Introductory section: Sociolinguistic

 Sociolinguistics goes beyond linguistic structure and tries to understand how these
linguistics rules at all levels interact with social structure
 Pure linguists stop at linguistic level, but sociolinguists believe that in order to
understand how language is used in actual communication we have to go beyond
linguistic structure and study it in relation to social structure
 We have to go beyond linguistic structure to know how to communicate
 When we communicate we do not stick to rather rules, but in often use different
things, different speakers in different places and social structure
 Linguists of sociolinguistics are : Hudson, Wardaugh, Trudgill, and Gumperz
 Wardaugh, “he defines sociolinguistics as an attempt to colorate between social and
to observe any changes that occurs”. In other word, sociolinguistics aims at a better
understanding structure of language, and how language function is communication
 For them, in order to understand linguistic structure, and how language is used in
communication, they need to study language in relation to society. For example,
“vocabulary” some Moroccans say for (kettle) MO9RACH, and others say GHLAY,
these words are resemble each other, but some regions name one of these words
MO9RACH and other region call it GHLAY
 So, why do we have all these words in Moroccan Arabic? Because the idea, concept
depend on where you are from, and have you born
 In order to know why we use all these words in Moroccan Arabic, We MUST refer to
those who speak it , to understand the purpose of using all these words we ought to
indicate to the social structure
 We have to link this variation to the different regional dialect
 We associate linguistic structure, which is extensional items to those who speak it
 We use extensional item because it belongs to a particular region
 Automatically we understand that person came from a region which speak this
variety
 The first things that they say is to justify language in itself
 When we want to define a language we need to relate it automatically to the social
structure
 We cannot define one without relating it to another. For instance, we can ask the
question, what is Arabic? Automatically we link it to those who speak it, Arabic is a
language spoken by Arabs, If we ask who are Arabs; spontaneously Arabs are those
who speak Arabic. That’s question justify that matter
 It is impossible to isolate language from those who speak it, because language is
inherent of identity of people
 We cannot separate language from those who speak it
  Hudson, He says “ we cannot take the notion language X for granted, since this is in
itself a social notion in so far as it is defined in terms of group of people who speak
X”
 Semantically speaking, all these languages are systems rule governed, structured
means of communication. They are all linguistically the same
 In a word, Language is a social notion that is used to establish and maintain
relationships, we cannot study language without relating it to the social structure
Language dialect and variety
 Language variety simply means any particular way of speaking and refers to any form of
language
 Dialect is a term that refers to any regional and social variety of language
 It is described as varieties which are not used in formal writing
 A dialect is spoken, acquired, informal, and dependent
 Standard Language, it is the second meaning of language, it differ from dialect at the level of
phonology, syntax and lexicon. It is a dialect that has been given the status of an official
language. Therefore, it is a variety that has undergone the process of standardization

The criteria of size

 Language is large than a dialect. How come? Here the question of size as a criteria, so these
definition being that language is larger than a dialect for example Moroccan Arabic is larger
than Kenerty Arabic
 So, kenitry variety is a dialect and Moroccan Arabic is a language. Now, we take the case of
American English and New Yorker English. Which one is going to be a language? Thus
American English is going to be a language and New Yorker English going to be a dialect. As
an illustration, American English its users are more than New Yorker English.
 At one stage, Moroccan Arabic is a dialect if we compare it with standard Arabic. At one
point, Moroccan Arabic it will be a dialect, but at another point it will be a language. Why?
Simply, size is a relative question. We always have degrees, one is larger than another.
Accordingly, it’s not going to help. Why? Because the notion of size is relative. It’s not a polar
thing. It’s a term of continuous on how many items we have, we can have one larger than
another is small, and between we have degrees.

Criteria of interchangeability

 We use mutual interchangeability to describe varieties. If we speak two varieties, and these
varieties are mutually interchangeable, they set to be dialects, but if they use varieties that
are not mutually interchangeable they are going to be called languages. For example, if we
take German and Dutch, they say that people who live in Dutch border speak Dutch, they say
we speak Dutch and we are Dutch, also part of Dutch land. Whereas, German, they say we
 speak German, and we are German. They associate themselves with different countries and
different beliefs. Yet, their varieties are mutually interchangeable. They understand each
other more than each one of them from the same country somewhere further from borders
 So, for those who speak the same varieties, they say we speak different languages, because
they identify themselves different countries, but their varieties linguistically speaking are
mutual interchangeability, that’s why we SHOULD call them dialects. From the point of view
of those who use the language say we don’t speak the same language. Why? Because they
belong to different countries.
 Another example, in China, there are two dialects, which are Mandarins and Cantonese,
linguistically they are different. If you are Cantonese and you speak with a Mandarin, yet you
are not literate, so you are not going to be able to understand. So, you live within China, also
you have the same culture, the same beliefs, but they don’t understand each other.
 If you take mutual interchangeability as outsider, as linguists, we could say that Mandarins
and Cantonese are two different languages, because they are not mutually interchangeable.
For Cantonese and Cantonese they would say they are Chinese and we speak the same
language, which is Chinese. We talk about psychology reality, some linguists believe that we
should study phenomenon from point of view of those who use whatever. For example, if we
take the point of view of Chinese guy would say that those who believe in psychology reality,
they would say in order to describe facts as they are, we had better take it into consideration
perception for those who use that varieties, but from point of view of an observer, for
example who use mutual interchangeability, and outsider would say that Cantonese and
Mandarins are two different languages, because he takes a body of linguistic item. He
analyzes things and says that they are not mutual interchangeability. They seem to the
observer are two different languages

Standardization

 A standard is a language, and nonstandard is a dialect. To avoid these debates Wardaugh

suggests that the notion variety instead of language
 What is standardization? Standardization is for Hudson the result of “ a discrete and
deliberate intervention by society” So, all society is involved and concerned , because
Tamazight it has a written system, and used in teaching
 In order to become standard, a variety has to go through steps. The first one is:
- Selection: Tamazight has three varieties. The problem is which one we are going to select
in the first stage. Selection actually is the most crucial stage. Socially speaking, it is very
crucial. Why? Because when we select a variety we give privilege to those who speak it.
So, if a language becomes standard, national language you can access all economic,
politics, and therefore we can be in a position of decision making. In Tamazight we have
AMALGAM “ mixture” of the varieties
 - Codification: means fixing the language (vocabulary and everything that is related to
language). It is a linguistic step involves language itself. Hogan, refer to this as “ minimal
variation inform” this variety it supposed to be in circles, it MUST have all the tool that
will enable it to function and to operate in any context
- Elaboration of function: if codification is minimal variation informs; elaboration of
function is to Hogan “maximal variation in function”. In first we have to fix it , but here
we have to extend it
- Acceptance: Simply, as the word suggest society MUST accept that variety as a standard
variety, because now when it is accepted it is going to be national language, going to
unify operation. Once we speak that standardize, automatically we accept it as standard
language
 To conclude, the words language and dialect have been proved .There is no boundaries as we
have seen. So, they are continuum and that boundaries are phase
 Variety is a set of linguistic item with similar social distribution
 A variety can refer to the variety of varieties that one speaker use. What he can use can be
described as variety

Register

 Wardaugh, “register are sets of vocabulary items associated with discrete occupational,
or social groups”
 Register is a matter of vocabulary
 If we take a language of smugglers, these vocabularies they use and share is going to be
called register. It’s one group that share those vocabulary items
Style
 Speaker may shift styles as their perceptions of an event in progress changes

Accent

 Accent it is a matter of pronunciation peculiar to a particular individual location or nation

 An accent may identify the locality in which its speakers reside ( a geographical or regional
accent)
 Accent betrays one’s origin as everyone is affected by L1
 Accent differ in quality of voice, pronunciation of vowels and consonants, stress, and prosody
…the word accent refers specifically to the differences in pronunciation and word dialect
encompasses the broader set of linguistic differences, accent is a subset of dialect

Speech community

 Speech community is a group of people who share the same language

 It is based on speech, and linguistic items
 Hudson did a good review of different definitions of speech community
 Lyans, “a speech community is all people who use a given language” P: 25. Speech
community is a community based on language. No reference mentioned to the social
culture community
 The other problem is the difficulty to delimit language and dialect
 So, if we define speech community in term of common or shared language (dialect), the
problem here is the difficulty to delimit language and dialect. If we cannot delimit
language and dialect, how can we delimit a speech community? If a speech community is
a group of people who speak the same language, or the same dialect. As long as we
cannot delimit language or a dialect, how can we delimit a speech community?
 There are two problems, a speech community is a community based on language, they
share common linguistic items, no reference is made to any social or culture unity
 The second problem, if we cannot delimit a language or dialect, how can we delimit a
speech community, since we said that is a group of people who speak the same language
or dialect. If we cannot define the first, therefore, we cannot define the third. The
second in term of the first
 So, Hocket provides a more complex definition which is “speech community is a whole
group of people who communicate with each other” via a common language. If there is
no communication there will be no speech community

 Gumpers and Bloomfield, “ it’s a social group or any human aggregate characterized by
regular and frequent interaction by means a shared body of verbal signs and set off from
similar aggregate by significant differences in language use” . So, they share one body of
linguistic signals is clearly different from the verbal signals that others group share
communication and interact
 We have more component of delimitation here, the speech community , then we use
Lyans definition for Hocket
 The group maybe bilingual or multilingual. One more definition is by Labov and le Page
has different definitions from all what we have seen. They talked about shared attitudes.
When we talk about attitudes we move away from linguistics to the attitudes of the
users of language. They believe in psychology reality, is a notion in linguistic theory. So,
Labov, Le Page, and Hudson believe in the notion of psychology reality
 For Labov, “It’s a group who feel themselves to be a community in some sense, rather
than a group which only the linguists and outsider could know about” P: 27. Here we
have what we take in consideration of the feeling of the speakers
 Le Page, “group is what individual speaker perceives to exist, using external factors”. You
may not see these groups. He says that the individual speaker locates himself in a malty
dimension space
 Hudson, he concludes that all definitions are correct in some sense and another. For him,
the most comprehensive, exhaustive is Le Page. Therefore, he believes in the same kind
of definition. He speaks about network, Le Page, speaks about multi dimension space.
Hudson does the same he didn’t sue the multi dimension space, he uses the word
network. He says that “It’s better to study or analyze people’s relation to each other in
term of networks individuals’ relations”.
 Hudson, perhaps speech community do not really exist in society, except as prototypes in
the minds of people

Pidgins and Creoles

 A pidgin is a reduced variety that is used for very specific, practical purposes, created
out of two or more languages. It is used by people who have no common others
means of communication. They speak different varieties and they have no shared
variety or sets of linguistic items through they can communicate, and therefore they
make up or create a variety from language in order to talk about a specific purpose.
Pidgin doesn’t have native speakers, it is created depending on group, we call it a
Lingua Franca
 Lingua Franca, for example, two members from different countries met and want to
talk about something, but their languages set to be incomprehensible to each other,
then they use another variety which is very common and both of them know.
 Pidgin is reduced because it is used for very specific place. It’s not like other natural
languages. It is related to the slaves trade
 It uses for trade. It is limited to the contact situations. Kind of contact variety,
situations which only for specific purpose requires linguistic items to manage that
communication
 The most pidgins depend on those colonials who need pidgin for trade, and for
transformation their trades to their countries or to the target countries they invaded
 Linguistically speaking, this has to be very reduced, simplified. That it can be serve
only it’s purpose that is created for
 Pidgin generally have no morphology
 For phonology phonemes are very limited and sounds, also simple sentences. It
serves only the purpose of what is created for
 Creoles

 Creole is originally a pidgin. So, what happen to pidgin? There tow possibilities
that happen to pidgin. A pidgin can either die out if it is no longer used, because
a language die, once it’s no longer used. The second possibility is that pidgin may
turn to a Creole
 When it turns to Creole it has native speakers. So, Creole is not like a pidgin. It’s
like any other language spoken in the universe, but it’s only different on its
origin, which is in this case a pidgin. That’s the differences between them
 So, a Creole has native speakers, whereas pidgin doesn’t have. In order to
become a Creole native mother tongue its speaker, it means it MUST have all the
tools to function in the context. Linguistically speaking, it’s required in language
to be used for all purposes
 This process that it goes through is called Creolization. That’s to say the process
through a pidgin goes in order to become a full natural language
 When does this happen? There are two cases may happen to a pidgin, which it
may dies out or turn into Creole
 How does this pidgin acquire native speakers? In some places of the world pidgin
die out and others turn into Creole. For example, Haitian we have Haitians
Creoles which is French Haitian. The children of those couples who spoke pidgin
had as children to use mother tongue. Those children being children of inferior
group were not allowed to use French. French is the native language of that
country. So, the parents of these children had to speak a language that can allow
their children to communicate about everything. Parents start to develop that
pidgin and expand it. So, that it could serve the purpose of communication. At
this point, a pidgin goes through the opposite process. In pidginization, they
agreed to reduce everything. Linguistically speaking, reducing vocabulary simple
sentences structure, morphemes and so on and so forth
 It is the opposite because they need large number of vocabularies for everything
that can allow them to speak that pidgin
 So, pidgin and Creole are diametrically opposite, whereas a pidgin involves
reduction in all levels, creolizational linguistic level involves expansion at all
linguistic levels, because they are used for benefit purposes
 So, this is how pidgin stopped and turned into Creole. In this way the children
acquire what their parents used to talk to them, and therefore it is the mother
tongue, and like any natural language
 The only different between Creole and other languages is in term of its origin.
The Creole was originated from pidgin; it has broadened into a Creole. So, it is
the mother tongue of those who speak it
  Another example, in West Germany the guest worker from different countries
came to Germany. They are different nationalities, Turkish, Moroccan, and Italy
….and so on. These people had a community, and they had to communicate to
each other, but unfortunately they don’t understand each other, nor speak
Germany. Their languages sets to be mutual intelligible. So, they had to develop
a pidgin, which is German based. Their children had to go to school; they are
unlike Haitian’s children. Thus, they were allowed to go to school. They learnt
German language. What happen then? There was an average full of natural
language that can be used for everything. Therefore, children of those guest
workers didn’t have to Creolize the pidgin that was used among their parents
who have different mother tongue. The children acquired German language. In
this case pidgin dies out. It was stopped because new generation get ride on the
German language and learn it fully, there was no need for creolization of the
German based on pidgin, that their parents had to use and these therefore the
name of pidgin was GASTERBEITER DUTCH. This an example where a pidgin die
out
 Linguistically the two variations look backward to each other. The pidgins acquire
more vocabularies, grammatical rules, morphological variation, phonemes….and
so on and so forth
 Socially speaking, it’s more significant, it’s part of the identity, when you speak it
you act your identity. You show who you are
 Creoles are more important than pidgins. We have more Creoles in the world
than pidgins. A few pidgins are alive, but most died out
 To sum up, a pidgin is a reduced variety used for specific purpose, created out of
two or more languages. Whereas, a Creole is mother tongue that originated from
contact between two languages
 Creole is originally a pidgin, and pidgins are stigmatized, therefore Creole is also
stigmatized, because it minds people’s origin

Diglossia

 Diglossia is a linguistic situation in which two varieties are much related, because they
belong to the same language, but clearly distinct for layman to call them different thing and
gives them different labels. They are used in the whole society
 Morocco is diglossic situation. Why? Because we have Moroccan Arabic and standard Arabic.
They co-exist and they have existed for centuries , and they are used in the whole Moroccan
society
 Each of which have different function. The main difference we have here is specialization in
function
 The term was introduced by Furgeson, these two varieties that belong to the same language
that are very clearly related, as clearly distinct. They are classified as high variety and low
variety
 Greek is another case, two varieties clearly related in the whole of Greek ,and have different
names
 For as situation to describe as a diglossic. Furgeson, gives a number of conditions, the most
important situation is specialization of function
- Condition 1: example of Arabic. All Arabs speak it not only Morocco, because they have a
local Arabic. Greek is another example, in Haitian is the same thing, we have French and
Haitian Creole, so here we can talk about diglossia in Haitian (the two varieties MUST
have and aver recognition). That to say people are aware that two varieties are different,
and give them different names
- Condition 2: is specialization in function. The two different varieties are used in different
setting, context. Standard Arabic is used in formal context, government, press, TV,
whereas Moroccan Arabic is used in informal context. The high variety associated with
what is written and low variety associated with spoken form
- Condition 3: is prestige. So, the high variety has prestige, while low variety does not have
the privilege. In Greek there is an attempt to translate the testament into low variety
DIMOTIKI, whilst the high variety was KHATHAREVAS. The testament lost its value,
because when you translate something that is sacred it will surely lose its value
- Condition 4: is concerned with linguistic differences. The high and low varieties are more
complex. Linguistically speaking, the two varieties are completely different, significantly
different. The vocabulary of standard Arabic is much richer than Moroccan Arabic.
Morphological structure is much more complex with standard Arabic than Moroccan
Arabic. Morphologically speaking, you can talk about inflection word, suffixes, prefixes,
infixes. Standard Arabic is very complex. In brief, high variety is more complex
- Condition 5: the high variety has to have significant body of literature. That’s to say, we
have a literature heritage in standard Arabic
- Condition 6: is stability. Diglossia situation is like something permanent. It’s not
something that you can change overnight. It is existed for centuries. There is always a
level of literacy and illiteracy

Bilingualism

 Bilingualism is the ability to master tow languages. It involves the mastery of two different
languages. Some linguists require only minimal knowledge of a second language
 Bilingualism is a minimal ability to use a language
 The ability to speak tow languages, which means they do not equal writing. If you speak two
languages you will be called a bilingual
 Some linguists agree on just speaking, but others agreed upon writing
 Hogan, “bilingualism is not an all or non-property, they are degrees”
 So, it is a matter of degrees of minimal competency to complete mastery of more than one
language
 The question that arises here is; if we want to evaluate the degree of bilingualism, how are
we going to evaluate these degrees? When we talk about bilingualism we also talk about
degrees of language
 It is a debatable issue, and therefore some sociolinguists are trying to make a difference
between bilinguals. They say, those who have equal profession in both languages, and those
who master one language more than another. They talked about balance and unbalance “
Lambered”
 For Hornby, he says that balance bilingualism is ideal. Why? Because in reality there is only
one language which is going to be more salient
 A person can master two languages, but always one will be more than another
 It is a minimal ability to use two different languages. Actually, it is a question of degrees
 It is a native like control, means he/she requires a maximum ability to use two different
languages
 Other sociolinguists define it as a receptive knowledge. Actually, when you use two
languages, there are different levels of this ability
 Balance bilinguals are those who have equally mastery, while unbalance bilinguals are those
who have different levels which mean they are more profession in one language than
another
 Some sociolinguists alleges that it is difficult to major, and debatable issue, because actually
there has been no technique or test that is reliable
 Other sociolinguist talked about coordinate and compound bilinguals
 A compound bilingual is someone who has the same semantic network form for two
languages. For example, a French mother and Moroccan father, the child here will acquire
two languages, and that child will have the same entity in form of two semantic network
( Table, Tabla)
 Coordinate bilinguals are those who have different semantic network for corresponding
name
 Weinrich, he questioned the validity of the distinction between coordinate and compound
 Bilingualism can be an approach from different perspective, angles. You can study
bilingualism as a pure linguistic phenomenon. That to say, what happen to the language that
develops?

Code-switching

 Apple and Misken “It is a sign of linguistic decay, the unsystematic result of not knowing
at least one of the languages involves very much”
  Guessous, goes to the point of seeing that “bilingualism has given rise to a bustard
language and culture”
 Gumperz, studied Spanish English bilinguals in Jersey city, he found that code-switching
is attributed to” lack of education, bad manners or improper control of the two
grammars”
 Types of code-switching: there are two types, which are interasentential and
intersentential
 Interasentential means switching that occur within the same sentence. In the middle of a
sentence. Some called this code-mixing. For example, mchit l un restaurant formidable
lbareh
 Intersentential, switches occur between sentences, or at sentence boundaries. For
example, Bonsoir ca va, jibli m3ak polycope d sociolinguistics
 Functions of code-switching : Jacobson, Gumperz, Holiday reviewed the literature
written by these linguists about function of code-switching,they came up with the
following function, referential, topic related, directive, fatic, mentalinguistic, emotion
involved function
- The referential functional of code-switching, it is related to the topic. You code-switch
because you find a topic that facilitate expressions, or because you lack knowledge
- Directive function, it is described in a certain topic. You exclude or include someone to a
speech that has been started already
- Expressive function, this happen in some societies where bilinguals live and have liked a
double or mixed identity. For example, there was a study of Spanish English code-
switching to American community in New York. These bilinguals switch from Spanish to
English, and English to Spanish because they want to show that they have mixed identity
- Fatic function refers to jokes basically. For example, someone narrate a joke in Moroccan
Arabic, and when he reaches the peak he switch to French to make more laugh
- The metalinguistic function, something we have mentioned, but here more or less. This is
when a speaker shift from one language to another in order to show he has linguistic
mastery and skills in different languages
- Emotionally involved, especially talking about high variety and low variety. For example,
when you are very furious and you want to abuse you shift to the mother tongue
 In a word, code-switching can be from different reasons or functions
Borrowing
 The majority of linguists tend to agree that loanwords or borrowing are words which are
taken from one language and used by another (1950, Thomason & Kaufman 1988, Heath in
Methrie 2001, Myers-Scotton 2006).
 Borrowing is ‘the incorporation of foreign features into a group’s native language by speakers
of that language: the native language is maintained but is changed by the addition of
incorporated features ‘. (Thomason & Kaufman in Myers-Scotton 2002: 236).
 The distinction between loanwords and borrowing: Haugen defines borrowing as ‘the
attempted reproduction in one language of patterns previously found in another’ (Haugen
1950: 212) and states that loanwords are only one type of borrowing.
 Heath suggests that borrowing is a stem and not a complete lexical item or in other cases it
can be more than that, it can even constitute a full phrase, whereas loanwords are always
single words (Heath in Mesthrie 2001: 432).
 The types of loanwords: are cultural of loanwords and core borrowing
 Cultural borrowings constitute words which express concepts that do not exist in the lexicon
of the recipient language. Many of them are lexical elements related to technology and
science and in some cases they can even constitute new words for the donor language as
well.
 Core borrowings are not new words, but words that are already expressed by an equivalent
lexical item in the recipient language. (Myers-Scotton 2006: 215-7).
 Loanwords mean borrowed words for example French rouge borrowed into English or salon
from French to Moroccan Arabic (salon).
 Loan blends in which all or part of the native language phoneme may be used in the
borrowed items. It also includes such hybrids OR Blended compounds as in Moroccan Arabic
(sbikology).
 Loan shifts result in words with new meaning. Example: phantasie becomes (fentazia) in
Moroccan Arabic may mean that someone is showing lack of respect. It is also known as loan
translations.
 How are words borrowed? Borrowed words are usually remodeled to fit the
phonological and morphological structure of the borrowing language. It is also called
the adaptation of foreign sounds in borrowed words which do not exist in the receiving
language, so it is replaced by the nearest equivalent to it in the borrowing language. For
exemple (valise= baliza).
 Examples of borrowed words from French to Moroccan Arabic:
 Chocolat : sheklat
 Sandale : sandala
 Automobile : tonobil
 Cravate : grafata
 Valise : balisa
 Raclette : karrata
 Bidon : bidou
 Sachet : sashiya
 Fantasie : fentazia
 The effect of bilingualism on identity and personality in development
 Generally bilingualism is believed to be a native factor in personality development
 Bilinguals generally are expected to experience or undergo some conflict of values
and conflict of identities
 When you acquire a language, you also acquire its culture
 Consciously or unconsciously you learn that culture
 No wonder to think that bilinguals are expected to experience kind of conflict
between values. If a language bears the culture of a given society then you may
expect a bilingual to experience a kind of conflict
 For example, you went to France and you made a kind of relationship with someone
over there. You have to make choice because in our culture we have the notion of
obedience to parents……many things that culture values for us are deeply, and those
who are there and want to marry they come across kind of conflict. The question
that bother these lovers are they going to follow their parents culture aspect or are
they going to think the way that French girlfriend/ boyfriend. Here you may
experience kind of conflict of values loyalty
 Apple and Misken p113 “bilingual may experience to cause emotional ability and
even alienation and anomie”
 Actually, this is a kind of claims that were common up to the 50s. This is typical of the
period before 60s. up to the 50s studies that were done shown that bilingualism
have a negative affect on personality development that it can cause this feeling of
orientation, confusion, bewilderment, and loss in anomie
 From the 60s, other studies have been done and they have to study bilingualism
using a certain number of social variable, and other factors that has given validity of
reliability to the result
 From 60s, there has been more positive appreciation of bilingualism and this has
been thanks to the fact that this studies, researchers have been aware of certain
social factors and, certain methodological factors that the earlier studies did not take
it into consideration
 Some socio economic factors were introduced kind of educational programme that
bilingualism assumed that are exposed to, and methodologies has been used
 Are bilinguals educated in a context where a transitional bilingual programme is used
or is it a monolingual context where a monolingual is used?
 In countries when you have a minority groups, some schools teach everything in the
host language. If you are in France for example; you are taught only in French or you
may have a minority school like in Netherlands where the students can learn a
transitional bilingual programme, which means the students are first the bilinguals
coming from different minority are taught some subjects like math and science in
their mother tongue, and later on the transition is made to Dutch, or you can learn
 everything in Dutch, or you can learn some subject in Moroccan Arabic for example,
and more subject later. Because when you learn this subject in your mother tongue
you will find it easier and then your language is taken into consideration, which a
salient part of identity, it is respected and given attention as speakers of Moroccan
Arabic, and you assimilate some skills in your mother tongue and later you move to
acquire others skills
 It depends on the programmes are used on what a kind of bilingualism your present,
subtractive or additive bilingualism, and also depends on the socio economic
background that you belong to
 One of the main serious problem that bilinguals may have is this anomie
 Bentahilas, p127 a feeling is “ a feeling of personal of disorientation, anxiety and
social isolation”
 One of the best studies is this regard is Chain 1943; he studied the children of Italian emigrant to
New York. Basically adolescence children of Italian emigrants to New York. He found that these
adolescent bilinguals Italian American showed symptoms’ of bewilderment, frustration, a conflict
of loyalty and aspiration between the home language ( Italian orientation) and outside world
American)
 Sharp, explained “the bilingual’s two languages give him access consciously or unconsciously to
two cultures, which may in general be very similar, or very dissimilar. Though however similar
they may be there will be differences which in many cases will cause conflict of loyalty”p:77
 Chain, identify three groups, the first group is we draw from the entire home environment into
outside world environment. That is to say, they made choice. Secondly, either mother tongue
culture or they prefer the host culture and language that is associated with. Thirdly, they draw
from thinking in either, they decided not to think in ethnic terms
 All these approaches to who you are lead to a confusion of identity
 Bentahils “the result of inability to work out some solution to the conflict demands imposed by
the presence of the two cultures”
 When you are unable to reconcile the two cultures and values then you go into psychological
problems which is anomie
 Lamberd 1977, reviewing in studying of Chain. He says that this psychological problems happen
when the bilingual is exposed to subtractive bilingualism
 Gardner and Lamberd 1972, in this book they studied French American in communities in New
England and Wizyama. They identify the three group that Chain identified already, but it
interestingly they find a fourth group, who manage to be both successfully. They succeed to be
both American French. These groups according to Gardner and Lamberd, were aware of the
social usefulness of knowing French, which was given support to their French
 This clearly implies that, these groups didn’t show any symptoms of anomie. they show
symptoms of being confused because they have parents support
 According to Lambard, he showed that identities “need not be disturbed”
 Apple and Misken, say that “bilingualism is not a causal, but only an intervening variable,
mediating the influence of social factors”p:130
 to sum up, bilingualism may have departmental effect when social conditions are favorable
 The socio psychological problem that migrants workers are their families experience in Western
Europe. So, research has found that some of these migrants workers have been found that
presenting symptoms of psychological problems. The adolescence shows at school violence,
because migrant’s language and culture is not appreciated. At school their languages are not
taken in consideration