354 PART III Research Designs

correlational studies used in meta-analyses, and how it is unethical for the researcher to
exclude studies because of their small sample sizes and insignificant results.
In the scenario to follow, in Box 11.1, you will be asked to respond to a situation
that often arises in correlational research and weigh in on the ethics of the situation:

BOX 11.1 Ethical Dilemma

Describing Results Inappropriately

A key concept in correlational research is understanding the difference between
causation by an independent variable on a dependent variable and an associa-
tion or a relationship. Because all variables cannot be tightly controlled in a cor-
relational study, the researcher cannot make claims about causation (or probable
causation because nothing can be absolutely proved). Instead claims of association
or relationship, a lesser standard, can only apply. This impacts how educational
researchers write up the results from their correlational studies. It is considered to
be an ethical problem when the write-up misconstrues the result to be cause-and-
effect. How would you suggest that a researcher rewrite the result "It was found
that prior academic success and support systems for freshman students caused (or
explained) their high grade point averages in college."?

WHAT ARE THE STEPS IN CONDUCTING

A CORRELATIONAL STUDY?

From our discussion about the key characteristics of correlational research, we can begin
to see steps emerge that you might use when planning or conducting a study. The fol-
lowing steps illustrate the process of conducting correlational research.

Step 1. Determine If a Correlational Study Best Addresses

the Research Problem
A correlational study is used when a need exists to study a problem requiring the identi-
fication of the direction and degree of association between two sets of scores. It is useful
for identifying the type of association, explaining complex relationships of multiple fac-
tors that explain an outcome, and predicting an outcome from one or more predictors.
Correlational research does not "prove" a relationship; rather, it indicates an association
between two or more variables.
Because you are not comparing groups in a correlational study, you use research
questions rather than hypotheses. Sample questions in a correlational study might be:
+ Is creativity related to IQ test scores for elementary children? (associating two variables)
+ What factors explain a student teacher's ethical behavior during the student-teaching
experience? (exploring a complex relationship)
+ Does high school class rank predict a college student's grade point average in the
first semester of college? (prediction)