Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
E. R. GILLILAND
IND T. K. SHERWOOD,
Rlassachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass.
IC
($y’“ gauze forming a section of the pipe
and was withdrawn through an in-
clined slot a t the bottom, no liquid
being allowed to pass to the lower
calming section. This section of
show the structure of the film the apparatus is shown in Figure 1.
where d = inside diameter of column; u, p , As a precautionary measure the in-
to be very c o m p l i c a t e d , t h e side of the column was thoroughly
resistance offered to diffusion or p = linear eelocity, density, ciscosity of the
cleaned several times during the
heat flow may, n e v e r t h e l e s s , turbulent gas stream, respectively; and D = course of the experiments, and the
be pictured in terms of simple digusion coeficient for napor-gas system. liquids were found to spread easily
over the inner wall. No precau-
layer of stagnant gas of such an Tests were made over a range of total pressures tion was taken to reduce heat loss
“effective” thickness as to offer f r o m 110 to 2330 mm. of mercury, and the data from the c o l u m n , although this
the same resistance as is ac- loss was small in comparison with
tually encountered a t the phase were found to substantiate the applicability of that r e q u i r e d for vaporization.
boundary in question. These the Stefan equation to diffusion through surface The liquids used were recirculated
through the system by means of a
film t h i c k n e s s e s h a v e been films. small rotary pump. The liquid
determined for numerous The results are compared with the Colburn leaving the lower tee of the wetted-
cases of heat transfer between w a l l section shown in Figure 1
and the Arnold theories, and data obtained in passed through a small calibrated
fluids and solids and for absorp- orifice, a calibrated reservoir, and
tion of various gases in different viscous flow are correlated in a manner similar
a heater consisting of a length of
types of equipment, and have to that used in heat transmission, based on the steam-jacketed pipe. The liquid
been found t o b e d e p e n d e n t Graetz theoretical equation. passed from this heater to the
u p p e r t e e shown in Figure 1
mainly o n the turbulence through DiDes which were large
conditions of the fluid strpam. enouguh sd {hat the liquid flowgd
The possibility suggests itself that film thicknesses for these in calmly, not completely filling the pipe. The calibrated reservoir
various processes may be interchangeable if the turbulence which consisted of a short length of Pipe equipped With a gage glass
served to indicate a t any time the quantity of liquid
conditions are similar, and that accordingly heat transfer remaining In the system. The of within the
data might be employed in the design of equipment for gas column was determined by observing the rate of fall of the liquid
absorption. This is, of course, not a new idea, but little level in this reservoir. Care was taken to maintain a constant
Jvork has been done on data for the two processes. rate of liquid recirculation. since fluctuation of this >ate would
vary the head on the copper gauze weir and cause
Furthermore, a study of diffuiion t h r o u g h v a r i a t i o n of the gage glass level not due to
such films should lead to a sound basis for the vaporization. The liquid rate in all tests was
correlation of data on absorption of various approximately 790 cc. per minute. The column
gases in similar e q u i p m e n t a n d so greatly was supported on the concrete foundation of the
building and was practically free of vibration.
reduce the experimental work necessary as a The temperature of the liquid entering and leav-
basis for the design of gas absorption appara- GAUZE. ing the column was measured by means of cali-
tus. The relation between heat transfer and WEIR brated thermometers in the upper and lower tees.
diffusion, and between diffusion of different .4ir was supplied by a rotary compressor driven
by a 3 h. p. motor. The air was forced into a 50-
gases through surface films, under flow con- gallon steel drum which served to minimize the
ditions, offers a fruitful field for experimental pressure variation in the gas feed. The air flow
study. II was measured by means of calibrated sharp-edged
’’ WALL orifices, two sizes being used t o cover the desired
The present article describes the results of 1; SECTION range of air velocity. These orifices were cali-
a study of the rates of vaporization of nine brated against both a gasometer and a large gas
different liquids into a moving air stream. meter. Air temperatures were obtained by ther-
mometers downstream from the orifice and a t
Vaporization rather than absorption was em- points j u s t a t t h e e n t r a n c e andexit of the
ployed as simplifying the experimental technic column. The thermometer a t the air entrance
and making possible the study of the diffu- was in place only while temperature observations
sion of a number of different vapors. From were being made a t this point. Provision was
made t o supply t h e a i r e i t h e r at the top or
the results it is possible to compare the rates bottom calming section, so that both parallel and
of diffusion of the different vapors through CALMING,~ countercurrent runs might be made. In the tests
gas films under identical conditions of tem- SECTION vaporizing water, wet-bulb temperatures of the
perature, pressure, driving force, and air turbu- FIGURE1. CROSSSECTION air entering and leaving were measured. The
air supply pipes were provided with electric resist-
lence. OF WETTED-WALL COLUMN ance heaters, and in nearly every run the air en-
516
May, 1934 INDUSTRIAL AND E N G I N E E R I K G CHEMISTRY 517
P53p 0.001 0.040 41.8 38.1 42.6 37.7 60.7 187 7.2 31.5 7920 ...
P55c 0.001 0.062 41.2 37.1 41.7 36.6 41.1 187 11.3 31.4 8000 ...
P57c 0.001 0.018 40.3 36.3 40.9 36.0 123.5 195 3.6 32.1 8150 ...
P59p 0.001 0.021 42.7 38.6 43.1 37.9 104.5 339 7.1 50.0 14200 ..
...
f
P61p 0.001 0.060 51.8 49.6 52.3 49.0 76.2 88 5.2 16.2 3690
P63c 0.001 0.035 51.9 47.9 53.1 48.8 132.1 88 3.2 15.8 3650 ...
P65p 0.001 0.178 53.4 49.4 56.0 49.0 32.0 121 20.8 21.8 5380 ...
P67p 0.001 0.031 55.1 49.9 55.6 49.6 141.8 123 4.0 20.6 5070 ...
P69c 0.001 0.105 53.9 47.6 55.2 48.5 51.8 120 13.1 21.3 5140 ...
P7lo 0.001 0.058 53.6 46.8 54.2 46.0 75.7 201 11.8 30.5 8400 ...
P73p 0.001 0.042 54.6 47.7 55.2 47.1 95.1 201 8.7 32.3 8320 ...
P75p 0.001 0.069 55.9 47.1 56.2 46.9 57.4 354 24.8 49.4 14900 ...
(1 Data on only every other run are given.
518 INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY Vol. 26,No. 5
tered the column within 3' C. of the liquid temperature at the air R = gas constantb cc. atm./gram mole/' K.
inlet. A condenser in the waste pipe served to recover most of T = abs. temp., K.
the liquid vaporized. PBM = logarithmic mean partial pressure of the inert gas
(air) through which the vapor diffuses, mm. Hg.
The liquids used were substantially constant-boiling cuts A mean difference between vapor pressure of liquid
A ~ =
obtained by distillation of the ordinary commercial grades. and partial pressure of vapor in air stream,
Careful measurements of the vapor pressures of each of the mm. Hg.
2 = Nm thickness, cm.
organic liquids used checked closely the data available in the
literature on the pure compounds. Duplicate measurements
were made on samples of each liquid before and after use, I n calculating APA,the liquid vapor pressures used were
a n d in no case was any appreciable change in vapor pressure those corresponding to the observed inlet and outlet liquid
noted. temperatures. The partial pressure of the vapor in the
entering air was zero for the organic liquids, and in the tests
OF CALCULATION
METHODS vaporizing water was obtained from the wet- and dry-bulb
The procedure in interpreting the results was to obtain temperatures of the inlet air. For the organic liquids the
values for each run of the effective film thickness, z, in the partial pressure of the vapor in the outlet air was calculated
.,
Stefan diffusion eauation (9) from the measured rate of vaporization and rate of air flow,
together with the above value of the partial pressure of the
N A = - DP
- ~ J A vapor in the inlet air. For the runs using water, the partial
RTx P B M (1)
pressure of water vapor in the outlet air was calculated from
where N A gram diffusing/secm/sq. Of interphase the measured dry- and wet-bulb temperatures. The value
surface
D diffusion coefficient, sq. cm./sec. of A p n used was a logarithmic mean of the values of the
P total pressure, atm. driving force a t the top and bottom of the column, respec-
A13c 113.2 105.3 113.0 105.4 77.2 211 34.4 61.5 8200 38*4 32*1 38'2 32*3 78*5 79 14*0 27*4 3600
A15p 112.5 105.8 112.7 106.0 76.2 99 16.4 32.4 3880 Il5P 38*4 30*6 38*8 30*7 25'9 48 28*2 l g e 8 2520
112.3 104.9 112.5 105.2 76.5 167 25.6 50.5 6400 Il7P 39*1 32*7 39-4 32*7 70*6 53 'Oal 2420
A17p
Al9p
A21p
112.6
113.0
104.6
104.3
112.4
113.2
104.8
104.7
76.5
77.0
221
281
38.6
39.0
63.1
74.5
8500
10750
g:: ;:3 Zi:: :"'g: !t 2t:i : ::$
A23p 112.9 105.9 112.8 106.3 28.5 57 31.8 22.1 2600 123p 38.8 31*8 39.2 31*9 92*6 94 12*' 29'8 4220
A25p 112 7 106 1 112 g 106.3 66.8 62 13.0 23.0 2440 125~ 38.0 31.2 38.1 31.3 134.0 95 8 . O 30.O 4190
A27p 112:6 10614 11217 106.6 144.2 61 5.6 22.1 2280
A29p 112.4 105.2 112.7 105.3 103.0 130 15.1 41.3 4950 0 Data on only every other run are given8
May, 1934 INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY 519
metic mean was used in this last step, since the value of p e f
a t the two ends of the column never differed greatly. 0.004 40
CALCULATION,
SAMPLE Rux NB7c
0.002 20
Air flow = 100 grams/min.; vaporization = 6.9 cc./min.
n-Butyl alcohol in outlet gas = 0.805 X 6.9 = 5.56 grams/min.
Partial pressure n-butyl alcohol in outlet gas =
5'56/74
5.56
74fm
X 820 = 17.5 mm.
100
0.001
1000 2000 4000 6000
*
IO000 20000 40000 00000
IO
2. EXPERIMENTAL
FIGURE DATAON FLUIDFRICTION AND
Vapor pressure n-butyl alcohol at inlet temp. = 38.0 mm. HEATTRANSFER
IN EXPEFUMENT.4L APPARATUS
Vapor pressure n-butyl alcohol at outlet temp. = 28.7 mm.
Mean driving force =
28.7 -
(38.0 - 17.5) = 24.4 mm.
I n the case of the tests on water, the measurements of
28.7
In - the outlet humidity made possible a check of the water
20.5
evaporated, against the water picked up by the air. The
p B M = 820 -
38.0 f 17.5 +
28.7 I799 -. calculated values of these quantities for the runs a t atmos-
4 pheric pressures checked within about 7 per cent, on the
D at 49.9"C. and 820 mm. = 0.0974 X 760 = 0.0903 sq. cm./sec. average, and the maximum deviation was 11 per cent. This
comparison serves as an indication of the accuracy of the
Wetted surface = 2.67 X T X 117 = 981 sa. em. method used in measuring rates of vaporization. The
5.56 values for outlet air humidity given in the tables were cal-
Nd = = 0.00000128 gram mole/sec./sq. em.
60 X 74 X 981 culated from the measured wet- and dry-bulb temperatures
of the outlet air.
In order to be able to compare the results on diffusion
-
- 2.67 X 82.07 X 323 X 799 X 0.00000128 = 30.7 with the theoretical analogies to friction and to heat transfer,
0.0903 X (820/760) 24.4 values of the friction factor, f, and the surface coefficient of
3 14 heat transfer, h, were obtained experimentally in the same
Cross section of pipe = - 4 (2.67)* = 5.61 sq. cm.
p - viscosity of air at 50' C. = 0.000197
apparatus as was used in the vaporization experiments.
Manometers were connected to pressure taps a t the ends of
the wetted-wall section, and the pressure drop was observed
a t various air velocities. This was done both with a dry
tower and with water circulating, but no change was ob-
Tables I and I1 show the principal data together with the served in the manometer levels when the water-circulating
more important calculated quantities. Table I11 gives pump was started or stopped. Within the precision of the
values taken from the vapor pressure curves used in the measurements, therefore, the falling liquid film had no in-
calculations. Table I V gives values for the liquid densities fluence on the pressure drop due to friction,
and for the diffusion constant, D, reduced to one atmosphere. I n order to measure the coefficient of heat transfer, the
The latter are smoothed values based on experimental de- wetted-wall section of the apparatus was steam-jacketed and
terminations described in another article (6). operated dry as an air heater. From the observed steam
temperature, air velocity, and temperature rise, the surface
TABLE111. VAPORPRESSURES
OF LIQUIDS coefficients of heat transfer from dry pipe to air were cal-
r
(Smoothed valuea from experimental determinations)
Iso-
TEMPERATURE
. sec- sec-
100 , l I ! I I I / I l l
VAPOR n-Butyl propyl Butyl Chloro- Amyl Ethyl
PRESSURE alcohol Toluene alcohol Aniline alcohol bensene alcohol acetate
M m . H p "C. "C. OC. OC. 'C. OC. OC. OC.
10
20
30.0
41.1
.... ..
.. ...
... .. .. ..
..
..
..
30
40
48.0
53.0 32:5 23:4
90.7 3i:5
97.3 37 1
42:4
49 0 4j:7
..
50 57.0 36.8 27.1 102.0 4115 53:s 52.5 i3:i
60 60.2 40.6 30.3 106.4 45.6 68.0 56.2 16.6
70
80
..
.. 43.8 33.3 110.3
40.7 35.9 ... ,.
..
..
.. 59.2
62.0
19,s
21.i
90 .. .. .. .. .. 23.9
100 .. .. .. .. .. 26.2
TABLEVI. HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE DROPDETERMI- sorption of one vapor when data are available on the per-
NATIONS
formance of the same tower for the absorption of another
d@~ PRESSURE CONDITION AIR FLOW vapor.
II. DROP f h O F T O W E RD I R E C T I O N
G . cal./sec./ The data shown on Figures 4 and 5 cover a range of total
M m . HtO sq. m./"C. pressures from 110 to 2330 mm. of mercury, and a somewhat
3460 0.61 Dry wider range of variations in the inert partial pressure, EM.
4300 0.71 .. Dry ",wn
5980 1.42 .. Dry Down The Stefan equation calls for a variation in rate of diffusion,
6250 1.52 Dry Down
7300 1.75 Dry UP N A , with DP/pa.vr. However, since D varies inversely with
7880 2.21 Dry Down P , ;VA should vary inversely with P B M . Values of x calculated
9600 3.26 .. Dry Down
17000 8.85 . . Dry Down from the experimental data should not vary with pressure,
25200 18.0 .. Dry Down
5730 1.27 .. Wet UP since proper values of P E M were used in Equation 1 in cal-
5730 1.22 .. Wet Down culating the results. This prediction is verified by Figure 6
8240 2.28 Wet UP
8240 2.41 Wet Down which shows djz, corrected for variations in Reynolds num-
12300 4.62 Wet
12300 4.65 .. Wet 2 w n
... .... ..
-
2350 15.2 UP
3620 . I . 21.4 .. Down
?
...
3
3980 21.0 0.04
5920 ... 30.6
7820 ... 36.9 Down
10000 ... ....
.. UP x
14800 ... .... Down PIX 0.02
16900 ... UP
24200 ... Down
25900 ... UP
0.01
80 100 ZW 400 600 1000 Zoo0 4000
present investigation. The data are, in fact, brought to- TOTAL PRESSURE-mm Hq.
gether by the introduction of the group, (,LLL/PD)O.~~. This is
shown b y Figure 5 in which d/x divided by ( , L L / ~ D ) is O.~~ FIGURE6. EFFECTOF TOTALPRESSURE
shown plotted US. the Reynolds number. All of the points
for the various vapors here fall very close to a single line, ber by dividing by ( d u p / ~ ) O . plotted
~~, US. total pressure for
the equation of which is: the turbulent flow data, No trend of variations with pres-
sures is evident, and the data consequently substantiate the
--- 0.023 ( -
d ~ ) " . ~ ~
(s)"~~ use of the Stefan equation for interphase transfer through
gas films. The dotted line shown represents the empirical
Equation 2 for each of three vapors.
Each of the three groups is dimensionless and any self-
Colburn ( 2 ) has treated the problem of interphase material
consistent set of units may be emplpyed. This equation,
transfer through a gas in turbulent motion in a manner
which is of general applicability under conditions of turbulent
entirely analogous to the Prandtl modification of the Rey-
gas flow in wetted-wall towers, is similar to the corresponding
nolds equation for heat transfer. He applies the basic
Reynolds assumption to the turbulent core or eddy layer
200
, and treats the transfer through the laminar surface layer as
I a process of true diffusion. The resulting equation is:
0 - N-BUTYL ALCOHOL
(4)
100
80
0 -
150-PROPYL ALCOHOL
-
I Y C - A M Y L ALCOHOL where k , = coefficient of material transfer, grams/(sec.)
(sq. cm.)(atm.)
1- 60 f = friction factor in Fanning equation for pressure
drop due t o friction
p = density of main gas stream, grams/cc.
40 MA = mol. wt. of diffusing vapor
MJf = av. mol. wt. of main gas stream
= mean partial pressure of nondiffusing or inert gas
in laminar laver
20 4 =i-r+r($j
r = ratio of fluid velocity a t boundary between
laminar and eddy layers, t o av. velocity u of
main fluid stream
10
1000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000 20.000 40 000 p = av. abs. viscosity of laminar layer, grams/(sec.)
(cy.)
D = diffusion coefficient, sq. cm./sec.
FIGURE 5. ENPIRKC~L
CORRELiTIOS OF TURBULEVT
FLOW
DATA The value of T is given approximately by the equation ( 2 1 ) :
k
= 0.0225 ( d2
; )o.8 (y)"" (3)
where +H = 1 - r +T %'
k
X H = effective total a m thickness for heat transfer
ordinate is unity, which corresponds to equilibrium a t the 11) Amold, J. H.. Phlisiu. 4. 255 (1933)
wall and is approached at ION velocities, in long tubes, or (2) Colburn, IND.ENQ.C ~ E M22,.967
., (1930)
(3) Drew, T. B., Tnm. Am. Inst. Chem. E n p a . , 26,26 (1931).
for large values of D. On the same plot are shown tlie (4) Drew. Hogan, and McAdams. IND.Em. CHEX..23.936 (1931).
vaporization data obtained in the viscous flow region in the ( 5 ) Drew. Koo. and MoAdams. T ~ a n s .Am. Inst. Chem. Enom.. . .
present investigation, and the data on absorption of sulfur 2 8 ’ 5 6 (1932).
dioxide and of ammonia obtained by Haslam, Hershey, and Gilliland. to be published in IND.ENR.Caax.
Haslam. Hershey. nnd Kean. IND,Em.Caea., 16, 1224 (1924).
Kean (7), using a wetted-wall column with air flowing below Lamb. “Hydrodynamios,” 5th ed.. p. 550, Cambridge Uni-
its critical velocity. versity Press, 1924; see aLao Colburo and Hougesn. UniV. Wb.
Both vaporization and absorption data fall together on Eng. Enpt. Sta., Bull. 70, 31 (1930).
1.ewi~and Cheng, Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 21. 127 (1928).
the line representing the theoretical equation for rodlike MoAdanw, “Host Transmission,” MoGraw-Hill, New York,
flow. Since the flow was viscous, a parabolic velocity 1 n*tl
I-““.
doubtless existed, and the data would be expected to check I111 Prandtl, Z. Ph:vsik. 11, 1072 (1910); 29, 457 (I!X?S).
the lower line for Equation 12. I n a siinilar way, tlie data (12) Sherwood and Comings. Tnms. Am. Insf. Chem. Engrs.. 28,
on heat transfer in viscous RON check the equation for rod- 107 (3032).
like flow hetler tlian they do tlre theoretical equation based R r c m r v ~ o December 28. 1835.