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EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE REVIEWER FOR MIDTERMS

I. ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE

How did the universe start?

Big Bang Theory


The most accepted theory about the origin of the universe is the Big Bang
Theory. Georges Lemaître, a Belgian priest, is considered as the first proponent of the
Big Bang Theory. The theory was supported by other scientists such as Edwin
Hubble, Arno Penzias, and Robert Wilson who presented pieces of evidence to
support it.

The Big Bang Theory states that the universe started as a “singularity”—an area
predicted to be in the core of a black hole with a very high temperature and density,
which compressed matter with its intense gravitational pressure.

Singularity
The presence of the singularity is still a mystery to many scientists, but they stated that
this singularity constantly expands and cools. The rate of expansion is almost equal to
the rate of cooling; at this moment, there is a build up of intense heat which leads to the
increase in the expansion of the singularity.

The intense heat also leads to the creation of matter and antimatter that are being
destroyed every time they collide with each other. During this moment, the number of
matter dominates over the number of antimatter. This started the dominance of matter,
or atomic particles, in the early universe. These particles undergo nucleosynthesis
wherein they combine to form another atomic particle.

Nucleosynthesis
Nucleosynthesis leads to the formation of chemicals such as hydrogen and helium.
These chemicals then lead to the formation of the stars and the galaxies. The presence
of the stars leads to the formation of larger matter such as planets, comets, and other
celestial bodies. Ever since the Big Bang happened, the universe continuously expands,
and the occurrence of the cosmic background radiation was suggested to be an
aftermath of the explosion that happened 20 billion years ago.
Steady State Theory
The Steady State Theory proposed by Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred
Hoyle, suggests that the universe has always been there and will always be present. It
also conveys that the universe always looks the same in any time or space but
continuously expands while simultaneously creating matter, maintaining the density of
the universe; hence, the name Steady State.

The Steady State Theory is so simple that it was widely accepted even before the
proposal of the Big Bang Theory. The discovery of the cosmic background radiation
significantly supported the explanations given by the Big Bang Theory, which led many
scientists to reject the Steady State Theory. This theory first explained that the cosmic
background radiation is a result of a supernova. But after a thorough research, it was
proven that it is equal in any direction of the universe and could not only be a result of
many supernovae.

Oscillating Universe Theory


The Oscillating Universe Theory, also referred to as the Pulsating Theory, discusses
that the universe is expanding and will contract once all the energy after the Big Bang is
used up. This theory, proposed by Richard Tolman, can be described as the
combination of the Big Bang and the Big Crunch.

The Big Crunch occurs when the universe expands and eventually reverses, then
collapses causing a singularity or the formation of another Big Bang. The Oscillating
Universe Theory suggests that once the universe reverses and attains the point of
singularity, another universe will be born. This is referred to as the Big Bounce. Tolman
theorized that the universe may be first in the cycle and could be a result of a previous
Big Bounce event.

Just like in the Steady State Theory, scientists discovered many loopholes in the
Oscillating Universe Theory because it was said that for the universe to collapse,
energy must be present. This theory suggests that the universe will collapse on its own
after it reaches its full expansion, which violates some laws of physics.

Key Points

 Big Bang Theory states that the universe started as a singularity that exploded.
This explosion resulted to the formation of all the matter in universe.

 Steady State Theory discusses that the universe has always been there and will
always be present.

 Oscillating Universe Theory discusses that the universe is expanding and will
contract once all the energy after the Big Bang is used up. The collapsing of the
universe will then lead to the formation of a new universe.
THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

The solar system is composed of the Sun, the planets and their satellites, the comets,
and the asteroids. It is believed that the solar system has been formed around 4.6 billion
years ago, and the evidence suggests that the members of the solar system have a
fairly uniform age.

Nebular Theory
The nebular theory explains that the solar system originated from a nebula – a gas
cloud made up of hydrogen particles. Before the nebula is stable, it is believed that a
nearby supernova resulted in the disruption of a nebula. This disruption created areas of
high density, and as these areas were formed, gravity acted, pulling other materials to it.
The denser the nebula became, the more heat it produced that resulted in the formation
of the Sun.

At first, the Sun looked like a disc (imagine a CD), and as it rotates, most of its mass
fused in the center. As the Sun forms, the remaining particles that were not sucked up
by the Sun formed as rings. These rings of particles rotated and combined to form
planets. As it forms, the denser materials, such as iron and nickel, sank and the less
dense materials, such as gases, floated to the atmosphere of the formed planets.

Terrestrial and Jovian Planets


Terrestrial planets, including Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, were formed because
only the materials with higher densities and melting points were able to form near the
very high temperature of the Sun. On the other hand, the Jovian planetscomposed of
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, are huge planets made up of gases without land
surfaces. These planets were formed farther from the Sun because the temperature
away from the Sun was cool enough for gases to condense, forming these less dense
planets.

The origins of the Nebula Theory can be credited to Emmanuel


Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre – Simon Laplace.

Encounter Theory
The Encounter Theory proposed by Georges Leclerc and Comte de Buffon explains
that the solar system formed as a result of a near collision between a passing star and
the Sun. As the star passes near the Sun, the materials of both the Sun and the star
were drawn out. The interaction from the gravity of the passing star and the Sun led to
the formation of the planets in the solar system.

It is believed that the materials from the Sun are denser. This explains the positions of
the terrestrial planets near the Sun. In contrast, the materials from the passing star are
less dense; thus, explaining the positions of the Jovian planets at a distance from the
Sun.

Protoplanet Theory
The Protoplanet Theory is a modified version of the nebular hypothesis. Just like the
nebular theory, protoplanetary theorists Carl von Weizsäcker and Gerard
Kuiper believed that the solar system started from a nebula.

An unidentified instability resulted in the pulling of dust particles toward each other. This
led to the formation of the “planetesimals” – objects made up of dust and rock particles,
which is believed to be the origin of planets. Planetesimals combined with other
planetesimals and formed protoplanets – larger planetesimals. As the protoplanets
formed, like the Sun, they became larger as other materials condensed with them until
the fusion of hydrogen and helium happened. This fusion led to the production of the
heat of the Sun and resulted to the blasting off of the protoplanets made up of gases.
The smaller protoplanets were attracted by the gravity of the larger protoplanets and
made them larger until they became the planets as we know it.

Key Points
 The Nebular Theory explained that the Solar System originated from a nebula
that was disrupted by a nearby supernova.
 The Encounter Theory suggests that the Solar System formed as a result of a
near collision between a passing star and the Sun.
 The Protoplanet Theory is a modified version of the nebular hypothesis stating
that the Solar System started from a nebula that was disrupted which led to the
formation of protoplanets.

EARTH: THE LIVING PLANET

Earth is considered as a home of simple single-celled organisms up to the most


complex life forms including humans. It is undeniable that the planet we live in is a rare
planet as it is the only planet in our solar system that permits life. The different
characteristics of Earth are responsible for the proliferation of life.

Earth’s Atmosphere
The atmosphere consists of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 350 ppm
carbon dioxide, and other components. The table below shows the major components in
the atmosphere and their relative concentrations
(Source: http://www.ucar.edu/communications/gcip/m7sssystem/m7pdfc3.pdf).
The presence of oxygen and carbon dioxide permits life on Earth. Carbon dioxide is
used by photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and algae, to convert the energy from
the sun to usable energy through the process of photosynthesis. The oxygen makes it
livable for living organisms including humans for respiration and for our cells to function.

Earth’s atmosphere also protects us from the sun’s radiation. Thirty percent of the
radiation is reflected away by the atmosphere, clouds, and the earth's surface. Another
25% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds, and the remaining 45% is absorbed by
the earth’s surface. Ozone or O3 is composed of three oxygen atoms. In the
stratosphere, O3 is abundant in the form of the ozone layer. This layer absorbs the
ultraviolet wavelengths, and the absorption of this radiation heats up the air.
Soil and Vegetation
The soil is a mixture of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and organisms. It is a living
medium—a medium for growth of all kinds of vegetation. The soil promotes growth for
plants by providing nutrients, water, and as a substrate for anchorage of roots. In return,
vegetation produces trees and forests cover, ensures the water and nutrient cycle, and
prevents soil and wind erosion. This mutual relationship of the soil and vegetation
makes our planet livable.

Earth’s Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere contains all the water on our planet including ice and vapor. Nearly
three-quarters of the earth’s surface is the sea and the ocean. The ocean houses many
species of marine life and diverse mineral resources. Other forms of water include river,
streams, and lakes. Other than being a water reservoir, these forms of water are all
sources of fish and shellfish that we consume. They also serve as thermostat and heat
reservoir, especially the ocean. They also serve as ways for transportation.

Key Points
 The atmosphere consists of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 350
ppm carbon dioxide, and other components.
 The presence of oxygen and carbon dioxide makes Earth habitable.
 Earth’s atmosphere also protects us from the sun’s radiation.
 The soil is a living medium—a medium for growth of all kinds of vegetation.
 The hydrosphere serves as a water reservoir, a source of fish and shellfish that
we consume, a thermostat and heat reservoir, and a way for transportation.

EARTH: THE FOUR SUBSYSTEMS

The four subsystems of the Earth are the atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and
biosphere.

What are the characteristics of these four subsystems?

The Earth is comprised of four major subsystems. These subsystems are also called
the “spheres of the Earth.” They are atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and
biosphere.

Atmosphere
The word atmosphere comes from the Greek roots atmos which means gas,
and sphaira which means globe or ball. The atmosphere makes up of all the gases on
Earth. It extends outward about 10 000 km from the surface of the Earth. It is composed
of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 350 ppm carbon dioxide, and other
components.

The atmosphere has different layers – troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,


thermosphere, and exosphere.

 The troposphere extends to about 14.5 km above the Earth's surface. It is the
lowest layer where the weather forms.
 The stratosphere is found 14.5 to 50 km above the Earth's surface. The ozone
layer that protects the Earth from the Sun's harmful UV radiation is found in this
layer.
 The mesosphere extends from 50 to 85 km above the Earth's surface. It protects
the Earth from the impact of space debris.
 The thermosphere is found 85 to 600 km above the Earth's surface. It has
charged particles that are affected by the Earth's magnetic field. The particles
create the Auroras or Northern and Southern lights.
 The exosphere is the farthest layer. It extends to about 10 000 km above the
Earth's surface.

Geosphere
Geo is a Greek root which means ground. Geosphere includes all the soil, rocks, and
minerals present in the crust to the core of the Earth. It is divided into three layers
namely crust, mantle, and core.

The crust is the outermost layer of the geosphere. It is made mostly of silicate
materials. There are two different types of crust, the oceanic and continental crusts. The
thin oceanic crust that lies beneath the oceanic floors is about 5 to 10 km thick. On the
other hand, the thicker continental crust that makes up the continents is about 15 to
70 km thick.

The mantle, which lies just below the crust, is made mostly of silicate rocks rich in
magnesium and iron. It is about 2900 km thick. It has increasing temperatures at
increasing depths. For instance, the layer with the lowest temperature is the one right
beneath the crust. This layer, which is soft enough to flow, causes the plates of the crust
to move. On the other hand, the layer with the highest temperature is found in contact
with the heat-producing core.

The core, which has a radius of 3400 km, is the innermost layer of the Earth. It is made
up of iron and nickel. It is the source of internal heat because it contains radioactive
materials that release energy as they decay into more stable substances.

Hydrosphere
Hydro is a Greek root which means water. Hydrosphere is composed of all the water
on Earth in any form: water vapor, liquid water, and ice. It is comprised of 97.5%
saltwater and 2.5% freshwater. It includes all bodies of water such as oceans, lakes,
rivers, and marshes. Clouds and rain are also part of the hydrosphere.

The water on Earth is constantly moving. It moves through the oceans in currents.
Warm waters in the tropics move toward the poles while cold water from the polar
regions move toward the tropics. Water also flows into streams and rivers and through
the rocks underground. It can also move from the Earth’s surface to the air by
evaporation and then fall back to Earth as precipitation. It even moves into and out of
the bodies of organisms.

Biosphere
Bio is a Greek root that means life. The biosphere is comprised of all living things. It
includes all microbes, plants, and animals. It extends to the upper areas of the
atmosphere where insects and birds can be found. It also reaches the deep parts of the
oceans where marine organisms can still survive.

Organisms interact with the other spheres to survive. Many organisms need oxygen and
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to carry out life processes. Water, which comprises
the hydrosphere, is also important to organisms. Finally, the rocks, soil, and minerals
constitute the geosphere also support life.

How the Earth’s Subsystems Interact

Matter and energy move and cycle between the four different subsystems. These cycles
make life on Earth possible. An example of these cycles is the water cycle. Water
moves between the different spheres. It absorbs, releases, and transports energy
around the world in its different forms.

What will happen if matter or energy does not change from one form to another?

For example, what if water vapor does not fall back to the Earth as rain? Then the
bodies of water will be drained, and no life on Earth will exist.

Tips
Some of the components in the subsystems overlap. The most common example is the
soil which can be considered as a part of hydrosphere, geosphere, and even biosphere.
Since the soil is a complex material made up of air, soil particles, water, and organisms,
it underscores that a clear division among subsystems cannot be drawn.

Key Points
 The four subsystems of Earth are the atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and
biosphere.
 Atmosphere makes up of all the gases in our planet.
 Geosphere includes all the soil, rocks, and minerals present in the crust to the
core of the Earth.
 Hydrosphere is composed of all the water on Earth in any form: water vapor,
liquid water, and ice.
 Biosphere is comprised of all living things and the areas where they are found. It
includes all microbes, plants, and animals.
 Matter and energy move and cycle between the four different subsystems to
make life on Earth possible.

ADVANCEMENTS ON THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Pluto's Status
In 1930, Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto as the ninth planet in the solar system.
However, the discovery of Kuiper Belt (an area after Neptune that contains asteroids,
comets, and other celestial bodies) questioned the status of Pluto as a planet.

 In 2005, Eris, a Kuiper Belt object, was discovered to be 10 percent bigger than
Pluto.
 At first, Eris was suggested as the tenth planet in the solar system.
 Its incapability to clear its orbit due to lack of gravity led to classify it as a dwarf
planet together with Pluto. Other dwarf planets are Ceres in the Asteroid Belt and
Makemake and Haumea both in the Kuiper Belt.
 Dwarf planets are celestial bodies that orbit the sun, have enough mass to
assume a nearly round shape, and have not cleared its orbit due to lack of
gravity.

Planet X
However, recent observations by two astronomers, Mike Brown and Konstantin
Batygin, led to the speculation that a ninth planet is present in our solar system. They
discovered six clustered objects in the Kuiper Belt and stated that this clustering is due
to the presence of a planet enough to put them in place. Calculations and observations
have been done to claim that a Planet Xexists. However, other astronomers stated that
until it is seen, the claim for the ninth planet in our solar system is still in question.

Mars Rover Mission


Since 1970s, NASA has been deploying Mars Exploration Rovers to examine the
nearest planet to Earth, Mars. They examined materials of Mars’ lithosphere and
assessed if the weather condition is viable for the survival of life.
Its mission was focused on the physical characteristics of the planet. It aimed to collect
data on how the planet formed its rocks and soil and whether or not water has been
responsible for the weathering and erosion of rocks. The rovers examined the rocks and
analyzed that it had sedimentary rocks that can be formed if rocks are soaked for a long
time in the water.

Based on the data collected, scientists believe that Mars had water in the past, and this
water sustained some microorganisms.

Since January 2014, rovers started digging for fossilized evidence of ancient life.

Mars One Program


The Mars One Program aims to land the first humans on Mars and establish a human
colony on that planet by 2027.

In 2014, the program chose astronauts that will be sent to Mars. Plans of landing rovers
and establishing communication satellites were also formulated. The target is that by
the year 2022, the first crew will start its travel to Mars and will reach it after a year, and
by 2035, the colony will have twenty crew and will be able to sustain itself.

Titan’s Water
Titan is Saturn’s largest moon. Astronomers studying the Titan’s composition lead to the
discovery that liquid substance is present on the moon in the form of liquid methane.
Below is an image that was taken from the shutter-snapping Cassini spacecraft which
shows the most detailed look at one of the famous lakes on the surface of Titan.
The discovery of Titan has been a breakthrough since it is the only known celestial body
in our solar system that has liquid substance on it, aside from Earth.

It was also discovered that the Titan is undergoing chemical processes, the same
processes that the Early Earth have undergone. If the Sun became large enough, it will
receive the same amount of solar energy we are receiving, thus, making the possibility
for life’s survival possible.

Key Points
 In 1930, Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto as the ninth planet in the solar
system.
 The discovery of Kuiper Belt (an area after Neptune that contains asteroids,
comets, and other celestial bodies) questioned the status of the Pluto as a
planet.
 Since 1970s, NASA has been deploying Mars Exploration Rovers to examine
Mars.
 Materials on Mars’ lithosphere were examined and the weather condition was
assessed to gauge whether it is viable for the survival of life.
 The Mars One Program aims to land the first humans on Mars and establish a
human colony on that planet by 2027.
 Studying the Titan’s composition lead to the discovery that liquid substance is
present on the moon in the form of liquid methane.

CONTRIBUTORS IN UNDERSTANDING THE EARTH SYSTEMS

Earth System Science (ESS) is the study of the Earth as a system. It considers
interactions between the Earth’s “spheres” – atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and
biosphere. It is a relatively new field whose foundations are established long ago by
scientists in other fields.

Who are the scientists who contributed to the understanding of the Earth
system?

Earth System Science


Earth System Science is an integration of chemistry, physics, biology, and
mathematics. It is the study of the Earth as an integrated system. It seeks to understand
the past, current, and future states of the Earth.

Many scientists had built the foundations of understanding the Earth systems. They
include James Hutton, Alexander von Humboldt, Vladimir Vernadsky, James Lovelock,
and Lynn Margulis.

James Hutton
James Hutton, the father of modern geology, was a Scottish farmer and naturalist. It
was in farming that he observed how land was shaped by destructive forces of wind and
weather systems. He described how the Earth was formed in a repeated cycle of
erosion and sedimentation, with heat from volcanic activity as the driving force. He also
introduced the concept of uniformitarianism, implying that the geological forces (such
as those that trigger erosion and volcanic activities) in the past are the same as those in
the present, making it possible to determine the Earth's history by studying rocks.

Alexander von Humboldt


Alexander von Humboldt, a 19th-century geographer, helped establish the foundation
for Earth System Science through his observations of nature. He, together with his
colleagues, traveled to America; collected botanical, zoological, and geological
specimens; recorded the location of the specimens where they were found; and
performed atmospheric and geophysical measurements. From his records, he
recognized patterns that reveal underlying processes, such as the transport of heat in
ocean currents and the influence of temperature on plants.
Vladimir Vernadsky
Vladimir Vernadsky, one of the founders of geochemistry, popularized the
term noosphere. In his theory of Earth development, he stated that geosphere was the
first phase of the Earth that was developed. The second phase was the biosphere or
biological life. The emergence of life on Earth transformed the geosphere. Then the
noosphere, the sphere of human consciousness, is the third phase. The development of
human cognition then transformed the biosphere.

Today, the study of human impact on the biosphere led to the concept of sustainability,
which is the capacity of the Earth to continue to support human life.

James Lovelock
James Lovelock, a British environmentalist, proposed the Gaia hypothesis, which
postulates that the Earth works as a self-regulating system. He stated that the living
organisms co-evolve with nonliving things in the environment to form a synergistic, self-
regulating system where life is maintained and perpetuated. He cited as evidence the
photosynthetic bacteria during the Precambrian times. The bacteria modified the Earth’s
atmosphere to become oxygen-enriched. The change in the atmosphere then supported
the evolution of more complex organisms.

Lynn Margulis
Lynn Margulis, an evolutionary theorist, further developed Lovelock’s Gaia hypothesis.
Margulis noticed that all kinds of bacteria give off gases and thought that atmospheric
gases were from biological sources. She collaborated with Lovelock and published a
paper on how life regulates the temperature and chemical composition of the soil and
the atmosphere.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)


The major landmark in the formal development of the Earth System Science was the
formation of the Earth System Science Committee in NASA in 1983. NASA began to
study components of the Earth system, their linkages, dependencies, and fluxes.

Scientists from NASA conduct the Earth Science Program with a purpose of
understanding the Earth system by using satellites for long-term observations. By
viewing the Earth from space, they have studied how the planet is changing in response
to human influences. For instance, they have shown how the climate is changing due to
the increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide and aerosols from human activities.
These substances trap the Sun’s heat causing an increase in the global temperature.

At present, NASA continues to answer the question “How is the Earth system
changing, and what are the consequences of these changes for life on Earth?”
Key Points
 Earth System Science (ESS) is the study of the Earth as a system. It considers
interactions between the Earth’s “spheres” – atmosphere, geosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere.
 James Hutton, the father of modern geology, proposed uniformitarianism,
which implies that the present geological processes are the same as those in the
past.
 Alexander von Humboldt laid the foundations for Earth System Science by his
holistic observations of nature.
 Vladimir Vernadsky, one of the founders of geochemistry, popularized the
term noosphere, which is the sphere of human consciousness.
 James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis collaborated on the Gaia hypothesis,
which postulates that the Earth works as a self-regulating system.
 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) studies components
of the Earth system, their linkages, dependencies, and fluxes.

THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EARTH

What are the different layers of the Earth?

The Earth consists of three layers: core, mantle, and crust. The solid outer layer is
the crust. A semi-molten rock called magmalies in the mantle below the crust. Beneath
the mantle is the core. The outer core is a liquid mixture of nickel and iron while
the inner core is solid.
The Crust
The crust is a very thin layer that measures between 0 and 60 km. It has two layers and
is composed of two major kinds of rocks. The thick continental crust, about 32 km,
makes up the land surface of the Earth and is composed primarily of dense materials
such as granite. The thin oceanic crust has a depth of 5–10 km and is made up of
basalt which is less dense than granite. The crust can be broken down into plates which
produce earthquakes when they move along each other.

The Mantle
The mantle is below the crust. It is the thickest layer of the Earth, spanning almost 2900
km and making up 84% of the Earth’s volume. It contains magma. It is primarily solid
but behaves as a viscous liquid. This behavior is due to temperature differences
towards the lower mantle. As the depth becomes near the core, the temperature
increases. This is known as the geothermal gradient, the increase in temperature with
depth. In the upper mantle, the temperatures range from 600 to 900 °C. In the lower
mantle, the temperature can reach over 4000 °C.

Convection currents carry heat from the hot inner mantle to the cooler outer mantle. If
the upper part of the mantle cools down, it becomes part of the crust. Also, this process
is responsible for earthquakes and other geological processes.
The crust and the upper part of the mantle make up the lithosphere, a zone of rigid,
brittle rock. The layer below it is called the asthenosphere. This part of the mantle is
solid in a plastic manner (flows very slowly), allowing the plates to move on top of it.

The Core
The core is at the center of the Earth. In this region, the temperature is hotter than the
mantle. It is divided into two parts: the outer core and the inner core.

The liquid outer core is 2300 km thick. It is composed primarily of iron and nickel. The
temperature here is around 4000–5700 °C. Due to its high temperature, the outer core
undergoes convection and rotates faster than the planet.

The inner core is a solid ball with a radius of 1220 km. Like the outer core, the inner
core is made up of iron and nickel, but in solid form. The temperature is quite high at
around 7000 °C.

The difference between the state of matter of the inner and outer core is due to the very
high pressure in the inner core, increasing the melting points of the metals. Scientists
believed that the inner core rotates opposite to the direction of the flow of the outer core,
creating an effect that influences the Earth’s magnetic field.
Key Points
 The Earth has three layers: the crust, the mantle, and the core.
 The crust is the solid outer layer of the Earth.
 The types of crust are the oceanic crust and the continental crust.
 The mantle lies below the crust and composed primarily of magma.
 The crust and the upper part of the mantle constitute the lithosphere; the upper
part of the mantle is the asthenosphere.
 The core is the center of the Earth and is composed of the solid inner core and
the liquid outer core.

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