Andrés López Forastier

Biology 1
Chapters 2 and 3 Study Guide
Vocabulary:
 Acid: A substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.
 Atherosclerosis: Clogging of the arteries disease.
 Aqueous Solution: A solution in which water is the solvent.
 Atom: The smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element.
 Atomic Number: The number of protons that are at atoms core.
 Base: A substance that decreases the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.
 Buffer: A solution that resists changes in pH.
 Chemical Bond: An attraction between two atoms resulting from a sharing of outer-shell electrons or the presence of
opposite charges on the atoms. The bonded atoms gain complete outer electron shells.
 Chemical Reaction: A process leading to chemical changes in matter, involving the making and/or breaking of
chemical bonds.
 Cohesion: the attraction between molecules of the same kind
 Compound: a substance containing two or more different elements in a fixed ratio
 Covalent Bond: An attraction between atoms that share one or more pairs of outer-shell electrons; symbolized by a
single line between the atoms.
 Electron: (negatively charged subatomic particle) is outside of the atom revolving around in a spherical cloud of at
nearby the speed of light
 Element: a substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reactions
 Evaporative Cooling: A property of water whereby a body becomes cooler as water evaporates from it.
 Heat: the amount of kinetic energy contained in the movement of atoms and molecules in a body of water. It is energy
in its most random form
 Hydrogen Bond: A type of weak chemical bond formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent
bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule.
 Ion: An atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons, thus acquiring an electrical charge
 Ionic Bond: An attraction between two ions with opposite electrical charges. The electrical attraction of the opposite
charges holds the ions together.
 Isotope: A variant form of an atom. Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons.
 Mass: A measure of the amount of matter in an object.
 Mass Number: The sum of the protons and neutrons (together known as nucleons).
 Atomic Mass: Number of Protons and Neutrons including isotopes.
 Matter: Anything that occupies space and has mass.
 Molecule: A group of two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds.
 Neutron: (Neutrally charged or has no charge) packed into the nucleus of the atom and is a nucleon.
 Nucleus: The central core of the atom where protons and neutrons are densely packed.
 pH scale: measurement system used to indicate the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution; it ranges from 0 to
14, Acidic to Alkaline.
 Polar Molecule: A molecule containing an uneven distribution of charge due to the presence of polar covalent bonds
(bonds having opposite charges on opposite ends). A polar molecule will have a slightly positive pole and a slightly
negative pole.
 Product: An ending material in a chemical reaction.
 Proton: (positively charged subatomic particle) that is packed into the center of the atom and is a part of the nucleons.
 Radioactive: A spontaneous process in which unstable nuclei lose energy by emitting radiation.
 Reactant: A starting material in a chemical reaction.
 Solute: A substance that is dissolved in a liquid, which is called the solvent, to form a solution.
 Solution: A liquid consisting of a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances, which has a dissolving substance
and dissolving agent.
 Solvent: The dissolving agent of a solution. Water is the most versatile solvent known to man.
 Temperature: A measure of how hot (or cold) something is; specifically, a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
particles in an object.
 Trace Element: An element that is essential for the survival of an organism but is needed in only minute quantities.
 Andrés López Forastier
Biology 1
 Amino Acid: An organic molecule containing a carboxyl group and an amino group; a hydrogen atom, and a variable
side chain; serves as the monomer of proteins.
 Monomer: A molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer.
 Atherosclerosis: A cardiovascular disease in which a buildup of fatty deposits called plaque develops on the inner walls
of the arteries, narrowing the passageways through which blood can flow.
 Carbohydrates: A biological molecule consisting of a simple sugar (a monosaccharide), two monosaccharides joined
into a double sugar (a disaccharide), or a chain of monosaccharides.
 Monosaccharide: The smallest kind of sugar molecule; a single unit of sugar; also known as a simple sugar.
 Disaccharide: A sugar molecule consisting of two monosaccharides linked by a dehydration reaction.
 cellulose: A large polysaccharide composed of many glucose monomers linked into cable-like fibrils that provide
structural support in plant cell walls.
 Dehydration Reaction: A chemical process in which a polymer forms when monomers are linked by the removal of
water molecules. One molecule of water is removed for each pair of monomers linked. The atoms in the water
molecule are provided by the two monomers involved in the reaction. The reverse of the hydrolysis reaction
 Denaturation: A process in which a protein unravels, losing its specific structure and hence function; can be caused by
changes in pH or salt concentration or by high temperature. Also refers to the separation of the two strands of the DNA
double helix, caused by similar factors.
 DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): The genetic material that organisms inherit from their parents; a double stranded
helical macromolecule consisting of nucleotide monomers with deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and the
nitrogenous bases, adenine, cytosine, and thymine.
 Double Helix: The form assumed by DNA in living cells, referring to its two adjacent polynucleotide strands wound
into a spiral shape.
 Fat: A large lipid molecule made from an alcohol called glycerol and three fatty acids; a triglyceride. Most fats
function as energy-storage molecules.
 Triglyceride: A dietary fat that consists of a molecule of glycerol linked to three molecules of fatty acids.
 Functional Groups: A group of atoms that form the chemically reactive part of an organic molecule. A functional group
usually behaves similarly in different chemical reactions.
 Gene: A unit of inheritance in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses) consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence of a
polypeptide. Most of the gene of a eukaryote are in its chromosomal DNA; a few are carried by DNA of mitochondria
and chloroplast.
 Glycogen: A complex, extensively branched polysaccharide made up of many glucose monomers; serves as an energy-
storage molecule in liver and muscle cells.
 Hydrocarbons: Organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen.
 Hydrogenation: The artificial process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen.
 Hydrolysis: The chemical process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen.
 Hydrophilic: "water-loving"; pertaining to polar or charged molecules (or parts of molecules) that are soluble in water
 Hydrophobic: "Water-fearing"; pertaining to nonpolar molecules (or parts of molecules) that do not dissolve in water.
 Isomers: One of two or more molecules with the same molecular formula but different structures and thus different
properties.
 Lipids: An organic compound consisting mainly of carbon and hydrogen atoms linked by non-polar covalent bonds and
therefore mostly hydrophobic and insoluble in water. Includes fats, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.
 Macromolecules: A giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a dehydration reaction: a
protein, carbohydrate, or nucleic acid.
 Monomers: A chemical subunit that serves as a building block of a polymer.
 Nucleic Acids: A polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the
actions of proteins, for all cellular structures and activities. The two types of them are DNA and RNA.
 Nucleotides: An organic monomer consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and a
phosphate group. Also, they are the building blocks of nucleic acids including DNA and RNA.
 Organic Compounds: A chemical compound containing carbon.
 Peptide Bond: The covalent linkage between two amino acid units in a polypeptide; formed by a dehydration reaction.
 Polymers: A large molecule consisting of many identical or similar molecular units, called monomers, covalently
joined together in a chain.
 Polypeptide: A chain of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
 Polysaccharides: A carbohydrate polymer consisting of many monosaccharides (sugars) linked by dehydration
reactions.
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Biology 1
 Primary Structure: The first level of protein structure; the specific sequence of amino acids making up a polypeptide
chain.
 Protein: A biological polymer constructed from hundreds to thousands of amino acid monomers. Proteins perform
many functions within living cells, including providing structure, transport, and acting as enzymes
 RNA: A type of nucleic acid consisting of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine
(A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U); usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis and as the genome
of some viruses.
 Saturated: Pertaining to fats and fatty acids whose hydrocarbon chains contain the maximum number of hydrogens and
therefore have no double covalent bonds. Saturated fats and fatty acids solidify at room temperature.
 Starch: A storage polysaccharide found in the roots of plants and certain other cells; a polymer of glucose.
 Steroids: A type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four rings with various functional groups
attached.
 Sugar-Phosphate Backbone: The alternating chain of sugar and phosphate to which the DNA and RNA nitrogenous
bases are attached.
 Trans-Fat: An unsaturated fatty acid produced by the partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils and present in hardened
vegetable oils, most margarines, many commercial baked foods, and many fried foods.
 Unsaturated: Pertaining to fats and fatty acids whose hydrocarbon chains lack the maximum number of hydrogen atoms
and therefore have one or more double covalent bonds. Unsaturated fats and fatty acids do not solidify at room
temperature.
Concepts:
 Some Basic Chemistry
o Matter: Elements and Compounds
 Matter consists of elements, which cannot be broken down, and compounds, which are combinations
of two or more elements.
 Of the 25 elements essential for life, oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen are the most abundant in
living matter.
o Atoms
 Protons
 Positive Charge
 Determine Element
 Neutrons
 No Charge
 Determine Isotope
 Electrons
 Negative Charge
 Participate in Chemical Reactions
 Outermost Electrons determine chemical behavior.
 Nucleus
 Consists of Neutrons and Protons.
o Chemical Bonding and Molecules
 Ionic Bond:
 Transfer of one or more electrons produces attractions between oppositely charged ions.
 Attractions between oppositely charged ions holds the ions in an ionic bond.
 Covalent Bond:
 A molecule consists of two or more atoms connected by covalent bonds, which are formed by
electron sharing.
 Atoms joined into a molecule by electron sharing.
 Hydrogen Bonds:
 Water is a polar molecule; the slightly positively charged H atoms in one water molecule may
be attracted to the partial negative charge of O atoms in neighboring water molecules.
 Forms weak but important hydrogen bonds.
o Chemical Reactions
 By breaking bonds in reactants and forming new bonds in products, chemical reactions rearrange
matter.
 Andrés López Forastier
Biology 1
 Water and Life
o Water
 The cohesion (sticking together) of water molecules is essential to life.
 Water moderates temperature by absorbing heat in warm environments and releasing heat in cold
environments.
 Evaporative cooling also helps stabilize the temperatures of oceans and organisms.
 Ice floats because it is less dense than liquid water, and the insulating properties of floating ice prevent
the oceans from freezing solid.
 Water is a very good solvent, dissolving a variety of solutes to produce aqueous solutions.
 Liquid Water
 Hydrogen bonds constantly break and reform.
 Ice
 Stable hydrogen bonds keep molecules a fixed distance apart making ice less dense than
water.
o Acids, Bases, and pH
 pH 14
 Basic
 Lower H+ concentration
 pH 7
 Neutral
 H+ concentration equal to OH- concentration
 pH 0
 Acidic
 Greater H+ concentration
 Organic Compounds
o Carbon Chemistry
 Carbon atoms can form large, complex, diverse molecules by bonding to four potential partners,
including other carbon atoms.
 In addition to variations in the size and shape of carbon skeletons, organic compounds vary in the
presence and locations of different functional groups.
o Giant Molecules from Smaller Building Blocks


o Large Biological Molecules


 Andrés López Forastier
Biology 1
 Carbohydrates
 Simple sugars (monosaccharides) provide cells with energy and building materials.
o Glucose
o Fructose
o Galactose
 Double sugars (disaccharides), such as sucrose, consist of two monosaccharides joined by a
dehydration reaction.
o Sucrose: (Glucose and Fructose)
o Lactose: (Glucose and Galactose)
o Maltose: (Glucose and Glucose)
 Polysaccharides are long polymers of sugar monomers.
 Starch in plants and glycogen in animals are storage polysaccharides.
o Glycogen is more branched than starch.
 The cellulose of plant cell walls, which is indigestible by animals, is an example of a
structural polysaccharide.
o Beta bouncing bond.
o Cannot be broken down by humans.
 Polysaccharides on cell membranes act as cell identification tags.
 C1H2O1
 Lipids
 Lipids are hydrophobic.
 Fats, a type of lipid, are the major form of long-term energy storage in animals.
 A molecule of fat or triglyceride, consists of three fatty acids joined by dehydration reactions
to a molecule of glycerol.
 Most animal fats are saturated, meaning that their fatty acids have the maximum number of
hydrogens.
 Plant oils contain mostly unsaturated fats, having fewer hydrogens in the fatty acids because
of double bonding in the carbon skeletons.
 Steroids, including cholesterol and the sex hormones, are also lipids.
 Proteins
 There are 20 types of amino acids, the monomers of proteins.
 They are linked by dehydration reactions to form polymers called polypeptides.
 A protein consists of one or more polypeptides folded into a specific three-dimensional shape.
 The shape of a protein determines it function.
o Structural, Signal, Receptor, Transport, Sensory, Enzymes, Storage, Contractile,
Gene Regulatory, Defensive. These are all different types of proteins.
 Changing the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide may alter the shape and therefore the
function of the protein.
 Shape is sensitive to environment, and if a protein loses its shape because of an unfavorable
environment, its function may also be lost.
 Parts of proteins are attracted to itself, so it causes odd shapes to form.
 R groups can be basic acidic, hydrophobic or hydrophilic.

 Nucleic Acids
 Andrés López Forastier
Biology 1
 Nucleic acids include RNA and DNA.
 DNA takes the form of a double helix, two DNA strands (polymers of nucleotides) held
together by hydrogen bonds between nucleotide components called bases.
 There are four kinds of DNA bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine, (T), and cytosine (C).
 A always pairs with T and G always pairs with C.
 These base-pairing rules enable DNA to act as the molecule of inheritance.
 RNA has U (uracil) instead of T.
 RNA translates DNA language into protein language.