School of Engineering

Department of Materials Science and Metallurgical Engineering

NMM 320: Mechanical Metallurgy

Title: Determination of mechanical properties of an oil quenched EN19 steel that has been tempered

from 200°C to 700°C

by

Blessed Muyanga
Group Members: Luan Pretorius, Noluthando Nxumalo, Handri Steenkamp, Ruvette,
Nelisiwe Nxumalo, Calvin Nkabinde

Supervisor / Module Coordinator: Prof. W Stumpf

Date of Submission: 24 October 2018
 ABSTRACT

The values obtained from the tensile test cannot be relied upon. Disparities in the mechanical
property values obtained experimentally with those found in literature can be attributed to the prior
heat treatment that the EN19 steel sample. Another factor contributing to the disparities observed is
the mechanical property values obtained for the EN19 steel that was tempered at 200°C. The
experimentally determined yield strengths for EN19 steel is on the order of 1021 MPa to 1620 MPa
in Table 1 but the yield strength of EN 19 steel found in literature is 415 MPa.

Keywords: [Considere’s construction, Hollomon equation, tempering, ductility, true stress.]

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Background Theory / Literature ............................................................................................................ 1
2.1 The tensile test .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.2 Engineering stress and strain ............................................................................................................ 1
2.3 Engineering stress-strain curve .......................................................................................................... 2
2.4 Yield Strength .................................................................................................................................... 2
2.5 Tensile Strength ................................................................................................................................. 3
2.6 True stress and strain ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.7 True stress-strain curve ..................................................................................................................... 3
2.8 Strain Hardening ................................................................................................................................ 4
2.9 Mechanical Properties of EN19 steel ................................................................................................. 4
3. Experiment ........................................................................................................................................... 4
3.1 Apparatus........................................................................................................................................... 4
3.2 Experimental Procedure..................................................................................................................... 4
4. Results and Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 5
4.1 Hollomon's Equation .......................................................................................................................... 8
4.2 Considere's Construction ................................................................................................................... 9
5. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 11
6. References......................................................................................................................................... 11

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Tensile testing machine
Figure 2: Typical engineering stress-strain curve of an Aluminium alloy
Figure 3: Relationship between Engineering stress-strain curve and True stress-strain curve
Figure 4: Mechanical Properties of EN19 steel
Figure 5: A fractured EN19 steel tempered at 600°C
Figure 6: Engineering stress-strain curve for a quenched EN19 steel tempered at 200°C, 300°C and
400°C
Figure 7: Engineering stress-strain curve for a quenched EN19 steel tempered at 500°C, 600°C and
700°C
Figure 8: Tempering curve for a quenched EN19 steel tempered from 200°C to 800°C
Figure 9: Tempering diagram for an oil quenched EN19 steel tempered from 500°C to 680°C
Figure 10: True stress-strain curve for a quenched EN19 steel tempered at 200°C, 400°C and 600°C
Figure 11: log(𝜎)-log(ε) curve for EN19 steel tempered at 200°C
Figure 12: log(𝜎)-log(ε) curve for EN19 steel tempered at 400°C
Figure 13: log(𝜎)-log(ε) curve for EN19 steel tempered at 600°C
Figure 14: Considere’s construction for EN 19 steel tempered at 200°C
Figure 15: Considere’s construction for EN 19 steel tempered at 400°C
Figure 16: Considere’s construction for EN 19 steel tempered at 600°C
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Summary of mechanical variables obtained for a quenched and tempered EN19 steel through
experimentation

Table 2: True stress at point of yielding and at the end of the uniform strain together with the uniform
strain

Table 3: Results obtained by the application of Considere’s construction

1. Introduction
The mechanical properties of metals paves the way for advances in modern technology due to the versatility of
metals. It is the mechanical properties of metals that all that determine how metals respond under normal
service conditions. The main objective in this report is design the tempering curve of an EN19 steel that had
been oil quenched from 850°C and tempered at temperatures ranging from 200°C to 700°C.

2. Background Theory
2.1 The tensile test
The tensile test is a very useful way of determining the mechanical properties of metal samples. The main of
function of the tensile test is to observe how resistant a metal sample is to a static load. The strain rate that
samples are subjected to in a tensile test range from 10−4 to 10−2 𝑠 −1. This doesn’t mean that the tensile
test is limited to metals. It can also be applied on plastics and in some cases on ceramics. The brittleness of
ceramics limits their use in the tensile test. A typical tensile testing machine is displayed below.

Figure 1: Tensile testing machine

(Askeland, D.R, Fulay P.P, Wright W.J 2010, p.204)

As a sample is placed in a tensile testing machine, it is subjected to a uniaxial force. The movement of the
movable crosshead varies with the magnitude of the load applied. The extensometer then measures the
elongation the sample has undergone relative to the original length of the sample (Askeland, D.R, Fulay P.P,
Wright W.J 2010, p.204).

2.2 Engineering stress and strain

The engineering stress is defined by the equation below

P
S= [Equation 1]
A0

Where P is the applied force in Newtons and A0 is the initial cross-sectional area of a sample in m2 . In
addition, the engineering strain is defined by the equation below

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 ∆L
e= [Equation 2]
l0

where ∆L represents the elongation and 𝑙0 represents the original length of a specimen.

2.3 Engineering stress-strain curve

Figure 2: Typical engineering stress-strain curve of an Aluminium alloy

(Adapted from Askeland, D.R, Fulay P.P, Wright W.J 2010, p.206)

Figure 2 above can be separated into 2 regions: an elastic region and a plastic region. In the elastic region of
the stress-strain curve, the curve is linear because the stress is directly proportional to the strain. The
proportional limit refers to the stress level beyond which the stress-strain relationship stops being linear. In
order for plastic deformation to occur, a critical stress should be reached. This stress is called the elastic limit.
It is important to note that the movement of dislocations in response to plastic deformation begins at the elastic
limit. The modulus of elasticity is given by the slope of the stress-strain curve in the elastic (linear) region.
Mathematically, the modulus of elasticity can be represented by the equation below

S
E= [Equation 3]
e

where the modulus of elasticity is normally expressed in GPa.

The modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness of a material. The stiffer a material is, the greater the
amount of energy required to displace atoms from their equilibrium positions, and therefore the higher the
modulus of elasticity. Materials that have high melting points tend to have a high modulus of elasticity
(Askeland, D.R, Fulay P.P, Wright W.J 2010 p.204).

2.4 Yield Strength

The yield strength is the stress at the onset of plastic deformation. By convention, the yield strength is found by
drawing a straight line that is parallel to the elastic region of the engineering stress-strain curve. This line is
offset to strain of 0.2%. (Hosford, W.F 2010, p.38)
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2.5 Tensile Strength
The maximum stress that a material can withstand under strain is the tensile strength of the material. The point
at which the tensile strength has been reached is also known as the onset of plastic instability (Shackelford,
J.F 2015, p.155).
Ductile materials start necking at the point corresponding to the ultimate tensile strength while brittle materials
fail before necking can begin (Hosford, W.F 2010, p.40).

2.6 True stress and strain

True stress is defined by the formula
P
σ= [Equation 4]
Ai

where P is the load in Newtons and Ai is the instantaneous cross-sectional area of the sample.
True strain is defined by the formula

𝑙
𝜀 = ln⁡( 𝑖 ) [Equation 5]
𝑙0

Where 𝑙𝑖 is the instantaneous length of the sample and 𝑙0 is the original length of the sample (Askeland, D.R,
Fulay P.P, Wright W.J 2010, p.216).

2.7 True stress-strain curve

Figure 3: Relationship between Engineering stress-strain curve

and True stress-strain curve (Askeland, D.R, Fulay P.P, Wright W.J 2010, p.217)

If we turn our attention to what is happening in Figure 3 the true strain increases beyond the point
corresponding to the ultimate tensile strength. Beyond the point corresponding to the ultimate tensile strength,
the phenomenon of necking results in an uneven distribution of stress applied on the gauge length of a given
metal sample. The assumption that plastic deformation occurs through a constant volume process forms the
basis of the true stress-strain curve. Through a constant volume process, it is assumed that the change in the

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volume of a metal resulting from the generation and movement of a dislocation through a crystal lattice is
insignificant (Askeland, D.R, Fulay P.P, Wright W.J 2010, p.216).

2.8 Strain Hardening

Strain hardening occurs when the strength of a metal increases as a metal is plastically deformed. The metal’s
strength increases because an energy barrier needs to be overcome in order to cause a large pile-up of
dislocations to move. This can be achieved by applying a greater stress on the metal (Askeland, D.R, Fulay
P.P, Wright W.J 2010, p.293).

2.9 Mechanical Properties of EN19 steel

Figure 4: Mechanical Properties of EN19 steel

(Adapted from AZO Materials 2017)

3. Experiment
3.1 Apparatus
• An EN19 steel that had been quenched in oil and tempered at 6 different temperatures
• Tensile testing machine

3.2 Experimental Procedure

The initial gauge length and diameter of the EN19 steel sample are measured. Then the steel sample is fitted
in a tensile testing machine where it will be subjected to uniaxial tensile stress. When necking occurs, the steel
sample’s load-bearing capacity will be low which will result in fracture. During the course of the tensile test, the
values for various mechanical properties of EN19 steel are recorded.

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 Figure 5: A fractured EN19 steel tempered at 600°C

4. Results and Discussion

Figure 6: Engineering stress-strain curve for a quenched EN19 steel tempered at 200°C, 300°C and 400°C

Figure 7: Engineering stress-strain curve for a quenched EN19 steel tempered at 500°C, 600°C and 700°C
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In Figure 6, the lower end of the engineering stress-strain curve for the EN19 steel that had been tempered at
200°C isn’t visible enough since it overlaps with the engineering stress-strain curves of EN19 steel tempered
at 300°C and 400°C. The same thing can also be said about the poor visibility of the lower end of the
engineering stress-strain curve corresponding to EN19 steel that had been tempered at 500°C.

Table 1: Summary of mechanical variables obtained for a quenched and tempered EN19 steel through
experimentation

Yield Point Tensile % Elongation %Reduction in Uniform strain

𝑅𝑝(0.2%) strength (𝐴5 ) Area (Z) (𝑒𝑢 )
(MPa) 𝑅𝑚 (MPa)
200°C 1620.422842 1949.858964 1.755 0 0.023803511
300°C 1607.901047 1808.667703 12 43.75 0.04133201
400°C 1584.886591 1872.282583 10 52.20 0.044830085
500°C 1263.565639 1301.916271 12 60.97 0.054277454
600°C 1039.246711 1126.181702 13 61.51 0.0704434
700°C 1021.916309 1142.558093 10 61.89 0.041097612

Figure 8: Tempering curve for a quenched EN19 steel tempered from 200°C to 800°C

I would like to point out that the equivalent of EN19 steel is the AISI 4140 steel. Figure 9 below illustrates the
tempering curve of EN19 steel found in literature.

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 Figure 9: Tempering diagram for an oil quenched EN19 steel tempered from 500°C to 680°C
(Adapted from Atlas Specialty Metals 2018)

Figure 8 and Figure 9 are similar in terms of trends because in both figures, the tensile strength and yield
strength decrease with an increase in the tempering temperature. The %Reduction in area decreases with as
the tempering temperature increases.

Table 2:True stress at point of yielding and at the end of the uniform strain together with the uniform strain
True stress 𝜎0 at point of 𝜎0 at the end of the Uniform strain 𝜀𝑢 at the
yielding (MPa) uniform strain region end of the uniform strain
(MPa) region
200°C 1635.299 1996.272 0.023524624
400°C 1600.558 1956.217 0.043854274
600°C 1044.544 1205.513 0.068072955

Figure 10: True stress-strain curve for a quenched EN19 steel tempered at 200°C, 400°C
and 600°C

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4.1 Hollomon’s Equation
Figure 10 display the true stress-strain curves for quenched EN19 steel tempered at 200°C, 400°C and 600°C
respectively. In order to get the strain hardening exponent ‘n’, I plotted the curve of the logarithm of the true
stress against the logarithm of the true strain. Two points obtained from the start of the log(𝜎)-log(ε) graph are
used to calculate the gradient, which corresponds to the strain hardening exponent. Other points could have
been chosen but this would result in very high values for ‘n’ with increasing true strain. Finally, the value of K
can be obtained by manipulating the equation 𝜎 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛 .

Figure 11: log(𝜎)-log(ε) curve for EN19 steel tempered at 200°C

∆log⁡(𝜎) 1.347446082−1.315305277
n = ∆log⁡(𝜀) = −4.819347702+5.124045311 = 0.105
log(𝜎) = log(K) + nlog(ε)
1.315305277 = log(K) + 0.105(-5.124045311)
K=71.339 MPa

Figure 12: log(𝜎)-log(ε) curve for EN19 steel tempered at 400°C

∆log⁡(𝜎) 1.377885618−1.334732671
n = ∆log⁡(𝜀) = −4.733907553+5.060527695 = 0.132
log(𝜎) = log(K) + nlog(ε)
1.334732671 = log(K) + 0.132(-5.060527695)
K=100.628 MPa

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 Figure 13: log(𝜎)-log(ε) curve for EN19 steel tempered at 600°C

∆log⁡(𝜎) 1.353342398−1.300241438
n = ∆log⁡(𝜀) = −4.704279167+5.117957398 = 0.128
log(𝜎) = log(K) + nlog(ε)
1.300241438 = log(K) + 0.128(-5.117957398)
K = 90.227 MPa

The values for the strain hardening exponent determined above are closer to the strain hardening exponent
value of 0.145 found in literature.

4.2 Considere’s Construction

Figure 14: Considere’s construction for EN 19 steel tempered at 200°C

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 Figure 15: Considere’s construction for EN 19 steel tempered at 400°C

Figure 16: Considere’s construction for EN 19 steel tempered at 600°C

Table 3: Results obtained by the application of Considere’s construction

𝑆𝑢 (MPa) 𝜎𝑢 (MPa) n=𝜀𝑢

200°C 1965.488796 1980 0.007
400°C 1877.485142 1900 0.011
600°C 1128.712705 1170 0.035

The values for the strain hardening exponent obtained through Considere’s construction are too low.
According to literature, the strain hardening exponents of metals range from 0.1 to 0.5. Therefore, Hollomon’s
equat

When comparing the mechanical properties of EN19 steel from Table 1 with those from Figure 4, the values
for the mechanical properties of EN19 steel from Table 1 don’t come close to those obtained from Figure 4.
For example, the yield strengths for EN19 steel ranges from 1021 MPa to 1620 MPa in Table 1 whereas the
yield strength of EN 19 steel found in literature is 415 MPa. In addition, the tensile strengths for EN19 steel in

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Table 1 range from 1126 MPa to 1949 MPa but the tensile strength of EN19 steel found in literature is 655
MPa. I can attribute the disparities in the values for the mechanical properties of EN19 steel to the prior heat
treatments that the sample has undergone. Tempering increases the ductility and toughness of steel so the
unrealistically high values for the tensile and yield strengths could have been influenced by the EN19 steel’s
prior heat treatments of oil quenching and tempering.

6. Conclusions
From the results gathered from the tensile test, I conclude that most of the results are not reliable because
they are ridiculously high. The values for the tensile strength and yield strength of EN19 steel determined
experimentally don’t match those found in literature. The fact that the EN19 steel sample tempered at 200°C
didn’t fracture diminishes the validity of the results obtained in the experiment.

7. References
Askeland, D.R, Fulay P.P, Wright W.J 2010, “The Science and Engineering of Materials”, 6 th edition, Cengage
Learning

AZO Materials 2017, “AISI 4140 Alloy Steel (UNS G41400)”, viewed on 29 November 2017,
https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=6769

Atlas Specialty Metals 2018, “Atlas 4140”, viewed on 13 March 2018,

http://www.atlassteels.com.au/documents/Atlas4140.pdf

Hosford, W.F 2010, “Mechanical Behaviour of Materials”, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press

Shackelford, J.F 2015, “Introduction to Materials Sciences for Engineers”, 8 th edition, Pearson Higher
Education

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