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π E=<?A.;A<2D6@A2;292:2;A<@2;291<:6;6<.9<@0B.92@;<@292@2@AH.@64;.;1<
;6;4M;:62:/?<1290<;7B;A<129924.1.0<:<. π @24B;1<>B2;<A<1.=2?@<V
;.A62;2567<@E.12:H@@69<@ABC62?.=B212A2;2?:H@12B;<6;0B:=96I;1<@229
?2>B6@6A<12B;6061.1EA2?02?<>B22@=<@6/92>B2B;2@AB16.;A21269<@<3J.;<
5.E..=?</.1<.M;;6;4B;.:.A2?6.<=<?290<;A?.?6<:H@12B;.6;0B??62;1<2;
9<:6@:<>B229272:=9<.;A2?6<?
>BJ2:=92.?2:<@B;A6=<2@=206.9123B;06<;2@>B299.:.?2:<@RP%09%'-32)7S
=.?.1<A.?12@64;6T0.1<.9.@2D=?2@6<;2@12 .@64;.;1<.0.1.3L?:B9.122@A2
92;4B.72B;M;60<C.9<? 1 L 0 9C.9<? 1 ?2=?2@2;A.?H9.C2?1.1E29C.9<? 0 9.3.9V
@21.1 G@2@2?HA<1<29@64;6T0.1<>B2.@64;.?2:<@.9.@2D=?2@6<;2@12 =<?1<@
?.F<;2@ ;=?6:2?9B4.?=<?>B2T7.;1<0<:<</72A6C<29.;H96@6@129.C.9612F129<@
.?4B:2;A<@E9.;202@.?621.1129.@=?<=<@606<;2@52:<@.0<?1.1<>B2A.;A<B;.
V
0<:<<A?.@23B;1.2D09B@6C.:2;A22;9.A?.;@:6@6L;12C2?1.1E2;9.6:=<@6/696V
1.1123.9@21.1?2@=20A6C.:2;A2 - 2;@24B;1<9B4.?=<?>B252:<@612;A6T0.1<

8/57
 

 G !  ! F   
0<:<M;60.@0.B@.;A2@129.C.9612FE9.;202@.?621.12;A2;161.@2;2@A<@AI?:6;<@
.062?A.@2D=?2@6<;2@C2?6A.A6C<V3B;06<;.92@>B212;<:6;.:<@R0<;20A6C.@9L460.@S p p p p p p p ...
<;@20B2;A2:2;A2=.?..90.;F.?;B2@A?<</72A6C</.@A..@64;.?C2?1.1<3.9@21.1 V1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ...
.0.1.B;.129.@2D=?2@6<;2@12  ?20B2;A2:2;A25./9.?2:<@126;A2?=?2A.06<;2@ V2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ...
12  2;AI?:6;<@12C.9B.06<;2@EC602C2?@. V3 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 ...
V4 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 ...
!.@C.9B.06L;2@@<;=B2@3B;06<;2@>B2A62;2;=<?1<:6;6<.90<;7B;A<12A<1.@ V5 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 ...
9.@3L?:B9.@12 2@A<2@A<1.@9.@@20B2;06.@12@J:/<9<@>B2.BA<?6F.9.2T;6V ... ...
06L; E=<?0<1<:6;6<.90<;7B;A< {0, 1} #<0B.9>B62?3B;06L;>B20B:=9.0<;
2@A.0<;1606L;@2?H99.:.1.C.9B.06L; %<?272:=9<>B2?2:<@>B2@6B;.3<?:B9. A
</A62;229C.9<? 1 2;B;.6;A2?=?2A.06L; ¬A </A2;4.29C.9<? 0 !B24<1.?2:<@B;.
12T;606L;=?206@.>B26;16>B2>BI0<;1606<;2@12/20B:=96?B;.3B;06L;=.?.@2?
B;. P%09%'-CN
$8+'"'7+
 *;. P%09%'-CN 2@B;.3B;06L; V 0BE<1<:6;6<2@290<;7B;A<12
*;.C2F2@A./92061<29C.9<?>B2B;.C.9B.06L;.@64;..0.1.B;.129.@3L?:B9.@
.AL:60.@12 29?2@A<129.@3L?:B9.@A62;2;@BC.9<?12A2?:6;.1<126;:216.A< %<?
272:=9<1.1<>B29.C.9B.06L; V5 2@A.9>B2 V5 (p ) = 1A2;2:<@>B2 V5 (¬p ) = 0 -
0<:<A.:/6I; V5 (p ) = 0@./2:<@>B2 V5 (p → p ) = 0 !<:6@:<@B0212?H0<;
0B.9>B62?3L?:B9.:<920B9.?2;0B.9>B62?C.9B.06L;129.>B2@2=.:<@>BIC.9<?2@
.@64;..0.1.B;.129.@2D=?2@6<;2@.AL:60.@12  !B24<2D6@A2;6;T;6A.@12C.9B.V
3L?:B9.@12  1.1<=<?9.2T;606L; E@B0<1<:6;6< {0, 1} E.12:H@
06<;2@1.1.@=<?9<@16@A6;A<@C.9<?2@>B2=B212;A<:.?2@A2A6=<122D=?2@6<;2@5.E
0B:=920<;9.@@64B62;A2@0<;1606<;2@=.?.0B.92@>B62?.2D=?2@6<;2@ A E B 12
A.;A.@C.9B.06<;2@0<:<0<:/6;.06<;2@=<@6/92@12 0 E 1 2;@20B2;06.@6;T;6A.@ 

!..@<06.06L;12992;4B.72  =?2@2;A.1<2;290.=JAB9<.;A2?6<?0<;9.3.:696.12
 V (¬A) = 1 ⇔ V (A) = 0
3B;06<;2@>B252:<@99.:.1<C.9B.06<;2@=.?.@B6;A2?=?2A.06L;0<;@A6ABE29<>B2
 V (A → B) = 1 ⇔ V (A) = 0 < V (B) = 1 0<;<02:<@=<?RC+-'%63437-'-32%0SE5.0212  B;92;4B.72 4%6% 9.!L460.%?<=<@6V
06<;.9

9@2?3B;06<;2@9.@C.9B.06<;2@12/2;.@64;.?.0.1.292:2;A<1291<:6;6<2@
1206?.0.1.3L?:B9.12992;4B.72 B;<129<@1<@C.9<?2@ 0 L 1=2?<;B;0..:/<@ $8+'"'7+
  *;.C.9B.06L; V 0<;@A6ABE2B; 13()03 =.?.B;.3L?:B9. A 12  @6
;;B2@A?.920AB?.2@A<6:=960.>B20.1.2D=?2@6L;12  2@</62;C2?1.12?.</62; E@L9<@6 V (A) = 1 2:<1<.;H9<4<B;.C.9B.06L; V 0<;@A6ABE2B; 13()03
3.9@.E>B2;<2@=<@6/92>B2@2.9.@1<@0<@.@.9.C2F @A.0.?.0A2?J@A60.@20<;<02 =.?.B;0<;7B;A<122D=?2@6<;2@ Γ 12  @62:=?2E0B.;1< V (A) = 1 =.?.A<1<
=<?29;<:/?212R&-:%0)2'-%S A ∈ Γ 
(6/62;;<0B.9>B62?3B;06L;12 {x : x 2@B;.3L?:B9.12  } 2; {0, 1} 2@B;. 
@<M9A6:<6:=960.>B25.EA.;A.@C.9B.06<;2@0<:<;M:2?<@?2.92@ %.?.B;.612.42;2?.9@</?2
C.9B.06L;2D6@A2B;.6;T;61.1123B;06<;2@>B2@<;C.9B.06<;2@ E6:=<;2;2@V 0.?16;.961.12@26;T;6A<@121632?2;A2A.:.K<CI.@2B;A2?\]0.=JAB9<=.?H4?.3<
A?60A<@0<;1606<;.:62;A<@@</?29..@64;.06L;12C.9<?2@.9.@3L?:B9.@:<920B9.?2@ 
?20B2;A2:2;A29.=.9./?.R:<129<S@22:=92.=.?.:2;A.?0<@.@16C2?@.@ ;292@AB16<129.@
(6;2:/.?4<;.1.1602;@</?29.@2D=?2@6<;2@.AL:60.@12  !.@C.9B.06<;2@A62V =?<=621.12@:2A.A2L?60.@129.!L460.12%?2160.1<@12=?6:2?<?12;E129L460.@12<?12;@B=2?6<?
@B29299.:.?@2R:<129<S..>B299.2@A?B0AB?.>B25.0229A?./.7<129.@C.9B.06<;2@2;9.!L460.%?<=<V
;2;A<A.996/2?A.10<;?2@=20A<.9.@M9A6:.@ "62;A?.@B;.C.9B.06L;99.:I:<@9.RV1 S
@606<;.92@A<2@>B26;A2?=?2A.29C<0./B9.?6<;<9L460<129.@2D=?2@6<;2@12992;4B.72 #<</@A.;A2
.@64;.29C.9<? 1 .A<1.@9.@3L?:B9.@.AL:60.@<A?.RV2 S=B212.@64;.? 0 .0.1.B;. 2@B@B.9A.:/6I;2:=92.?29:6@:<AI?:6;<2;29@2;A61<129.2T;06L; =.?.?232?6?@2.B;.12
12299.@EB;.A2?02?.RV3 S=<1?J..@64;.? 1 .9.@2D=?2@6<;2@.AL:60.@0<;B;;M:2?< 2@A.@2@A?B0AB?.@2;?29.06L;0<;B;.3L?:B9.<0<;7B;A<123L?:B9.@B;.2@A?B0AB?.6;A2?=?2A.A6C.
6:=.?12  E 0 ..>B299.@0<;B;.0.;A61.1=.?0<:<:B2@A?.9.@64B62;A2A./9. Z<:<129<[2@B;:<129<12B;.3L?:B9.<0<;7B;A<123L?:B9.@@6E@L9<@69.3L?:B9.<290<;7B;A<
123L?:B9.@@<;C2?1.12?<@12.0B2?1<0<;1605.2@A?B0AB?.
 @6:=<?A.;A2?20<;<02?2;0.1.0.@<29@2;A61<2;290B.99.2D=?2@6L;2@BA696F.1. ;2@A2A2DA<
V : {x : x 2@B;.3L?:B9.12  } → {0, 1}
9.B@.?2:<@M;60.:2;A22;2@A2M9A6:<@2;A61<=B2@;<@96:6A.?2:<@.92@AB16<129.!L460.%?<=<@6V
(6 A 2@B;.2D=?2@6L;12 2@0?6/6:<@ V (A) = 1 @69.C.9B.06L; V .@64;. 1 .9.3L?:B9.E
V (A) = 0 @692.@64;. 0 06<;.91<;129.@6;A2?=?2A.06<;2@129<@@J:/<9<@;<9L460<@12992;4B.72@212;<:6;.;RC.9B.06<;2@S
;<R:<129<@S

9/57
 
 G !  ! F   
!B24<B;:<129<=.?.B;.3L?:B9.2@B;.C.9B.06L;2;9.0B.99.3L?:B9.2@
C2?1.12?. %<?272:=9<1206:<@>B2 V3 =?2@2;A.1.2;;B2@A?.A./9.2@B;:<129< !B24<1206:<@=<?272:=9<>B2 p 2@0<;@20B2;06.@2:H;A60.12 {(p → p ), p }
=.?. ¬(p → p )=B2@ V3 (p ) = 1 E V3 (p ) = 0 E=<? V3 (p → p ) = 0 E=<? =B2@B;.C.9B.06L;>B2.@64;. 1 A.;A<. (p → p ) 0<:<. p 12/2.@64;.?</62; 1
V3 (¬(p → p )) = 1 . p E 1 . p </62; 0 . p E 1 . p 2;C6@A.129.09HB@B9.129.2T;606L;  !.
M9A6:.<=06L;2@6;C6./92=B2@9.@C.9B.06<;2@=B212;.@64;.?M;60.:2;A2B;C.9<?.
0.1.2D=?2@6L;12  E=<?A.;A<;B2@A?.C.9B.06L;12/2.@64;.? 1 . p 0<:<=6129.
$8+'"'7+

 *;.3L?:B9. A <0<;7B;A< Γ 123L?:B9.@12  2@ 7%8-7*%'-&0L @6E 2T;606L; 
@L9<@6A62;2B;:<129<<9<>B22@9<:6@:<2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L;>B2.@64;.
29C.9<? 1 . A <.0.1.B;<129<@292:2;A<@12 Γ@24M;0<??2@=<;1. (6I@2;<  0<;A6;B.06L;2;B;06.?2:<@E12:<@A?.?2:<@.94B;.@C2?1.12@@</?2RS/.V
2@290.@<5./9.:<@123L?:B9.@<0<;7B;A<@123L?:B9.@12  -27%8-7*%'-&0)7 @H;1<;<@2;9.@12T;606<;2@>B252:<@1.1<2;2@A20.=JAB9< (2.; A E B 3L?:B9.@
0B.92@>B62?.12  E Γ E Δ 0<;7B;A<@0B.92@>B62?.122D=?2@6<;2@12 
%.?.6;160.?>B2B;.C.9B.06L;.@64;. 1 .0.1.B;<129<@292:2;A<@12B;0<;7B;V
A<123L?:B9.@12  Γ2@0?6/6:<@RV (Γ) = 1S=<?0B2@A6<;2@120<:<161.1.=2@.? $0 0$,.$* 
 (6=.?.B;.C.9B.06L; V  V (A) = 1 E V (A → B) = 1 ⇒ V (B) =
12>B2 Γ ;<@2.B;.2D=?2@6L;12  E=<?A.;A<;<@2.B;:62:/?<1291<:6;6<12 1
B;.3B;06L;C.9B.06L;
69)&% (6=.?.B;.C.9B.06L; V  V (A) = 1 E V (A → B) = 1
206:<@2;A<;02@>B2 Γ = {¬p , p , p } 2@@.A6@3.06/92=B2@2;0<;A?.:<@.9 ⇒ V (A) = 1 EZV (A) = 0 < V (B) = 1[ Z23  [
:2;<@B;.C.9B.06L; V4 2;;B2@A?.A./9.>B2.@64;. 1 .0.1.B;<12@B@:62:/?<@
⇒ V (A) = 1 E V (B) = 1
⇒ V (B) = 1  
$8+'"'7+
 *;.3L?:B9. A 12  2@ 0C+-'%1)28)  :@0-(% < 8%9830C+-'% @6E@L9<@6
A<1.C.9B.06L;.@64;.29C.9<? 1 . A @0?6/6:<@R AS
$0 0$,.$* 
  (6  A E  (A → B) ⇒  B
%<?272:=9< (p → p ) 2@9L460.:2;A2CH961.E.>B20B.9>B62?C.9B.06L; V 2@ 69)&% (6  A E  (A → B)
A.9>B2 V (p ) = 0 < V (p ) = 1 =B2@9.@C.9B.06<;2@@<;3B;06<;2@0BE<0<;7B;A<12 ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (A) = 1 E V (A → B) = 1 Z23  [
9924.1.2@ {0, 1}E=<?9.09HB@B9.129.2T;606L; 0B.9>B62?C.9B.06L; V 2@A.9
>B2 V (p → p ) = 1 ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (A) = 1 EZV (A) = 0 < V (B) = 1[ Z23  [
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (A) = 1 E V (B) = 1
$8+'"'7+
 *;.3L?:B9. A 12  2@ '327)'9)2'-%7)1@28-'% 12B;0<;7B;A< Γ ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (B) = 1 Z23  [
122D=?2@6<;2@12  @6E@L9<@6;<2D6@A2C.9B.06L;>B2.@64;2 1 .A<1<@9<@ ⇒  B Z23  [ 
292:2;A<@12 Γ E 0 . A >B6C.92;A2:2;A2A<1.C.9B.06L;>B2.@64;2 1 .A<1<@
9<@292:2;A<@12 Γ 1212/2.@64;.?A.:/6I; 1 . A @0?6/6:<@RΓ  AS
$0 0$,.$* 

 A  B ⇔  (A → B)
;0.@<12>B2 Γ 0<;A2;4.B;@<9<292:2;A<B;.M;60.2D=?2@6L; B 12 2@V 69)&% A  B
0?6/6?2:<@RB  AS2;9B4.?12R{B}  AS=<?@6:=96061.1 (62;0.:/6< Γ 2@29 ⇔ ;<2D6@A2C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (A) = 1 E V (B) = 0 Z23  [
0<;7B;A<C.0J<>B2;<A.:<@0<;9.92A?.4?624.:6;M@0B9.RφS.1<=A.?2:<@9.@6V ⇔ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (A) = 0 < V (B) = 1
4B62;A20<;C2;06L;16?2:<@>B2 A 2@0<;@20B2;06.@2:H;A60.1290<;7B;A<C.0J<

@62:=?2E0B.;1< @2.B;.3L?:B9.9L460.:2;A2CH961. %B2@@./2:<@>B2 V (A) = 0 < V (B) = 1=2?<.9:6@:<A62:=< V (A) = 1 E=<?A.;A<12/2:<@
>B21.?;<@0<;>B2 V (B) = 19.=?6:2?.<=06L;2@6;C6./92

>BJ52:<@.=960.1<9.?249.1296:6;.06L;129.<;7B;06L;.9.9J;2..;A2?6<?

φ  A ⇔  A %B2@A<1.C.9B.06L; V 2@A.9>B2 V (A) = 1 < V (A) = 0 (6 V (A) = 1=<?9.9J;2..;A2?6<?
@./2:<@>B2;<=B212@B0212?>B2 V (B) = 0 E=<?A.;A< V (B) = 1 !B24< V (B) = 1 < V (A) = 0
10/57
 
 G !  ! F   
⇔ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (A → B) = 1 Z23  [
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V ZV (Γ) = 1 ⇒ V (A) = 1 EZV (A) = 0 < V (B) = 1[[
⇔  (A → B) Z23  [  Z23  [
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V ZV (Γ) = 1 ⇒ V (A) = 1 E V (B) = 1[
$0 0$,.$* 
 A  A ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V ZV (Γ) = 1 ⇒ V (B) = 1[
69)&% <:<A<1.C.9B.06L;2@B;.3B;06L;;<2D6@A2 V A.9>B2 V (A) = 1 E ⇒ Γ  B Z23  [ 
V (A) = 0 ;A<;02@=<?9.2T;606L;  A  A 

$0 0$,.$* 
 (6  A ⇒ Γ  A
$0 0$,.$* 
 (6 Γ  A ⇒ Γ ∪ Δ  A
69)&% (6  A
69)&% (6 Γ  A
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (A) = 1 Z23  [
⇒ ;<2D6@A2C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Γ) = 1 E V (A) = 0 Z23  [
⇒ ;<2D6@A2C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (A) = 0
⇒ ;<2D6@A2C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Γ) = 1 E V (Δ) = 1 E V (A) = 0
⇒ ;<2D6@A2C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Γ) = 1 E V (A) = 0
⇒ ;<2D6@A2C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Γ ∪ Δ) = 1 E V (A) = 0
⇒ Γ  A Z23  [ 
⇒ Γ ∪ Δ  A Z23  [ 

$0 0$,.$* 
  (6 Γ  A E A  B ⇒ Γ  B
69)&% (6 Γ  A E A  B
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V ZV (Γ) = 1 ⇒ V (A) = 1[EZV (A) = 1 ⇒ V (B) = 1[
Z23  [
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V ZV (Γ) = 1 ⇒ V (B) = 1[
⇒ Γ  B Z23  [ 

$0 0$,.$* 
 (6 Γ  A E Γ  (A → B) ⇒ Γ  B
69)&% (6 Γ  A E Γ  (A → B)
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V ZV (Γ) = 1 ⇒ V (A) = 1[EZV (Γ) = 1 ⇒ V (A →
B) = 1[ Z23  [
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V ZV (Γ) = 1 ⇒ V (A) = 1 E V (A → B) = 1[

(6;<2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Γ) = 1 E V (A) = 0 A.:=<0<2D6@A6?HB;.C.9B.06L;>B2
5.4.2@<E.12:H@.@64;2 1 . Δ


(6;<2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Γ) = 1 E V (Δ) = 1 E V (A) = 0A.:=<0<2D6@A6?HB;.

C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Γ ∪ Δ) = 1 E V (A) = 0 =B2@@62D6@A62?.A2;1?J.:<@>B2 V .@64;.?J. 1 .A<1.@
9.@2D=?2@6<;2@12 Γ E.A<1.@9.@2D=?2@6<;2@12 Δ E. A E=<?2;12>B2 V (Γ) = 1 E V (Δ) = 1 E
V (A) = 00<;A?.16062;1<9.9J;2..;A2?6<?

>BJ52:<@.=960.1<29(69<46@:<6=<AIA60<.9.9J;2..;A2?6<?

11/57
 

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A?E>@>@DF
DBG>@DC?F
72?0606< 
($."'"',
 2:B2@A?2>B2=.?.0B.92@>B62?.3L?:B9.@ A B E C 12  E0B.92@V
>B62?.0<;7B;A<@ Γ E Δ 122D=?2@6<;2@122@A292;4B.72  (6  A
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (A) = 1 Z23  [
  A ⇒  (B → A) ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (B) = 0 < V (A) = 1
  ¬A ⇒  (A → B) ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (B → A) = 1 Z23  [
⇒  (B → A) Z23  [ 
 ¬B E  (A → B) ⇒  ¬A
 (6  ¬A
  A E  ¬B ⇒  ((A → B) → B)
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (¬A) = 1 Z23  [
  (A → B) E  (B → C) ⇒  (A → C) ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (A) = 0 Z23  [
 A  (B → C) E  (A → B) ⇒ A  C ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (A) = 0 < V (B) = 1
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (A → B) = 1 Z23  [
 A  B ⇔ ¬B  ¬A
⇒  (A → B) Z23  [ 
  (¬A → ¬B) ⇔  (B → A)
(6  ¬B E  (A → B)
  (¬B → ¬A) E  A ⇒  B ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (¬B) = 1 E V (A → B) = 1 Z23  [
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (B) = 0 EZV (A) = 0 < V (B) = 1[ Z23  E[

(6 Δ 2@6;@.A6@3.06/92E Δ ⊆ Γ ⇒ Γ 2@6;@.A6@3.06/92
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (B) = 0 E V (A) = 0
 (6 Γ ∪ {¬A} 2@6;@.A6@3.06/92 ⇒ Γ  A
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (A) = 0
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (¬A) = 1 Z23  [
($."'"',
  ;16>B2@69.@@64B62;A2@.T?:.06<;2@=.?.0B.92@>B62?.3L?:B9.@ A E ⇒  ¬A Z23  [ 
B 12  @<;C2?1.12?.@<3.9@.@E7B@A6T>B2@B?2@=B2@A.
 (6  A E  ¬B
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (A) = 1 E V (¬B) = 1 Z23  [
  (A → B) ⇔  ¬A E  B
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (A) = 1 E V (B) = 0 Z23  [
  (A → B) ⇔  ¬A <  B
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (A → B) = 0 Z23  [
A  ¬¬A E ¬¬A  A 
(./2:<@>B29.16@EB;06L; V (B) = 0 < V (A) = 1 2@C2?1.12?.=B2@12.;A2:.;<@./J.:<@
>B2B;<12@B@16@EB;A<@ V (A) = 19<2?. 2:<@.=960.1<2;A<;02@9.?249.12;A?<1B006L;129.
  ((A → B) → A) 6@EB;06L;.9.9J;2..;A2?6<?

%B2@@6 V (A) = 1 E V (B) = 00<:<6;160.9.9J;2..;A2?6<?@./2:<@>B2;6 V (A) = 0 ;6
  (A → (B → A)) V (B) = 1 E=<?A.;A<>B2;<2@062?A<>B2 V (A) = 0 < V (B) = 1 <;9<0B.9 V (A → B) = 1 E
9B24< V (A → B) = 0
12/57
 
 G !  ! F   
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (A → B) = 0 < V (B) = 1
⇔ ;<2D6@A2C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (¬A) = 0 E V (¬B) = 1 Z23  [
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V ((A → B) → B) = 1 Z23  [
⇔ ¬B  ¬A Z23  [ 
⇒  ((A → B) → B) Z23  [ 
  (¬A → ¬B)
 (6  (A → B) E  (B → C)
⇔ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (¬A → ¬B) = 1 Z23  [
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (A → B) = 1 E V (B → C) = 1 Z23  [
⇔ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (¬A) = 0 < V (¬B) = 1 Z23  [
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V ZV (A) = 0 < V (B) = 1[EZV (B) = 0 < V (C) = 1[
Z23  [\] ⇔ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (A) = 1 < V (B) = 0 Z23  [

(B=L;4.@2>B2  (A → C) ⇔ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (B → A) = 1 Z23  [

⇔  (B → A) Z23  [ 
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V  A.9>B2 V  (A → C) = 0 Z23  [
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V  A.9>B2 V  (A) = 1 E V  (C) = 0 Z23  [  (6  (¬B → ¬A) E  A
%<?\]ZV  (A) = 0 < V  (B) = 1[EZV  (B) = 0 < V  (C) = 1[ ⇒  (A → B) E  A Z72?  [

⇒ 0<:< V (A) = 12;9.=?6:2?.16@EB;06L;12/2:<@29246? V (B) = 1E  ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (A → B) = 1 E V (A) = 1 Z23  [
0<:< V  (C) = 02;9.@24B;1.A2;2:<@>B2 V  (B) = 09<0B.92@6:=<@6/92 ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V ZV (A) = 0 < V (B) = 1[E V (A) = 1 Z23  [
9./@B?1<=.?A6L12@B=<;2?>B2  (A → C) !B24<  (A → C)  
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (B) = 1 E V (A) = 1
 (6 A  (B → C) E  (A → B) ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (B) = 1
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V ZV (A) = 1 ⇒ V (B → C) = 1[E V (A → B) = 1 ⇒  B Z23  [ 
Z23  E [

(6 Δ 2@6;@.A6@3.06/92E Δ ⊆ Γ
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V ZV (A) = 1 ⇒ ZV (B) = 0 < V (C) = 1[[EZV (A) = 0
< V (B) = 1[ Z23  [\] ⇒ Γ = Γ ∪ Δ E;<2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Δ) = 1 Z23  [
(B=L;4.@2>B2 A  C ⇒ Γ = Γ ∪ Δ E;<2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Δ) = 1 E V (Γ) = 1
 
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (A) = 1 E V (C) = 0 
Z23  [ ⇒ Γ = Γ ∪ Δ E;<2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Γ ∪ Δ) = 1
%<?29=?6:2?0<;EB;A<12\]@./2:<@>B20<:< V  (A) = 1 V  (B) = 0 ⇒ ;<2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Γ ∪ Δ) = 1
< V  (C) = 1 -0<:< V  (C) = 0>B2 V  (B) = 0 12:H@=<?29@24B;1< ⇒ Γ ∪ Δ 2@6;@.A6@3.06/92 Z23  [ 
0<;EB;A<A2;2:<@>B2 V  (A) = 0 < V  (B) = 1 %2?<1.1<>B2 V  (A) = 1
12/2:<@.T?:.?>B2 V  (B) = 19<0B.92@B;./@B?1<=B2@52:<@1605<2;  (6 Γ ∪ {¬A} 2@6;@.A6@3.06/92
9.<?.06L;.;A2?6<?>B2 V  (B) = 0 9./@B?1<=.?A6L12@B=<;2?>B2 A  C ⇒ ;<2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Γ ∪ {¬A}) = 1 Z23  [
!B24< A  C 
⇒ ;<2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Γ) = 1 E V (¬A) = 1
 A  B ⇒ ;<2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Γ) = 1 E V (A) = 0 Z23  [
⇔ ;<2D6@A2C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (A) = 1 E V (B) = 0 Z23  [ ⇒ Γ  A Z23  [ 


%B2@A<>B22;\]@2.T?:..94<.02?0.12 83(%7 9.@C.9B.06<;2@E V  2@B;.12299.@=<12:<@ (./2:<@>B2 Γ = Γ ∪ Δ =B2@0<:< Δ 2@B;@B/0<;7B;A<12 ΓA<1<@@B@:62:/?<@E.2@AH;2;
1206?>B2.>B299<>B2@2.T?:.2;\]C.92A.:/6I;=.?. V  0B.9>B62?.@2.2@A.C.9B.06L; Γ !B24<6;0<?=<?H?@29<@;<.4?24.;.1.
 
#<A2:<@>B252:<@.=960.1<9.?249.12;A?<1B006L;129.#24.06L;=.?.0<;09B6?>B2  (A → <:<;<2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Δ) = 1 E V (Γ) = 1 =<?9.9J;2..;A2?6<?@./2:<@
C) >B2;<2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Γ ∪ Δ) = 1 =B2@@62D6@A62?.5.?J.C2?1.12?<@.A<1<@9<@
:62:/?<@12 Γ ∪ Δ E0<;@20B2;A2:2;A2.A<1<@9<@:62:/?<@12 Γ E.A<1<@9<@:62:/?<@12 Δ

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!.<A?.16?2006L;;<2@.02?A.1.=B2@=<?272:=9<2@062?A<>B2  (p → p )
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:6@:.09HB@B9.@./2:<@>B22@.C.9B.06L;.@64;.?H 0 . ((A → B) → A)
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B)>B22?.;T;6A.@Z66[0.1.B;<12@B@:62:/?<@2@</62;B;.D6<:.</62;
B;:62:/?<12 Γ </62;B;.0<;@20B2;06.=<?  121<@2D=?2@6<;2@.;A2V
?6<?2@=B2@A.;A< A1 , ..., An , A 0<:< B1 , ..., Bn , (A → B) 0B:=92;0<;2@<@
?2>B6@6A<@E B 2@B;.0<;@20B2;06.=<?  12 A E (A → B)1<@3L?:B9.@
.;A2?6<?2@EZ666[@BM9A6:.3L?:B9.2@ B
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.12?6C.06L;12 B .=.?A6?12 Γ Z23  [
⇒ Γ  B Z23  [ 
</62;B;.0<;@20B2;06.121<@.;A2?6<?2@=<? E9.M9A6:.2@ A Z23  [
⇔ 2D6@A2B;.A6?.T;6A.123L?:B9.@0.1.B;.129.@0B.92@2@</62;B;.D6<:.
</62;B;:62:/?<12 φ </62;B;.0<;@20B2;06.121<@.;A2?6<?2@=<? E
9.M9A6:.2@ A
⇔ 2D6@A2B;.12?6C.06L;12 A .=.?A6?12 φ Z23  [
⇔ φ  A Z23  [ 
 0<;A6;B.06L;2;B;06.?2:<@E=?</.?2:<@B;?2@B9A.1<99.:.1<R)8%8)36)1%
()0%)(9''-CNS T?:.>B2@6 Γ 2@B;0<;7B;A<0B.9>B62?.123L?:B9.@12  EA.;A<
A 0<:< B @<;2D=?2@6<;2@0B.92@>B62?.12.>B2992;4B.72@62:=?2>B22D6@A.B;.
12?6C.06L;12 B .=.?A6?12 Γ ∪ {A}2D6@A6?HB;.12?6C.06L;12 (A → B) .=.?A6?12
Γ
#202@6A.:<@=?</.?2@A22;B;06.1<=.?.A<1.3L?:B9. A=.?.A<1.3L?:B9. B E
=.?.A<1<0<;7B;A<123L?:B9.@ Γ 12  #<;<@2@=<@6/9212:<@A?.?9<12A2;6I;1<V
;<@2;0.1.B;.12299<@=B2@@<;6;T;6A<@ ;0<;@20B2;06.12/2?2:<@?20B??6?.9
%?6;06=6<12;1B006L;".A2:HA60.<:=92A. G@A22@B;A2<?2:.129<@@6@A2:.@
.D6<:HA60<@B@B.92@292461<@=.?.9..?6A:IA60.6 2 2@B;.=?<=621.1129<@;M:2?<@
;.AB?.92@>B2.T?:.9<@64B62;A2
$0 0$,.$*  (6  A ⇒ Γ  A
69)&%
(6  A
$8+'"'7+ 6-2'-4-3()2(9''-C2%8)1@8-'%3140)8% (6
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.12:<@A?.06L;12 A Z23 
[  1 A62;29.=?<=621.1 F Z4%73&%7L[E
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.A6?.T;6A.123L?:B9.@2;9.>B20.1.B;.2@</62;B;.D6<:.<  12@B=<;2?>B2A<1<@9<@;M:2?<@;.AB?.92@:2;<?2@>B2 m A62;2;9.
/62;B;.0<;@20B2;06.121<@2D=?2@6<;2@.;A2?6<?2@=<? E9.M9A6:.12 =?<=621.1 F @2@64B2>B2 m A.:/6I;9.A62;2Z4%73-2(9'8-:3[
9.@0B.92@2@ A Z23  [

%<?9.?249.12;A?<1B006L;129.6@EB;06L;

19/57



G !
 !   ! "   H 
2;A<;02@A<1<@9<@;M:2?<@;.AB?.92@A62;2;9.=?<=621.1 F
/62;.9.6;C2?@.29=?6;06=6<>B22@A./92022@A25205<2@292;B;06.1<:.A2:HA60<
;<A?.@=.9./?.@29=?6;06=6<2@AH1.1<=<?9.@64B62;A2.T?:.06L;0<;1606<V
>B20.=A.;B2@A?.6;AB606L;12>B229;M:2?<12=?21202@<?2@12B;;M:2?<;.AB?.9
;.9
2@T;6A<
Z(6 1 2@ F EZ@6A<1< m :2;<?. k 2@ F ⇒ k 2@ F [[ ⇒ A<1< n 2@ F Y%<?>BI29%?6;06=6<12;1B006L;".A2:HA60.<:=92A.;<@@6?C2.5<?.=.?.
12:<@A?.?29"2A.A2<?2:.129.21B006L;%<?>B25./9.?12;M:2?<@;.AB?.92@
=B212@2?MA69=.?.5./9.?12A<1<@9<@292:2;A<@12B;0<;7B;A<6;T;6A< ;2@A2
*;:<1<120<:=?2;12?:27<?2@A2=?6;06=6<2@2;.;.9<4J.0<;9.@T05.@12B;
0.@<12/2:<@=?</.?>B2=.?.0.1.12?6C.06L;12 B .=.?A6?12 Γ ∪ A 2D6@A2B;.12V
1<:6;LB/60.1.@B;.12A?H@129.<A?.0<:<2@B@B.9 '2@B9A.09.?<>B2@6
?6C.06L;12 (A → B) .=.?A6?12 Γ2@A<2@12/2:<@5./9.?12A<1.@9.@12?6C.06<;2@
12B;.3L?:B9..=.?A6?12<A?.@E@<;6;T;6A.@ *;:<1<125.02?9<2@.A?.CI@12
 @20.29.=?6:2?T05.5.06.129.;A2E
@B9<;46AB1 -) 129;M:2?<12=.@<@120.1.B;.12299.@>B2=<?9.2T;606L; 
 9.@T05.@2@AH;B/60.1.@12A.9:<1<>B2@65.;0.J1<5.06.129.;A2A<1.@9.@ 2@B;;M:2?<;.AB?.9 !.@2D=?2@6<;2@P=.?.A<1.12?6C.06L;12 B .=.?A6?12 Γ ∪ A
.;A2?6<?2@.B;.0B.9>B62?.E2;=.?A60B9.?9.6;:216.A.:2;A2.;A2?6<?2;V 2D6@A2B;.12?6C.06L;12 (A → B) .=.?A6?12 ΓQEP=.?.A<1<;M:2?<;.AB?.9 n@6
A<;02@I@A.0.2?H5.06.129.;A2A.:/6I;Z9.16@A.;06.2;A?29.@T05.@12/2@2? 9.12?6C.06L;12 B .=.?A6?12 Γ ∪ A A62;2 n =.@<@2;A<;02@2D6@A2B;.12?6C.06L;12
:2;<?>B29..9AB?.12.>B299.@[ (A → B) .=.?A6?12 ΓQ@<;2>B6C.92;A2@ ./9.?12A<1.@9.@12?6C.06<;2@0<;B;
;M:2?<;.AB?.90B.9>B62?.129<;46AB12@5./9.?12A<1.@9.@12?6C.06<;2@ 7-140-'-8)6
2;A<;02@A<1.@0.2?H; =B2@=<?9.2T;606L; B;.12?6C.06L;2;  @L9<=B212A2;2?B;;M:2?<;.AB?.9
ZT;6A<[12=.@<@
$A?<?.F<;.:62;A<6;A2?2@.;A2>B2.EB1..9.0<:=?2;@6L;129%?6;06=6<12;V
1B006L;16@0B??2129@64B62;A2:<1<@B=<;4.:<@>B2@20B:=92;9.@0<;1606<;2@ <;@20B2;A2:2;A2@6=?</.:<@>B2P=.?.A<1<;M:2?<;.AB?.9 n@69.12?6C.V
E1292;B;06.1<129%?6;06=6<29.;A20212;A2129..T?:.06L;0<;1606<;.9 Y@ 06L;12 B .=.?A6?12 Γ ∪ A A62;2 n =.@<@2;A<;02@2D6@A2B;.12?6C.06L;12 (A → B)
=<@6/92>B22D6@A.B;;M:2?<;.AB?.9>B2;<A2;4.9.=?<=621.1 F (B=<;4.:<@>B2 .=.?A6?12 ΓQ5./?2:<@=?</.1<29"2A.A2<?2:.129.21B006L; - =<12:<@5.V
@JE99.:2:<@RnS.2@2;M:2?< <:<@B02120<;A<1<;M:2?<;.AB?.9 n A62;2B; 02?9<BA696F.;1<29%?6;06=6<12;1B006L;".A2:HA60.<:=92A. ;=?6:2?9B4.?
;M:2?<T;6A<12=?21202@<?2@Zn2;2@A20.@<[2@1206?@6;<@@6AB.:<@2;B;.?20A. 12/2:<@12:<@A?.?>B29.=?<=621.1@20B:=92=.?.29;M:2?< 12@1206?=.?.
>B2?2=?2@2;A..9<@;M:2?<@;.AB?.92@12/2?2:<@?20<??2?@L9<B;;M:2?<T;6A< 0B.9>B62?12?6C.06L;12=.@<129<;46AB1 - 9B24<>B2120B:=96?@22@A.=?<=62V
120.@699.@5.06.9.6F>B62?1.=.?.9924.?.9 1 1.1=.?.0B.9>B62?12?6C.06L;129<;46AB1:2;<?.B;;M:2?<;.AB?.9.?/6A?.?6< k 
A.:/6I;@20B:=96?H=.?.A<1.12?6C.06L;129<;46AB1 k @J0<;A.?2:<@0<;29.;A2V
0212;A2129%?6;06=6<12;1B006L;E=<1?2:<@=<?2;12.T?:.?@B0<;@20B2;A29.
' $
' $
' $
' $
' $
' $
' $ =?<=621.1@20B:=92=.?.0B.9>B62?12?6C.06L;120B.9>B62?9<;46AB1T;6A. -) =.?.
? ? ? ? ? ? ? A<1.12?6C.06L;
-
1 2 3 4 5 6 ... n ...
$0 0$,.$*  "bo^obkmbi^abh^bap``esj (6 Γ ∪ {A}  B ⇒ Γ 
(A → B)
<:<@20B:=92 1 A62;29.=?<=621.1 F <:<@20B:=92EA<1<@9<@;MV 69)&%
%?<0212?2:<@=B2@.=960.;1<29%?6;06=6<12;1B006L;".A2:HA60.
:2?<@.;A2?6<?2@. 2 Z1[A62;2;9.=?<=621.1 2 A.:/6I;9.A62;2 ;A<;02@A<1<@9<@ <:=92A.@</?229;M:2?< n 12=.@<@>B2A62;29.12?6C.06L;12 B .=.?A6?12
=?21202@<?2@12 3 Z1 E 2[A62;2;9.=?<=621.1 F E=<?;B2C.:2;A2 3 A62;29.=?<V
=621.1A.:/6I; .1<>B22;A?2 1 E n 5.EM;60.:2;A2B;;M:2?<T;6A<12;M:2?<@
;.AB?.92@?2=6A62;1<2@A2=?<02@<B;;M:2?<T;6A<12C202@9924.?2:<@.>B2A<1<@
9<@=?21202@<?2@12 n A62;2;9.=?<=621.1 F E2;0<;@20B2;06. n A.:/6I; @A2?.V
F<;.:62;A<;<0<;@A6ABE2B;.12:<@A?.06L;129%?6;06=6<12;1B006L;@6;<:H@
20/57
Γ ∪ {A} B.9>B62?.@2. n:<@A?.?2:<@>B22D6@A2B;.12?6C.06L;12 (A → B)
.=.?A6?12 Γ
 /,! /$ &B2?2:<@C2?>B229:2A.A2<?2:.C.92=.?.12?6C.06<;2@12
9.?4< n = 1 -) >B2@62D6@A2B;.12?6C.06L;12 1 =.@<12 B .=.?A6?12
Γ ∪ {A} 2;A<;02@2D6@A2B;.12?6C.06L;12 (A → B) .=.?A6?12 Γ



G !
 !   ! "   H 
(69.12?6C.06L;12 B .=.?A6?12 Γ ∪ {A} 0<;@6@A212B;M;60<=.@<I@A2
2@AH0<;@A6AB61<=<? B ;A<;02@ B 12/2@2?</62;B;.D6<:.12 < 12?6C.06L;=<?  !<@A?2@=?6:2?<@@<;61I;A60<@.9<@129=.@</.@2
/62;B;:62:/?<12 Γ</62; A <;@612?2:<@0.1.B;<122@A<@A?2@ E;<5.E;202@61.112?2=2A6?9<@.>BJ <;@612?2:<@2;A<;02@290B.?A<
0.@<@ 0.@<
O %73 B 2@B;.D6<:.12  !B24<9.@64B62;A22@B;.12?6C.06L; O %73
 B 2@B;.0<;@20B2;06.=<?  121<@3L?:B9.@.;A2?6<?2@
12 (A → B) .=.?A6?12 Γ Ci E Cj 1<;12 i E j 6;160.;299B4.?>B22@A.@3L?:B9.@<0B=.;2;9.
12?6C.06L;12 B .=.?A6?12 Γ ∪ A E=<?2;12 i < k E j < k !B24<
 B D6<:.12 =<?56=LA2@6@
B;.12299.@12/2A2;2?3<?:.0<;1606<;.9A.9>B2@B.;A20212;A2
 (B → (A → B)) D6<:.=<? SP1 2@AH0<;@A6AB61<=<?9.<A?.E@B0<;@20B2;A2=<? B (6;=2?161.12

(A → B)   42;2?.961.116?2:<@>B2 Ci ≡ (Cj → B) ;A<;02@ Γ ∪ A  (Cj →
O %73 B ∈ Γ !B24<9.@64B62;A22@B;.12?6C.06L;12 (A → B) . B) E Γ ∪ A  Cj <:< i < k E j < k =<?56=LA2@6@6;1B0A6C.
=.?A6?12 Γ A2;2:<@>B2 Γ  (A → (Cj → B)) E Γ  (A → Cj ) !.@64B62;A22@
 B "62:/?<12 Γ=<?56=LA2@6@ B;.12?6C.06L;12 (A → B) .=.?A6?12 Γ
 (B → (A → B)) D6<:.=<? SP1  (A → (Cj → B))

(A → B)    (A → Cj )
O %73  A ≡ B %<?9<A.;A< (A → B) ≡ (A → A) !B24<9.@64B62;A2
((A → (Cj → B)) → ((A → Cj ) → (A → B))) D6<:.=<?
2@B;.12?6C.06L;12 (A → B) .=.?A6?12 Γ SP2
 (A → ((A → A) → A)) D6<:.=<? SP1  ((A → Cj ) → (A → B))  

 ((A → ((A → A) → A)) → ((A → (A → A)) → (A → A)))  (A → B)  
D6<:.=<? SP2

((A → (A → A)) → (A → A))   !B24<=<?29%?6;06=6<12;1B006L;".A2:HA60.<:=92A.A2;2:<@>B2
=.?.0B.9>B62?;.AB?.9 n@62D6@A2B;.12?6C.06L;12 B .=.?A6?12 Γ ∪ {A}
 (A → (A → A)) D6<:.=<? SP1
2; n =.@<@2;A<;02@ (A → B) 2@12?6C./9212 Γ <9<>B22@9<:6@:<@6
 (A → A) 
 Γ ∪ {A}  B 2;A<;02@ Γ  (A → B) 
 /,'+#1"0'2, &B2?2:<@C2?>B2@629:2A.A2<?2:.C.92=.?.12?6V
C.06<;2@129.?4<:2;<?.B;;M:2?<;.AB?.9.?/6A?.?6< k A.:/6I;C.92
=.?. k >B2?2:<@=?</.?29 '32(-'-32%0 >B25.029.@C202@12@24B;1<0<;V 9"2A.A2<?2:.129.21B006L;?2@B9A.@B:.:2;A2MA69.9.5<?.125.02?12V
EB;A<2;29.;A20212;A2129%?6;06=6<12;1B006L; !B24<=.?A6?2:<@ :<@A?.06<;2@E12?6C.06<;2@2;  (629</72A6C<2@12?6C.?B;.3L?:B9.0<;1606<;.9
129.;A20212;A2122@A20<;1606<;.99. ,-4C8)7-7-2(9'8-:%EA?.A.?2:<@ (A → B) .=.?A6?12B;0<;7B;A<122D=?2@6<;2@ Γ Z>B2/62;=B212@2?C.0J<2;0BE<
129924.?.0<;@20B2;A29. 8)7-7-2(9'8-:% 0.@<2@A.?2:<@A.:/6I;3?2;A2B;.12:<@A?.06L;[29"2A.A2<?2:.129.21B006L;
;<@=2?:6A2A2;2?. A 0<:<=?2:6@.2@A<2@:<@A?.?=?6:2?<>B2 Γ ∪ {A}  B E
-4C8)7-7-2(9'8-:%
(62D6@A2B;.12?6C.06L;12 B .=.?A6?12 Γ ∪ {A} 2;
9B24<.=960.;1<29:2A.A2<?2:.A2;2:<@>B2 Γ  (A → B)
B;;M:2?<12=.@<@:2;<?. k ⇒ Γ  (A → B)
)7-7-2(9'8-:%
(62D6@A2B;.12?6C.06L;12 B .=.?A6?12 Γ ∪ {A} 2;B; %.?.=?</.?9.BA6961.112.B:2;A.?29;M:2?<12=?2:6@.@C2.:<@29@64B62;A2
;M:2?< k 12=.@<@ ⇒ Γ  (A → B) 272:=9< 9B@A?.;1<9.;<06L;1212:<@A?.06L;6;A?<1B061.:216.;A29.2T;606L;
69)&%
(B=<;62;1<>B22D6@A2B;.12?6C.06L;12 B .=.?A6?12 Γ ∪ A
129<;46AB1 k >B2?2:<@=?</.?>B22D6@A2A.:/6I;B;.12?6C.06L;12
(A → B) .=.?A6?12 Γ D6@A2;.5<?.0B.A?<=<@6/6961.12@</62; B 2@
B;.D6<:.</62;B;:62:/?<12 Γ</62;2@9.:6@:.3L?:B9. A<
/62; B @2</A62;20<:<0<;@20B2;06.121<@3L?:B9.@.;A2?6<?2@2;9.
 52:<@12:<@A?.1<9.3L?:B9. (p → p )2@A<2@>B2  (p → p )E;<@5.A<:.1<
=.@<@ +2.:<@0L:<.=960.;1<29"2A.A2<?2:.129.21B006L;.5<??.:<@2;
A62:=<E2;0<:=92761.1 %?6:2?<12:<@A?.:<@>B2 φ ∪ {p }  p 
 p "62:/?<12 φ ∪ {p }

21/57
 

G !
 !   ! "   H 
- 9B24<.=960.:<@29"2A.A2<?2:.129.21B006L;</A2;62;1<>B2 φ  (p →
p )>B2=<?29"2A.A2<?2:. 6:=960.>B2  (p → p ) $8+'"'7+ *;.=.?.A<121B0A6C<2@ 7-140)1)28)  '327-78)28L @6E@L9<@6;<
2D6@A2B;.3L?:B9. A A.9>B2A.;A<299.0<:<@B;24.06L;@<;A2<?2:.@2;16V
!.16?2006L;0<;A?.?6.129:2A.A2<?2:.2@A.:/6I;C2?1.12?.E=<?9<A.;A<29 05<.=.?.A< ;0.:/6<B;.=.?.A<121B0A6C<2@ 7-140)1)28)  -2'327-78)28L
@64B62;A22;B;06.1<2@B;.@6:6@:<:2A.A2<?2:. @6@B02129<0<;A?.?6<
$0 0$,.$*  Γ ∪ {A}  B ⇔ Γ  (A → B) C612;A2:2;A2@L9<A62;2@2;A61<5./9.?129.0<;@6@A2;06.@6:=9212B;@6@A2:.
0B.;1<2992;4B.722;290B.92@AH2D=?2@.1<0<;A62;2B;@J:/<9<2;0BE.6;A2?=?2A.V
69)&% 06L;=?2A2;161.@20<:=<?A20<:<9.;24.06L; %<?299<<3?202?2:<@B;.12T;606L;
.9A2?;.A6C.120<;@6@A2;06..=960./9212;A?<120B.9>B62?.=.?.A<121B0A6C<0<;A2;V
⇒) ;C6?AB1129"2A.A2<?2:.129.21B006L; Γ ∪ {A}  B ⇒ Γ  (A → 4.<;<B;@J:/<9<=.?.9.;24.06L;
B) 
⇐) (6 Γ  (A → B) $8+'"'7+ *;.=.?.A<121B0A6C<2@ %&73098%1)28)  '327-78)28L @6E@L9<@62D6@A2
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.12?6C.06L;12 (A → B) .=.?A6?12 Γ Z23  [ .9:2;<@B;.3L?:B9.12992;4B.722;290B.91605<@6@A2:.2@AH3<?:B9.1<
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.A6?.T;6A.123L?:B9.@ A1 , ..., An , (A → B)0.1.B;.129.@ >B2;<2@B;A2<?2:.2;I9 90<;A?.?6<2@ %&73098%1)28)  -2'327-78)28L @6A<1.
0B.92@2@</62;B;.D6<:.</62;B;:62:/?<12 Γ </62;B;.0<;@2V 2D=?2@6L;122@292;4B.722@B;A2<?2:.@BE<
0B2;06.=<?  121<@3L?:B9.@.;A2?6<?2@ Z23
 [
%B2@A<>B2  0<;A62;2B;@J:/<9<0BE.6;A2?=?2A.06L;=?2A2;161.2@9.;24.V
⇒ 9.A6?. A1 , ..., An , (A → B), A, B 2@Z6[T;6A.=B2@A62;2M;60.:2;A2 06L;R¬S9.@;<06<;2@120<;@6@A2;06.@6:=92E0<;@6@A2;06../@<9BA.0<6;0612;=.?.
1<@=.@<@:H@>B2 A1 , ..., An , (A → B)>B22?.T;6A.Z66[0.1.B;.129.@ ;B2@A?<.=.?.A<121B0A6C<
0B.92@2@</62;B;.D6<:.</62;B;:62:/?<12 Γ ∪ {A}</62;B;.
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 V (A) = 1 V (B) = 0 E V (C) = 0
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 ?29.06<;2@120<;@20B2;06.@6;AH0A60.12 2;9B4.?12B;.M;60.2;0.1.0.@<9<0B.9@2?H124?.;
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25/57
 
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"<@A?.:<@>B2=.?.A<1.3L?:B9. A</62; A ∈ Γmax </62; Γmax ∪
6?2:<@>B229 291)6%0 12B;.3L?:B9.2@.>B29>B2@2</A62;2EBDA.=<;62;1<
{A} 2@6;0<;@6@A2;A2
9<@;B:2?.92@12@B@@J:/<9<@126F>B62?1..12?205. %<?272:=9<29;B:2?.9
129.3L?:B9. (p → p ) 2@ 1000001010010000101001001000000 22@A2:<1<
69)&%
0.1.3L?:B9.A2;1?HB;;B:2?.916@A6;A<.@<06.1<.299.
$?12;.:<@2;A<;02@9.@2D=?2@6<;2@12  12.0B2?1<0<;@B@;B:2?.92@12 < = .1<B;0<;7B;A<0<;@6@A2;A20B.9>B62?. ΓE S = A1 , A2 , ... 9.2;B:2V
:2;<?.:.E<? @A.2;B:2?.06L;2@2320A6C.=B2@.3L?:B9.@1632?2;A2@12  ?.06L;2320A6C.129.@3L?:B9.@12  2:=92.1.2;9.=?B2/.129"2A.A2<?2V
92@0<??2@=<;12;16C2?@<@;M:2?<@E2D6@A2B;:IA<1<2320A6C<=.?.2;0<;A?.? :.129.;B:2?.06L;12T;6:<@B;.@20B2;06.6;T;6A. S  = Γ0 , Γ1 , ..., Γn , ...
=.?.0B.9>B62?;M:2?< n9.3L?:B9.>B2@22;0B2;A?.2;299B4.? n 120<;7B;A<@0.1.C2F:H@4?.;12@ 129@64B62;A2:<1<
 9;B:2?.9:H@0560<2@290<??2@=<;162;A2.9.3L?:B9. p 2@1206? 10100 Γ0 = Γ
  =.?A6?12.99J@2C..C.;F.;1<12162F2;162F052>B2.;1<=.?.0.1. (6 Γn ∪ {An+1 } 2@6;0<;@6@A2;A2 ⇒ Γn+1 = Γn
;B:2?.9?2@B9A.;A2@60<??2@=<;12<;<.B;.3L?:B9.Z9.12T;606L;12 (6 Γn ∪ {An+1 } 2@0<;@6@A2;A2 ⇒ Γn+1 = Γn ∪ {An+1 }
3L?:B9./62;3<?:.1.12  ;<@1.B;:IA<1<2320A6C<=.?.@./2?@6B;. 
9@2? Γmax B;.2D=.;@6L;12 Γ@./2:<@>B22@A2M9A6:<2@AH6;09B61<2;29=?6:2?<<9<>B2
0.12;.12@J:/<9<@2@<;<B;.3L?:B9.[ (60<??2@=<;12@2.;<A.9.2DV 2@9<:6@:<2@B;@B/0<;7B;A<129=?6:2?<
=?2@6L;2;B;.96@A..0<;A6;B.06L;129.@.;A2?6<?2@5.@A.5./2?.;<A.1< 
<;P0.1.C2F:H@4?.;12@Q>B2?2:<@1206?>B2 Γ0 ⊆ Γ1 ⊆ ... ⊆ Γn ⊆ ...12:<1<>B22;
n 3L?:B9.@ ?2.961.1;<A62;2;=<?>BI@2?0.1.C2F:H@./.?0.A6C<@@6;<>B2=B212;@2?64B.92@.9<@>B29<@
=?20212;.B;>B2;<12@0.?A.?:62:/?<@

35/57
 
G !     F   $    ! " 
;AB6A6C.:2;A2=?<0212:<@=.?A62;1<12 Γ Z<12 Γ0 >B22@9<:6@:<[
EA<:.;1<9.=?6:2?.3L?:B9.12 S  A1 (62@=<@6/926;0<?=<?.?9.. Γ0 ⇒ Γk 2@6;0<;@6@A2;A2 Z23  [
@6;1.?0<;B;0<;7B;A<6;0<;@6@A2;A29..4?24.:<@</A2;62;1<290<;V %2?<E.=?</.:<@>B2=.?.A<1< n Γn 2@0<;@6@A2;A2 !924.:<@.B;
7B;A< Γ1 (6;<9<2@;<9.6;0<?=<?.:<@E1206:<@>B2 Γ1 = Γ '2=2V ./@B?1<>B2=.?A6L12@B=<;2?>B2 Γmax 2@6;0<;@6@A2;A2 !B24<2@
A6:<@9B24<29=?<0216:62;A<=.?A62;1<.5<?.12 Γ1 E=?24B;AH;1<;<@ 0<;@6@A2;A2
@69.6;0<?=<?.06L;12 A2 42;2?.6;0<;@6@A2;06.@2;2@A20<;7B;A< - .@J )<1.3L?:B9. A 2@A.9>B2</62; A ∈ Γmax </62;2D6@A2B;.3L?:B9.
@B02@6C.:2;A2 B 12  A.9>B2 Γmax ∪ {A}  B E Γmax ∪ {A}  ¬B
(2. Γmax 9.B;6L;12A<1<@9<@0<;7B;A<@129.@20B2;06. S  (2. A B;.3L?:B9.0B.9>B62?.E n 29;B:2?.912 A9.=<@606L;>B2
A62;22; S  0BE.2D6@A2;06.>B21.4.?.;A6F.1.=<?29"2A.A2<?2:.
<!= Γmax 2@B;0<;7B;A<:.D6:.90<;@6@A2;A2=B2@ 129.21B006L; ./2;1<@=<@6/6961.12@
@0<;@6@A2;A2 A ∈ Γmax < A ∈ / Γmax \]
%.?.A<1<;M:2?<;.AB?.9 n Γn 2@0<;@6@A2;A2 (6 A ∈ Γmax ⇒ A ∈ Γmax </62;2D6@A2B;.3L?:B9. B A.9>B2
O  /,! /$ &B2?2:<@C2?>B2 Γ0 2@0<;@6@A2;A29<0B.92@C2?V Γmax ∪ {A}  B E Γmax ∪ {A}  ¬B  \]
1.12?<=<?56=LA2@6@=B2@ Γ 9<2@  (6 A ∈/Γ
⇒ An ∈ / Γn 
O  /,'+#1"0'2, &B2?2:<@C2?>B2@6A<1< Γm 0<; m < k 2@
⇒ Γn−1 ∪ {An } 2@6;0<;@6@A2;A2 Z23 Γn 2;Z.[[
0<;@6@A2;A2A.:/6I; Γk 9<2@ !B24<A2;2:<@
⇒ =.?..94B;.3L?:B9. B  Γn−1 ∪ {An }  B E Γn−1 ∪ {An }  ¬B
-4C8)7-7-2(9'8-:% (6 m < k ⇒ Γm 2@0<;@6@A2;A2
Z23  [
)7-7-2(9'8-:% Γk 2@0<;@6@A2;A2
⇒ =.?..94B;.3L?:B9. B  Γmax ∪ {An }  B E Γmax ∪ {An }  ¬B
69)&% ./2;1<@=<@6/6961.12@Zk > 0E..;.96F.:<@290.@<2;
Z"2A  [
29>B2 k = 0 2;29=.@</.@2[12.0B2?1<0<;9.12T;606L;129.
⇒ =.?..94B;.3L?:B9. B  Γmax ∪ {A}  B E Γmax ∪ {A}  ¬B
@20B2;06. S  >B216:<@2;Z.[
%<?A.;A<@6 A ∈ / Γmax ⇒ =.?..94B;.3L?:B9. B  Γmax ∪ {A}  B E
◦ %73 Γk = Γk−1 9<0B.96:=960.>B2 Γk−1 ∪ {Ak } 2@6;0<;V Γmax ∪ {A}  ¬B 

@6@A2;A2 <:< k − 1 < k =<?56=LA2@6@6;1B0A6C. Γk−1 2@ ⇒ @6 A ∈/ Γmax ⇒ A ∈ Γmax <=.?..94B;.3L?:B9. B  Γmax ∪ {A} 
0<;@6@A2;A2E9B24< Γk A.:/6I;9<2@ B E Γmax ∪ {A}  ¬B \ ]
◦ %73 Γk = Γk−1 ∪ {Ak } @A<6:=960.>B2 Γk−1 ∪ {Ak } 2@ 2\]\]E\ ]A2;2:<@>B2 A ∈ Γmax <=.?..94B;.3L?:B9. B 
0<;@6@A2;A2=B2@.@J12T;6:<@ Γmax 2;Z.[E=<?9<A.;A< Γk Γmax ∪ {A}  B E Γmax ∪ {A}  ¬B 
A.:/6I;9<2@

;0<;@20B2;06.=<?29%?6;06=6<12;1B006L;A<1<@9<@0<;7B;A<@
129.@20B2;06. S  @<;0<;@6@A2;A2@
(B=<;4.:<@=<?./@B?1<=B2@>B2 Γmax 2@6;0<;@6@A2;A2 $0 0$,.$*  !bi^abbjgej (6 Γ 2@B;0<;7B;A<0<;@6@A2;A2123L?:B9.@
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.3L?:B9. A A.9>B2 Γmax  A E Γmax  ¬A Z23  [ ⇒ Γ 2@@.A6@3.06/92
⇒ 2D6@A2;12?6C.06<;2@12 A E12 ¬A .=.?A6?12 Γmax Z23  [
(2. Ak 9.3L?:B9.0<;29:.E<?;B:2?.9.@<06.1<129.@>B2.=.?202; 786%8)+-%()0%469)&%
2;2@A.@12?6C.06<;2@
⇒ Γk  A E Γk  ¬A Z23 Γn 2;Z.[[ < = :=92.;1<29"2A.A2<?2:.12!6;12;/.B:0<;@A?B6:<@B;0<;7B;A<
Γmax :.D6:.90<;@6@A2;A2.=.?A6?120B.9>B62?0<;7B;A< Γ 0<;@6@A2;A2

%.?A6:<@12 0 2;9B4.?1212 1 #<</@A.;A22@<;<.320A.9..=960./6961.1129%?6;06=6<12;1B0V

06L;".A2:HA60.<:=92A.E.>B2B;.C2?@6L;.9A2?;.A6C.129=?6;06=6<>B2=.?A.12 0 2@6:=960.1. %<?9.?249.12;A?<1B006L;129.6@EB;06L;

9L460.:2;A2=<?9.C2?@6L;>B2=?2@2;A.:<@2;290.=JAB9<.;A2?6<?9.0B.9=.?A212 1 .@A.;<A.?>B2 %B2@@62@ABC62?.2; Γn =<?@2?I@A2B;@B/0<;7B;A<12 ΓA.:/6I;@2?J.B;:62:/?<12 Γ

129=.@</.@2?29.A6C<. 0 E29=.@<6;1B0A6C<@26;T2?229=.@</.@2?29.A6C<. 1E9<@=.@<@6;1B0A6C<@ %B2@ Γmax ∪ Γn−1 ∪ {An } ≡ Γmax ∪ {An }E.>B2 Γn−1 2@AH6;09B61<2; Γmax ;<92.4?24.;.1.


12.:/<@=?6;06=6<@@<;61I;A60<@ %<?9.?249.129.;A?<1B006L;129<;1606<;.9:.A2?6.9

%<?B;..=960.06L;129.?249.1296:6;.06L;129.6@EB;06L;
36/57
 

G !     F   $    ! " 
<!= 2T;6:<@B;.C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2.@64;2 1 .A<1.3L?:B9.=2?A2;2062;A2
. Γmax E 0 .A<1.3L?:B9.;<=2?A2;2062;A2.2@A20<;7B;A< O %73 A ≡ (B → C)
⇒ B E C A62;2;:2;<@12 k 0<;20A6C.@
<"= %?</.:<@2@A<=<?;1B006L;@</?229;M:2?<120<;20A6C.@12 A>B2 ⇒ ZV (B) = 1 ⇔ B ∈ Γmax [EZV (C) = 1 ⇔ C ∈ Γmax [ \ ] Z6=
=.?.A<1.3L?:B9. A V (A) = 1 ⇔ A ∈ Γmax 6;1 [
⇒) (6 V (A) = 1
69)&%
⇒ V (B) = 0 < V (C) = 1 Z23   [
⇒B ∈ / Γmax < C ∈ Γmax \] Z\ ][
< = (6 Γ 2@B;0<;7B;A<0<;@6@A2;A2
(6 B ∈/ Γmax
⇒ 2D6@A2B;0<;7B;A<123L?:B9.@ Γmax :.D6:.90<;@6@A2;A2A.9>B2 Γ ⊆ ⇒ ¬B ∈ Γmax Z"2A  [
Γmax Z!6;12;/.B:[ ⇒ Γmax  ¬B Z72?   [
<!= (2. V B;.C.9B.06L;A.9>B2=.?.A<1.3L?:B9..AL:60. AZA ∈ Γmax ⇔ !.@64B62;A22@B;.12?6C.06L;12 (B → C) .=.?A6?12 Γmax 
V (A) = 1[  ¬B
 (¬B → (B → C)) ZC2?=?B2/.129"2A  [
<"= %.?.A<1< n@6 A A62;22D.0A.:2;A2 n 0<;20A6C.@ ⇒ ZV (A) = 1 ⇔ A ∈
(B → C)  
Γmax [=B2@
!B24< Γmax  A
 /,! /$ &B2?2:<@C2?>B2@6 A 2@B;.3L?:B9..AL:60.ZV (A) = ⇒ A ∈ Γmax Z"2A  [
1 ⇔ A ∈ Γmax [9<0B.92@C2?1.12?<2;C6@A.129.12T;606L;12 V %<?A.;A<@6 B ∈/ Γmax ⇒ A ∈ Γmax \]
1.1.2;Z/[ (6 C ∈ Γmax
 /,'+#1"0'2, &B2?2:<@C2?>B2@60B.9>B62?3L?:B9. A 0<;:2V ⇒ Γmax  C Z72?   [
;<@12 k 0<;20A6C.@ZV (A) = 1 ⇔ A ∈ Γmax [2;A<;02@ZV (B) = 1 ⇔ !.@64B62;A22@B;.12?6C.06L;12 (B → C) .=.?A6?12 Γmax 
B ∈ Γmax [=.?.0B.9>B62?3L?:B9. B 0<;2D.0A.:2;A2. k 0<;20A6C.@  C
!B24<A2;2:<@  E (C → (B → C)) ZSP1 [
-4C8)7-7-2(9'8-:% (6 A A62;2:2;<@12 k 0<;20A6C.@ZV (A) = 1 ⇔ (B → C)  
A ∈ Γmax [ !B24< Γmax  A
)7-7-2(9'8-:% (6 A A62;2 k 0<;20A6C.@ZV (A) = 1 ⇔ A ∈ Γmax [ ⇒ A ∈ Γmax Z"2A  [
69)&% (2. A B;.3L?:B9.0<; k 0<;20A6C.@Zk > 0=.?. k = 0 9< %<?A.;A<@6 C ∈ Γmax ⇒ A ∈ Γmax \]
=?</.:<@E.2;29=.@</.@2[ ./2;1<@=<@6/6961.12@>B2 A @2. 2\]\]E\]@./2:<@>B2 A ∈ Γmax
B;.;24.06L;<>B2@2.B;.3L?:B9.0<;1606<;.9 ⇐) (6 V (A) = 0
O %73 A ≡ ¬B ⇒ V (B) = 1 E V (C) = 0 Z23  [
⇒ ZV (A) = 1 ⇔ V (¬B) = 1[ ⇒ B ∈ Γmax E C ∈ / Γmax Z\ ][
⇒ ZV (A) = 1 ⇔ V (B) = 0[ \] Z23  [ ⇒ B ∈ Γmax E ¬C ∈ Γmax Z"2A  [
<:< B A62;2 k − 1 0<;20A6C.@ ⇒ Γmax  B E Γmax  ¬C Z72?   [
⇒ ZV (B) = 1 ⇔ B ∈ Γmax [ Z6= 6;1 [ !.@64B62;A22@B;.12?6C.06L;12 ¬A .=.?A6?12 Γmax 
⇒ ZV (B) = 1 ⇔ ¬B ∈ / Γmax [ Z"2A  [  B
⇒ ZV (B) = 0 ⇔ ¬B ∈ Γmax [  ¬C
⇒ ZV (B) = 0 ⇔ A ∈ Γmax [ \] (B → (¬C → ¬(B → C))) Z72?   [
⇒ ZV (A) = 1 ⇔ A ∈ Γmax [ Z\]E\][  (¬C → ¬(B → C))  
 ¬(B → C)  

%B2@@61<@.T?:.06<;2@@<;2>B6C.92;A2@2;2@A20.@< V (B) = 1 E ¬B ∈
/ Γmax @B@;24.06<;2@

V (B) = 0 E ¬B ∈ Γmax ?2@=20A6C.:2;A2A.:/6I;9<@<; %?</.?2:<@29/60<;1606<;.9RV (A) = 1 ⇔ A ∈ Γmax S=<?=.?A2@0<:2;F.;1<=<?9.16?2006L;
6F>B62?1.V12?205.E@64B62;1<=<?9.0<;A?.?6.

37/57
 
G !     F   $    ! " 
!B24< Γmax  ¬A (B=<;4.:<@=<?./@B?1<>B2 Γmax  A
;2@20.@< Γmax @2?J.6;0<;@6@A2;A2.9.9BF129.2T;606L; ⇒φA Z<:=92A6AB1B2?A2[
 9<0B.952:<@1605<>B22@3.9@< !924.:<@=B2@.B;./V ⇒  A Z"2A  [ 
@B?1<>B2=.?A6L12@B=<;2?>B2 Γmax  A !B24< Γmax  A
<;@64B62;A2:2;A2(6 V (A) = 0 ⇒ Γmax  A0<;9<0B.9
=<?0<;A?.??20J=?<0<@6 Γmax  A ⇒ V (A) = 1 #<A2:<@>B22;C6?AB1129<@A2<?2:.@12<??2006L;E<:=92A6AB1B2?A2@
!B24<=<?29%?6;06=6<12;1B006L;".A2:HA60.<:=92A.=.?. 12 9.@;<06<;2@120<;@20B2;06.@2:H;A60.E0<;@20B2;06.@6;AH0A60.@<;2>B6V
A<1< AZV (A) = 1 ⇔ A ∈ Γmax [ C.92;A2@

$0 0$,.$*   Γ  A ⇔ Γ  A
69)&%
<
= $0 0$,.$*  (6 Γ ∪ {¬A} 2@6;0<;@6@A2;A2 ⇒ Γ  A
69)&% (6 Γ ∪ {¬A} 2@6;0<;@6@A2;A2 ⇒) (6 Γ  A
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.3L?:B9. B A.9>B2 Γ ∪ {¬A}  B E Γ ∪ {¬A}  ¬B Z23  [ ⇒ Γ  A Z<:=92A6AB1B2?A2[
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.3L?:B9. B A.9>B2 Γ  (¬A → B) E Γ  (¬A → ¬B) Z21B006L;[ ⇐) (6 Γ  A
!.@64B62;A22@B;.12?6C.06L;12 A .=.?A6?12 Γ ⇒ Γ  A Z<??2006L;B2?A2[
 (¬A → B)

 (¬A → ¬B)
((¬A → B) → ((¬A → ¬B) → ¬¬A)) Z72?   [
$0 0$,.$* 
 ejeopa (6 Γ  A ⇒ 2D6@A2B;0<;7B;A< Δ ⊆ ΓT;6A<A.9
 ((¬A → ¬B) → ¬¬A)   >B2 Δ  A
 ¬¬A  
69)&% (6 Γ  A
 (¬¬A → A) Z72?   [
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.12?6C.06L;12 A .=.?A6?12 Γ Z23  [
 A   
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.A6?.T;6A.122D=?2@6<;2@12 0.1.B;.129.@0B.92@2@</62;
B;.D6<:.12 </62;B;:62:/?<12 Γ</62;B;.0<;@20B2;06.6;:216.A.
$0 0$,.$*  kilhboeopapbmobab  (6 Γ  A ⇒ Γ  A 121<@3L?:B9.@.;A2?6<?2@=<? E9.M9A6:.2D=?2@6L;129.A6?.2@ A Z23
 [
69)&% (6 Γ  A
⇒ Γ ∪ {¬A} 2@6;@.A6@3.06/92 Z"2A  [ %B2@A<>B29.A6?.A62;2M;60.:2;A2B;;M:2?<T;6A<12=.@<@@L9<B;.0.;V
A61.1T;6A.12292:2;A<@12 Γ 5.;@61<2:=92.1<@2;299. (2. Δ 290<;7B;A<
⇒ Γ ∪ {¬A} 2@6;0<;@6@A2;A2 Z2;86;[ 12A<1<@9<@292:2;A<@12 Γ >B2.=.?202;.99J !B24<
⇒ Γ  A Z"2A  [  Δ ⊆ Γ E2D6@A2B;.A6?.T;6A.122D=?2@6<;2@12 0.1.B;.129.@0B.92@2@
</62;B;.D6<:.12 </62;B;:62:/?<12 Δ</62;B;.0<;@20B2;06.
$0 0$,.$*  kilhboeopaab  (6  A ⇒  A 6;:216.A.121<@3L?:B9.@.;A2?6<?2@=<? E9.M9A6:.2D=?2@6L;129.A6?.
2@ A
69)&%(6  A
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.12?6C.06L;12 A .=.?A6?12 Δ Z23  [
⇒φA Z"2A  [
⇒ Δ  A Z23  [ 
38/57
 
G !     F   $    ! " 
@A2:2A.A2<?2:.>B2@212?6C.16?20A.:2;A2129?2>B6@6A<12T;6AB112B;.
12?6C.06L;A62;2B;.;H9<4<@2:H;A60<0<;<061<0<:<R)8%8)36)1%()314%'-(%(S 12 =2?<;<2@2D.0A.:2;A29.:6@:. ;9.12:<@A?.06L;129!2:.122;86;
>B2.T?:.>B2@6B;.3L?:B9.2@0<;@20B2;06.@2:H;A60.12B;0<;7B;A<123L?:B9.@ 0<;@A?BJ.:<@B;. P%09%'-CN E:<@A?H/.:<@>B22@.C.9B.06L;.@64;./. 1 .A<1.@9.@
2;A<;02@A.:/6I;9<2@12B;@B/0<;7B;A<T;6A<12.>BI9 3L?:B9.@1290<;7B;A<E@L9<.299.@ ;2@A20.@<0<;@A?B6?2:<@B;. *92'-CN >B2
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;2?.961.1 !.=?6:2?.>B299.:.?2:<@P=?B2/.a Q;<@B=<;20<:=92A6AB10<;9<0B.9 2@A<M9A6:<?2>B62?2:B05<@=.@<@=2?<2@2;06.9:2;A2@2A?.A.129.:6@:.612.
=<1?H2DA2;12?@2.@6@A2:.@6;0<:=92A<@=2?<@24B6?H@B=<;62;1<B;.0.;A61.1;BV ?2=2A61.B;.E<A?.C2F@B=<;2:<@>B29.3B;06L;12T;61.;<@20<:=<?A.0<:<
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=2?<=<?@B0<:=92761.1;<C.:<@.=?2@2;A.?9.@.>BJ ?J.0<;A2;2?B;@B/0<;7B;A<T;6A<;<@.A6@3.06/929<0B.9=<?29:<1<2;>B23B2
0<;@A?B61<=?2@2?C.;1<9.@.A6@3.06/6961.112@B@@B/0<;7B;A<@T;6A<@2@6:=<@6/92
!.@24B;1.9.=?B2/.b @2C.92129.<:=92A6AB1B2?A212 >B2.@BC2F?20BV
??2.9"2A.A2<?2:.12;B:2?.06L; @A<>B62?21206?>B2@L9<=<1?H2DA2;12?@2.
@6@A2:.@>B2@2.;0<:=92A<@EA2;4.;M;60.:2;A2A.;A.@2D=?2@6<;2@0<:<;M:2?<@ 786%8)+-%+)2)6%0()0%469)&%a
;.AB?.92@0<:<2@290.@<12 

%.?.2912@.??<99<129.=?6:2?.=?B2/.129?2@B9A.1<12<:=.061.12@=?206@< <= %?</.?2:<@>B2A<1<0<;7B;A<T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/922@B;@B/0<;7B;A<12B;

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$8+'"'7+ *;0<;7B;A<122D=?2@6<;2@12  2@ E2-8%1)28)  7%8-7*%'-&0L @6E ;B:2?.?2:<@=?6:2?<A<1.@9.@3L?:B9.@12 

@L9<@6A<1<@@B@@B/0<;7B;A<@T;6A<@@<;@.A6@3.06/92@
2T;6?2:<@9B24<B;.@20B2;06.120<;7B;A<@ S ∗ = Γ0 , Γ1 , ...1<;12
Γ0 = Γ E0.1. Γn 2@29?2@B9A.1<126;0<?=<?.?9.2D=?2@6L;;B:2?.1.=<?
$8+'"'7+ *;0<;7B;A< Γ 122D=?2@6<;2@12  2@ 1%<-1%0  E2-8%1)28)  7%8-7I n . Γn−1 @65.06I;1<9<@2=?2@2?C.9.@.A6@3.06/6961.1T;6A.
*%'-&0L @6E@L9<@62@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92EA<1.3L?:B9. A 12992;4B.72
 =.?A6?129.B;6L;12A<1<@9<@0<;7B;A<@129.@20B2;06.</A2;1?2:<@
0B:=92.94B;.129.@@64B62;A2@1<@0<;1606<;2@
B;0<;7B;A< ΓM ax >B2=?</.?2:<@:.D6:.9T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92
 A ∈ Γ
 Γ ∪ {A} ;<2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 < = "<@A?.?2:<@>B2A<1<0<;7B;A<:.D6:.9T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/922@@.A6@3.06/92

2T;6?2:<@B;.3B;06L; V >B2.@64;. 1 .A<1<@9<@292:2;A<@12 ΓM ax

;H9<4.:2;A2.9.=?B2/.129"2A.A2<?2:.<:=92A6AB1B2?A212 2;9B4.?
12=?</.?29?2@B9A.1<12<:=.061.1=.?.A<1<0<;7B;A<T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 %?</.?2:<@>B2 V 2@B;.C.9B.06L;
0B.9>B62?.9<=?</.?2:<@=.?.A<1<0<;7B;A<:.D6:.9T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 "2V
16.;A2B;.2@A?.A246.@6:69.?.9.129!2:.12!6;12;/.B::<@A?.?2:<@>B2A<1<
0<;7B;A<T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 Γ 2@B;@B/0<;7B;A<12B;0<;7B;A<:.D6:.9T;6V %73%4%73
A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 ΓM ax %<?2;12@629:2A.A2<?2:.C.92=.?.2@A<@M9A6:<@C.91?H
A.:/6I;=.?.0B.9>B62? Γ T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 -.964B.9>B2.;A2@9<@0<;7B;A<@
:.D6:.92@A62;2;062?A.@=?<=621.12@>B2;<@=2?:6A6?H;?2.96F.?9.=?B2/. <= $0 0$,.$*  )<1<0<;7B;A<T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/922@B;@B/0<;7B;A<
12B;0<;7B;A<:.D6:.9T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92
.1<B;0<;7B;A<:.D6:.9T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/929.12:<@A?.06L;12@B@.V
A6@3.06/6961.12@A.:/6I;@6:69.?.9.2:=92.1.2;290.@<129.<:=92A6AB1B2?A2
786%8)+-%()0%469)&%

39/57
 
G !     F   $    ! " 
< = *A696F.;1<29"2A.A2<?2:.12;B:2?.06L;12T;6:<@B;0<;7B;A<>B2
@2?HB;.2D=.;@6L;120B.9>B62?0<;7B;A<T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92122DV ◦ %73 Γk = Γk−1
=?2@6<;2@ ΓE>B2;<A.?2:<@PΓM ax Q  ⇒ Γk−1 2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 Z6= 6;1 [
⇒ Γk 2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92
<!= %?</.:<@>B2 ΓM ax 2@:.D6:.9T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92
!B24<2;0B.9>B62?0.@< Γk 2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92
%?</.:<@>B2 ΓM ax 2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92
(B=<;4.:<@=B2@>B2 ΓM ax ;<2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 !B24<
"<@A?.:<@>B2=.?.A<1.3L?:B9. A</62; A ∈ ΓM ax </62; ΓM ax ∪
B;<12@B@@B/0<;7B;A<@T;6A<@ Δ2@6;@.A6@3.06/92 (2. An 9.2D=?2V
{A} ;<2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92
@6L;12  A.9>B2@B;B:2?.9 n2@29:.E<?129<@;B:2?.92@129.@
69)&% 3L?:B9.@12 Δ Z>B22D6@A2=B2@ Δ 2@T;6A<[ !B24< Δ ⊆ Γn E=<?
A.;A< Γn ;<2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/929<0B.92@B;./@B?1<=B2@
< = (2. Γ B;0<;7B;A<T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92E S = A1 , A2 , ... 9.2;B:2?.V 52:<@=?</.1<9<0<;A?.?6< 9./@B?1<=.?A6L12@B=<;2?>B2 ΓM ax
06L;2320A6C.129.@3L?:B9.@12  >B2=?2@2;A.:<@2;9.=?B2/.129"2V ;<2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 ;0<;@20B2;06.9<2@
A.A2<?2:.129.;B:2?.06L; (2. S ∗ = Γ0 , Γ1 , ..., Γn , ... B;.@20B2;06. %.?.A<1.3L?:B9. A </62; A ∈ ΓM ax </62; ΓM ax ∪ {A} ;<2@
120<;7B;A<@0.1.C2F:H@./.?0.A6C<@A.9>B2 T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92
Γ0 = Γ (2. A B;.3L?:B9.0B.9>B62?.E n @B=<@606L;2; S
(6 Γn ∪ {An+1 } 2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 ⇒ Γn+1 = Γn ∪ {An+1 } A ∈ ΓM ax < A ∈ / ΓM ax \]
(6 Γn ∪ {An+1 } ;<2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 ⇒ Γn+1 = Γn (6 A ∈
/ ΓM ax
- @2. ΓM ax 9.B;6L;12A<1<@9<@0<;7B;A<@12 S  ⇒ An ∈ / Γn Z23 Γn 2;Z.[[
%<?2;12 Γ ⊆ ΓM ax ⇒ Γn−1 ∪ {An } ;<2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92Z23 Γn 2;Z.[[
⇒ 2D6@A2B; Δ ⊆ Γn−1 ∪ {An } T;6A<26;@.A6@3.06/92 Z23  [
<!= ΓM ax 2@12.0B2?1<0<;9.2T;606L; :.D6:.9T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06V ⇒ 2D6@A2B; Δ ⊆ ΓM ax ∪ {An } T;6A<26;@.A6@3.06/92
/92=B2@ ⇒ 2D6@A2B; Δ ⊆ ΓM ax ∪ {A} T;6A<26;@.A6@3.06/92
@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 ⇒ ΓM ax ∪ {A} ;<2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 Z23  [
(./2:<@=<?29%?6;06=6<12;1B006L;".A2:HA60.<:=92A.>B2 %<?A.;A<Z@6 A ∈
/ ΓM ax ⇒ ΓM ax ∪{A} ;<2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92[
=.?.A<1< n Γn 2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 \]
O  /,! /$ &B2?2:<@C2?>B2 Γ0 2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92E 2\]E\]</A2;2:<@>B2=.?.A<1.3L?:B9. A </62; A ∈ ΓM ax <
9<2@=B2@2@61I;A60<. Γ /62; ∪ {A} ;<2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92
ΓM ax
O  /,'+#1"0'2, &B2?2:<@C2?>B2@6A<1< Γm 0<; m < k 2@ 
T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 Γk 2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 ;A<;02@
A2;2:<@ < = $0 0$,.$*  )<1<0<;7B;A<:.D6:.9T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/922@@.A6@V
-4C8)7-7-2(9'8-:% (6 m < k ⇒ Γm 2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 3.06/92
)7-7-2(9'8-:% Γk 2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92Zk > 0=B2@2@A2 69)&% (2. ΓM ax B;0<;7B;A<:.D6:.9T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92E V B;.3B;06L;
0.@<E.3B22@AB16.1<2;29=.@</.@2[ 1290<;7B;A<122D=?2@6<;2@12  2; {0, 1} A.9>B2ZV (A) = 1 ⇔ A ∈ ΓM ax [ V
69)&% D6@A2;1<@=<@6/6961.12@12.0B2?1<0<;9.12T;606L; 2@B;.C.9B.06L;=B2@0B:=920<;9.@0<;1606<;2@E129.2T;606L; 
120.1. Γn 2@Z.[
◦ %73 Γk = Γk−1 ∪ {Ak } 9HB@B9.129.;24.06L; V (¬A) = 1 ⇔ V (A) = 0
⇒ Γk−1 ∪ {Ak } 2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 Z23 Γk 2;Z.[[
⇒) (B=<;4.:<@=<?./@B?1<>B2 V (¬A) = 1 E V (A) = 1
⇒ Γk 2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92
⇒ ¬A ∈ Γmax E A ∈ Γmax Z23 V [

(62;1< ΓM ax B;.2D=.;@6L;12 Γ@./2:<@>B22@A2M9A6:<2@AH6;09B61<2;29=?6:2?<<9<>B2 ⇒ {¬A, A} ⊆ Γmax
2@9<:6@:<2@B;@B/0<;7B;A<129=?6:2?<

%B2@ Γn−1 ⊆ ΓM ax
40/57
 
G !     F   $    ! " 
⇒ {¬A, A} 2@@.A6@3.06/92 Z23  [
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V  A.9>B2 V  (¬A) = 1 E V  (A) = 1 Z23  [ V  (A) = 1 E V  (¬A) = 1[ Z23  [
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V  A.9>B2 V  (A) = 0 E V  (A) = 1 Z23  [ (B=<;4.:<@>B22D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V  A.9>B2 V  (Δ) = 1
2:<@9924.1<.B;./@B?1<=B2@ V  2@B;.3B;06L;12.0B2?1<0<; ⇒ V  (A) = 1 E V  (¬A) = 1
9.2T;606L;  9./@B?1<=.?A6L12@B=<;2?>B2 V (¬A) = 1 E ⇒ V  (A) = 1 E V  (A) = 0 Z23  [
V (A) = 1 !B24< V (¬A) = 1 ⇒ V (A) = 0  \] !<0B.92@B;./@B?1<=<?>B2 V  .9@2?B;.C.9B.06L;2@B;.3B;V
06L;12.0B2?1<0<;9.2T;606L;  #<=B212.@64;.?1<@C.9<?2@
⇐) (B=<;4.:<@=<?./@B?1<>B2 V (¬A) = 0 E V (A) = 0
.B;.:6@:.3L?:B9. 9./@B?1<=.?A6L12@B=<;2?>B2 V (¬A) = 0
⇒ ¬A ∈ / Γmax E A ∈/ Γmax Z23 V [
E V (A) = 0 !B24< V (A) = 0 ⇒ V (¬A) = 1 \]
⇒ ΓM ax ∪ {A} E ΓM ax ∪ {¬A} ;<@<;T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92@ Z23
 [ 2\]E\] V (¬A) = 1 ⇔ V (A) = 0
⇒ 2D6@A2;1<@0<;7B;A<@T;6A<@26;@.A6@3.06/92@ Δ E Δ A.92@>B2Δ ⊆ 9HB@B9.1290<;1606<;.9 V (A → B) = 1 ⇔ V (A) = 0 < V (B) = 1
ΓM ax ∪ {A} E Δ ⊆ ΓM ax ∪ {¬A} Z23  [ ⇒) (6 V (A → B) = 1
⇒ ΓM ax ∪ {A} E ΓM ax ∪ {¬A} @<;6;@.A6@3.06/92@ Z72?   [ ⇒ (A → B) ∈ ΓM ax Z23 V [
⇒ ΓM ax ∪ {A} E ΓM ax ∪ {¬A} @<;6;0<;@6@A2;A2@ Z2;86;[ (B=<;4.:<@=<?./@B?1<>B2;6 V (A) = 0 ;6 V (B) = 1
→ 2D6@A2;1<@3L?:B9.@ B E C A.92@>B2 ΓM ax ∪ {A}  B E ΓM ax ∪ ⇒ V (A) = 1 E V (B) = 0
{A}  ¬B E ΓM ax ∪ {¬A}  C E ΓM ax ∪ {¬A}  ¬C Z23  [ ⇒ A ∈ ΓM ax E B ∈ / ΓM ax Z23 V [
→ 2D6@A2;1<@3L?:B9.@ B E C A.92@>B2 ΓM ax  (A → B) E ΓM ax  ⇒ A ∈ ΓM ax E ¬B ∈ ΓM ax Z9HB@B9.129.;24 [
(A → ¬B) E ΓM ax  (¬A → C) E ΓM ax  (¬A → ¬C) Z21B006L;[ ⇒ {(A → B), A, ¬B} ⊆ ΓM ax
!.@64B62;A22@B;.12?6C.06L;12 ¬A .=.?A6?12 ΓM ax  ⇒ 0<:< {(A → B), A, ¬B} 2@T;6A<2@@.A6@3.06/92 Z23  [
 (A → B) ⇒ 2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V  A.9>B2 V  (A → B) = 1 E V  (A) = 1 E
 (A → ¬B) V  (¬B) = 1 Z23  [
((A → B) → ((A → ¬B) → ¬A)) Z72?   [ ⇒ 2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V  A.9>B2ZV  (A) = 0 < V  (B) = 1[E V  (A) =
 ((A → ¬B) → ¬A)   1 E V  (B) = 0 Z23  [
 ¬A   %2?<B;.C.9B.06L;A.9;<=B2122D6@A6?=B2@12/2?J..@64;.?</62;
!.@64B62;A22@B;.12?6C.06L;12 A .=.?A6?12 ΓM ax  1 E 0 . A </62; 1 E 0 . B 9<0B.90<;A?.16029.2T;606L;  2:<@
 (¬A → C) 9924.1<.B;./@B?1<>B2=.?A6L12@B=<;2?>B2 V (A) = 1 E V (B) =
 (¬A → ¬C) 0 !B24< V (A) = 0 < V (B) = 1
((¬A → C) → ((¬A → ¬C) → ¬¬A)) Z72?   [ ⇐) (6 V (A) = 0 < V (B) = 1
 ((¬A → ¬C) → ¬¬A)   ⇒ V (¬A) = 1 < V (B) = 1 Z9HB@B9.129.;24 [
 ¬¬A   ⇒ ¬A ∈ ΓM ax < B ∈ ΓM ax \ ] Z23 V [
 (¬¬A → A) Z72?   [ .E2;A<;02@1<@0.:6;<@
 A  
O %73   (6 ¬A ∈ ΓM ax E@B=<;2:<@=<?./@B?1<>B2 V (A →
(2. Δ∗ 2@0<;7B;A<12:62:/?<@12 ΓM ax 2:=92.1<@2;.:/.@12?6V
B) = 0
C.06<;2@
⇒ ¬A ∈ ΓM ax E V (¬(A → B)) = 1 Z9HB@B9.129.;24 [
→ Δ∗ ⊆ ΓM ax 2@T;6A<E Δ∗  ¬A E Δ∗  A Z23  [
⇒ ¬A ∈ ΓM ax E ¬(A → B) ∈ ΓM ax Z23 +[
→ Δ∗ ⊆ ΓM ax 2@T;6A<E Δ∗  ¬A E Δ∗  A Z<??2006L;B2?A2[
⇒ {¬(A → B), ¬A} ⊆ Γmax
→ Δ∗ ⊆ ΓM ax 2@T;6A<E=.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  ZV  (Δ) = 1 ⇒
⇒ 0<:< {¬(A → B), ¬A} 2@T;6A<2@@.A6@3.06/92 Z23  [

⇒ 2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V  A.9>B2 V  (¬(A → B)) = 1 E V  (¬A) =
%B2@B;0<;1606<;.92@C2?1.12?<@62:=?2E0B.;1<;<A2;4..;A20212;A2C2?1.12?<E0<;@2V
0B2;A23.9@<
1 Z23  [

<;A?.??20J=?<0<2;C2?1.1 ⇒ 2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V  A.9>B2 V  (A → B) = 0 E V  (A) = 0
Z23  [

41/57
 

G !     F   $    ! " 
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V  A.9>B2 V  (A) = 1 E V  (B) = 0 E
V  (A) = 0 Z23  [ ⇒ A<1< Δ ⊆ Γ ∪ {¬A} T;6A<2@A.9>B2 Δ 2@@.A6@3.06/92
2:<@9924.1<.B;./@B?1<>B2=.?A6L12@B=<;2?>B2 V (A → ⇒ Γ ∪ {¬A} 2@T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 Z23  [
B) = 0 !B24< V (A → B) = 1 \]
⇒ 2D6@A2B;0<;7B;A<:.D6:.9T;6A.:2;A2@.A6@3.06/92 Γ ∪ {¬A}M ax A.9>B2
O %73 (B=<;4.:<@>B2 B ∈ ΓM ax E=<?./@B?1<>B2 V (A → Γ ∪ {¬A} ⊆ Γ ∪ {¬A}M ax Z"2A  [
B) = 0
⇒ B ∈ ΓM ax E V (¬(A → B)) = 1 Z9HB@B9.129.;24 [ ⇒ 2D6@A2B;0<;7B;A<@.A6@3.06/92 Γ∪{¬A}M ax A.9>B2 Γ∪{¬A} ⊆ Γ∪{¬A}M ax
⇒ B ∈ ΓM ax E ¬(A → B) ∈ ΓM ax Z23 +[ Z"2A  [
⇒ {¬(A → B), B} ⊆ ΓM ax ⇒ Γ ∪ {¬A} 2@@.A6@3.06/92 Z72?   
[
⇒ 0<:< {¬(A → B), B} 2@T;6A<2@@.A6@3.06/92 Z23  [ ⇒ Γ  A Z"2A  [
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⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V @6 V (Γ) = 1 ⇒ V (A) = 1 E V (¬B) = 0 Z23  [
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06L; [ -=<?<??2006L;>B2  p %2?<A.:/6I;2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V  A.9 ⇒ Γ  A E Γ  B Z23  [
>B2 V  (p ) = 1 E=<?9.09HB@B9.129.2T;606L;  V  (¬p ) = 0 ;A<;02@
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⇒ Γ ∪ {¬B}  ¬(A → ¬B) Z"2A  [
!.@64B62;A22@B;.12?6C.06L;12 (A → ¬B) .=.?A6?12 Γ ∪ {¬B}
 ¬B "62:/?<12 Γ ∪ {¬B}
 (¬B → (A → ¬B)) D6<:.=<? SP1
(A → ¬B)  
!B24< Γ ∪ {¬B}  ¬(A → ¬B) E Γ ∪ {¬B}  (A → ¬B)
⇒ Γ ∪ {¬B} 2@6;0<;@6@A2;A2 Z23  [
⇒ Γ ∪ {¬B} 2@6;@.A6@3.06/92 Z72?   
[
(J (6 Γ 2@@.A6@3.06/92E Γ  ¬(A → B)
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Γ) = 1 E=.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V @6 V (Γ) =
1 ⇒ V (¬(A → B)) = 1 Z23  E23  [
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Γ) = 1 E V (¬(A → B)) = 1
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Γ) = 1 E V (A → B) = 0 Z23  [
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.C.9B.06L; V A.9>B2 V (Γ) = 1 E V (A) = 1 E V (B) = 0 Z23  
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 C6190%&-)2*361%(%(L 
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129=?6:2?<.9@24B;1< !.@=?B2/.@2;2@A2.=I;1602@2?H;:H@6;3<?:.92@>B29.@
129<@0.=JAB9<@>B29<=?20212;  (6 A E B @<;3L?:B9.@12 2;A<;02@ (A ∨ B) A.:/6I;
 (6 A E B @<;3L?:B9.@12 2;A<;02@ (A ∧ B) 2@.@6:6@:<B;.3L?:B9.
122@A292;4B.72
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12;</A2;2?@2?22:=9.F.;1<B;63<?:2:2;A29.@92A?.@2@>B2:HA60.@ A B E C
=<?3L?:B9.@12  2;9.@@64B62;A2@ $8+'"'7+  *;. ()6-:%'-CN 2;  12B;.3L?:B9. A 12  .=.?A6?12B;0<;V
7B;A< Γ 122D=?2@6<;2@122@A292;4B.722@B;.A6?.T;6A.123L?:B9.@ 0.1.
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</A2;2? B 0.;029.;1<9.@B=<@606L;12 A E2;9.0B.9A<1<@9<@@B=B2@A<@>B2;<=2?A2;202;. Γ @<;0.;029.1<@=<? I→
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0-1-2%'-C2()0'32(-'-32%0 ZE→ [ B 2@B;.0<;@20B2;06.6;:216.A.12 A E
(A → B)
2863(9''-C2  ()  0%  '32.92'-CN ZI∧ [ (A ∧ B) 2@B;.0<;@20B2;06.6;:216.A. !.@;<06<;2@12 8)36)1% E '327)'9)2'-%7-28@'8-'% 12  @<;2D.0A.:2;A264B.92@.
12 A E B 9.@12   %.?.6;160.?>B2B;.3L?:B9. A 12  2@B;A2<?2:.12  2@0?6/6:<@
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0-1-2%'-C2  ()  0%  '32.92'-CN ZE∧ [).;A< A 0<:< B @<;0<;@20B2;06.@ 2D=?2@6<;2@12  2;2@A2@6@A2:.PΓ SG AQ
6;:216.A.@12 (A ∧ B)
2863(9''-C2  ()  0%  (-7=92'-CN ZI∨ [ (A ∨ B) 2@B;.0<;@20B2;06.6;:216.A. %B2@A<>B252:<@2DA2;161<2992;4B.72  . 2@=?206@<A.:/6I;>B22DA2;1.V
A.;A<12 A 0<:<12 B :<@9.@09HB@B9.@@2:H;A60.@=.?.1.?0<;1606<;2@12C2?1.1129.@;B2C.@2D=?2@6<V
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0-1-2%'-C2  ()  0%  (-7=92'-CN ZE∨ [ C 2@B;.0<;@20B2;06.6;:216.A.12
(A ∨ B) (A → C) E (B → C)
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¬A 3L?:B9.@12  E@B0<1<:6;6< {0, 1} E.12:H@0B:=920<;9.@:6@:.@0<;16V
06<;2@>B2B;.C.9B.06L; 0<;29.4?24.1<129.@09HB@B9.@0<??2@=<;162;A2@
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)4)8-'-CN Z)4[ A 2@B;.0<;@20B2;06.6;:216.A.12 A 1@28-'% =.?.2D=?2@6<;2@E0<;7B;A<@122D=?2@6<;2@12  @<;2D.0A.:2;A264B.92@
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=.?A6?129.@>B2E.A2;J.:<@ +2.:<@B;272:=9<2;2992;4B.72;.AB?.9=.?..09.V  T rad(A ∧ B) = ¬(T rad(A) → ¬T rad(B))
?.?9.0B2@A6L; :.46;2:<@>B2A2;2:<@1<@21606<;2@12P!.:<;A.K.:H460.Q
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=B;A<12C6@A.12@1229>B209.?.:2;A2@<;16@A6;A.@9.@=.9./?.@>B22;0<;A?.:<@ T rad2@A<2@9<>B2 T rad 92@.@64;. !B24< T rad(Γ) 2@290<;7B;A<122D=?2@6<;2@
2;@B6;A2?6<?@<;1632?2;A2@B;A2DA<2@:H@9.?4<>B229<A?< (6;2:/.?4<@62;9. 12  >B2@<;9.A?.1B006L;129<@:62:/?<@12 Γ :216.;A2 T rad
A?.1B006L;;<5.E=I?161.12@2;A61<=<12:<@1206?>B2.:/.@21606<;2@@<;2>B6V
C.92;A2@ ;2992;4B.72;.AB?.92@:BE163J06912A2?:6;.?0BH;1<B;.A?.1B006L;2@ 964B.9>B22;29272:=9<129.;<C29.9.@3L?:B9.@2;B;<129<@92;4B.72@Z[
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%<?9<A.;A<@62;0<;A?.:<@B;.A?.1B006L;.120B.1.129.@3L?:B9.@12B;92;4B.72 E2D=?2@.29"2A.A2<?2:. 
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2@B;.A?.1B006L;12912 
(A ∨ B) ≡ (¬ A → B)
VG1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
$8+'"'7+ <@@6@A2:.@ S1 E S2 @<; β I)59-:%0)28)7 @6E@L9<@6@20B:=92;9.@ VG2 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
@64B62;A2@1<@0<;1606<;2@ VG3 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
VG4 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
 .1.C2F>B22; S1 =B21.12?6C.?@2B;2;B;06.1< A .=.?A6?12B;0<;V
7B;A< Γ9.A?.1B006L;12 A 2;2992;4B.7212 S2 =B21212?6C.?@2.=.?A6?
1290<;7B;A<1.1<=<?9.A?.1B006L;.992;4B.7212 S2 129<@:62:/?<@12 (A ∧ B) ≡ ¬ (A → ¬ B)
Γ VG1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
 (62:=?2>B22; S2 =B21.12?6C.?@2B;2;B;06.1< A .=.?A6?12B;0<;V VG2 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
7B;A< ΓA.:/6I;=B2122320AB.?@2A.912?6C.06L;2; S1 VG3 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
VG4 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0

!.A?.1B006L;129.@3L?:B9.@12  .9.@12  9.?2.96F.?2:<@:216.;A2B;.3B;V

06L; $0 0$,.$*  %.?.0B.9>B62?2D=?2@6L; A 12  E0B.9>B62?C.9B.06L;G VG 
VG (T rad(A)) = 1 ⇔ VG (A) = 1

$8+'"'7+ !. 92'-C2  ()  6%(9''-CN T rad2@B;.3B;06L;0BE<1<:6;6<

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.12:H@0B:=920<;9.@@64B62;A2@0<;1606<;2@
272?0606< 9T;.9129.=I;1602=B2122;0<;A?.?@27B;A<0<;B;.12@B@?2@<9B06<;2@
=<@6/92@ %.@2:<@.5<?..9.2>B6C.92;06.2;A?2.:/<@@6@A2:.@
 (6 A 2@B;.3L?:B9..AL:60.12 2;A<;02@ T rad(A) = A
 T rad(¬A) = ¬T rad(A) $0 0$,.$*    E  @<; β V2>B6C.92;A2@
T rad(A → B) = (T rad(A) → T rad(B))
786%8)+-%()0%469)&%
 T rad(A ∨ B) = (¬T rad(A) → T rad(B))

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A?.1B006<;2@@64B62;1<9.3B;06L; T rad =?2@2;A.1.2;9.2T;606L;   A (B=B2@A<
=.?.0B.9>B62?2D=?2@6L; A E0<;7B;A<122D=?2@6<;2@ Γ 12 @6 Γ SG  B (B=B2@A<
A ⇒ T rad(Γ)  T rad(A)
A )4 
 (B → A) I→ V

< = %?</.?2:<@A.:/6I;>B229=<12?12=?B2/.12  2@@BT062;A2=.?.?2.96V  (A → (B → A)) I→ V
F.?9.@:6@:.@12?6C.06<;2@>B2 =.?.0B.9>B62?2D=?2@6L; A E0<;7B;A<
Γ 122D=?2@6<;2@12 @6 Γ  A ⇒ Γ SG A (SP2 ) !.@64B62;A22@B;.12:<@A?.06L;12 (SP2 ) 2; 
 ((A → (B → C)) (B=B2@A<
69)&%
 (A → B) (B=B2@A<

A (B=B2@A<
 B E→ 

<= (6C<9C2:<@.972?0606< =<12:<@;<A.?>B29.@?29.06<;2@120<;@2V
 (B → C) E→ 

0B2;06.@6;AH0A60.>B2=?</.:<@.99J;<@<;<A?.0<@.>B2A?.1B006<;2@
 C E→ 
12?249.@126;32?2;06.12  .992;4B.7212  V
@<;9.@?249.@=.?.9.
 (A → C) I→
V
0<;7B;06L;V=.?.9.16@EB;06L;EV
=.?.9.;24.06L; 12:H@29
 ((A → B) → (A → C)) I→ V
"2A.A2<?2:. 1.0B2;A.129.C.9612F@6;AH0A60.2;  129.?249.12
 ((A → (B → C)) → ((A → B) → (A → C))) I→ V
'2=2A606L;E290.@<=.?A60B9.?129"2A.A2<?2:.129.21B006L;2;29
0B.9 Γ = φ7B;A<0<;29"2A.A2<?2:. 129.C.9612F@6;AH0A60.129.?2V
49.12;A?<1B006L;1290<;1606<;.9 6;.9:2;A22;9.:6@:.12T;606L; (SP3 ) !.@64B62;A22@B;.12:<@A?.06L;12 (SP3 ) 2; 
12 
 @22@A./92029.C642;06.129.?249.1296:6;.06L;1290<;1606<;.9  (¬A → ¬B) (B=B2@A<
2; .99J12;<:6;.1.P3(9732)27Q  B (B=B2@A<
%<?2;12:<@A?.:<@>B21605.@?249.@@<;A.:/6I;@6;AH0A60.:2;A2CHV
¬A (B=B2@A<
961.@2;  Z=<?<??2006L;.12:H@@<;@2:H;A60.:2;A2CH961.@[9<0B.9  ¬B E→ 

6:=960.>B20B.9>B62?2;B;06.1< A 12?6C./92.=.?A6?12B;0<;7B;A< Γ 12  ⊥ E¬ 
3L?:B9.@2;  A62;2B;.A?.1B006L;>B2=B21212?6C.?@22;  .=.?A6?  ¬¬A I¬
V
12 T rad(Γ) .@A.0<;A<:.?9.12?6C.06L;2;  121605<2;B;06.1<.  A  
=.?A6?12 Γ EA?.1B06?0.1.B;<12@B@=.@<@ 9?2@B9A.1<@2?HB;.12?6V  (B → A) I→ V
C.06L;A.9C2F./?2C6.1.12 T rad(A) .=.?A6?12 T rad(Γ) 2; =B2@9<@  ((¬A → ¬B) → (B → A)) I→ V
=.@<@@2?H;7B@A6T0./92@E0<??20A<@2; 
12:H@9.M;60.?249.126;32?2;06.12  2@B;.?249..@BC2F12
< = 5<?.>B2?2:<@C2?>B2;<2D6@A2B;2;B;06.1< A >B2=B21.12?6C.?@22; 9.?249.1296:6;.06L;1290<;1606<;.9 ;0<;@20B2;06.0B.9>B62?
 .=.?A6?12B;0<;7B;A< Γ =2?<;<2;  %.?.299<=?</.?2:<@>B2 12?6C.06L;12B;.3L?:B9. A .=.?A6?12B;0<;7B;A< Γ 122D=?2@6<;2@12
9<@.D6<:.@12  @<;A2<?2:.@12  E>B29.@?249.@126;32?2;06.12  2;  =B2120<;C2?A6?@22;B;.12?6C.06L;122@22;B;06.1<.=.?A6?12
 9<@<;.@6:6@:<12  >BJ;<;202@6A.:<@A?.1B06?=B2@A<>B2  Γ 2; @6:=92:2;A2?22:=9.F.;1<9<@.D6<:.@=<?9.@12:<@A?.06<;2@
0B2;A.0<;A<1.@9.@0<;20A6C.@;202@.?6.@A<1.2D=?2@6L;12  2@B;. >B2.>BJ52:<@2320AB.1<
2D=?2@6L;12 
<;@64B62;A2:2;A212.0B2?1<0<;9.2T;606L;   E  @<; β V2>B6C.92;A2@

(SP1 ) !.@64B62;A22@B;.12:<@A?.06L;12 (SP1 ) 2; 

 22@A2:<1<=<12:<@.T?:.?@6;:H@=?2H:/B9<@>B2  2@(6:=92E/V
2T;606L; 
@<9BA.:2;A2<;@6@A2;A2<??20A<<:=92A<E20616/922;A?2<A?<@?2@B9A.1<@
50/57

C2?1.12?<@A.:/6I;12  @6:6@:<2@A.:<@2;0<;1606<;2@12C2?>B2  2@<:V
=.0A<@6;?2.96F.?9.@A216<@.@=?B2/.@129.=JAB9< !.=?<=621.1126;6AB1=.?.
2;0.:/6<2@@B:.:2;A2@2;0699.EM9A6=.?..4696F.?9.@<A?.@=?B2/.@12:<1<
>B29.5.?2:<@=?6:2?.:2;A2@6;.EB1.129. β V2>B6C.92;06.2;A?2  E 
$0 0$,.$* 
 ejeopaab  %.?.0B.9>B62?0<;7B;A< Γ 122D=?2@6<;2@12
 E0B.9>B62?2;B;06.1< A 122@292;4B.72@6 Γ SG A ⇒ 2D6@A2B;0<;7B;A<
Δ ⊆ ΓT;6A<A.9>B2 Δ SG A
69)&%
(6 Γ SG A
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.12?6C.06L;2;  12 A .=.?A6?12 Γ

G !     F   $    ! " 
$0 0$,.$*  kmmb``esjab  %.?.0B.9>B62?2;B;06.1< A 12 @6 SG
A ⇒ G A
$0 0$,.$*  kilhboeopapbmobab  %.?.0B.9>B62?0<;7B;A< Γ 12
2D=?2@6<;2@12  E0B.9>B62?2;B;06.1< A 122@292;4B.72@6 Γ G A ⇒ Γ SG
A
$0 0$,.$*  kilhboeopaab  %.?.0B.9>B62?2;B;06.1< A 12 @6 G
A ⇒SG A

⇒ 2D6@A2B;.A6?.T;6A.123L?:B9.@12 0.1.B;.129.@0B.92@2@</62;B;
@B=B2@A<</62;2@B;.0<;@20B2;06.6;:216.A.123L?:B9.@.;A2?6<?2@4?.06.@ $0 0$,.$*  kil^`ea^aab  %.?.0B.9>B62?0<;7B;A< Γ 122D=?2@6<;2@
.9.@?249.@126;32?2;06.12  A 2@9.M9A6:.E2;9.A6?.A<1<@9<@@B=B2@A<@ 12  E0B.9>B62?2;B;06.1< A 122@292;4B.72@6 Γ G A ⇒ 2D6@A2B;0<;7B;A<
>B2;<=2?A2;202;. Γ @<;0.;029.1<@=<? I→ <=<? I¬ Z23  [ Δ ⊆ ΓT;6A<A.9>B2 Δ G A
.1<>B29<@@B=B2@A<@1.;9B4.?.3L?:B9.@2;9.A6?.;<=B212;@2?6;T;6A<@
=B2@9.A6?.9<@2?J. (2. Δ 290<;7B;A<12@B=B2@A<@;<0.;029.1<@129.A6?. $0 0$,.$*  b`eae_ehea^aab   2@120616/92
!B24< Δ 2@T;6A<E0<:<A<1<@9<@@B=B2@A<@;<0.;029.1<@@<;:62:/?<@
12 Γ Δ ⊆ Γ ;0<;@20B2;06.9.A6?.2@A.9>B20.1.B;.12@B@3L?:B9.@2@
</62;B;@B=B2@A<</62;B;.0<;@20B2;06.6;:216.A.123L?:B9.@.;A2?6<?2@
4?.06.@.9.@?249.@126;32?2;06.12  A 2@@BM9A6:<:62:/?<EA<1<@@B@
@B=B2@A<@;<0.;029.1<@=<? I→ <=<? I¬ =2?A2;202;. Δ
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.12?6C.06L;2;  12 A .=.?A6?12 Δ Z23  [
⇒ Δ SG A 

!.12:<@A?.06L;129<@@64B62;A2@?2@B9A.1<@:2A.A2L?60<@9.=?<=<;2:<@0<:<
272?0606< !.612.2@3.0696A.?@B@=?B2/.@2:=92.;1<9. β V2>B6C.92;06.2;A?2  E 
%.?.0.1.B;<12299<@1.:<@.9T;.9129.=I;1602B;.=<@6/92@<9B06L;

$0 0$,.$*  kjnenobj`e^(eilhbab   2@@6:=92:2;A20<;@6@A2;A2

$0 0$,.$*  kjnenobj`e^_nkhpo^ab   2@./@<9BA.:2;A20<;@6@V

A2;A2

$0 0$,.$*   kmmb``esjpbmobab  %.?.0B.9>B62?0<;7B;A< Γ 122DV

=?2@6<;2@12  E0B.9>B62?2;B;06.1< A 122@292;4B.72@6 Γ SG A ⇒ Γ G A

51/57
 


G !     F   $    ! "

A?E>@>@DF
 69)&% (./2:<@=<?29%?6;06=6<12;1B006L;".A2:HA60.<:=92A.>B2
=.?.A<1< n ;.AB?.9@629;M:2?<120<;20A6C.@12 A 2@ n=.?.A<1.C.9B.06L;G
VG  VG (T rad(A)) = 1 ⇔ VG (A) = 1
($."'"', 2:B2@A?29<@@64B62;A2@:2A.A2<?2:.@@6;BA696F.??2@B9A.1<@>B2  /,! /$ &B2?2:<@C2?>B2@6 A 0B2;A.0<; 0 0<;20A6C.@ VG (T rad(A)) =
@2.;=<@A2?6<?2@.@B=?2@2;A.06L;2;290B2?=<129.=I;1602 1 ⇔ VG (A) = 19<0B.92@062?A<=<?>B2@6 A 0.?202120<;20A6C.@2@
B;.3L?:B9..AL:60.E12.0B2?1<0<;9.09HB@B9.129.2T;606L; 
T rad(A) = A
 "2A.A2<?2:.  
 /,'+#1"0'2, &B2?2:<@C2?>B2@60B.9>B62?3L?:B9. B 0<;:2;<@
 %.?.0B.9>B62?2D=?2@6L; A 12  SG (T rad(A) → A) E SG (A → T rad(A)) 12 k 0<;20A6C.@2@A.9>B2=.?.A<1.C.9B.06L;G VG  VG (T rad(B)) = 1 ⇔
VG (B) = 1A<1.3L?:B9. A 0<;2D.0A.:2;A2 k 0<;20A6C.@2@A.:/6I;A.9
(6=.?..94B;.2D=?2@6L; A E0<;7B;A<122D=?2@6<;2@ Γ 12  T rad(Γ)  T rad(A) ⇒ >B2ZVG (T rad(A)) = 1 ⇔ VG (A) = 1[=.?.A<1.C.9B.06L;G VG ;A<;02@
Γ SG A A2;2:<@
-4C8)7-7-2(9'8-:% (6 B A62;2:2;<@12 k 0<;20A6C.@Zk > 0=B2@2@A20.@<
 "2A.A2<?2:. 
E.3B2.;.96F.1<2;29=.@</.@2[ ⇒ ZVG (T rad(B)) = 1 ⇔ VG (B) = 1[
 "2A.A2<?2:.  )7-7-2(9'8-:% (6 A A62;22D.0A.:2;A2 k 0<;20A6C.@ ⇒ ZVG (T rad(A)) =
1 ⇔ VG (A) = 1[
 "2A.A2<?2:.  69)&% (2. A B;.2D=?2@6L;12  0<;2D.0A.:2;A2 k 0<;20A6C.@ D6@A2;
0B.A?<=<@6/6961.12@12.0B2?1<0<;9.2T;606L; 
 "2A.A2<?2:. 
O %73 A ≡ ¬B
 "2A.A2<?2:.  ⇒ ZVG (T rad(B)) = 1 ⇔ VG (B) = 1[ Z6= 6;1 [
⇒ ZVG (¬T rad(B)) = 0 ⇔ VG (¬B) = 0[ Z23  [
 "2A.A2<?2:. 
⇒ ZVG (T rad(¬B)) = 0 ⇔ VG (¬B) = 0[ Z23  [

"2A.A2<?2:. 
⇒ ZVG (T rad(¬B)) = 1 ⇔ VG (¬B) = 1[ Z23  [
⇒ ZVG (T rad(A)) = 1 ⇔ VG (A) = 1[
 "2A.A2<?2:.  O %73 A ≡ (B → C)
VG (T rad(A)) = 1
⇔ VG (T rad(B → C)) = 1
⇔ VG (T rad(B) → T rad(C)) = 1 Z23   [
⇔ VG (T rad(B)) = 0 < VG (T rad(C)) = 1 Z23  [
⇔ VG (B) = 0 < VG (C) = 1 Z6= ;1 [
⇔ VG (B → C) = 1 Z23  [
⇔ VG (A) = 1
DBG>@DC?F O %73  A ≡ (B ∨ C)
VG (T rad(A)) = 1
⇔ VG (T rad(B ∨ C)) = 1
72?0606< 
⇔ VG (T rad(B) ∨ T rad(C)) = 1 Z23  [
 ⇔ VG (T rad(B)) = 1 < VG (T rad(C)) = 1 Z23   [
%6@A..=96>B229%?6;06=6<12;1B006L;".A2:HA60.@</?229;M:2?<120<;20A6C.@12 A
⇔ VG (B) = 1 < VG (C) = 1 Z6= ;1 [
52/57
 


G !     F   $    ! "
⇔ VG (B ∨ C) = 1 Z23   [
⇔ VG (A) = 1 69)&% (2. A B;.2D=?2@6L;12  0<;2D.0A.:2;A2 k 0<;20A6C.@ D6@A2;
O %73
 A ≡ (B ∧ C) 0B.A?<=<@6/6961.12@12.0B2?1<0<;9.2T;606L; 
VG (T rad(A)) = 1 O %73 A ≡ ¬B
⇔ VG (T rad(B ∧ C)) = 1 ⇒ SG (T rad(B) → B) E SG (B → T rad(B)) Z6= 6;1 [
⇔ VG (T rad(B) ∧ T rad(C)) = 1 Z23  [ ⇒ SG (¬B → ¬T rad(B)) E SG (¬T rad(B) → ¬B) ZSP3 E E→ [ 
⇔ VG (T rad(B)) = 1 E VG (T rad(C)) = 1 Z23  [ ⇒ SG (¬B → T rad(¬B)) E SG (T rad(¬B) → ¬B) Z23  [
⇔ VG (B) = 1 E VG (C) = 1 Z6= ;1 [ ⇒ SG (A → T rad(A)) E SG (T rad(A) → A)
⇔ VG (B ∧ C) = 1 Z23  [ O %73 A ≡ (B → C)
⇔ VG (A) = 1 ⇒ SG (T rad(B) → B) E SG (B → T rad(B)) E SG (T rad(C) →
C) E SG (C → T rad(C)) Z6= 6;1 [
!B24<2;C6?AB1129.2T;606L;  =.?.0B.9>B62?2D=?2@6L; A 12  VG (T rad(A)) = ⇒ 9.@64B62;A22@B;.12:<@A?.06L;12 ((B → C) → (T rad(B) →
1 ⇔ VG (A) = 1  T rad(C))) 2; 
 %?</.?2:<@BA696F.;1<29%?6;06=6<12;1B006L;".A2:HA60.<:=92A.>B2  (T rad(B) → B)
=.?.0B.9>B62? n ;.AB?.9@6 A A62;2 n 0<;20A6C.@ SG (T rad(A) → A) E SG  (C → T rad(C))
(A → T rad(A)) (B → C) (B=B2@A<
 T rad(B) (B=B2@A<
 /,! /$ &B2?2:<@C2?>B2@6 A 0B2;A.0<; 0 0<;20A6C.@ SG (T rad(A) →  B E→ 
A) E SG (A → T rad(A))  C E→ 
 T rad(C) E→ 
(6 A 0.?202120<;20A6C.@
 (T rad(B) → T rad(C)) I→ V
⇒ A 2@B;.3L?:B9..AL:60. Z23  [  ((B → C) → (T rad(B) → T rad(C))) I→ V
⇒ T rad(A) = A Z23  [ E9.@64B62;A2B;.12:<@A?.06L;12 ((T rad(B) → T rad(C)) → (B →
⇒ 9.@64B62;A22@12.0B2?1<0<;9.2T;606L; B;.12:<@A?.06L;12 C)) 2; 
(T rad(A) → A) E12 (A → T rad(A)) 2;   (B → T rad(B))
 T rad(A) (B=B2@A<  (T rad(C) → C)
 A )4 (T rad(B) → T rad(C)) (B=B2@A<
 B (B=B2@A<
(T rad(A) → A) I→ V
 T rad(B) E→ 
 /,'+#1"0'2, &B2?2:<@C2?>B2@60B.9>B62?3L?:B9. B 0<;:2;<@  T rad(C) E→ 
12 k 0<;20A6C.@2@A.9>B2 SG (T rad(B) → B) E SG (B → T rad(B))  C E→ 
A<1.3L?:B9. A 0<;2D.0A.:2;A2 k 0<;20A6C.@2@A.:/6I;A.9>B2 SG  B → C) I→ V
(T rad(A) → A) E SG (A → T rad(A)) ;A<;02@A2;2:<@  ((T rad(B) → T rad(C)) → (B → C)) I→ V
-4C8)7-7-2(9'8-:% (6 B A62;2:2;<@12 k 0<;20A6C.@Zk > 0=B2@2@A2 ⇒ SG ((B → C) → (T rad(B) → T rad(C))) E SG ((T rad(B) →
0.@<E.3B2.;.96F.1<2;29=.@</.@2[ ⇒ SG (T rad(B) → B) E SG T rad(C)) → (B → C))
(B → T rad(B)) ⇒ SG ((B → C) → T rad(B → C)) E SG (T rad(B → C) →
)7-7-2(9'8-:% (6 A A62;22D.0A.:2;A2 k 0<;20A6C.@ ⇒ SG (T rad(A) → (B → C)) Z23   [
A) E SG (A → T rad(A)) ⇒ SG (A → T rad(A)) E SG (T rad(A) → A)
O %73  A ≡ (B ∨ C)

&B26;160.>B2A<1.3L?:B9.12  @L9<=B212A2;2?B;;M:2?<;.AB?.9120<;20A6C.@

+I.@29.=?B2/.129"2A 

53/57
 


G !     F   $    ! "
⇒ SG (T rad(B) → B) E SG (B → T rad(B)) E SG (T rad(C) →
C) E SG (C → T rad(C)) Z6= 6;1 [ ⇒ 9.@64B62;A22@B;.12:<@A?.06L;12 ((B ∧ C) → (T rad(B) ∧
⇒ 9.@64B62;A22@B;.12:<@A?.06L;12 ((B ∨ C) → (T rad(B) ∨ T rad(C))) 2; 
T rad(C))) 2;   (B → T rad(B))
 (B → T rad(B))  (C → T rad(C))
 (C → T rad(C)) (B ∧ C) (B=B2@A<
(B ∨ C) (B=B2@A<  B E∧
 B (B=B2@A<  T rad(B) E→ 
 T rad(B) E→   C E∧
 (T rad(B) ∨ T rad(C)) I∨   T rad(C) E→ 
 (B → (T rad(B) ∨ T rad(C)))  (T rad(B) ∧ T rad(C)) I∧ 
 C (B=B2@A<  ((B ∧ C) → (T rad(B) ∧ T rad(C))) I→ V
 T rad(C) E→  E9.@64B62;A2B;.12:<@A?.06L;12 ((T rad(B) ∧ T rad(C)) → (B ∧

(T rad(B) ∨ T rad(C)) I∨  C)) 2; 
 (C → (T rad(B) ∨ T rad(C))) I→ V
 (T rad(B) → B)
 (T rad(B) ∨ T rad(C)) E∨   (T rad(C) → C)
 ((B ∨ C) → (T rad(B) ∨ T rad(C))) I→ V (T rad(B) ∧ T rad(C)) (B=B2@A<
E9.@64B62;A2B;.12:<@A?.06L;12 ((T rad(B) ∨ T rad(C)) → (B ∨  T rad(B) E∧
C)) 2;   B E→ 
 (T rad(B) → B)  T rad(C) E∧
 (T rad(C) → C)  C E→ 
(T rad(B) ∨ T rad(C)) (B=B2@A<  (B ∧ C) I∧ 
 T rad(B) (B=B2@A<  ((T rad(B) ∧ T rad(C)) → (B ∧ C)) I→ V
 B E→  ⇒ SG ((B ∧ C) → (T rad(B) ∧ T rad(C))) E SG ((T rad(B) ∧
 (B ∨ C) I∨  T rad(C)) → (B ∧ C))
 (T rad(B) → (B ∨ C)) ⇒ SG ((B ∧ C) → T rad(B ∧ C)) E SG (T rad(B ∧ C) → (B ∧ C))
 T rad(C) (B=B2@A< Z23  [
 C E→  ⇒ SG (A → T rad(A)) E SG (T rad(A) → A)

(B ∨ C) I∨ 
 (T rad(C) → (B ∨ C)) I→ V
!B24<2;C6?AB1129.2T;606L; =.?.0B.9>B62?2D=?2@6L; A 12  SG
 (B ∨ C) E∨  (A → T rad(A)) E SG (T rad(A) → A) 
 ((T rad(B) ∨ T rad(C)) → (B ∨ C)) I→ V
⇒ SG ((B ∨ C) → (T rad(B) ∨ T rad(C))) E SG ((T rad(B) ∨ (6 T rad(Γ)  T rad(A)
T rad(C)) → (B ∨ C)) ⇒ 2D6@A2B;0<;7B;A<T;6A< T rad(Δ) ⊆ T rad(Γ) A.9>B2 T rad(Δ)  T rad(A)
⇒ SG ((B ∨ C) → T rad(B ∨ C)) E SG (T rad(B ∨ C) → (B ∨ C)) Z"2A   [
Z23  [
⇒ 2D6@A2B;0<;7B;A<T;6A< T rad(Δ) ⊆ T rad(Γ) A.9>B2 T rad(Δ) SG T rad(A)
⇒ SG (A → T rad(A)) E SG (T rad(A) → A)
\] Z"2A  [
O %73
 A ≡ (B ∧ C)
⇒ SG (T rad(B) → B) E SG (B → T rad(B)) E SG (T rad(C) → (2. T rad(A1 ), ..., T rad(An ) B;.2;B:2?.06L;129<@:62:/?<@12 T rad(Δ) E
C) E SG (C → T rad(C)) Z6= 6;1 [ =<?2;12 Δ = {A1 , ..., An } Δ ⊆ Γ %<?9<A.;A<12.0B2?1<0<;9.2T;606L;
 9.@64B62;A22@B;.12?6C.06L;12 A .=.?A6?12 Γ 2; 
54/57
 


G !     F   $    ! "

 A1 (B=B2@A<Z"62:/?<12 Δ ⊆ Γ[ !924.:<@.B;./@B?1<=B2@29"2A.A2<?2:. 6;160.>B2  2@@6:=92:2;V

A20<;@6@A2;A2 9./@B?1<=.?A6L12@B=<;2?>B2  2@./@<9BA.:2;A26;0<;V
; An (B=B2@A<Z"62:/?<12 Δ ⊆ Γ[ @6@A2;A2 !B24<;<9<2@ 
; (A1 → T rad(A1 )) 72?0606<  
 69)&% (6 Γ SG A
; (An → T rad(An )) 72?0606<  
⇒ T rad(Γ)  T rad(A) Z"2A  [
; T rad(A1 ) E→ ;
⇒ T rad(Γ)  T rad(A) Z"2A  [
; T rad(An ) E→ ;;
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (T rad(Γ)) = 1 ⇒ V (T rad(A)) = 1 Z23  [
; T rad(A) \];V ;
; (T rad(A) → A) 72?0606<   ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L;G VG  VG (T rad(Γ)) = 1 ⇒ VG (T rad(A)) = 1 Z23  [
; A E→ ;V ; ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L;G VG  VG (Γ) = 1 ⇒ VG (A) = 1 Z"2A  [
⇒ Γ G A 
⇒ Γ SG A 

 69)&% (B=<;4.:<@=<?./@B?1<>B2  2@@6:=92:2;A26;0<;@6@A2;A2  (6 SG A

⇒ 2D6@A2B;.3L?:B9. A 12  A.9>B2 SG A E SG ¬A Z23  [ ⇒ T rad(A) Z"2A  [

⇒ 2D6@A2B;.3L?:B9. A 12  A.9>B2  T rad(A) E  T rad(¬A) Z"2A  [  ⇒ T rad(A) Z"2A  [

⇒ 2D6@A2B;.3L?:B9. A 12  A.9>B2  T rad(A) E  ¬T rad(A) Z23  [ ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (T rad(A)) = 1 Z23  [
⇒ 2D6@A2B;.3L?:B9. B 12  A.9>B2  B E  ¬B Z23  [ ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L;G VG  VG (T rad(A)) = 1 Z23  [
⇒  2@@6:=92:2;A26;0<;@6@A2;A2 Z23  [ ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L;G VG  VG (A) = 1 Z"2A  [
!924.:<@.B;./@B?1<=B2@29"2A.A2<?2:. 6;160.>B2  2@@6:=92:2;V ⇒G A 
A20<;@6@A2;A2 9./@B?1<=.?A6L12@B=<;2?>B2  2@@6:=92:2;A26;0<;@6@V
A2;A2 !B24<;<9<2@   (6 Γ G A

 69)&% (B=<;4.:<@=<?./@B?1<>B2  2@./@<9BA.:2;A26;0<;@6@A2;A2 ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L;G VG  VG (Γ) = 1 ⇒ VG (A) = 1

⇒ =.?.A<1.3L?:B9. A 12  SG A Z23  [ ⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L;G VG  VG (T rad(Γ)) = 1 ⇒ VG (T rad(A)) = 1 Z"2A

 [
⇒ =.?.A<1.3L?:B9. A 12  SG A Z23  [ 
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (T rad(Γ)) = 1 ⇒ V (T rad(A)) = 1 Z23  
⇒ =.?.A<1.3L?:B9. A 12   T rad(A) Z"2A  [
[ 
⇒ =.?.A<1.3L?:B9. A 12   A Z23  [ 
⇒ T rad(Γ)  T rad(A) Z23  [
⇒  2@./@<9BA.:2;A26;0<;@6@A2;A2 Z23  [
⇒ T rad(Γ)  T rad(A) Z"2A  
[
⇒  2@@6:=92:2;A26;0<;@6@A2;A2 Z"2A  [
⇒ Γ SG A Z72?   [ 

<;12 Γ 2@290<;7B;A<C.0J<
 
%B2@A<1.3L?:B9.12  2@.@BC2FB;.2D=?2@6L;12  %B2@A<>B2A.;A< T rad(A) 0<:<9<@:62:/?<@12 T rad(Γ) @<;2D=?2@6<;2@12 @L9<=B212;
 0<;A2;2?9.@0<;20A6C.@ ¬ E → !B24<0<;?2@=20A<.2@A.@3L?:B9.@9.@C.9B.06<;2@E9.@C.9B.06<;2@G
%B2@@6 A 2@B;.2D=?2@6L;12 @BA?.1B006L;2@61I;A60..@J:6@:.
@20<:=<?A.;122D.0A<64B.9:<1<0<:<6;160.;9.@09HB@B9.@E129.@2T;606<;2@ E 

55/57
 


G !     F   $    ! "
 69)&% (6 G A
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L;G VG  VG (A) =1
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L;G VG  VG (T rad(A)) = 1 Z"2A  [
⇒ =.?.A<1.C.9B.06L; V  V (T rad(A)) = 1 Z23  [
⇒  T rad(A) Z23  [
⇒ T rad(A) Z"2A  
[
⇒ φ  T rad(A) Z"2A  [
⇒ φ SG A Z72?   [ 
⇒SG A


69)&% (6 Γ G A
⇒ Γ SG A Z"2A  [
⇒ 2D6@A2B;0<;7B;A< Δ ⊆ ΓT;6A<A.9>B2 Δ SG A Z"2A  [
⇒ 2D6@A2B;0<;7B;A< Δ ⊆ ΓT;6A<A.9>B2 Δ G A Z"2A  [ 
 69)&% .1.B;.3L?:B9. A 0B.9>B62?.12 9.@A./9.@12C2?1.1/.@.1.@2;9.
2T;606L; 12C.9B.06L;G ?2@B9A.;B;:IA<1<2320A6C<=.?.120616?@6 G A
12:H@=<?9<@"2A.A2<?2:.@ E ZG A ⇔SG A[ !B24<9.@A./9.@
@<;B;:IA<1<2320A6C<=.?.12A2?:6;.?A.:/6I;@6 SG A E=<?9.2T;606L;
   2@120616/92 

%B2@ T rad(φ) = φ


%B2@;<>B21.?<;@B=B2@A<@@6;0.;029.?<9<>B22@9<:6@:<A<1<@9<@@B=B2@A<@@6;0.;029.?
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56/57
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