A oa Serer Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation Uday Bakshi Ajay Bakshi cy ya fing} _ Technical Publications Pune’ —— aStrictly According to the Revised Syllabus of UPTECH University Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation [TEC-303] Semester - III (Electronics & Communication & Allied Branches) Uday A. Bakshi M. E(Electrical) Formerly Lecturer in Department of Electronics Engg. Vishwakarma Institute of Technology Ajay V. Bakshi B.E.(Electronics) Formerly Lecturer in Deptt. of E & Tc Maharashtra Academy of Engineering Alandi, Pune Price Rs. 270/- Visit us at: www.vtubooks.com sai Technical Publications rune® iQSyllabus (Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation) Unit-1 : Theory of Measurement (Chapters -1, 2) Introduction, Performance Characteristics : Static & Dynamic standards, Error analysis : and Statistical analysis. jources, Types Unit-II : Transducers (Chapter - 3) Passive transducers : Resistive, Inductive and capacitive Active transducers : Thermoelectric, piezoelectric and photoelectric. Bridges : Direct current and alternating current bridges, LCR bridges. Unit-II : Analog Meters (Chapter - 4) ‘AC analog meters : Average Peak and r.m.s. responding voltmeters. sampling voltmeters. Electronics Analog meters : Electronics analog D.C. and A.C. voltmeter and ammeters, Electronic analog a imeter. Unit-IV : Digital Meters (Chapters - 5, 6,7) Analog to digital converter : Transfer characteristics, A/D Conversion techniques : Simple potentiometric and servo method, Successive approximation, Ramp type, Integrating and Dual-slope integrating method. DIA Converter : Transfer characteristics, D/A Conversion techniques, Digital mode of operation, Performance characteristics of DIA converters. Display devices : Decimal, BCD and straight binary number, Indicating system, Numericand alphanumeric display using LCD and LED, Specification of digital meters : Display digit and Counts resolution, Sensitivity, Accuracy, Speed and Settling time etc. Unit-V ; Oscilloscopes and RF Measurements (Chapter- 8) Types of oscilloscopes, Controls, Measurements Voltage, Frequency, Time and Phase. High frequency Measurements - RF impedancy. Probes : Types of probes, Probe loading and Measurement effect, Probe specifications. Unit-VI : Signal Generators and Analyzers (Chapters - 9, 10) Signal Generators : Sine-wave, Non-sinusoidal and Function generators, Frequency synthesis techniques and digital signal generators. Signal Analyzers : Distortion, Wave and Network spectrum analyzers.Table of Contents (1-1) to (1-66) Chapter-1__ Theory of Measurement Chapter-2__ Bridges (2-1) to(2-90) Chapter-3_ Transducers (3 - 1) to (3 -66) Chapter-4 Analog Meters (4-1) to (4-92) Chapter-5 Digital to Analog Converters (5-1) to(5- 14) Chapter-6 ADC and Digital Voltmeters. (6-1) to (6 - 40) Chapter-7__ Display Devices (7 - 1) to (7 - 20) Chapter-6 Oscilloscopes & RF Measurement (6 - 4) to (8 -80) Chapter-9 Signal Generators (9-1) to(9 - 58) Chapter-10__ Signal Analyzers (10 - 4) to (10-32) Appendix-A__FET Voltmeters (A= 1) to (A-11)Best of Technical Publications As per Revised Syllabus of UPTECH Semester - III (ECE) ‘Network Analysis and Synthesis Bakshi & Switching Theory Bakshi Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation BakshiElectronic Measurements ; & Instrumentation EP: Uday A. Bakshi M. E.(Electrical) Formerly Lecturer in Department of Electronics Engg. Vishwakarma Institute of Technology Pune Ajay V. Bakshi B.E,Electrorics) Formerly Lecturer in Deptt. of E & To Maharashtra Academy of Engineering Alandi, Pune Visit us at: www.vtubooks.com cr Technical Publicati98 at Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation ISBN 9788189411244 All righ’s reserved with Technical Publications. No port of this book should be reproduced in ony form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and retrieval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : ‘Technical Publications Pune” ‘#1, Annit Residency, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, India. Printer : ‘Aker DTPA ‘Srna. 10/3,Snhaged Reed, +411 041image not availableimage not availableTable of Contents 1.4 Introduction .... 1.1.1 Advantages of Electronic Measurement . .. . 1.2 Functional Elements of an Instrument .. 1.2.1 Primary Sensing Element ....... 1.2.3 Variable Manipulation Element Data Present ment... 1.3 Performance Characteristics. 13.1 Calibration . 14.1 Accuracy .. 14.2 Precision 1.424 Conformity... ss... 1.42.2 Significant Figures . 14.3 Error. 14:4 Senslivity cissousves casera ee 1.4.5 Resolution . . . 14.6 Threshold 14.7 Linearity 1.4.8 Zero Drift... . 14.9 Reproducibility. 1.4.10 Stability . 14.11 Tolerance. ........ cece 44.12 Range or Span . 14.13 Bias ...... 1.4.14 Hysteresis . 1.4.15 Dead Space. . 1.5 Dynamic Characteristics 1.5.1 Speed of Response. 15.2 Fidelity. .15.4 Dynamic Error .. 1.6 Instrument Classification 1.6.1 Active/Passive Instruments 1-19 1.6.2 NullDeflection Type Instruments. 1-24 1.6.3 Monitoring/Control Instruments .. 1-2 1.6.4 Analog/Digital Instruments. ... 1-23 1.6.5 Absolute/Secondary Instruments. 1-24 1.7 Methods of Measurement ... 1.7.1 Direct Method of Measurement 1.7.2 Indirect Method of Measurement. 1.8 Calibration. 1.9 Calibration Methodology ..... 1.9.1 Direct Comparison Calibration Methodology 1.9.2 Indirect Comparison Calibration Methodology. 1.10 Standard . es 1.10.1 International Standards . . 1-28 1.10.2 Primary Standards. . 1-28 1.10.3 Secondary Standards . 1-29 1.10.4 Working Standards ... 1-29 1.41 Sources of Errors 4.12 Types of Errors 112.1 Gross Errors 1.12.2 Systematic Errors 1.12.21 Instumental Errors... 1.12.2.2 Environmental Errors 1.12.2.3 Observational Errors . 1.12.3 Random Errors ... . . 1.13 Statistical Analysi: 1.13.1 Arithmetic Mean and Median. 1.13.2 Deviation from Mean... . 1.13.3 Average Deviation. . 1.13.4 Standard Deviation . 1.13.5 Variance 1.14 Frequency Distributions 1.15 Distribution Functions 1.15.1 Gaussian Distribution . 1.16 Confidence Interval and Confidence Level 1.16.1 Probable Error of a Finite Number of Readings . .1.17 Limiting Errors 1.47.4 Relative Limiting Error. . sancreematees 1.17.2 Combination of Quantities with Limiting ESA. Esebwerarees exserene heR 1.18 Units..... 1.18.1 Fundamental Units . 4.18.2 Supplementary Units 1.18.4 SI Prefixes. ... "i Examples with Solutions... Review Questions. UPTU Questions. Chapter+2 Bridges 2.4 Introduction 2.1.1 Advantages of Bridge Circuit_. 2.2 Types of Bridges 2.3 Wheatstone Bridge 2.3.1 Balance Condition . ‘ 2.3.2 Industrial Form of Wheatstone Bridge . . 2.3.3 Sensitivity of Wheatstone Bridge......... 2.3.4 Wheatstone Bridge Under Small Unbalance. . 2.3.5 Thevenin’s Equivalent and Galvanometer Current ee 23.6 Galvanometer Current Under Unbalanced Condition... 2B 2.3.7 S, Interms of Current Sensitivity of Galvanometer . . . 2.3.8 Measurement Errors . .. aig 2.3.9 Applications of Wheatstone Bridge 2.3.10 Advantages of Wheatstone Bridge 2.3.11 Limitations of Wheatstone Bridge. 2.4 Kelvin Bridge 2.4.1 Kelvin's Double Bridge . : 2.4.2 Practical Kelvin's Double Bridge . . 2.5 A.C. Bridges... 2.5.1 Sources and Detectors . 2.5.2 Bridge Balance Equation 2.6 Capacitance Comparison Bridge . 2.7 Inductance Comparison Bridge. 2.8 Maxwells Bridge 2.8.1 Maxwell's Inductance Bridge 1-49 1-62 41-652.8.2 Maxwell's Inductance Capacitance Bridge . 2.8.3 Advantages of Maxwell Bridge . 2.8.4 Limitations of Maxwell Bridge 2.9 Anderson Bridge 2.9.1 Advantages . 2.9.2 Disadvantages. 2.10 Hay's Bridge... 2.10.1 Advantages of Hay's Bridge . 2.10.2 Disadvantage of Hay's Bridge 2.11 Schering Bridge ... 2.11.1 Power Factor and Loss Angle 2.12 High Voltage Schering Bridge 2.13 Wien Bridge .. 2.13.4 Applications. 2.14 Shielding and Grounding of Bridges 2.15 Q Meter 2.15.1 Working Principle of Q Meter. 2.15.2 Practical Q Meter. 2.15.3 Different Connections in Q Meter . 2.15.5 Transmission Line Impedance Measurement by Q Meter. Examples with Solutions...... RQVIAW QUO@STIONS . scssessssssenssemsssmnsnnsesssesanianssincascaarsanaiscamacoesasisearsassarsaraie © OB UPTU Questions.. 3.1 Introduction it 3.2 Classification of Transducers 3.2.1 Active and Passive Transducer. 3.2.1.1 Actve Transducers. 3.2.2 According to Transduction Principle 3.2.2.1 Capacitive Transduclion. . . 3.2.2.2 Electromagnetic Transduction. 3.2.2.3 Inductive Transduction ‘3.2.2.4 Piezoelectric Transduction... . 3.2.3 Analog and Digital Transducers. 9.2.3.1 Analog Transducers.3.23.2 Digital Transducers 3.2.4 Primary or Secondary . . 3.5 Passive Transducers .... 3.6 Resistive Transducers .... 3.7 Potentiometric Resistance Transducers ... 3.7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Resistance Potentiometers . 3.8 Strain Gauges... 3.8.1 Principle of Operation and Construction of Strain Gauges . 3.8.2 Derivation of Gauge Factor. . . 3.8.3 Types of Stain Gauges... 3.8.4 Basic Forms of Resistance Wire Stain Gane: 38.5 Desirable Characteristics of Resistance Wire strain Gauge 3.8.6 Semiconductor Strain Gauge . 3.8.7 Comparison of Metal Gauge with Semiconductor Strain Gauge. 3.8.8 Rosette Strain Gauges 3.8.9 Signal Conditioning for Strain Gauges: 3.9 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) 3.9.1 Construction of RTD 3.9.2 Advantages of RTD 3.9.3 Disadvantages of RTD 3.10 Thermistors. 3.10.1 Construction of Thermistor 3.10.2 Resistance Temperature Characteristics 3.10.3 Voltage Current Characteristics 3.10.4 Current Time Characteristics 3.10.5 Advantages.......... 3.10.6 Limitations 3.10.7 Applications 3.10.8 Comparison between Resistance Thermometer and Themmistor. 3.10.9. Signal Conditioning Circuit 3.11.1 Transducer Based_on Principle of Change in Self Inductance with Number of Turns . 3.11.2 Variable Permeability inductive Transducer .............+. “3.11.4 Eddy Current Type Inductive Transducer . .. 3.12 Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT) 3.12.1 Construction and Working of LVDT........ 3.12.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of LVDT .. . 3.13 Capacitive Transducers 3.13.1. Variation in Capacitance. 3.13.2 Capacitance Type Level Meter. 3.13.3 Capacitive Pressure Transducer . 3.13.4 Signal Conditioning Circuit . 3.13.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Capacitive Transducers. 3.14 Active Transducers .... 3.15 Thermoelectric Transducer... 3.1.1 Thermoelectric Phenomena . 3.15.2 Construction of Thermocouple ........ . 3.15.2.1 Materials used for’ rariococ s 3.15.3 Thermoelectric Laws... eeenere 3.15.4 Thermopiles. . 3.15.5 Advantages and Limitations of Thamiscole 3.15.6 Desirable Characteristics of Thermocouple. 3.16 Piezoelectric Transducer .. 3.16.1 Basic Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer... . 3.16.1.1 Advantages and Limitations of Piezolectic Pressure Transducer . 3.16.2 Applications of Piezoelectric Transducer.......... 3.47 Photoelseitic Transducers a BT 3.17.4 Photoemissive Transducers aa B17.1.4 Vacuum Phototube, 8B & 37.1.2 Gas-filled Phototubes. . eee = 3-59 3.17.1.3 Photomutiplier Tube . 3-59 3.17.2 Photoconductive Transducers 3-60 3.17.2.1 Photoconductive Cell . 3-61 3.17.22 Photodiodes . . . = 3-62 3.17.3 Photovoltaic Transducers eee 3.17.3.1 Photovoltaic call. - 3-63 3.17.3.2 Phototransistors . 3-64 Review Questions. - 64 Chaptor-4 4.1 Introduction .. 4.2 Classification of Measuring Instruments 4.3 Essential Requirements of an Instrument... iL TEES eS ee4.4 Deflecting System... 4.5 Controlling System 45.1 Gravity Control. 4.5.2 Spring Control . 45.3 Comparison of Controting Systems ; 4.6 Damping System. 46.1 Air Friction Damping . 4.6.2 Fluid Friction Damping, . 4.6.3 Eddy Current Damping 4.7 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments a) 47.1 Torque Equation . “ 47.2 Advantages. 4.7.3 Disadvantages. .. 4.7.4 Taut Band instrument a 47.5 Temperature Compensation . . 4.7.6 Errors in PMMC Instrument . 4.8 Moving Iron Instruments .. 4.8.1 Moving Iron Attraction Type Instruments. 4.8.2 Moving Iron Repulsion Type Instrument . ... . 4.82.1 Radial Vane Repulsion Type Instrument. 4.82.2 Concentiic Vane Repulsion Type Instrument. 4.8.3 Torque Equation of Moving Iron Instruments 4.8.4 Advantages . ... 48.5 Disadvantages. 4.8.6 Errors in Moving Iron Instruments . 4.9 Basic D.C. Ammeter 4.10 Multirange Ammeters.. 4.11 The Aryton Shunt or Universal Shunt . 4.11.4 Precautions to be Taken while using an Ammeter . 4.12 Requirements of a Shunt. 4.13 Basic D.C. Voltmeter... 4.14 Multirange Voltmeters ... 4.14.1 Practical Multirange Voltmeter 4.15 Sensitivity of Voltmeters. 4.15.1 Loading Effect . . 4.15.2 Precautions to be Taken While using a Voltmeter 4.15.3 Requirements of a Multiplier . . . 4.16 Electrodynamometer Type Instruments ... ii4.16.1 Construction . 4.16.2 Torque Equation 4.16.3 Advantages of Electrodynamic. intreroats: % 4.16.4 Disadvantages of Electrodynamic Instruments 4.16.5 Errors in Electrodynamometer Instruments 4.17 Comparison of Various Types of Instruments. 4.18 Ammeter and Voltmeter 4.19.1 Advantages of Electronic Voltmeters.. ... “ 4.20 Considerations in Selecting the Voltmeter .. 4.20.1 Input Impedance . 4.20.2 Voltage Ranges...... 4.20.3 Decibels.......... 4.20.4 Sensitivity Versus Bandwidth 4.20.5 Battery Operation .... 4.20.6 AC. Measurements 4.20.7 General Guidelines 4.21 Basic Electronic Voltmeter (Transistor Voltmeter) 4.244 Advantages ......... 0000008. 4.22 Differential Voltmeter 4.22.1 AC. Differential Voltmeter. 4.23 A.C. Voltmeter using Rectifiers. 4.23.4 First Rectifying and then Amplifying A.C. Signal . 4.23.2 First Amplifying and then Rectifying A.C. Signal 4.24 Basic Rectifier Type A.C. Voltmeter... 4.25 A.C. Voltmeter using Half Wave Rectifier 4.26 A.C. Voltmeter using Full Wave Rectifier. 4.27 Average Responding Voltmeter .. 4.271 Advantages . . 4272 pissavantagos: 4.28 Peak Responding Voltmeter 4.28.1 Advantages 4.282 Disadvantages. 4.29 True R.M.S. Responding ‘Voltmete 4.294 Advantages .......00...65 4,292 Non-thermocouple Type True RMS Voltmeter 4.29.3 Quasi-rms Detection 4.30 Sampling Voltmeter.. SAN EE4.30.1 Coherent Sampling . . 4.30.2 Incoherent Sampling 4,30.3 Advantages and Limitations . . 4.31 Chopper Type D.C. Amplifier Voltmeter (Microvottmeter). 4.31.4 Chopper Amplifier using Photodiodes . . 4.31.2 Advantages of Chopper Type Voltmeter 4.32 Ohmmeters..... 4.32.1 Series Type Ohmmeter fe 4.32.2 Shunt Type Ohmmeter ...... 4.33 Analog Electronic Multimeter .. 4.33.1. Use of Multimeter for d.c. Voltage Measurement 4.33.2. Use of Mutimeter as an Ammeter.......... 4.33.3. Use of Multimeter for Measurement of a.c. Voltage 4.33.4. Use of Mulimeter for Resistance Measurement... . Examples with Solutions Review Questions UPTU Questions 5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Digital to Analog Converter §.3 Transfer Characteristic of D/A Converter. 5.4 Digital to Analog Conversion Techniques 5.4.1 Binary Weighted Resistor D/A Converter........ 5.4.2 Inverted R/2R Ladder D/A Converter 5.4.3 RI2R Ladder D/A Converter . 7 5.5 Performance Parameters of D/A Converter 5.5.1 Resolution. ... 5.5.2 Accuracy. .... 5.5.3 Monotoniaity 5.54 Conversion Time 5.55 Settling Time... . Aa a es ARE SSO SDI iis cites ercsisoees s 5.6 Sources of Errors in D/A Converter .. 5.6.1 Linearity Error 5.6.2 Offset Error. 5.6.3 Gain Error Review Questions EA Iseein 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Advantages of Digital Voltmeters .. 6.3 Performance Parameters of Digital Voltmeters.. 6.4 Analog to Digital Converters (ADC) .. 6.4.1 Transfer Characteristics of ADC .. 64.2 Resolution... 2... cce eee 6.4.3 Quantization Error . 6.4.4 Conversion Time 6.5 Analog to Digital Conversion Taehinigiies 6.6 Single Slope ADC . 6.7 Dual Slope ADC 6.8 Successive Approximation ADC 6.9 Flash ADC... 6.10 Comparison of ADC Techniques 6.11 Basic Block Diagram of DVM... 6.12 Classification of Digital Voltmeters. 6.13 Servo Potentiometric Type DVM 6.14 Successive Approximation Type DVM 6.14.1 Advantages. ... 6.14.2 Disadvantages . . 6.15 Ramp Type DVM... 6.15.1. Linear Ramp Technique 6.15.2 Stair Case Ramp Technique ........ 6.16 Voltage to Frequency Converter Typ Integrating DVM 6.16.1 Interpolating Integrating DYM. . 6.17 Potentiometric Integrating T968 DVM... 6.18 Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM .... 6.19 Comparison of Various Techniques 6.20 3-tand 4 - 3 Digit . 6.21 Resolution and Sensitivity..... 6.22 General Specifications of DVM 6.23 Autoranging. 6.24 Automatic Polarity Indication Examples with Solutions... Review Questions... me aUPTU Questions .. 7.2 Seven Segment Display. 7.21 Types of Seven Segment Display . 7.22 LED Driver Circuit.....0..00 0 7.3 Alphanumeric Display bis 7.4 Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) 7.4.1 Types of LCDs. .... . 7.4.1.4 Dynamic Scattering Type LCDs. 7412 Field Effect Display... 7.4.1.3 Advantages of LCDs... 7.4.1.4 Disadvantages of LCDs... 7.5 Dot Matrix Type Displays . 7.5.4 Gas Discharge Plasma Display. 7.5.2 Segmented Gas Discharge Des : 7.5.3 Dot Matrix Display 7.54 Bar Graph Display. 7.55 Electro-Luminescont Displays (ELD) Liquid Vapour Displays (LVD) 7.6 Digital Multimeter (DMM) .. 7.7 Specifications of Digital Meters .. 1.04 Daplay Digits and Counts vaciwsnsauenaxuea ecm enauennanenn ges was 716 7.75 Uncertainty 7.7.6 Repeatability . 7.2.7 Speed and Setting Time. 8.1 Background 8.2 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) 8.2.1 Electron Gun. 8.22 Deflection System. 8.23 Fluorescent Screen 8.24 Glass Tube Copyrighted material |82.5 Base 8.3 Basic Principle of Signal Displa 8.4 Block Diagram of Simple Oscilloscope. 84.1 CRT 84.2 Vertical Amplifier. 84.3 Delay Line. 84.4 Trigger Circuit. . 8.4.5 Time Base Generator 8.4.6 Horizontal Amplifier 84.7 Power Supply . Front Panel Controls of simple cl Ri }. 85.1 Basic Controls... 8.5.2 Vertical Section. . 85.3 Horizontal Section 8.5.4 Z-Axis Intensity Control . 8.6 Time Base Generator... 86.1 Why Sweep Generator is Called Time Base Generator 8.6.2 Requirements of Time Base . 8.6.3 Basic Principle of Time Base Generator 86.4 Time Base Block Diagram 86.5 Trigger Generators... 8.6.6 Sweep Modes. 86.7 TTL Trigger Mode. 8.7 Intensity and Velocity Modulation . 8.8 Dual Trace Oscilloscope 88.1 Altemate Mode ...... 8. a 8.8.2 Chop Mode . 8.8.3 Electronic Switch 8.8.4 Front Panel Controls of Dual Trace osciloscope ‘ 8-27 8.8.5 Multiple Trace Oscilloscopes. ...... 8-30 8.9 Dual Beam Oscilloscope. 89.1 Muliple Beam Oscilloscopes. 8.9.2 Comparison of Dual Trace and Dual Beam Oscilloscopes . 8.10 Storage Oscilloscope 8.10.1 Mesh Storage ........ . 8.10.2 Phosphor Storage ..........sccesseees 8.10.3 Comparison of Mesh and Phosphor Storage . 8.11 Digital Storage Oscilloscope . LOLS I A Si8.11.1 Block Diagram . 8.11.2 Advantages 8.11.3 Acquisition Methods. 8.11.4 Automatic Measurements 8.12 Digital Read Out Oscilloscope .. 8.13 Sampling Oscilloscope. 8.13.1 Sampling Time Base... . 8.13.2 Block Diagram of Sampling Oscilloscope . . . 8.13.3 Advantages . . : 8.14 C.R.O. Messurements.. 8.14.1 Voltage Measurement . 8.14.2 Current Measurement . . i 8.14.3 Period and Frequency Measurement . 8.14.4 Need of CRO in Electronic Practicals. 8.15 Lissajous Figures... 8.15.1 Measurement of Phase Difference . 8.15.2 Measurement of Frequency .. . 8.16 High Frequency (HF) Oscilloscope 8.16.1 Characteristics of HF Oscilloscope . . 8.17 Diode and Transistor Testing using C. R.t 0. 8.18 Applications of C.R.O... 8.19 High Frequency Impedance Measurement 8.19.1 Vector Impedance Meter . 8.19.11 Vector Impedance Meter using Diect Retig Method. . 8.19.2 RF Vector Impedance Meier......... awe 8.20 Probes for CRO 8.20.1 Direct Probes (1:1) .. 820.2 High Impedance Probes (10 X) 8.20.3 Active Probes . 820.4 Current Probes . .. 820.5 High Voltage Probes 8.20.6 Differential Probes. . 8.21 Probe Loading and Measurement Effect 821.1 Resistive Loading 3 821.2 Capacitive Loading . 821.3 Inductive Loading .. 8.22 Probe Specifications . Review Questions... eeeChapter-9 Signal Generators 9.1 Introduction ... 9.2 Requirements of Laboratory Type Signal Generator .. 9.3 Sine Wave Generator: 9.3.1 Basic Theory of Oscillator 9.3.2 Barkhausen Criterion. 9.3.3 Types of Oscillations 9.33.1 [AB]> 1. 9.33.2 |AB|=1. 9.33.3 |AB|< : 93.4 Frequency ea ‘Amplitude Stability 9.4 Audio Frequency (A.F.) Signal Generators. 9.4.1 Wien Bridge Oscillator 9.44.1 Wien Bridge Oscilator using Op-amp : 942 RE Phase Shift OSclMOr . s:.c0:1ssveassiavssnencermensereteranen eran: 9.4.3 RC Feedback Network . te 9.4.4R-C Phase Shift Oscilator us using Op-amp... 9.4.5 Advantages 914.6 Disadvantages. 9.4.7 Phase Shift Oscillator Design .. i 9.5 Radio Frequency (R.F.) Signal Generators 9.5.1 Basic Form of LC Oscillator Circuit 9.5.2 Hartley Oscillator 9.5.3 Colpitts Oscillator. 915.4 Crystal Oscillator . 9.54.1 Construdonal Details 9.5.4.2 A.C. Equivalent Circuit . 9.5.4.3 Series and Parallel Resonance 9544. Crystal Stablity . 9.6 Non-Sinusoidal Signal Generators. 9.7 Bistable Multivibrator - Schmitt Trigger Circuit... 97.1 Inverting Schmitt Trigger ..... 97.2 Modified Schmitt Trigger Circuit with Different UTP and LTP Levels . 9.8 Astable Multivibrator using Op-amp.. 98.1 Frequency of Oscillation 98.2 Tringular Wave Generator sala 98.3 Amplitude and Frequency Calculations. . 9.9 Monostable Multivibrator using Op-amp- Pulse Generator 9.9.1 Expression for Pulse Width T . eo”9.10 Function Generator... 9.10.1 Block Diagram . 9.10.2 Features of Function Generator 9.11 Pulse Characteristics and TatniKology 9.12 Frequency Synthesizers 9.12.1 Direct Synthesis. 9.12.2 Indirect Synthesis ..... Re 9.12.3 Applications of Frequency Synthesizer 9.13 Digital Signal Generators... 9.14 Arbitrary Waveform Generator... 9.14.1 Methods of Creating Arbitrary Waveforms . 9.14.2 Parameters of Arbitrary Waveform Generator. . Review Guestions: 10.1 Introduction... 10.2 Wave Analyzer. 10.2.1 Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer. 10.2.2 Heterodyne Wave Analyzer. . 10.2.3 Applications of Wave Analyzer ... 10.3 Introduction of Spectrum Analysis . 10.4 Spectrum Analyzer.. 10.4.1 Frequency Resolution . . 10.4.2 Sensitivity... 10.4.3 Sweep Desensitization . 10.4.4 Dynamic Range. 7 aris 10.4.5 Harmonic Mixing in Spectrum Anayzer. n 10.4.6 Methods to Determine Dynamic Range. . 10.5 Real Time Spectrum Analyzer .... 10.6 Applications of Spectrum Analyzer 10.7 Logic Analyzer .... 10.7.1 Block Diagram of Logic Analyzer. 10.7.2 Operating Controls of a Typical Logic Analyzer 10.7.3 Applications and Features of Logic Analyzer . 10.8 Distortion Analyzer.. 10.8.1 Fundamental Suppression Distortion Analyzer 10.8.2 Heterodyne Harmonic Distortion Analyzer 10.9 Digital FFT Analyze10.9.1 Block Diagram . . 10.10 Network Analyzer. 10.10.1 Block Diagram . 10.10.2 Applications Review Questions... A.1 Introduction A.2 Difference Amplifier Type FET Voltmeter A.3 Source Follower Type FET Voltmeter ... A4 Comparison............. A.5 Sensitivity of Voltmeters.. Sea CSET SE TSimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableElectronic Meosurements & Instrumentation 1-4 Theory of Measurement Key Point : Some instruments do not need variable conversion element while some need more than one. The original information about the measurand must be retained as it is while doing such conversion. 1.2.3 Variable Manipulation Element The level of the output from the previous stage may not be enough to drive the next stage. Thus variable manipulation element manipulates the signal, preserving the original nature of the signal. Key Point: The manipulation involves the change in numerical value of the signal. For example an amplifier which just amplifies the magnitude of the input, at its output, retaining the original nature of the signal. It is not necessary that variable manipulation element must be always after variable conversion element. It may be before variable conversion element. In some cases, the levels of the output of the previous stage are high and required to be lowered. In such case atenuators are used as the variable manipulation elements. Sometimes the output of the transducer may get affected due to unwanted signals like noise. Thus such signals are required to be processed with some processes like modulation, clipping, clamping etc, to obtain the signal in pure and acceptable form from highly distorted form. Such a process is called signal conditioning, Thus in addition to variable conversion and variable manipulation, the signal conditioning is also done in the second stage. Hence second stage is called data conditioning or signal conditioning elements. 1.2.4 Data Transmission Element When the elements of the system are physically separated, it is necessary to transmit the data from one stage to other. This is achieved by the data transmission element. The signal conditioning and data transmission together is called intermediate stage of an instrument. 1.2.5 Data Presentation Element The transmitted data may be used by the system, finally for monitoring, controlling or analysing purposes. Thus the person handling the instrument must get the information in the proper form, according to the purpose for which it is intended. This function is done by the data presentation element. If the data is to be monitored then visual display devices are used as data presentation element. If the signal is to be recorded for analysis purpose then magnetic tapes, recorders, high speed cameras are used as data presentation elements. For control and analysis purpose, the microprocessors, computers and microcontrollers may be used as data presentation elements. The data presentation stage may be called terminating stage of an instrument.image not availableimage not availableimage not availableElectronic Measurements & Instrumentation 1-8 Theory of Measurement scale of the instrument can be calibrated to read +1 gram. But what about the accuracy ? The readings are not accurate. The accuracy of the instrument is only (105 ~ 100/100)% ie. 5% . Thus there is a precision of + 1% but the accuracy is only 5%. Key Point: This confirms the fact that high degree of precision does not guarantee the accuracy, It is the accurate calibration that makes the accurate measurement possible. The precision is composed of two characteristics :- = Conformity and = Number of significant figures. 1.4.2.1 Conformity Consider a resistor having true value as 2385692 , which is being measured by an ohmmeter. Now, the meter is consistently measuring the true value of the resistor. But the reader, can read consistently, a value as 24 M { due to nonavailability of proper scale. The value 24 M Q is estimated by the reader from the available scale. There are no deviations from the observed value. The error created due to the limitation of the scale reading is a precision error. The example illustrates that the conformity is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for precision. Similarly, precision is necessary but not the sufficient condition for accuracy. Key Point: An accurate instrument should be precise but a precise instrument may not be accurate. 1.4.2.2 Significant Figures The precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant figures, in which the reading is expressed. The significant figures convey the actual information about the magnitude and the measurement precision of the quantity. For example, a resistance of 110 ©, specified by an instrument may be closer to 109 Q or 111 Q. Thus there are 3 significant figures. While if it is specified as 110.0 0 then it may be closer to 110.1 © or 109.9 2. Thus there are now 4 significant figures. Key Point: Thus more the significant figures, the greater is the precision of measurement. Number of times, the large numbers with zeros before a decimal point are used to approximate populations or the amounts of money. For example, the price of a vehicle is reported as Rs. 450,000. This means the true value of the vehicle lies between Rs. 449,999 and Rs. 450,001. Thus, there are six significant figures. But what is the meaning of the reported price is, it is closer to Rs. 450,000 rather than Rs. 440,000 or Rs. 460,000. In this case, there are only two significant figures. To avoid this confusion, the large numbers are expressed in a scientific notation using the powers of ten. For example, the price of Rs. 450,000 must be expressed as 4.5 x 108. Thus now, there areimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableElectronic Measurements & Instrumentation 1-12 Theory of Measurement If the calibration curve is not linear as shown in the Fig. 1.3 (b), then the sensitivity varies with the input. The sensitivity is always expressed by the manufacturers as the ratio of the magnitude of quantity being measured to the magnitude of the response. Actually, this definition is the reciprocal of the sensitivity is called inverse sensitivity or deflection factor. But manufacturers call this inverse sensitivity as a sensitivity. " deflection factor 1 Agi Sensitivity Aqo Inverse sensitivity Deflection factor a The units of the sensitivity are millimeter per micro-ampere, millimeter per ohm, counts per volt, etc. while the units of a deflection factor are micro-ampere per millimeter, ohm per millimeter, volts per count, etc. The sensitivity of the instrument should be as high as possible and to achieve this the range of an instrument should not greatly exceed the value to be measured. mm Example 1.3: A particular ammeter requires a change of 2 A in its coil to produce @ change in deflection of the pointer by 5 mm. Determine its sensitivity and deflection factor. Solution : The input is current while output is deflection. change in output Sensitivity = Y = “Change in input Smm = SBR 25 mm/A Deflection factor = 1.4.5 Resolution It is the smallest increment of quantity being measured which can be detected with certainity by an instrument. Key Point: Thus, the resolution means the smallest measurable input change. So if a non zero input quantity is slowly increased, output reading will not increase until some minimum change in the input takes place. This minimum change which causes the change in the output is called resolution. The resolution of an instrument is also referred as discrimination of the instrument. The resolution can affect the accuracy of the measurement.image not availableimage not availableimage not availableElectronic Measurements & Instrumentation 1-16 Theory of Measurement 1.5 Dynamic Characteristics When the instrument is subjected to rapidly varying inputs, the relation between input and output becomes totally different than that in case of static or constant inputs. As the input varies from instant to instant, output also varies from instant to instant. The behaviour of system under such conditions is called dynamic response of the system. All the systems include one or more energy storing elements like electrical inductance, capacitance, mass, inertia, friction, thermal capacitance, etc. Due to such elements, measuring systems rarely respond instantaneously to the changes in the measured variables. The measuring system goes through the transient state before it settles down to its steady state position. Hence, the dynamic and transient behaviour of the system becomes an important aspect. The dynamic behaviour of the measuring system is expressed mathematically by the differential equations The dynamic behaviour of the measuring system is. determined by applying some known and predetermined variations of input to the sensing clement. The standard variations in the input, used practically to obtain the dynamic behaviour, are as follows :- 1. Step Input : This represents sudden, instantaneous and finite change in the input. The examples are sudden application of force to Input a mechanical system, instantaneous closing of switch in an electrical circuit, etc. The step input of magnitude A is denoted as Au(t) Au(t) and can be indicated as shown in the Fig. 17 Its Laplace transform is given by, F() = a - Laplace of step input Fig. 1.7 Step when A = 1, itis called unit step input. 2. Ramp Input : This represents linear change in input. The input, i.e. a variable to be measured varies linearly with time. It changes at a constant rate with respect to the time. The ramp input of magnitude A is denoted as At u(t) Input and can be shown in the Fig, 1.8. The Laplace transform of ramp is given by, Slope A x 7 Atu(t) F(s) = 5... Laplace of ramp input 5 t When A 1, it is called unit ramp input. Fig. 1.8 RampElectronic Measurements & Instrumentation 1.17 Theory of Measurement 3, Parabolic Input : This represents an input signal which is proportional to the square of the time and hence represents constant acceleration. input The parabolic input of magnitude A is denoted as AP u(t) and can be shown as in the Fig. 19. The Laplace transform of parabola is given by, 2A 2 at u(t) F6) Laplace of parabolic input 0 Fig. 1.9 Parabolic 4, Impulse Input : It exists only at t = 0 and has zero value at any other time. f(t) = 0 fort #0 And area under it is its magnitude. If it is unity, it is called delta function denoted as 6(t). It is shown in the Fig. 1.10. The Fig. 1.10 (a) shows the concept of impulse input and the Fig. 1.10 (b) shows its representation. It is basically a pulse with its base At approaching to zero. The Laplace transform of &(t) is 1. Input (t) Impulse 1 t t ato (a) (b) Fig. 1.10 Impulse input L{(S()} = 1__ ... Laplace of unit impulse input 5. Sinusoidal Input : This represents an input which changes in accordance with a sinusoidal function of constant amplitude. The frequency is the independent variable in this case. For a linear system subjected to sinusoidal input, the output is also sinusoidal in steady state, but it differs from input in amplitude and phase. Analyzing the dynamic behaviour includes the study of variations in output amplitude and phase as input is sinusoidal in nature The sinusoidal input is given by A sinat where A is its amplitude as shown in the Fig. 1.11. Its Laplace transform is given by, Input Fig. 1.11 Sinusoidal inputElectronic Measurements & Instrumentation 1-18 Theory of Measurement Ao F(s) -°.. ... Laplace of sinusoidal input sto From the dynamic behaviour of the measuring system, the various dynamic characteristics of the system can be obtained. The various dynamic characteristics of an instrument are speed of response, fidelity, lag and the dynamic error. 1.5.1 Speed of Response It is the rapidity with which the system responds to the changes in the quantity to be measured. It gives the information about how fast the system reacts to the changes in the input. It indicates activeness of the system. Key Pj : The system should respond very quickly to the changes in the input. 1.5.2 Fidelity It indicates how much faithfully the system reproduces the changes in the input. It is the ability of an instrument to produce a wave shape identical to wave shape of input with respect to time. Key Point: Ii is defined as the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the measured variable without dynamic error 1.5.3 Lag Every system takes some time, whatever small it may be, to respond to the changes in the measured variable. This retardation or delay in the response of a system is called lag. This is also called measuring lag. The lags are of two types :- 1 2. Time Delay after the appli Retardation Lag : In this case, the response of the system begins immediately after a change in the variable has occurred. In this case, response begins after some time called dead time, ation of input. Such a delay shifts the response along time axis and hence causes the dynamic error. 1.5.4 Dynamic Error It is the difference between the true value of the variable to be measured, changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement system, assuming zero static error. The Fig. 1.12 shows the dead time, ie. time delay and the dynamic error.image not available1-20 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation Output + External = power = input Fig. 1. 4 Liquid level indicator just modulates the magnitude of external power source. Theory of Measurement The potentiometer and the external power input is used to sense the position of float which is proportional to the level of the liquid in a tank, When the level changes, the float moves and hence slider of the potentiometer also moves. This derives the voltage, which is the part of the extemal power input, which produces the output. Thus the variable to be measured In passive instrument, resolution is less and cannot be increased very easily. In active instrument, by adjusting the magnitude of the external energy input, control over resolution can be obtained. The passive instruments are simple to design and hence cheaper. The active instruments are complicated to design and hence costly. Depending on the required resolution, the passive or active instrument can be selected for the measurement purpose. The differences between passive and active instruments can be summarized as, S.No. Passive Instruments S.No. Active Instruments 1. | The output is produced entirely) 1. by the quantity being measured. input The quantity to be measured activates some external produces the output. power, source, which _inturn 2. | Additional energy input source] 2. | Additional external energy input Not required. source is ‘equired. 3._| The resolution is less. 3._|_ The resolution is high. 4. The resolution can not be easily} 4. The resolution can be adjusted adjusted. by adjusting the magnitude of the external energy input. 5._|_ Simple to design. 5._| Complicated to design. 6 Cheaper hence economical. 6. Due to complex design and) higher number of elements, it is costlier. 7. | Examples are pressure gauge,| 7. voltmeter, ammeter. Examples are indicator, flow indicator. liquid levelimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableElectronic Measurements & Instrumentation 1-24 Theory of Measurement The instrament which gives the output which varies in discrete steps and thus take only finite different values in the given range is called digital instrument. For example if the value shown by analog Dependent instrument having a range of 0-10 is veneers 3.5 unit, then the digital instrument with 10 equal parts show the same reading as 3. The analog reading of 0.5 means a reading zero of a digital instrument. The digital signal is shown in the Fig. 1.19. Independent variable By subdividing the various steps, the accuracy of digital instruments can be improved. In digital instruments, the magnitude is measured only at the instant the reading is taken. This reading persists till the anther reading is taken. In present days, the digital instruments are well suited for the digital computer control systems. As computer input and output both are in digital form, the use of digital instruments is very easy in computer control systems. To interface analog instrument to computer, it is necessary to use analog to digital converter to convert analog signal to digital, which is complicated. This reduces the speed of operation, affecting the accuracy. This is because finite time is required to convert analog signal to digital and this time may be very critical in the fast processes. 1.6.5 Absolute/Secondary Instruments The instrument which gives the magnitude of the quantity to be measured interms of the physical constants of the instrument, is called an absolute instrument. The tangent galvanometer is the example of an absolute instrument. Fig. 1.19 Digital signal The instrument in which the reading shown by the instrument gives directly the measurement of the quantity to be measured is called a secondary instrument. These are calibrated by the comparison with the absolute instruments. The ammeters, voltmeters, thermometers are the examples of the secondary instruments. Obtaining reading by an absolute instrument is tedious and time consuming as the reading is required to be calculated. While the secondary instruments give direct readings without any calculations. Hence absolute instruments are rarely used while the secondary instruments are very commonly used. 1.7 Methods of Measurement The methods of measurement are classified as, 1. Direct method and 2. Indirect method.Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation 1-25 Theory of Measurement 1.7.1 Direct Method of Measurement In direct method, the quantity to be measured is used to produce certain effect which directly gives the indication on the meter. For example, measurement of current by an ammeter. The current to be measured is passed through the coil which deflects due to current effect. This directly produces the deflection of the pointer which is attached to the coil. This gives the required measurement. Some other examples are the voltmeter, wattmeter, ohmmeter etc. The direct methods are further classified as deflection methods and comparison methods. The deflection method causes the deflection of the pointer due to the quantity to be measured. In comparison method, the quantity to be measured is compared with a standard of the quantity and this comparison gives the measurement. The example of comparison method is a potentiometer in which the voltage is measured by comparing with the known standard cell or known reference voltage. The null methods, differential methods are the types of comparison method. The null methods are more accurate and highly sensitive but the deflection methods are very popularly used in the engineering field. The deflection methods are suitable for rapid and dynamic measurements. Due to simple design, economical and less time consuming, deflection methods are commonly used. 1.7.2 Indirect Method of Measurement In the indirect method of measurement, the quantity to be measured is not directly measured but other parameters related to the quantity are measured. For example, if power consumed by a resistance is to be obtained then instead of measuring it directly, the voltage across the resistance (V) and current through the resistance (1) are measured and then power is calculated by the product of V and | ie. P = VI. Thus measuring related quantities, actual quantity is measured. Another example is the measurement of resistance. Instead of using ohmmeter for direct measurement, the voltage (V) across the resistance and the current (1) through the resistance are measured. Then resistance can be calculated using Ohm's law as R = V/I. 1.8 Calibra The calibration is the procedure for determining the correct values of measurand by comparison with the standard ones. The standard of device with which comparison is made is called a standard instrument. The instrument which is unknown and is to be calibrated is called test instrument. Thus in calibration, test instrument is compared with the standard instrument. 1.9 Calibration Methodology There are two fundamental methodologies for obtaining the comparison between test instrument and standard instrument. These methodologies are,