Review: Modulation

A sine wave carrier can be modulated by varying its

amplitude, frequency, or phase shift.
Basic equation for a carrier wave:
v = Vc sin(2π ft ± θ)
Where: Vc = peak amplitude
f = frequency
θ = phase angle

It is important to remember that in all types of modulation, it is the

amplitude of the modulating signal that varies the carrier wave.
Amplitude Modulation The baseband information signal called the
modulating signal varies the amplitude of
the higher-frequency carrier signal.
 Two-thirds of the transmitted power is in the carrier.
 Real information is contained within the sideband.
 Suppressing the carrier and eliminating one sideband
improve the efficiency of AM.

Single-Sideband
 DSBSC or DSB: benefit – no power is wasted on
the carrier
 Single-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSSC or SSB)
Amplitude Modulation
SSSC or SSB:
a. Conserves spectrum space
b. Produces stronger signal
c. Amount of noise in the signal is reduced ----
narrower bandwidth
d. Less selective fading
Disadvantage of DSB and SSB:
- harder to recover or demodulate information at the
receiver
Demodulation depends upon the carrier present in the received signal at
the receiver. If the carrier is not present, carrier has to be regenerated at
the receiver so a complex circuitry is required.
Amplitude Modulation
Modulating Wave

Carrier

Modulated Wave
Angle Modulation
 Impressing an information signal on a carrier by
changing its frequency produces FM.
 Varying the amount of phase shift that a carrier
experiences is known as phase modulation (PM).
 Varying the phase shift of a carrier also produces FM.

FM and PM are collectively referred to as Angle

Modulation.
Since FM is generally superior in performance to AM, it is
widely used in many areas of communication electronics.
Angle Modulation
FM:
- used extensively for radio broadcasting
- used for sound signal in television, for two-way
fixed and mobile radio systems
PM:
- used extensively in data communications

Most important advantage of FM or PM over AM is

the possibility of a greatly improved signal-to-noise
ratio.
 The carrier amplitude remains constant and the
carrier frequency is changed by the modulating
signal
 As the amplitude of the information signal varies,
the carrier frequency shifts proportionately.
As the modulating signal amplitude increases, the
carrier frequency increases. If the amplitude of the
modulating signal decreases, the carrier frequency
decreases.
The amount of change in carrier frequency produced
by the modulating signal is known as the frequency
deviation (fd or δ).
Maximum frequency deviation occurs at the maximum
amplitude of the modulating signal.

The frequency of the modulating signal determines the

frequency deviation rate, or how many times per
second the carrier frequency deviates above and below
its center frequency.
(a) Carrier
(b) Modulating signal
(c) FM signal

With no modulating signal

applied, the carrier frequency is
a constant-amplitude sine wave
at its normal resting frequency.
(a) Carrier
(b) Modulating signal
(c) FM signal

As the sine wave goes positive,

the frequency of the carrier
increases proportionately.

The highest frequency occurs at

the peak amplitude of the
modulating signal.
(a) Carrier
(b) Modulating signal
(c) FM signal

As the modulating signal amplitude

decreases, the carrier frequency
decreases.

When the modulating signal is at

zero amplitude, the carrier is at its
center frequency point.
(a) Carrier
(b) Modulating signal
(c) FM signal

When the modulating signal goes

negative, the carrier frequency
decreases.

It continues to decrease until the

peak of the negative half-cycle of
the modulating sine wave is
reached.

As the modulating signal increases

toward zero, the carrier frequency
again increases.
Example 1:
A transmitter operates on a frequency of 915 MHz. The
maximum FM deviation is 612.5 kHz. What are the
maximum and minimum frequencies that occur during
modulation?
915 MHz = 915,000 kHz
Max deviation = 915,000 kHz + 12.5 kHz = 915,012.5 kHz
Min deviation = 915,000 kHz - 12.5 kHz = 914,987.5 kHz
 Modulation will cause the signal frequency to vary or deviate
from its resting value. If the modulation system is properly
designed, this deviation will be proportional to the amplitude of
the modulating signal. (Linear Modulation)
vm
kf is the slope of the line and it
represents the deviation
sensitivity of modulator(Hz/V) Δf
Slope = = kf
vm
Δf

Δf = instantaneous frequency deviation

vm = modulating voltage as function of time
 Where:
kf = modulator deviation constant
Δf = instantaneous frequency deviation
vm(t) = modulating voltage as function of time (V)
Equation for the δ = peak frequency deviation (Hz)
signal frequency as a Vm = peak value of modulating voltage (V)
function of time:

fsig(t) = fc + kf vm(t) vm(t) = Vm sin ωmt

fsig(t) = fc + kfVm sin ωmt δ = kfVm

fsig(t) = fc + δ sin ωmt

Modulation Index (mf)
- the ratio of the frequency deviation to the
modulating frequency
δ
mf =
fm

fsig(t) = fc + δ sin ωmt

fsig(t) = fc + mffm sin ωmt
Problems:
1. An FM modulator has a kf = 30 kHz/V and operates at a
carrier frequency of 175 MHz. Find the output
frequency for an instantaneous value of the
modulating signal equal to 150 mV.
2. The same FM modulator as in previous example is
modulated by a 3 V sine wave. Calculate the deviation.
3. An FM broadcast transmitter operates at its maximum
deviation of 75 kHz. Find the modulation index for a
sinusoidal modulating signal with a frequency of 50 Hz.