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Eliminate x( k) and
y( k) + a1 y( k − 1) + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + an y( k − n)
y( k) = Cx( k) + Du( k) = C( qI − Φ)−1 Γ + D u( k)
= b0 u( k) + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + bn u( k − n)
Pulse-transfer operator
where ai are the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial of
−1 Φ.
H ( q) = C( qI − Φ) Γ + D
In the backward-shift operator
H ∗ ( q−1 ) = C( I − q−1 Φ)−1 q−1 Γ + D = H ( q)
Poles, zeros, and system order Example – Double integrator with delay
B ( q) h = 1 and τ = 0.5 gives
H ( q) = C( qI − Φ)−1 Γ + D =
A( q)
1 1
0.375
0.125
Poles: A( q) = 0 Φ= Γ1 =
Γ0 =
0 1 0.5 0.5
Zeros: B ( q) = 0
System order: deg A( q) Then
H ( q) = C ( qI − Φ)−1 (Γ 0 + Γ 1 q−1 )
q−1
Important to use the forward shift operator for poles/zeros, 1
0.125 + 0.375q−1
0 q − 1
system order, and stability. =1 0
( q − 1)2 0.5 + 0.5q−1
The backward shift operator is suited for causality considera- 0.125( q2 + 6q + 1) 0.125( q−1 + 6q−2 + q−3 )
tions. = =
q( q2 − 2q + 1) 1 − 2q−1 + q−2
Order: 3
Poles: 0, 1, and
√ 1
Zeros: −3 ± 8
How to get H ( q) from G (s)? z-transform
Use Table 2.1 Definition of z-transform
Consider the discrete-time signal { f ( kh) : k = 0, 1, . . .}.
Zero-order hold sampling of a continuous-time system, G (s).
∞
b1 qn−1 + b2 qn−2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + bn
X
H ( q) = Z ( f ( kh)) = F ( z) = f ( kh) z− k
qn + a1 qn−1 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + an k=0
hz 2. Time shift.
=
( z − 1)2 Z q−n f = z−n F
Z { qn f } = zn ( FP
− F1 )
where F1 ( z) = nj=−01 f ( jh) z− j
• Similarities with Laplace transform 3. Initial value theorem.
• Common in applied mathematics 4. Final-value theorem.
• How the theory of sampled-data systems started 5. Convolution.
k
X
Z ( f ∗ ) = Z f (n)( k − n) = (Z f )(Z )
n=0
Pulse-transfer function Why both q and z?
x( k + 1) = Φ x( k) + Γ u( k)
• Could be sufficient with only the shift operator q
y( k) = Cx( k) + Du( k)
• Many books contain the z-transform
Take the z-transform of both sides
∞
! ∞ ∞ • Must be aware of the difficulties with z-transform
X X X
−k −k
z z x( k) − x(0) = Φ z x( k) + Γ z− ku( k) • Remember q operator and z complex variable
k=0 k=0 k=0
Hence
z( X ( z) − x(0)) = Φ X ( z) + Γ U ( z)
X ( z) = ( zI − Φ)−1 ( zx(0) + Γ U ( z))
Pulse-transfer function
H ( z) = C( zI − Φ)−1 Γ + D
−1 h2 ( z + 1)
H ( z) = (1 − z ) Ỹ ( z) = where si are the poles of G (s)
2( z − 1)2
Multiple poles influence the calculations of the residues.
ωN 3π / h
p2 x
π/h
−ω N p1 x px
S0 p1 x x
ωN −π /h
p2 x
−3 π / h
−ω N
ζ = 0.4 d Zd
0.5
ζ = 0.6 1 1
ζ = 0.8 2 z+1
3 z2 + 4z + 1
0 ζ = 1.0
4 z3 + 11z2 + 11z + 1
−1 −0.5 0
Real axis
0.5 1
5 z4 + 26z3 + 66z2 + 26z + 1
Systems with unstable inverse Selection of sampling period
Continuous-time system is nonminimum phase if it has right (a) 1
1
half-plane zeros or time delays. 0
? −1
0
Nonminimum phase Q Unstable inverse 0
Time
5 0
Time
5
dominating modes) 1 1
1
ω 0 h ( 0.2 − 0.6
Imaginary axis
0 0
0 5 0 5
h=0+ h=0+ h=0+
(c) (d)
ζ = 0.5, ω 0 = 1.83 gives 1 1
0
Tr = 1;
a) h = 0.125 (ω 0 h = 0 0
0 5 0 5 −1
0.23) Time Time
b) h = 0.25 (ω 0 h = 0.46)
c) h = 0.5 (ω 0 h = 0.92) −4 −3 −2
Real axis
−1 0 1
d) h = 1.0 (ω 0 h = 1.83)
h = 0.0001, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, and 3
Nyquist and Bode diagrams Example
Nyquist curve: H ( eiω h ) 0
Imaginary axis
−0.5
• Periodic 1
G (s) = 2
• Interpretation s + 1.4s + 1 −1
−0.5 0
Real axis
0.5 1
h = 0.4
Gain
• Discuss more in connection with Chapter 7
0.01
0.066z + 0.055
H ( z) = 2 0.1 1 10
z − 1.450z + 0.571
Continuous-time (dashed), 0
Phase
discrete-time (full)
−180
0.1 1 10
Frequency, rad/s
V(x(k + 1)) x (k + 1) = x T Φ T P Φ − P x = − x T Qx
x(k)
V is a Lyapunov function iff there exists a P > 0 that satisfies
the Lyapunov equation
x1 Φ T PΦ − P = −Q Q>0
V(x(k))
Example Summary
0.4 0 1 0 • Piecewise constant input and periodic sampling gives time-
Φ=
Q=
−0.4 0.6 0 1 invariant discrete-time system
2
• Solution of the system equation, λ (Φ)
• Shift operator q and pulse transfer operator
• z-transform and pulse transfer function
• Be careful with z-transform tables
State x2
0
• Poles, zeros, and system order
• Selection of sampling period
Tr
Nr = ( 4 − 10
h
−2
−2 0 2 ω 0 h ( 0.2 − 0.6
State x1
• Frequency function