Extracto referencia (4)

Production techniques 1 The manufacture of sand castings 513

potentiometers of the quick reading type, electronically amplified signals

from a potentiometer can be applied in a direct temperature reading instru-
ment readily visible from the casting floor: fast response potentiometric
recorders are also available.
Optical and radiation pyrometers are of limited value for liquid metal
temperature measurement owing to the absence of black body conditions
and the partial dependence of results on the emissivity of the metal surface.
Where conditions can be reasonably standardized, results for a particular
alloy can be roughly calibrated against immersion values, but the tech-
nique is no substitute for immersion pyrometry where reliable data are
needed. When the emissivity and other errors are known, an instrument
such as the disappearing filament pyrometer can provide a useful guide to
pouring temperature by sighting on the metal stream. Radiation pyrome-
ters can be used to check temperatures of preheated ladle linings before
casting.
Fundamentals of temperature measurement and pyrometric instrumenta-
tion are comprehensively treated in the British Standards BS104192 and
BSEN6058493 .
Pouring temperature should be specified as an integral part of the casting
method and the tapping temperature and mould sequence determined accord-
ingly. Factors in selection have been emphasised in earlier chapters: the upper
limit is established by such factors as hot tearing and the lower by the need for
flow in thin sections and the avoidance of skulls in ladles. Within these limits
pouring temperature should contribute to the solidification pattern sought by
the method of gating and feeding (q.v. Chapter 3). Metallographic structure,
particularly grain size and substructure, is a further factor in temperature
selection because of the influences of undercooling on nucleation and growth.
In general, lower pouring temperatures are possible where heavy, compact
castings are being produced; castings with high surface area to volume
ratio and short freezing time need higher superheat for satisfactory mould
filling.

Equipment and techniques

The principal types of ladle employed in the foundry are illustrated in
Figure 8.44. Ladles may be of the lip pouring or teapot type or may be
fitted with nozzle and stopper for bottom pouring. The simple lip pouring
system is also used for most hand shanks and for crucibles from lift out
furnaces; the axially pivotted cylindrical or drum ladle is a variation of the
lip pouring system more usually seen in the bucket design of Figure 8.44a.
The lip pouring and teapot systems have the advantage that the metal enters
the mould with less momentum than in bottom nozzle pouring but the
latter gives a high degree of protection against slag inclusions. Although
sliding gate and rotary valve systems have proved effective in particular
514 Foundry Technology

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8.44 Main ladle types: (a) lip pouring, (b) teapot, (c) bottom pouring

circumstances, the nozzle and stopper has remained as the standard bottom
pouring arrangement.
The main rules in pouring are to maintain a smooth and uninterrupted
flow of metal for the avoidance of cold shuts and to prevent dross or
slag from entering the mould: when lip pouring the cover must either be
skimmed off or held back from the lip.
Flow rate is governed by the need to minimize turbulence and mould
erosion yet to avoid misrun castings or cold laps. The rate is commonly
regulated by the mould gating system, in which case pouring is visually
controlled to maintain a liquid head in the runner bush without overflow.
In tilt pouring this control is readily maintained. In bottom pouring control
within limits can be achieved by stopper rod manipulation, but the nozzle
diameter is the main factor in flow rate and should preferably be chosen to
enable the ladle to operate at or near full aperture. The importance of this
aspect of ladle practice was emphatically demonstrated in investigations by
Ashton et al76 .
The theoretical rate of flow through an unrestricted ladle nozzle is given
by the formula
q D a2gh1/2
where q D volume flow rate,
a D c.s.a. of nozzle,
h D height of surface above the nozzle.
Figure 8.45, derived from this expression, portrays the relationship between
flow rate and metallostatic head for various nozzle diameters. From such
data the appropriate nozzle diameter can be estimated to match the average
capacity of the gating systems but this takes no account of nozzle wear
during the emptying of the ladle, nor of frictional losses.
 Production techniques 1 The manufacture of sand castings 515

20

6.2
5c
m
no
zzl
15 e
Flow rate (litre/s)

5 cm
noz
zle
10

3.75 c
m noz
zle
5

2.5 cm nozz
le

0
250 200 150 100 50 0
Liquid head (cm)

Figure 8.45 Influence of metallostatic head and nozzle diameter on nominal

flow rate from bottom pouring ladle

In pouring a large casting, where the level of metal in the ladle and hence
the flow rate changes appreciably during the pour, the approximate pouring
time t can be estimated as follows:
Volume delivered in time t
Q D Ah1  h2 
where A D c.s.a. of ladle,
h1 D height of metal before pouring,
h2 D height of metal after pouring.
In a small time interval dt, the volume delivered dQ D A dh. In the same time
interval, the volume passing through the nozzle, also dQ D a2gh1/2 dt.
Hence,
A dh D a2gh1/2 dt
a 1
Ð dt D Ð dh
A 2gh1/2
Integrating,
 t  h1
a 1 1
dt D Ð dh
A 0 2g1/2 h2 h 1/2
516 Foundry Technology

a 1 1/2 1/2
Ðt D Ð 2h1  h2 
A 2g1/2
 
A 2 1/2 1/2 1/2
tD h1  h2 
a g
Should a predetermined rate of delivery be needed with lip pouring, this
can be achieved by using a ladle designed to discharge metal at a rate
proportional to the change in the angle of tilt. These conditions are obtained
with a segment shaped ladle of the type shown in Figure 8.46. In this case
q D r 2 lN
where q D flow rate,
r D radius of segment,
l D length of segment,
N D speed of rotation.
Such an arrangement is used in special circumstances requiring constant
flow rates, as in the centrifugal casting of pipes; the segment ladle has also
been utilized in fluidity testing (Chapter 1, Reference 8).
Ladle pouring technique was one of the major aspects of a review by
Ashton and Wake, concerned with the dependence of casting quality on

Figure 8.46 Segment ladle for constant rate lip pouring

 Production techniques 1 The manufacture of sand castings 517

ladle practice94 . This was based on industrial surveys and direct investiga-
tions of flow from bottom pouring ladles. Nomographs were derived for
the prediction of pouring times and the elimination of excessive throttling
was again identified as a primary aim in the search for consistency.

Ladle heating. An efficient ladle heating system is crucial to the control

of pouring temperature, and helps to avoid solid skulls which reduce product
yield and shorten lining life. Much gas can be wasted by the use of inef-
fectual torches in open vessels. The provision of a cover or hood improves
performance but efficient burners are the main requirement and enable
lining temperatures exceeding 1000° C to be attained. Self-recuperative and
regenerative burners are also available, to increase efficiency by capturing
heat from the ladle exhaust gases: the regenerative principle is employed
in a system based on alternate firing and exhaust of twin burners. The
temperature can be monitored, and in some cases controlled, by suitably
positioned thermocouples or infra-red sensors to minimize energy consump-
tion and avoid excessive temperatures; intermittent firing can be used with
the same objective. These and other aspects have been fully examined in
References 95 and 96.
A relatively modern development in ladle heating is the use of electric
power, a highly efficient medium when operated in a fully enclosed ladle.
Cylindrical arrays of radiant resistance elements are employed within a
protective sleeve or cage. Units rated at 30 kW, attaining ladle temperatures
of up to 1000° C, have been successfully employed in iron founding and
aluminium die casting97 , although much larger units have been used in the
general steel industry. Heavily insulated hoods and temperature controls are
essential features of this equipment. The relative fragility of the electrical
elements is one factor that has restricted the application of this form of
ladle heating.

Ladle insulation. Proprietary low thermal mass disposable liners of pre-

formed refractory insulating board are highly effective in minimizing heat
losses, and offer an alternative to high temperature preheating, particularly
for smaller ladles, for which single piece moulded versions are available.
For larger ladles the joints between flat board segments are sealed with
refractory cement, the whole being bedded on a refractory outer lining. The
disposable liners are readily removed and renewed, although they can be
used in some cases for continuous high temperature runs involving repeated
refilling98,99 .

Ladle reheating. Reheating of molten metal in the ladle has already been
mentioned in the context of further processing measures, but can also be
used simply as an extended control of pouring temperature. One method
518 Foundry Technology

Swing arm
Coil
Movable core
bridge
Locating
post
Quickly replaceable
induction loop

Power Fixed core

supply

Figure 8.47 Induction loop system for heating metal in ladle. Horizontal loop
version, schematic view (Q.R.L. System) (courtesy of Birlec Ltd.)

employs the quickly replaceable loop system, an example of which is shown

in Figure 8.47. Induction heating is applied to metal circulated around a
horizontal or vertical loop communicating with the main ladle chamber.
The loop is readily replaced using detachable flanges, whilst the inductor
core is constructed in two sections with a movable bridge piece, enabling
the ladle to be readily detached from the heating system as required. Loop
heating of ladles as a means of increasing total melt capacity for the produc-
tion of heavy castings has been reviewed by Smith97 . Other methods of
induction heating for this and more specialized purposes were reviewed
 Production techniques 1 The manufacture of sand castings 519

in Reference 100. Reaction reheating is also possible in limited circum-

stances but would normally be an element in a more complicated ladle
refining sequence.
Further aspects of the pouring and handling of molten metals were treated
in a detailed review paper by Smith101 . Although relating to ironfoundry
practice, most of the general points dealing with ladle practice are applicable
across a wide spectrum of casting alloys.

Automatic pouring. In the modern foundry industry, with its extensive

use of automatic moulding plant and process controls, there is clearly a need
for precise techniques of molten metal delivery into the mould. Despite the
difficulties involved, various systems have been developed for incorporation
in volume casting operations.
A well designed automatic system has the potential to reduce the vari-
ability inherent in manually controlled pouring, and at the same time to
improve working conditions in the foundry. Essential features are the capa-
bility to position the molten metal nozzle or spout accurately over the mould
entry, and to deliver the correct amount of metal at the required rate. In
a fully automatic system provision needs to be made to control all the
necessary movements with appropriate mechanisms and sensors. A means
of heating of the metal in the pouring unit is also desirable if substan-
tial holding times are involved: this also permits retention of molten metal
rather than emptying the vessel during interruptions in production. Induction
heating on the channel principle is widely used for this purpose.
Automatic pouring units employ varied means of metal transfer, based
upon either gravity or pressurized flow. Controlled gravity pouring can be
achieved using a tilting vessel: one example of a simple mechanical system
is that illustrated in Figure 8.46, designed for constant rate lip pouring.
Some fully automatic systems too employ the tilt principle, although the
path and shape of the emerging stream may be insufficiently precise in
some situations. Other systems have been preferred in much commercial
plant, including the stoppered nozzle arrangement as used in conventional
bottom pouring ladles, and gas pressurized dispensers.
Repeated operation and continuous immersion of stopper-nozzle systems
as required for automatic pouring is made possible by the use of isostatically
pressed monobloc units, formed from ceramic bonded aluminia graphite
refractories. The normal bottom nozzle system requires allowance for the
change in metallostatic head as the vessel becomes depleted, but this effect
is reduced in shallow tundish pouring systems and can also be subject to
compensating controls.
In the stopper-nozzle system illustrated in Figure 8.48 the metal is
contained in a pressure vessel provided with an induction heating loop.
The pressure in the vessel is used only to maintain a constant level above
the nozzle within the laterally positioned pouring box, the actual pour being
controlled by the stopper.