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Environmental
Engineers
Geology for
Environmental
Engineers
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
The environmental field has evolved since its beginnings in 1970 with
the creation of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and
further with the 1980 passage of CERCLA legislation (Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act), commonly
known as Superfund. Many site characterization studies and remediation
designs have also evolved since that time. In order for the E nvironmental
Engineer to understand the behavior and design remediation of the
chemicals and pollutants in the environment, knowledge of the principles
and tenets of geology is critical. Geology means the study of the Earth and
is the science that seeks to collect, correlate, and interpret facts concerning
the Earth. Its scope is almost boundless. The cycle that gives origin to the
different types of rock and the geologic processes that produce the soils is
discussed. On a macro scale, it seeks to discover the origin of the Earth,
of mountains, valleys, glaciers, rocks, volcanoes, and a myriad number of
other phenomena. Plate tectonics, continental drift, and subduction zones
all played a role in the formation of our planet. On the micro scale, geology
seeks to understand fluid flow through small pores and fractures. The fate
and transport of chemicals through soils and especially through b edrock
is a function of the geology. The rock structure and its understanding of
the geologic processes which produce fractures and allows fluid flow is a
major factor in remediation design.
KeyWords
List of Figures ix
List of Tables xv
Acknowledgments xvii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 What Is Geology? 2
1.2 In the Beginning—Magmas, Volcanoes, and Minerals 2
2 The Rock Cycle—A Continuous Circle 13
2.1 Igneous—The Fire Rocks 15
2.2 The Sedimentary Rocks—Rock to Soil, then Back to Rock,
and Back to Soil 35
2.3 The Metamorphic Rocks—Just Apply Heat and Pressure 50
3 ow the Earth’s Crust Folds and Fractures—
H
Structural Geology 63
3.1 Folds 64
3.2 Faults 80
3.3 Joints and Fractures 91
4 Geologic Processes of Weathering and Erosion 97
4.1 Weathering—Disintegration and Decomposition of Rock 97
4.2 Weathering in Karst Landscapes 107
4.3 Erosion 110
5 oils/Overburden—Types/Sources, Characteristics,
S
and Field Identification 115
5.1 Residual Soils 116
5.2 River and Stream/Fluvial Deposits 120
5.3 Lake Deposits 128
5.4 Marine Clay Deposits 130
5.5 Aeolian Deposits (Wind-Transported Sediment) 131
viii • Contents
Figure 5.21. Pervious gravel layer within stratified glacial till. 145
Figure 5.22. Glacial soil deposits provided sand and silt for sand
dunes and loess. 148
Figure 5.23. Common soil deposits from valley glaciation. 149
Figure 5.24. Glacial Kame and Esker. 150
Figure 5.25. Development of Outwash Kettles. 152
Figure 5.26. Glacial drumlin. 153
Figure 5.27. Typical development of soil horizons for Pedalfer
and Pedocal soils. 156
Figure 5.28. General location of Pedalfer and Pedocal soils in the
United States. 158
Figure 5.29. Distribution of major soil orders in the United States. 159
Figure 5.30. Grain size ranges of different soil engineering
classification systems. 161
Figure 5.31. Grain size graph showing typical differences in
soil gradations. 162
Figure 5.32. Burmister soil descriptions procedures. 163
Figure 5.33. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). 164
Figure 6.1. The hydrologic cycle. 165
Figure 6.2. Various forms of subsurface water, both below and
above the water table. 166
Figure 6.3. Illustration of how capillary action works. 167
Figure 6.4. Illustration of confined and unconfined aquifers and
perched groundwater. 168
Figure 6.5. Various types of geologic settings that produce
groundwater-fed springs. 170
List of Tables
Introduction
design for a new project or for remediation design begins with understand-
ing the geology of the site, and its potential nuances. Currently used meth-
ods of subsurface investigation are described in Volume II, many of which
have seen substantial evolution since the beginnings of the environmental
engineering field in the 1970s, which is often pegged to the passage of
CERCLA (Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act of 1980) statutes that created the “Superfund” and creation of
the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.-EPA).
Geology is the study of the Earth and is the science that seeks to col-
lect, correlate, and interpret facts concerning the Earth. Its scope is almost
boundless, and today it is being used to investigate conditions on even the
Moon and Mars. However, this study will stay focused on planet Earth. To
understand the rock and soil present, the “macro scale” must be used, and
an understanding of the origin of the mountains, valleys, plains, and the
mechanisms that have acted over billions of years is needed. Geology on
the macro scale studies plate tectonics, continental drift, subduction zones,
upheavals of mountain ranges and their weathering to hills, volcanoes,
glacial carving and subsequent deposition of soils, the action of water at
beaches, along rivers, and in seas, and a myriad number of other phe-
nomena. On the minute “micro scale,” geology aids the environmental
engineer in understanding fluid flow through soil and bedrock, whether
it be through small pores, or fractures, or caverns and tubes. Geology is
not an exact science such as math, chemistry, or physics, and usually does
not fit nicely into readily derived formulas. Geology is a natural science,
but it is process and evidence driven. What processes caused the rocks
and soils at a site today to be there? Nobody was there in the past when
the ancient soils and rocks were formed. Thus, ample use must be made
of the fundamental principle that geologic processes at work today are the
same as were occurring through time. The first topic to be studied is the
minerals, the little bits of geologic matter that make up all rocks and soils,
and their sources.
To understand the origin of the rocks, their different types, and composition,
it is necessary to go back to the time when a much greater quantity of liquid
Introduction • 3
rock, called magma, was being spewed forth onto the surface of the Earth
than occurs today. Magma that reaches the surface is called lava (Figure
1.1), and the amount that is spewed forth today is far less than occurred at
times hundreds of millions or billions of years ago. Magma, as described
in Section 1.2.1, was, and is, the parent material for the igneous rocks.
Metamorphic and sedimentary rocks were, and are, ultimately derived from
igneous rocks. Many of the various types of rocks in these three categories
are described in Chapter 2. The process of weathering that created the sedi-
ment from which sedimentary rocks have formed is described in Chapter 4.
1.2.1 Magma
Earth on the top, is about 45 miles (70 km) thick. Below the lithosphere
is the asthenosphere, which may be about 110 miles thick (180 km), and
comprises the upper mantle. The asthenosphere is believed to be partially
melted and the source of magma, and in turn overlies the lower man-
tle. The deeper layers are the liquid outer core and the solid inner core
(Figure 1.3).
1.2.2 Minerals
Since the atoms or molecules of mineral crystals are arranged in regular lat-
tice-like patterns, there will be planes of separation between the various units
in the crystalline structure. If the atomic attraction forces across these planes
are very weak, there will be a tendency to break parallel to these planes,
which is referred to as cleavage. Consequently, if a homogeneous crystalline
mass, with or without external form, is struck a blow, a perfectly planar sur-
face may develop, and this planar surface will reflect light like a crystal face
or mirror. The smoothness of the cleavage surface will depend largely upon
the magnitude of the interatomic forces between two layers in the structure.
Minerals may have one to six different planes of cleavage. The num-
ber of cleavage planes and their quality are a constant physical property
for any one mineral species, and help in the identification of minerals. For
example, Figure 1.4 shows the cleavage of four common minerals halite,
mica (muscovite), calcite, and feldspar. Many minerals may possess no
gravity of 19.3, which means that any specimen of pure gold would weigh
19.3 times as much as an equal volume of water. Iron ore has a specific
gravity between 4.5 and 5.3, while for cast iron it is about 7.1 (cast iron
contains about 2 percent carbon whereas iron ore is only about 45 to 60
percent iron).
1.2.2.4 Color
1.2.2.5 Luster
Some minerals such as galena and pyrite (fool’s gold) have a reflective appear-
ance in light, such that the minerals reflect light like well-known pure metals
such as iron, silver, gold, or lead. When such reflection occurs, the mineral is
said to have metallic luster. If such metallic reflection does not occur, the lus-
ter is said to be nonmetallic. Nonmetallic luster can be further described, for
example, as vitreous, resinous, pearly, or silky. Care must be taken to observe
luster on surfaces other than cleavage or crystal planes, because these planes
frequently shine with a silvery sheen, which is deceptive.
1.2.2.6 Hardness
others may be so hard that very few substances will scratch them. Rubies
and sapphires are extremely hard but diamond is the hardest of all known
substances. In order that hardness may be used in the identification of an
unknown mineral, certain standard minerals have been arbitrarily chosen
with which to compare the unknown. The interval of hardness between
each mineral in the series is not constant, but the results obtained are usu-
ally satisfactory for most purposes.
The hardness of minerals is based on the Mohs scale, in which differ-
ent minerals have been assigned different values of increasing hardness as
shown in Table 1.2. Mineral hardness is an extremely constant character
of minerals and may be used with specific gravity as a quick means of
attributing the mineral to a small group among the approximately 2,000
known minerals. Minerals are chemical compounds in the sense that the
various atomic constituents are in constant proportions in all specimens of
the same mineral species. Actually, there may be considerable variation
in composition, but only within defined limits. From a chemical analysis,
the atomic proportions of the various elements present can be determined.
1.2.3 Volcanoes
out entire cities (e.g., Pompeii, Italy). In the extreme, there are two types
of volcanic eruptions, but there are many different combinations. Also,
no volcano remains only one or the other type throughout its history. The
first type may be said to be explosive and is characterized by a steep cone
made up of cinder-like fragments of rock (Figure 1.6). The second is termed
quiet or flowing because it spews quietly flowing liquid rock, called lava
(Figure 1.7), which then cools and solidifies into rock magma. The cone
of a flowing volcano is much less steeper than a cinder cone. Most of the
well-known v olcanoes are of the explosive type. It is true that, with every
C columnar joint, 94
calcareous fossils, 40 complex folds, 73–74
calcium carbonate, sedimentary domes and basins, 79
rock, 45 drag folds, 78–79
caliche, 159 isoclinal fold, 76–77
Cape Cod recessional moraine, monocline and homocline folds,
146 77–78
capillary action, 167 overturned and recumbent folds,
carbonaceous sedimentary rock, 74–76
44–45 composition, mineral, 23
carbonatization, chemical conchoidal (shell-like) fracture, 8
weathering, 104–105 concordant intrusions, 27, 29–30
cataclasites, 88 confined aquifer, 167, 168
cataclastic rock, 59 confining beds, 167
caves, 108–109 conglomerate sedimentary rock,
chalk, 41, 47 38, 39, 46
Champlain Sea Clay, 131 conjugate joint set, 92
chemical composition, igneous connate water, 53
rocks, 24 contact metamorphic rocks, 51
chemical rock contact metamorphism, 55
formations, 48–49 continental drift, 2
types, 47–48 coquina, 47, 48
chemical weathering, 99, 100, crest, 70
102–103 crevasse fillings /ice-channel
clay and sand, 105–106 fillings, 151
dissolved chemicals in seas, 106 cross-bedding, 49, 133
hydration/hydrolysis and crust margin collisions, 4
carbonatization, 104–105 crystallinity, 20
in karst landscapes, 107–110 crystal structure of minerals, 5
oxidation, 104
principal, 104 D
residual soil, 116, 117 deflation, 137
solutions results, 106 delta deposits, 127–128
chert, 41, 46, 47, 48 depositions, sedimentary rock,
chevron folds, 77 42–43
C-horizon, 157 calcium carbonate, 45
clastic limestone, 41 carbonaceous, 44–45
clastic sedimentary rocks, 35 chert, 46
clay and sand, chemical ferruginous, 43
weathering, 105–106 flint, 46
clay soils, 169–170 gypsum, 45
cleavage , minerals, 7–8 halite, 45
coarse-grained soils, 167 detrital rock
collisions, crust margin, 4 formations, 47
color, mineral, 9 types, 46–47
Index • 189