History of philosophy 1

History of philosophy
The history of philosophy is the study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time. Issues specifically related
to history of philosophy might include (but are not limited to): How can changes in philosophy be accounted for
historically? What drives the development of thought in its historical context? To what degree can philosophical
texts from prior historical eras even be understood today?
All cultures — be they prehistoric, medieval, or modern; Eastern, Western, religious or secular — have had their
own unique schools of philosophy, arrived at through both inheritance and through independent discovery. Such
theories have grown from different premises and approaches, examples of which include (but are not limited to)
rationalism (theories arrived at through logic), empiricism (theories arrived at through observation), and even
through leaps of faith, hope and inheritance (such as the supernaturalist philosophies and religions).
History of philosophy seeks to catalogue and classify such development. The goal is to understand the development
of philosophical ideas through time.

Western philosophy
Western philosophy has a long history, conventionally divided into four large eras - the Ancient, Medieval, Modern,
and Contemporary. The Ancient era runs through the fall of Rome and includes the Greek philosophers such as Plato
and Aristotle. The Medieval period runs until roughly the late 15th century and the Renaissance. The "Modern" is a
word with more varied use, which includes everything from Post-Medieval through the specific period up to the 20th
century. Contemporary philosophy encompasses the philosophical developments of the 20th century up to the
present day.

Ancient philosophy
Western Philosophy is generally said to begin in the Greek cities
of western Asia Minor (Ionia) with Thales of Miletus, who was
active around 585 B.C. and left us the opaque dictum, "all is
water." His most noted students were Anaximenes of Miletus ("all
is air") and Anaximander (all is apeiron).
Other thinkers and schools appeared throughout Greece over the
next couple of centuries. Among the most important were
Heraclitus ("all is fire", all is chaotic and transitory), Anaxagoras
(reality is so ordered that it must be in all respects governed by
mind), the Pluralists and Atomists (the world is composite of
innumerable interacting parts), the Eleatics Parmenides and Zeno
(all is One and change is impossible), the Sophists (became Ionia, source of early Greek philosophy, in western
known, perhaps unjustly, for claiming that truth was no more than Asia Minor.
opinion and for teaching people to argue fallaciously to prove
whatever conclusions they wished). This whole movement gradually became more concentrated in Athens, which
had become the dominant city-state in Greece.

There is considerable discussion about why Athenian culture encouraged philosophy, but a popular theory says that
it occurred because Athens had a direct democracy. It is known from Plato's writings that many sophists maintained
schools of debate, were respected members of society, and were well paid by their students. Orators influenced
Athenian history, possibly even causing its failure (See Battle of Lade). Another theory explains the birth of
philosophical debate in Athens with the presence of a slave labor workforce which performed the necessary
History of philosophy 2

functions that would otherwise have consumed the time of the free male citizenry. Freed from working in the fields
or other manual economic activities, they were able to participate in the assemblies of Athens and spend long periods
in discussions on popular philosophical questions. Students of Sophists needed to acquire the skills of oration in
order to influence the Athenian Assembly and thereby increase respect and wealth. In response, the subjects and
methods of debate became highly developed by the Sophists.
The key figure in transforming Greek philosophy into a unified and continuous project - the one still being pursued
today - is Socrates, who studied under several Sophists. It is said that following a visit to the Oracle of Delphi he
spent much of his life questioning anyone in Athens who would engage him, in order to disprove the oracular
prophecy that there would be no man wiser than Socrates. Through these live dialogues, he examined common but
critical concepts that lacked clear or concrete definitions, such as beauty and truth, and the virtues of piety, wisdom,
temperance, courage, and justice. Socrates' awareness of his own ignorance allowed him to discover his errors as
well as the errors of those who claimed knowledge based upon falsifiable or unclear precepts and beliefs. He wrote
nothing, but inspired many disciples, including many sons of prominent Athenian citizens (including Plato), which
led to his trial and execution in 399 B.C. on the charge that his philosophy and sophistry were undermining the
youth, piety, and moral fiber of the city. He was offered a chance to flee from his fate but chose to remain in Athens,
abide by his principles, and drink the poison hemlock.
Socrates' most important student was Plato, who founded the Academy of Athens and wrote a number of dialogues,
which applied the Socratic method of inquiry to examine philosophical problems. Some central ideas of Plato's
dialogues are the Theory of Forms, i.e., that the mind is imbued with an innate capacity to understand and
contemplate concepts from a higher order preeminent world, concepts more real, permanent, and universal than or
representative of the things of this world, which are only changing and temporal; the idea of the immortal soul being
superior to the body; the idea of evil as simple ignorance of truth; that true knowledge leads to true virtue; that art is
subordinate to moral purpose; and that the society of the city-state should be governed by a merit class of
propertyless philosopher kings, with no permanent wives or paternity rights over their children, and be protected by
an athletically gifted, honorable, duty bound military class. In the later dialogues Socrates figures less prominently,
but Plato had previously woven his own thoughts into some of Socrates' words. Interestingly, in his most famous
work, The Republic, Plato critiques democracy, condemns tyranny, and proposes a three tiered merit based structure
of society, with workers, guardians and philosophers, in an equal relationship, where no innocents would ever be put
to death again, citing the philosophers' relentless love of truth and knowledge of the forms or ideals, concern for
general welfare and lack of propertied interest as causes for their being suited to govern.
Plato's most outstanding student was Aristotle, perhaps the first truly systematic philosopher. Aristotelian logic was
the first type of logic to attempt to categorize every valid syllogism. A syllogism is a form of argument that is
guaranteed to be accepted, because it is known (by all educated persons) to be valid. A crucial assumption in
Aristotelian logic is that it has to be about real objects. Two of Aristotle's syllogisms are invalid to modern eyes. For
example, "All A are B. All A are C. Therefore, some B are C." This syllogism fails if set A is empty, but there are
real members of set B. In Aristotle's syllogistic logic you could say this, because his logic should only be used for
things that really exist ("no empty classes")
The application of Aristotelian logic is preceded by having the student memorize a rather large set of syllogisms. The
memorization proceeded from diagrams, or learning a key sentence, with the first letter of each word reminding the
student of the names of the syllogisms.
Each syllogism had a name, for example: "Modus Ponens" had the form of "If A is true, then B is true. A is true,
therefore B is true."
Most university students of logic memorized Aristotle's 19 syllogisms of two subjects, permitting them to validly
connect a subject and object. A few geniuses developed systems with three subjects, or described a way of
elaborating the rules of three subjects.
History of philosophy 3

Medieval philosophy
Medieval philosophy was greatly concerned with Christianity, the nature of God and the application of Aristotle's
logic and thought to every area of life. Attempts were made to reconcile these three things by means of
scholasticism. One continuing interest in this time was to prove the existence of God, through logic alone, if
possible. The point of this exercise was not so much to justify belief in God, since in the view of medieval
Christianity this was self-evident, but to make classical philosophy, with its extra-biblical pagan origins, respectable
in a Christian context.
One early effort was the cosmological argument, conventionally attributed to Thomas Aquinas. The argument
roughly is that everything that exists has a cause. But since there could not be an infinite chain of causes back into
the past, there must have been an uncaused "first cause." This is God. Aquinas also adapted this argument to prove
the goodness of God. Everything has some goodness, and the cause of each thing is better than the thing caused.
Therefore, the first cause is the best possible thing. Similar arguments were used to prove God's power and
uniqueness.
Another important argument for proof of the existence of God was the ontological argument, advanced by St.
Anselm. Basically, it says that God has all possible good features. Existence is good, and therefore God has it, and
therefore exists. This argument has been used in different forms by philosophers from Descartes forward.
As well as Aquinas, other important names from the medieval period include Duns Scotus and Pierre Abélard.
The definition of the word "philosophy" in English has changed over the centuries in medieval times, any research
outside the fields of theology or medicine was called "philosophy", hence the Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society is a scientific journal dating from 1665, the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree covers a wide range
of subjects, and the Cambridge Philosophical Society is actually concerned with what we would now call science
and not modern philosophy.

Modern philosophy
As with many periodizations, there are multiple current usages for the term "Modern Philosophy" that exist in
practice. One usage is to date modern philosophy from the "Age of Reason", where systematic philosophy became
common, excluding Erasmus and Machiavelli as "modern philosophers". Another is to date it, the way the entire
larger modern period is dated, from the Renaissance. In some usages, "Modern Philosophy" ended in 1800, with the
rise of Hegelianism and Idealism. There is also the lumpers/splitters problem, namely that some works split
philosophy into more periods than others: one author might feel a strong need to differentiate between "The Age of
Reason" or "Early Modern Philosophers" and "The Enlightenment"; another author might write from the perspective
that 1600-1800 is essentially one continuous evolution, and therefore a single period. Wikipedia's philosophy section
therefore hews more closely to centuries as a means of avoiding long discussions over periods, but it is important to
note the variety of practice that occurs.
A broad overview would then have Erasmus, Francis Bacon, Niccolò Machiavelli, and Galileo Galilei represent the
rise of empiricism and humanism in place of scholastic tradition. 17th-century philosophy is dominated by the need
to organize philosophy on rational, skeptical, logical and axiomatic grounds, such as the work of René Descartes,
Blaise Pascal, and Thomas Hobbes. This type of philosophy attempts to integrate religious belief into philosophical
frameworks, and, often to combat atheism or other unbeliefs, by adopting the idea of material reality, and the
dualism between spirit and material. The extension, and reaction, against this would be the monism of George
Berkeley (idealism) and Benedict de Spinoza (dual aspect theory). It was during this time period that the empiricism
was developed as an alternative to skepticism by John Locke, George Berkeley and others. It should be mentioned
that John Locke, Thomas Hobbes and Edmund Burke developed their well known political philosophies during this
time, as well.
History of philosophy 4

The 18th-century philosophy article deals with the period often called the early part of "The Enlightenment" in the
shorter form of the word, and centers on the rise of systematic empiricism, following after Sir Isaac Newton's natural
philosophy. Thus Diderot, Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Kant and the political philosophies embodied by and
influencing the American Revolution and American Enlightenment are part of The Enlightenment. Other prominent
philosophers of this time period were David Hume and Adam Smith, who, along with Francis Hutcheson, were also
the primary philosophers of the Scottish Enlightenment and Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson who were
philosophers of the American Enlightenment.
The 19th century took the radical notions of self-organization and intrinsic order from Goethe and Kantian
metaphysics, and proceeded to produce a long elaboration on the tension between systematization and organic
development. Foremost was the work of Hegel, whose Logic and Phenomenology of Spirit produced a "dialectical"
framework for ordering of knowledge. The 19th century would also include Schopenhauer's negation of the will. As
with the 18th century, it would be developments in science that would arise from, and then challenge, philosophy:
most importantly the work of Charles Darwin, which was based on the idea of organic self-regulation found in
philosophers such as Adam Smith, but fundamentally challenged established conceptions.
Also in the 19th century, the Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard took philosophy in a new direction by focusing
less on abstract concepts and more on what it means to be an existing individual. His work provided impetus for
many 20th century philosophical movements, including existentialism.

Contemporary philosophy
The 20th century deals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the
basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific and logical problems.
20th century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve, and to alter or abolish, older
knowledge systems. Seminal figures include Ludwig Wittgenstein, Martin Heidegger, Bertrand Russell, Jean-Paul
Sartre, and Edmund Husserl. Epistemology, the theory of knowledge, and its basis was a central concern, as seen
from the work of Heidegger, Russell, Karl Popper, and Claude Lévi-Strauss. Phenomenologically oriented
metaphysics undergirded existentialism (Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Albert Camus) and finally
poststructuralism (Gilles Deleuze, Jean-François Lyotard, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida). Pragmatist Richard
Rorty has argued that these and other schools of 20th century philosophy, including his own, share an opposition to
classical dualism that is both anti-essentialist and antimetaphysical.[1] The psychoanalytic work of Sigmund Freud,
Jacques Lacan, Julia Kristeva, and others has also been influential in contemporary continental philosophy.
A notable phenomenon of the latter half of the century was the rise of popular philosophers who promulgated
systems for dealing with the world but were isolated from academic philosophy, such as Ayn Rand, who were
radical critics of traditional philosophy and psychology and relied on unorthodox methods. Conversely, some
philosophers have attempted to define and rehabilitate older traditions of philosophy. Most notably, Hans-Georg
Gadamer and Alasdair MacIntyre have both, albeit in different ways, revived the tradition of Aristotelianism.
The 21st century's philosophy is difficult to clarify due to the short span of time that has lapsed since the start of the
new millennium. Only nearly one decade has passed since its beginning, however it is usually seen as being defined
by the prominent 20th century philosophers who still survive today. These include the likes of Noam Chomsky, Saul
Kripke and Jürgen Habermas, whose work as professors and educators in the field of philosophy have allowed them
to reach prominence in the mainstream media. The 21st century continues to carry with it much of the philosophical
debate seen in the former one, with continental and analytic traditions still reigning in major debate. A variety of new
topics, however, have risen to the stage, resurrecting ethics into the modern philosophical discussion. For instance
the implications of new media and information exchange, such as the Internet, have brought back interest in the
philosophy of technology and science.
History of philosophy 5

Eastern philosophy
In the West, the term Eastern philosophy refers very broadly to the various philosophies of "the East," namely Asia,
including China, India, Japan, Persia and the general area. One must take into account that this term ignores that
these countries do not belong to a single culture.
Ancient eastern philosophy developed mainly in India and China. Hindu philosophy primarily begins with
Upanishads, which can be dated around the middle of the first millennium BC. The oldest, such as the
Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, have been dated to around the 8th century BCE. The philosophical
edifice of Indian religions viz., Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism is built on the foundation laid by the Upanishads.
Hindu philosophy is followed by the Buddhist and Jain philosophies. Confucianism can be considered as the oldest
school of philosophy in China. Confucianism developed in China around the same time as Buddhism and Jainism
developed in India. Another school of philosophy, Taoism, developed in China around 200 BC.

Babylonian philosophy
See article Babylonian literature: Philosophy

Indian philosophy
See article Indian philosophy
See also Hindu philosophy and Jainism

Persian philosophy
See article Philosophy in Iran
See also Zoroastrianism''

Chinese philosophy
See article Chinese philosophy

Buddhist philosophy
See article Buddhist philosophy

Abrahamic philosophy
Abrahamic philosophy, in its loosest sense, comprises the series of philosophical schools that emerged from the
study and commentary of the common ancient Semitic tradition which can be traced by their adherents to Abraham
("Father/Leader of many" Hebrew ‫"( םָהָרְבַא‬Avraham") Arabic ‫"( ميهاربا‬Ibrahim"), a patriarch whose life is narrated
in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, and as a prophet in the Qur'an and also called a prophet in Genesis 20:7).
The standard text common to all of these subsequent traditions are what is known as the Hebrew Bible, roughly the
first five books of the Old Testament, starting with the book of Genesis through to Deuteronomy. However, each of
them added substantially different texts to their emerging canons, and hence their respective philosophical
developments varied widely.
History of philosophy 6

Jewish philosophy
See article Jewish philosophy

Christian philosophy
See article Christian philosophy

Islamic philosophy
See articles Islamic philosophy, Early Islamic philosophy, and Modern Islamic philosophy
Islamic philosophy as Henry Corbin describes is a philosophy whose development, and whose modalities, are
essentially linked to the religious and spiritual fact of Islam.[2] In the other word, it represents the style of philosophy
produced within the framework of Islamic culture. This description does not suggest that it is necessarily concerned
with religious issues, nor even that it is exclusively produced by Muslims.[3]

Religious roots
Theoretical questions were raised right from the beginning of Islam, questions which could to a certain extent be
answered by reference to Islamic texts such as the Quran, the practices of the community and the traditional sayings
of Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, and his Companions.[3] In fact, rational argumentation about Islamic doctrines
starts with Quran itself, and has been followed up in the utterances of the Muhammad and especially in the sermons
of Ali. This despite the fact that their style and approach are different from those of the Muslim theologians.[4]
Though nothing definite can be said about the beginnings of theology among Muslims, what is certain is that
discussion of some of the problems, such as the issue of predestination, free will and Divine Justice, became current
among Muslims during the first half of the 2nd century of Islam coincides with 8th century. Perhaps the first formal
centre of such discussions was the circle of Hasan al-Basri(d.728-29).[4] Later several theological schools have
emerged from 8th to 10th century. Mu'tazili theology originated in the 8th century in Basra (Iraq) by Wasil ibn Ata
(d.748 A.D.).[5]

Transferring of Greek philosophy

The early conquests of the Muslims brought them into close contact with centers of civilization heavily influenced
by Christianity and also by Greek culture. Many rulers wished to understand and use the Greek forms of knowledge,
some practical and some theoretical, and a large translation project started which saw official support for the
assimilation of Greek culture. This had a powerful impact upon all areas of Islamic philosophy. Neoplatonism
definitely became the prevalent school of thought, following closely the curriculum of Greek philosophy which was
initially transmitted to the Islamic world.[3]

Periods
Henry Corbin has divided the history of Islamic philosophy into three periods.[6]

Early Islamic philosophy

The first period of Islamic philosophy coincides with Islamic golden age. During this time pure philosophical
thought is usually used Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism thought as its sources. But it also influenced by Islamic
thought and culture. Falaturi has shown in his research that how Hellenistic philosophy diverged in the context of
Islamic culture. On the other hand Corbin has shown how mystic aspect of Islam, especially Shia affected
philosophy. This period begins with al-Kindi and ends with Averroes(d.1198).[6] On the other hand there were
crucial theological debates between Muslim theologians. These discussion also helped to rise of rational debates
about religion, especially Islam.
History of philosophy 7

Avicenna is one the most prominent figures of this period. He is a thinker who attempted to redefine the course of
Islamic philosophy and channel it into new directions. Avicenna's metaphysical system is built on the ingredients and
conceptual building blocks which are largely Aristotelian and Neoplatonic, but the final structure is other than the
sum of its parts.[7] In the Islamic Golden Age, due to Avicenna's successful reconciliation between Aristotelianism
and Neoplatonism along with Islamic theology, Avicennism eventually became the leading school of early Islamic
philosophy by the 12th century. Avicenna had become a central authority on philosophy by then.[8] Although this
school was highly criticized by Muslim theologians, such as al-Ghazali, philosophers, like Averroes, and Sufis,
Avicenna's writings spread like fire and continued until today to form the basis of philosophic education in the
Islamic world. For to the extent that the post-Averroistic tradition remained philosophic, especially in the eastern
Islamic lands, it moved in the directions charted for it by Avicenna in the investigation of both theoretical and
practical sciences.[7]

Mystical philosophy
After the death of Averroes, Islamic philosophy in the Peripatetic style went out of fashion in the Arab part of
Muslim world, until the 19th century. Mystical philosophy, by contrast, continued to flourish, although no thinkers
matched the creativity of Ibn Arabi or Ibn Sab‘in. In the Persian-speaking part, Islamic philosophy has continued to
follow a largely Illuminationist curriculum, which is introduced by Suhrawardi.[3] [6]

Transcendent Theosophy
The third period, according to Corbin, begins in the 16th century after emergence of Safavid dynasty in Persia.[6] The
most prominent figure of this period is Mulla Sadra who introduced Transcendent Theosophy as a critical philosophy
which brought together Peripatetic, Illuminationist and gnostic philosophy along with Ash'ari and Twelvers
theology, the source of which lay in the Islamic revelation and the mystical experience of reality as existence.[9] [10]
This philosophy becomes dominant form of philosophy in Iran since 19th century. Shah Wali Allah extended
Suhrawardi school of thought to the Indian subcontinent.[3]

Modern era
َNew trends have emerged during 19th and 20th centuries due to challenge of western philosophy and Modernity to
traditional Islamic philosophy. On one hand some of the scholars such as Al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh sought
to find rational principles which would establish a form of thought which is both distinctively Islamic and also
appropriate for life in modern scientific societies, a debate which is continuing within Islamic philosophy today.
Muhammad Iqbal is one of the prominent figure of this group who provided a rather eclectic mixture of Islamic and
European philosophy. On the other hand some thinkers reacted to the phenomenon of modernity by developing
Islamic fundamentalism. This resuscitated the earlier antagonism to philosophy by arguing for a return to the original
principles of Islam and rejected modernity as a Western imperialist intrusion.[3] In Iran, the effects of mystic
philosophers especially Mulla Sadra is great, and philosophers who are more loyal to traditional Islamic philosophy
have tried to keep alive this school and use it to deal with Modernism. Allameh Tabatabaei is the most prominent
figure of this group. [11] Nowadays Seyyed Hossein Nasr tries to introduce traditional Islamic philosophy and dealt
with the Islamic response to the challenges of the modern world.[12] Finally, there have been many thinkers who
have adapted and employed non-Islamic philosophical ideas as part of the normal philosophical process of seeking to
understand conceptual problems such as Hegelianism and Existentialism. Therefore modern Islamic philosophy is
thus quite diverse, employing a wide variety of techniques and approaches to its subjects.[13]
History of philosophy 8

Judeo-Islamic philosophy
See article Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800 - 1400)

See also
• History of ethics

References
• Corbin, Henry (1993 (original French 1964)). History of Islamic Philosophy, Translated by Liadain Sherrard,
Philip Sherrard. London; Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of
Ismaili Studies. ISBN 0710304161.
• Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Mehdi Aminrazavi (1996). The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia. Routledge.
ISBN 0700703144.
• Leaman, Oliver; Parviz Morewedge (2000). Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, editor: Edward
Craig. Routledge. ISBN 0415223644.

External links
• Map with western philosophers' places and dates of birth [14]

References
[1] Rorty, Richard. 'Philosophy and Social Hope. Penguin.1999: 47-48.
[2] Corbin (1993) p.xiv
[3] LEAMAN, OLIVER (1998). Islamic philosophy. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge. Retrieved
December 30, 2007 (http:/ / www. rep. routledge. com/ article/ H057)
[4] An Introduction to 'Ilm al-Kalam (http:/ / www. muslimphilosophy. com/ ip/ kalam. htm) by Morteza Motahhari
[5] Martin et al., 1997
[6] Corbin (1993), pp. xvi and xvii
[7] "Avicenna" (http:/ / www. iranica. com/ newsite/ articles/ v3f1/ v3f1a046. html). Encyclopedia Iranica. . Retrieved 2007-12-30.
[8] Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), p. 80-81, "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in
the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (died 1288)", Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame. (http:/ / etd. nd. edu/ ETD-db/ theses/
available/ etd-11292006-152615)
[9] Mulla Sadra (Sadr al-Din Muhammad al-Shirazi) (1571/2-1640) (http:/ / www. muslimphilosophy. com/ ip/ rep/ H027. htm)
[10] Leaman (2007), pp.146 and 147
[11] See:
• Leaman (2000), p.410
• Nasr (1996), pp.324 and 325
[12] Fakhri (2004), p.322
[13] Leaman (2000), p.410
[14] http:/ / maps. google. it/ maps/ ms?ie=UTF8& hl=it& msa=0& msid=107892646478667659520. 0004445545f2b2cffb9ed& ll=47.
398349,14. 326172& spn=28. 597229,79. 013672& z=4
Article Sources and Contributors 9

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