationalResearch Councilof Canada(now Wright, T. L., 1968, Copperdepositsin the NonesuchShale,
The Natural Sciencesand EngineeringResearch WhitePine,Michigan,in Ridge,J.D., ed.,Ore depositsof the
Council).The researchwouldnot havebeenpossible Inst. UnitedStates,1933-1967 (Graton-Sales vol.):New York,Am.
MiningMetall. PetroleumEngineers,p. 460-488.
without the full supportof the Institutode Investi- Entwistle,L. B., and Gouin, L. O., 1955, The chalcocite-orede-
gaciones Geol0gicas de Chile,andparticularlyof its positsat Corocoro,Bolivia:ECON.GEOL.,v. 50, p. 555-570.
thendirector,CarlosRulzFuller.The practicaland Farrar,E., Clark,A. H., Haynes,S.J., Quirt,G. S.,Conn,H., and
conceptualadviceof MarcosZentilliisgreatlyappre- Zentilli,M., 1970, K-Ar evidencefor the post-Paleozoic mi-
grationof graniticintrusivefoci in the Andesof northernChile:
ciated. Guy Narbonneand Brian Zaitlin endeavored EarthPlanet.Sci.Letters,v. 10, p. 60-65.
to explainbasicaspectsof tracefossilsandtheir oc- Ferguson,J., and Lambert, I. B., 1972, Volcanic exhalationsand
currence.M. L. Jensenvery kindly providedseveral metalenrichmentsat Matupi Harbor, New Britain,T.P.N.G.:
sulfurisotopedeterminations.
JewelJeffreyandMi- ECON.GEOL., v. 67, p. 25-37.
chael Watson, and Chris Peck are thanked for their Ferguson,J.,Lambert,I. B., andJones,
H. E., 1974,Ironsulphide
formationin an exhalative-sedimentary
environment, Talasea,
patienthelpin thepreparation
ofthetextandfigures, New Britain,P.N.G.:MineraliumDeposita,v. 9, p. 33-47.
respectively.Revision of the manuscriptwas Frey, R. W., Pemberton,S.G., andFagerstrom,J. A., 1984, Mor-
570 R. B. LORTIEAND A. H. CLARK

phological,ethologicaland environmentalsignificanceof the Rickard, D. T., 1974, Low temperature copper geochemistry:
ichnogeneraScoyeniaandAncorichunus: Jour.Paleontology,v. Gitologicalaspects,in Bartholom•, P., ed., Gisementsstrati-
58, p. 511-528. formeset provincescuprifSres:Liege, Soc.G•ol. Belgique,p.
Gill, W. D., andKuenen,Ph. H., 1958, Sandvolcanoeson slumps 1-34.
in the Carboniferousof CountyClare, Ireland: Geol. Soc.Lon- Riehle, J. R., 1973, Calculatedcompactionprofilesof rhyolitic
don Quart. Jour., v. 113, p. 441-460. ash-flowtuffs:Geol. Soc.AmericaBull., v. 84, p. 2193-2216.
Gustafson,L. B., and Hunt, J.P., 1975, The porphyry copper Ripley, E. M., Lambert, M. W., and Berendsen,P., 1980, Min-
depositat E1Salvador,Chile: ECON.GEOL.,v. 70, p. 857-912. eralogy and paragenesisof red-bed copper mineralizationin
Gustafson,L. B., and Williams, N., 1981, Sediment-hostedstrat- the Lower Permian of south central Kansas:ECON. GEOL., v.
iform depositsof copper, lead, and zinc: ECON.GEOL.75TH 75, p. 722-729.
ANNIV. VOL., p. 139-178. Rose,A. W., 1976, The effect of cuprouschloridecomplexesin
Haymon, R. M., Koski, R. A., and Sinclair, C., 1984, Fossilsof the originof red-bedcopperandrelated deposits:ECON.GEOL.,
hydrothermalvent worms from Cretaceoussulfide ores of the v. 71, p. 1036-1048.
Samailophiolite, Oman: Science,v. 223, p. 1407-1409. Rulz, C., Corvalftn,J., Klohn, E., and Levi, B., 1965, Geologla
Hekinian, R., Fevrier, M., Bischoff,J. L., Picot, P., and Shanks, y yacimientosmetallferosde Chile: Chile Inst. Inv. Geo16gicas,
W. C., 1980, Sulfide depositsfrom the East Pacific Rise near 360 p.
21 ø N: Science,v. 207, p. 1433-1444. Rulz, C., Aguilar, A., Egert, E., Espinoza,W., Peebles,F., Que-
Knight,J. E., 1977, A thermochemicalstudyof alunite,enargite, zada, R., and Serrano, M., 1971, Yacimientos chilenos estrati-
luzoniteandtennantitedeposits:ECON.GEOL.,v. 72, p. 1321- formesde sulfurosde cobre: Rev. Minerales, v. 26, p. 3-13.
1336. Schwarcz,H. P., andBurnie,S.W., 1973, Influenceof sedimentary
Kuenen,Ph. H., 1968, Settlingconvectionand grain-sizeanalysis: environmentson sulfurisotoperatiosin clasticrocks:A review:
Jour. Sed. Petrology,v. 38, p. 817-831. Mineralium Deposita, v. 8, p. 264-277.
Larter, R. C. L., Boyce, A. J., and Russell,M. J., 1981, Hydro- Segerstrom, K., 1959, Cuadrftngulo LosLoros,Provlnciade Ata-
thermal pyrite chimneysfrom the Ballynoebaryte deposit,Sil- cama: Chile Inst. Inv. Geol., Carta Geol. 1, no. 1, 33 p.
vermines,County Tipperary, Ireland: Mineralium Deposita,v. -- 1961, Deceleration of erosion at Parlcutin, Mexico: U.S.
16, p. 309-318. Geol. SurveyProf. Paper 424-D, p. 225-227.
Lortie, R. B., 1979, Strataboundcopperdepositsin rhyolitic ig- -- 1967, Geologyandore depositsof centralAtacamaProvince,
nimbrites and lavas,Copiap6 mining district, Atacama,Chile: Chile: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 78, p. 305-318.
Unpub. Ph.D. thesis,Kingston, Queen's Univ., 429 p. Segerstrom,K., andParker,R. L., 1959, CuadrftnguloCerrillos,
Lortie,R. B., andClark,A. H., 1976, Stratabound fumaroliccopper Provlncia de Atacama: Chile Inst. Invest. Geol., Carta Geol. 1,
depositsin rhyoliticlavasand ash-flowtuffs,Copiapfidistrict, no. 2, 33 p.
Atacama,Chile, in Problemsof ore deposition,Vol. 1, Volcano- Seilacher,A., 1967, Bathymetryof tracefossils:Marine Geology,
genousore deposits:Stuttgart,E. Schweizerbart'sche Verlags., v. 5, p. 413-428.
p. 256-264. Sheridan,M. F., 1970, Fumarolicmoundsandridgesof the Bishop
Losert, J., 1972, Genesisof copper mineralisationand associated Tuff, California: Geol. Soc.America Bull., v. 81, p. 851-868.
alterations volcanicrocksof the BuenaEsperanza Sillitoe, R. H., 1976, Andean mineralization: A model for the me-
in the Jurassic
miningarea:Santiago,Univ. Chile, Dept. Geologla,104 p. tallogeny of convergent plate margins:Geol. Assoc.Canada
Lowe, D. R., and LoPiccolo, R. D., 1974, The characteristicsand Spec. Paper 14, p. 59-100.
originsof dishandpillar structures:
Jour.Sed.Petrology,v. 44, -- 1977, Metallic mineralization affiliated to subaerial volca-
p. 484-501. nism:A review, in Volcanic processesin ore genesis:London,
March, W. S., 1935, Ore depositsat Potrerillos,Chile: Internat. Inst. Mining Metallurgy-Geol. Soc.London, p. 99-116.
Geol. Cong., 16th, Washington,D.C., 1933, v. 2, p. 485-500. -- 1978, Metallogenicevolutionof a collisionalmountainbelt
Mortimer,C., 1973, The Cenozoichistoryof the southernAtacama in Pakistan:Geol. Soc.London Jour., v. 135, p. 377-387.
desert,Chile: Geol. Soc.LondonJour.,v. 129, p. 505-526. Skinner,B. J., 1966, The systemCu-Ag-S:ECON.GEOL.,v. 61,
Oftedahl,C., 1958, A theory ofexhalative-sedimentaryores:Geol. p. 1-26.
F6ren. StockholmF6rh., v. 80, p. 1-19. Steenberg,B., 1938, The crystalstructureof Cu As and Cu P:
Ohmoto,H., andRye, R. O., 1979, Isotopesof sulfurandcarbon, Arkiv Kemi, Mineralogi Geologi, v. 12A, no. 26, 15 p.
in Barnes,H. L., ed., Geochemistryof hydrothermal ore de- Warrington,G., 1965, The metalliferousminingdistrictof A1-
posits:New York, Wiley Intersci., p. 509-567. derley Edge, Cheshire:Mercian Geology,v. 1, p. 111-129.
Ortlz, F. J., and Franquesa,F., 1964, Mina Jardln,in Estudios White, W. S., 1968, The native-copperdepositsof northern
geolfgicosdetaliadosde yacimientosy distritosmineroscon- Michigan,in Ridge,J.D., ed.,Ore deposits of theUnitedStates,
ocidos:Copiap(•,Chile Inst. Inv. Geolfgicas,unpub.rept. 1933-1967 (Graton-Salesvol.): New York, Am. Inst. Mining
Metall. PetroleumEngineers,p. 303-325.
Oyarzfn, J., 1975, On stratiformcopperdepositsof Chile: Soc.
Gfiol. BelgiqueAnnales,v. 98, p. 17-21. Whitehead, W. L., 1919, The veins of Chaharcillo, Chile: ECON.
GEOL., v. 14, p. 1-45.
Parker, R. L., Salas,R., and P•rez, G., 1963, Geologlade los Woodward,L. A., Kaufman,W. H., Schumacker,O. L., andTal-
distritosminerosChecodel Cobre,PampaLargay Cabezade
bott, L. W., 1974, Strata-boundcopper depositsin Triassic
Vaca:Inst. Inv. Geol. [Chile] Bol. 14, 46 p.
sandstoneof Sierra Nacimiento,New Mexico: ECON.GEOL.,v.
Petersen, U., 1970, Meta!logenic provincesin South America: 69, p. 108-120.
Geol. Rundschau,v. 59, p. 834-897. Zentilli, M., 1974, Geologicalevolutionand metallogeneticre-
Quirt, G. S., 1972, A potassium-argon geochronologicalinvesti- lationshipsin the Andes of northern Chile between 26 ø and
gationof the Andeanmobilebelt of north-centralChile: Unpub. 29 ø south: Unpub. Ph.D. thesis, Kingston, Queen's Univ.,
Ph.D. thesis,Kingston, Queen's Univ., 240 p. 394 p.
Ratcliffe,B.C., andFagerstrom,J. A., 1980, Invertebratelebens- Zies, E.G., 1929, The Valley of Ten ThousandSmokes,I. The
spurenof Holocenefloodplains:Their morphology,origin and fumarolicincrustations
andtheirbearingonoredeposition: Natl.
paleoecological significance:
Jour.Paleontology,v. 54, p. 614- Geog. Soc.,Contr. TechnologyPaper, Katmai Ser., v. 1, no. 4,
630. p. 1-61