Robert D Myrick-Developmental Guidance and Counseling - A Practical Approach-Educational Media (2011) PDF

Dev~lopmental Guidance
and Counseling:
A Practical Approach
Fifth Edition
by
Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Developmental Guidance and Counseling
Copyright 2011
Educational Media Corporation®
Library of Congress Control Number: 2010942410
ISBN 978-1-930572-58-4
Printing (Last Digit)
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reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
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the written permission of the copyright holder. Manufactured in the United States of
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Educational Media Corporation®
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Production editor-
Don L. Sorenson, Ph.D.
Graphic design-
Earl Sorenson
ii Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Dedication
To Linda,
Who has been there from the beginning...
And, who ...
as an elementary and middle school counselor, a district guidance coor-

dinator, and a university professor, put theory into practice ...
as a contributor and co-author, helped refine and clarify the concepts of

developmental guidance and counseling...
as an editor, sharpened the language and ideas ...
as a consultant and conference presenter, helped others to implement

counselor programs and interventions ...
as a loving and devoted wife and mother, provided timely encourage-

ment and support. ..
as my inspiration and best friend, has my deepest love, respect, and ap-
preciation ...
RDM
Educational Media Corporation® iii

iv Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Table of Contents
Chapter 1 The Emergence of Developmental Guidance and Counseling ............... 1
Guidance and Counseling Defined ................................................................ 4
The Formative Years ....................................................................................... 7
Four Approaches to Guidance and Counseling ........................................... 11
Guidance and Counseling in a Changing World ........................................ 15
Developmental Guidance for all Schools .................................................... 32
Chapter 2 Developmental Guidance: A Comprehensive Approach ........................ 3
Basic Assumptions and Needs ...................................................................... 33
The Theory of Developmental Guidance .................................................... 34
Developmental Guidance Curriculum and Goals ...................................... .42
Principles of Developmental Guidance ...................................................... .43
A Comprehensive Guidance and Counseling Program ............................... 50
A National Model for School Counseling .................................................... 53
Roles of School Personnel in Guidance ....................................................... 55
Chapter 3 The Teacher as Student Advisor ............................................................. 61
Teacher Concerns ......................................................................................... 63
The Teacher and School Guidance .............................................................. 64
Teachers as Student Advisors ....................................................................... 67
TAP: An Essential Guidance Program .......................................................... 72
The Counselor's Role in TAP ........................................................................ 76
Building Support for TAP ............................................................................. 77
Teachers: Key to Developmental Guidance ................................................. 80
Counselor-Teacher Re la tionshi ps ............................................................... 80
School Guidance Committees .................................................................... 82
Advantages, Limitations, and Conclusion .................................................. 83
Chapter 4 The Counselor: A Developmental Guidance Specialist ......................... 85
Counseling Theories Revisited ..................................................................... 86
The Professional Counselor ......................................................................... 97
A Practical Approach to the Counselor's Role ........................................... 107
Managing Counselor Time: A Practical Approach ..................................... 109
Six Basic Counselor Interventions ............................................................. 111
Managing Counselor Priorities .................................................................. 120
Managing Interventions ............................................................................ 124
Factors to Consider .................................................................................... 132
Chapter 5 The Counselor as Facilitator. ................................................................ 145
The Facilitative Model ............................................................................... 145
The Facilitative Processes ........................................................................... 148
The High Facilitative Responses ................................................................ 156
The Low Facilitative Responses .................................................................. 168
Facilitative Responses in Groups ............................................................... 172
The Facilitative Activities ........................................................................... 17 3
Facilitative Counseling and Teaching ........................................................ 175
Educational Media Corporation® v

Chapter 6 Individual Counseling as a Counselor Intervention ........................... 177

Individual Counseling Defined ................................................................. 178
Stages of Counseling .................................................................................. 180
The Systematic Problem-Solving Model .................................................... 195
The Case of Kellen ..................................................................................... 198
Contingency Contracts .............................................................................. 203
The Case of Deborah .................................................................................. 204
Helpful Hints .............................................................................................. 208
Advantages, Limitations, and Conclusion ................................................ 221
Conclusion ................................................................................................. 222
Chapter 7 Small Group Counseling as a Counselor Intervention ....................... 223
Group Counseling Defined ........................................................................ 224
Three Small Group Counseling Approaches .............................................. 225
Stages of Small Group Counseling ............................................................. 229
Communication Labs: A Growth Group Experience ................................ 239
The Case of Jennifer and Andrew ............................................................. 241
Group Counseling for Negative Attitudes ................................................. 247
Motivational Group Counseling ................................................................ 250
The Go For It Club ..................................................................................... 252
The Journey: Group Counseling for ADHD/ADD ..................................... 254
Helpful Hints .............................................................................................. 259
Small Group Counseling & Counselor Schedule ....................................... 266
Chapter 8 Large Group Guidance as a Counselor Intervention .......................... 271
Large Group Guidance Defined ................................................................. 271
The Florida Classroom Guidance Project .................................................. 286
Helpful Hints .............................................................................................. 290
Chapter 9 Peer Facilitator Projects as a Counselor Intervention ......................... 301
Peer Facilitator Defined .............................................................................. 302
The Power of Peer Relationships ................................................................ 303
Four Basic Helping Roles ............................................................................ 304
Peer Facilitator Training ............................................................................. 310
Peer Facilitator Programs and Projects ....................................................... 316
Helpful Hints .............................................................................................. 323
vi Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Chapter 10 Consultation as a Counselor Intervention .......................................... 329
The Need for Consultation ........................................................................ 329
Consultation Defined ................................................................................ 331
The Consultation Process .......................................................................... 332
Three Types of Consultation ...................................................................... 334
Four Approaches to Consultation .............................................................. 336
Collaboration and Consultation ................................................................ 338
A Systematic Approach to Case Consultation ........................................... 347
The Case of the Desperate Teacher CTanet) ................................................ 349
Consulting with Parents ............................................................................ 356
Brief Family Consultation .......................................................................... 358
A Training Approach with Teachers ........................................................... 360
Consulting in Child Study Teams .............................................................. 362
A Process Approach to Rebuilding a Guidance Program ........................... 363
Helpful Hints .............................................................................................. 364
Chapter 11 The Counseloras Guidance Coordinator ............................................. 369
Coordination Defined ................................................................................ 369
Coordinating the Guidance Program ....................................................... 3 71
Coordination as a Counselor Intervention ............................................... 375
Case Studies ................................................................................................ 392
Coordinating a Child Study Team ............................................................. 394
Helpful Hints .............................................................................................. 398
Chapter 12 The Counselor and Accountability ...................................................... 401
Accountability Defined .............................................................................. 401
Types of Accountability Studies ................................................................. 403
Two Types of Program Evaluation ............................................................ .418
The Systematic Case Study ....................................................................... .421
The Collaborative Study ............................................................................ 423
Helpful Hints .............................................................................................. 430
Counselor Evaluation ................................................................................ 439
Advantages, Limitations, and Conclusion ............................................... .439
Appendix A ASCA National Model:
A Framework for School Counseling Programs .................................. 441
Appendix B The Florida Classroom Guidance Project ............................................. 443
Appendix C ASCA Ethical Standards For School Counselors .................................. 453
Appendix D Peer Facilitator Curriculum (High School) .......................................... 461
References ............................................................................................................... 463
Index ............................................................................................................... 494
Educational Media Corporation® vii

List of Figures
2.1 Developmental Stages/Tasks .................................................................................. 36

2.2 Principles of Developmental Guidance Programs ............................................... .44
3.1 Developmental Guidance Units-TAP .................................................................. 69
4.1 Counselor Interventions (Weekly Scheduling Plan) ........................................... 110
4.2 Elementary School Counselor Schedule ............................................................. 125
4.3 Middle School Counselor Schedule .................................................................... 126
4.4 High School Counselor Schedule ........................................................................ 127
5.1 Relationship Quadrant ........................................................................................ 149
5.2 Facilitative Processes (Individual or Group) ....................................................... 155
5.3 Feeling Words ...................................................................................................... 158
6.1 Depth of Self-Exploration .................................................................................... 218
6.2 Facilitating theDepth and Direction of Self-Exploration .................................... 220
7.1 Facilitating Groups (Communication Labs) ....................................................... 240
7.2 Group Evaluation (Communication Labs) .......................................................... 246
7.3 Objectives for The Journey:
Group Counseling for ADHD/ADD ..................................................................... 258
8.1 Teacher Inventory Results:
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups ............................................ 288
8.2 Student Inventory Results:
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups ............................................ 289
8.3 Managing Large Groups: Seating Arrangements ................................................. 291
10.1 The Consultation Process .................................................................................... 332
10.2 Counseling and Consultation Relationships ...................................................... 333
10.3 The Systematic Facilitative Approach to Consultation ...................................... 348
10.4 Teacher Ratings: Pre-Post Consultation .............................................................. 355
11.1 Florida Program Standards Florida Department of Education (2001) ................ 374
12.1 Learning Behaviors Related to School Achievement ......................................... .412
12.2 Retrospective Measurement Example ................................................................ .413
12.3 Behavior Checklist-Kevin (Teacher Ratings-Pre and Post) ............................ .420
12.4 Final Written Report on K.J ................................................................................. 421
12.5 Collaborative Study: The Counselor Interventions ........................................... .425
12.6 Percentage Gains for Counselor Intervention Group
(Pre and Post Comparison) ................................................................................ .426
12. 7 Questions for School Counselors ........................................................................ 435
viii Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Preface
Almost everyone has had the ex- Counseling is such a complex process
perience of purchasing something that that it seems almost impossible to chart
needed to be assembled at home. If you a course or diagram a plan of action. Put-
are like a lot of people, you first try to ting together a developmental guidance
recall how the model looked in the store program, and related counseling strate-
or catalog and say, "Hey, this shouldn't be gies, might seem similar to times when
so difficult." Then you start. After reach- you assembled one of those "gadgets."
ing a point of frustration and uncertainty You recognize some familiar pieces and
of what to do next, you finally grab the have a general idea of what you are trying
"How to Assemble Manual" and look for to accomplish. But, it would be easier if
instructions. you had a simple and practical "how-to
It seems, however, many "how-to" manual" beside you.
manuals are written in technical lan- This book is designed to be a coun-
guage only an engineer could understand. selor's manual-a resource guide that can
Plodding ahead, you read the "easy-to- help make your job easier. If you are al-
follow steps and procedures," studying ready a counselor, this book will help you
the figures and diagrams and hoping you identify ways in which you can improve
have all the parts and tools. The adven- your skills and be even more effective
ture continues until eventually you have a than you already are. If you are a student
finished product. or a beginning counselor, it will give you
Counseling can be a little like that. confidence and start you in a productive
First, there are some general theories that direction. It may help you avoid some un-
describe how we might go about the pro- expected pitfalls. Or, if you are a teacher,
cess of helping people. However, theories, administrator, school psychologist, social
at times, seem to be only fully understood worker, or someone in education who is
by a few professors and human engineers. interested in knowing more about school
After attempting to apply some counsel- counseling and guidance, then this book
ing theories in the schools, you too may will help you gain a picture of how coun-
begin looking for some simple diagrams selors and others can work together to
and illustrations. You may want more help students to learn more about them-
specific steps or procedures. selves and others and to create a better
learning environment. Even though this
book is written from the point of view of
a school counselor, it can provide a frame-
work and reference for counselors in other
settings who want to know more about
the developmental approach.
Educational Media Corporation® ix

Developmental guidance and counsel- onstrations, and feedback they have both
ing programs can make a positive differ- confirmed and sharpened the focus of this
ence with students. It is a realistic ap- book. They have inspired me to share and
proach to helping all students at all grade explore my ideas and together we have
levels. In addition, the management of discovered those that stand the test of
guidance programs, counselor interven- time.
tions, and counselor skills is a worthy My graduate students and their host
topic for both experienced and inexperi- counselors in the schools of Alachua
enced educators. The times are changing County, Florida, played a significant role
and so are school guidance programs and in the development and refinement of
the roles of counselors. Consequently, the concepts and suggestions presented
there is a need for a "how-to manual" in here. Their work helped pioneer practical
developmental guidance and counseling guidance procedures and counseling para-
which describes systematic and practical digms. Each student's observations and re-
procedures. Developmental Guidance and search project, in its own way, confirmed
Counseling: A Practical Approach attempts many of the approaches recommended in
to meet that need. this book.
The book is based on many of the As I set about to revise the book and
professional dialogues and experiences bring it up to date, I was reassured by
I have had over the years. Fortunately, I counselors and professional colleagues it
have known many outstanding school was relevant and timely and many of the
counselors, teachers, and administrators original ideas have stood the test of time.
who have contributed to my work. It is Therefore, I am pleased to share the best
impossible to acknowledge all of them of the old and new.
here, including those who have worked
closely with me on research and staff Don and Earl Sorenson deserve a lot
development projects. In addition, there of credit for their consistent support and
have been many people who have attend- production expertise. My wife, Linda,
ed my workshops and classes, who have continues to be a reliable source of per-
stimulated my thinking, clarified ideas, sonal and professional encouragement.
provided me with examples, and-most She also provided thoughtful insights
important-tested theories and concepts and critiques, as we talked and worked
by putting them into practice. It has been together on projects related to Develop-
a rewarding search and adventure for mental Guidance and Counseling: A Practical
many of us. Approach.
In particular, I wish to acknowledge

the support of my colleagues in counselor RDM
education, University of Florida, Gaines-
ville, Florida. There are too many state
consultants, directors of guidance, school
administrators, teachers, and school
counselors who have been of assistance
to list here. They have attended my staff
development workshops over the years
and through our open discussions, dem-
x Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

The Emergence of
Developmental Guidance
and Counseling
What do you remember about the The National Center for Education
days when you went to school? You may Statistics (NCES) released "Projections of
remember times when you had lots of fun Education Statistics to 2018." This report
and perhaps you occasionally reminisce (Hussar & Bailey, 2009) predicted enroll-
about some "glory days." But do you also ment and expenditure increases in educa-
recall the personal concerns and conflicts tion over the coming years.
you and your classmates experienced as Public school enrollment is expected
part of growing up? Do any of the follow- to increase by nine percent between the
ing sound familiar? years 2006 and 2018, from 55.3 million to
"I wish I had more friends." 59.8 million students. This increase will
"My grades aren't what they should occur mostly in the south and west areas
be." of the nation, with some decreases in the
11
northeast. The greatest enrollment in-
"My parents don't trust me. creases are expected to occur in the PK-8
'Tm not sure what I want to do after grades.
11
graduation. To these figures, another 6. 7 million
"I need someone who will listen to private school students (2009) must be
me, not yell at me." added. NCES also predicts total expendi-
"Sometimes my friends get me to do tures for K-12 education will increase 36
11
things I don't want to do. percent between 2006 and 2019 to $626
billion, while per pupil expenditures are
"School is so boring."
11
expected to increase 24 percent.
"I like somebody very special, but.. ..
While these figures stagger the mind,
"My parents are always nagging me." one major implication is the nation
"Nobody understands me. 11
will need more teachers and counselors.
As you look back, you might be School personnel make up the largest part
amused by some of your past worries and of a school budget. Things are going to
difficult situations. You worked your way cost more.
through them and might now have a dif- Traditional education funding sources,
ferent perspective. But, at the time, they such as property taxes, are less stable and
were serious encounters and it seemed reliable in the economic downturns. All
your very survival hinged on them. states, especially those with growing popu-
lations, are feeling the pressure of finding
new and more sustainable ways to fund
education. At risk are school programs and
the number of school personnel.
Educational Media Corporation® 1

Enrollment at public and private Statistically speaking, a student who

post-secondary institutions also is exis African American, Hispanic, or Na-
pected to increase from the current 18.2 tive American is less likely to succeed in
million to 20.6 million undergraduates school. A major factor is a disparity of re-
by 2018. With the cost of higher educa- sources-the richest school districts spend
tion continuing to rise despite economic more per student than do the poorest;
downturns, many students are going to schools with large numbers of poor chil-
community colleges for their postsecond- dren tend to have fewer books and sup-
ary training. Students who otherwise may plies and teachers with less training and
have pursued a university degree are able experience. The number of poor children
to attend community colleges at much in the U.S. has grown to 13.3 million and
less cost. Many community colleges are approximately 5.8 million of those live in
working closely with school districts to extreme poverty. Nearly 9 million chil-
enable high school students to take their dren lack health coverage (Mead, 2009).
courses and, perhaps, to graduate early. Gaps persist in academic performance
Schools are changing in terms of among different racial/ethnic and socio-
ethnicity. Between 1972 and 2007, the economic groups. These gaps exist when
percentage of public school students who children enter kindergarten and show few
were white decreased from 78 to 56 per- signs of closing by the end of first grade or
cent, which largely reflected the growth in at higher grade levels. The parents of at-
the number of students who were Hispanic, risk children are less likely to engage them
particularly in the West. Also, more black in early literacy activities or to enroll
and Hispanic students are attending college them in a preschool program. A grow-
than ever before. Between 2000 and 2007, ing and increasingly diverse population
the percentage of college students who of elementary and secondary students
were black rose from 11.3 to 13.1 percent, increases the challenge of providing high-
while the percentage of Hispanic students quality instruction and equal educational
rose from 9.5 to 11.4 percent. opportunities.
It is interesting to note women now In general, the dropout rates for
comprise the majority of college students. whites, blacks, and Hispanics declined be-
They are entering professional disciplines tween 1980 and 2009. However, changes
that were once dominated almost ex- in these rates differed by race/ethnicity.
clusively by men. The advancement of For each year during that period, the rate
women in our society is a testimony of was lower for whites and blacks than
what can happen when a person's person- for Hispanics. The rate for Asian/Pacific
al potential is emphasized and realized. Islanders also was lower than those for
Changes in the racial/ethnic/gender Hispanics and blacks.
composition of student enrollments can Regardless of age, race, or ethnic
alter the diversity of languages and cul- background, all students have special
tures in the nation's schools. Although va- needs, problems, and interests that affect
riety in student backgrounds can enhance the ways they learn. While some issues
the learning environment, it also can and concerns are a sign of the times-
create or increase challenges for teachers unique to a new generation and a new
and counselors. Knowledge of the shifting society-there are many familiar ones that
racial/ethnic distribution of students in are associated with the developmental
grades K-12 can be helpful in planning for stages of life.
change and creating responsive guidance
programs.
2 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Chapter 1 The Emergence of Developmental Guidance and Counseling
We know some students, more than This book is an attempt to advance

others, are disruptive of the learning these programs by recommending a basic
process in the schools. In addition, the working model for school counselors that
intensity of an experience or the signifi- is relevant to public and private schools
cance of a particular problem is relative (K-12). It embraces the American School
from one person to another. For example, Counselor Association's National Model.
adults may dismiss a broken relationship Yet, many of the concepts presented can
between a young boy qnd girl as only a be applied in other settings beyond the
matter of puppy-love and of no real con- schools.
sequence, especially compared to other
problems. However, some teenage suicides
testify otherwise. Young people who are
severely depressed and feeling at a loss
can do irrational things.
To help young people cope with the
issues of growing up, organized guidance
and counseling programs have become an
integral part of the educational process in
the nation's schools. These programs are
designed to enhance personal, social, aca-
demic, and career growth. A primary goal
is to help students learn more effectively
and efficiently and to help make school
life more satisfying and rewarding.
Comprehensive developmental
guidance and counseling programs were
relatively slow to make their appearance
in the schools. Developmental guidance
attempts to meet the needs of all students,
addressing the typical concerns, ques-
tions, and choices facing young people.
Students learn about interpersonal skills
and relationships. They learn how to take
an active part in school, to set goals, to
develop study skills, to make responsible
decisions, and to solve problems.
To be systematic and effective, a com-
prehensive developmental guidance and
counseling program requires the under-
standing and cooperative efforts of coun-
selors, teachers, administrators, parents,
and students. All must know their respec-
tive roles and support one another.

Guidance and In addition to describing a program,

guidance has been used, on occasion, to
Counseling Defined describe a helping process. Career guid-
Although most people agree students ance, for example, might be defined as
need guidance and could benefit from a process of assisting an individual to
counseling, few have a clear understand- choose, enter, and progress in an occupa-
ing of the programs and processes that are tion. Guidance also can be described as an
involved. Even the terms "guidance" and instructional process in which a student is
"counseling" can be elusive. Let's take a given information and told how to move
closer look at these concepts. progressively toward a personal goal. For
example, students might receive guidance
Guidance in choosing or registering for academic
The term 11 guidance" has always pre- courses. They might be given suggestions
sented a confusing picture because of its regarding how to apply to a university or
imprecise meaning and usage. It is a term how to interview for a job. Guidance also
in education that has been flip-flopped has been used to identify structured learn-
with the word "counseling" for more than ing activities or group lessons that guide
50 years. or lead students to reach better under-
standings of themselves and others.
Guidance has been considered a
pervasive force within the school curricu- Thus, we have such terms as guidance
lum or instructional process that aims at program, guidance service, guidance activ-
the maximum development of individual ity, guidance lesson, guidance personnel,
potentialities. In this sense, guidance is a guidance counselor, and guidance materi-
general educational philosophy or an ed- als. The matter becomes more confusing
ucator's state of mind in which individual when people interchange the terms "guid-
uniqueness is valued. When it permeates ance" and "counseling."
the school environment, good teaching is
considered good guidance. Counseling
More traditionally, guidance is an Counseling has been typically viewed
"umbrella" term that encompasses a as a process in which someone who has a
constellation of services aimed at personal problem receives personal assistance, usu-
and career development and school ad- ally in private discussions. School coun-
justment. Professional educators, such as selors are not the only ones to use the
teachers or counselors, commonly deliver term. Lawyers, social workers, ministers,
these services, although support person- and teachers claim they "counsel" people.
nel also may be involved. How are their jobs, and what they
Most schools have guidance programs. do, any different from the work done by
They are outlined by a set of objectives a school counselor? And, if teachers and
and related services. There is a formal, or at others in a school can provide counseling,
least implied, curriculum. Some programs, why is a certified specialist needed in the
more than others, are clearly defined and guidance office?
distinct. They are better organized and the
roles of personnel are more explicit. Ser-
vices are more systematic and accountable.
Guidance, when used to describe an over-
all school program, is a term that implies
personal assistance to students, teachers,
parents, and administrators.

The term "counseling" is used to In this case, counseling is both a job

describe a special type of helping process. function and a helping process. It identi-
There is a trust relationship in which the fies the work or service of the counselor
focus is on personal meaning of events and the way in which the counselor helps
and experiences. Rather than rely on the students.
general interpretations of information or When counseling and guidance are
behaviors, counseling focuses more on both used to refer to a helping process,
personal awareness, in~erests, attitudes, there is a tendency to view counseling
and goals. It has a philosophical and theo- as more specific and more personal than
retical base which conceptualizes learn- guidance. However, that depends upon
ing, human behavior, and interpersonal one's perceptions and the meaning the
relationships. A professionally trained and experience has for the person. Intensity
certified counselor considers counseling a and personal meaning often are related
professional endeavor. to readiness and can be a product of the
Let us suppose some high school experiential moment, more than what is
students want to know more about career planned by counselors or teachers.
planning. They might meet with a coun-
selor in the school's guidance office. As Other Helping Processes
a part of guidance, they could be given To further complicate matters, just as
some occupational information or they the terms "guidance" and "counseling"
could be directed to places where more ca- have been used interchangeably, "coun-
reer resources might be found. They could seling" and "psychotherapy" have some-
talk about the characteristics of job fields times been used synonymously. The most
or they might examine how their own common distinction between counseling
goals are related to certain job areas. They and psychotherapy (or therapy) is coun-
could participate in group activities with seling is for students or clients who are
other students who have similar interests. within the normal range of functioning.
They might use the internet and work While the problems in counseling may
together to explore job opportunities. be as serious and complex as those one
If any of these students were frustrat- might find in psychotherapy, counseling
ed and worried about their choices or if dwells more on current situations and re-
they were experiencing excessive anxiety lated feelings and behaviors. There is not
that hindered their decision making, then as much effort to explore hidden mean-
a more personal and intense intervention, ings, deep-rooted sources of conflict, or
such as counseling, might be appropriate. long-standing psychological problems.
The students might still meet in a group; Counseling usually takes place with
but in counseling, the discussion is likely clients in a non-medical or non-correc-
to be more personal and problem-cen- tional setting. Psychotherapy, on the
tered. The counselor might pose questions other hand, tends to happen in medical
and use special procedures that encourage or clinical settings with dysfunctioning
students to explore their feelings and val- clients or patients who have more severe
ues in greater depth, such as helping them or chronic problems. Psychotherapy is
to identify major forces that are influenc- typically more intense, longer in duration,
ing their career plans. and, oftentimes, there are more attempts
to gain insights through detailed explora-
tions of the past. In reality, counseling

and psychotherapy can share many of goals. Because classroom teachers are
the same interpersonal dynamics, helping charged by school boards to "teach" an
skills, process variables, and behavioral academic curriculum, classroom teach-
goals. ing tends to be more subject-oriented and
School counselors may provide guid- product-centered. It often is more instruc-
ance or counseling services to students tional and directive than exploratory and
who also are seeing psychotherapists in facilitative of personal interests and goals.
private practice. The setting, the job title The best teachers try to personalize their
of the helper, theoretical assumptions, teaching and use experiential learning,
and the approach could be different, but but it is not easy to focus on individual
the desired outcomes may be the same. growth and needs. Classroom teaching
typically is aimed at the majority of stu-
Even if school counselors are trained dents and is more judgmental and evalua-
as psychotherapists and are able to use tive than guidance or counseling.
sophisticated therapeutic techniques with
students, the intervention is still called Effective counselors use teaching,
counseling when it takes place in the coaching, directing, tutoring, training,
schools. Behavior or personality changes and instructing to help students. Counsel-
resulting from counseling may go far ors, like teachers and other school person-
beyond school settings, but school coun- nel, are primarily concerned students get
selors are concerned first with helping the most out of school and realize their
students develop their positive attributes potential as responsible and productive
and to be better learners. citizens. For instance, this may involve
teaching a student a skill during some
The general public prefers academic counseling sessions, perhaps something
learning and school adjustment should that might be applied to help resolve a
be the focus of a school counselor's work. problem or reduce anxiety.
Although there are young people who
need therapy, most parents and taxpayers
want school counselors to assist these stu-
Some Working Definitions
dents with problems related to the school For our purposes, the term /1 school
environment. Counselors are encouraged guidance" will refer to a generic set of per-
to refer deeply troubled students to com- sonal development services offered to stu-
munity agencies, such as mental health dents. Counseling is one of those services.
centers or counseling psychologists in These are provided through an organized
private practice. School counselors, often guidance program with specific objectives
limited by both job training and job set- that focus on the academic, personal, so-
ting, must be realistic and practical in the cial, and career development of students.
services they provide. The term /1 guidance" also will be used as a
modifier (adjective) to identify a helping
What about the term "teaching?"
process that focuses on general develop-
Guidance, counseling, and teaching are
mental needs, interests, concerns, and
related educational processes. They help
behaviors of students who are within the
students learn. If there is a difference
normal range of functioning.
guidance and counseling concentrat~
more on personal interests, problems,
meanings, experiences, behaviors, and

The term "counseling" will be used to The Formative Years

identify a personal relationship and inter-
The history of school guidance and
action in which students confidentially
counseling can be traced to several trends
explore their feelings, ideas, and behaviors
and events that happened in the United
with a professionally trained counselor.
States during the latter half of the eigh-
School counseling has an educational base
teenth century. The introduction of more
and is limited in scope and duration. The
humane care of "mentally disturbed"
process may have far r~aching personal ef-
patients and the application of scientific
fects on students, but it is not intended to
methods in studying human behavior
be a form of psychotherapy. Counseling
were especially influential. By the turn of
may be provided to an individual student
the century, there was a greater awareness
or to a group of students.
of how people learned and the influence
Although attempts have been made one's environment had on the develop-
to sharpen the definition of guidance and ment of a person. Noted philosophers and
counseling by differentiating them from educators, such as John Dewey, empha-
other helping processes, the distinctions sized the importance of student involve-
are arbitrary and sometimes difficult to ment in education.
defend in practice. They may not even be
While educators were revising their
necessary.
concepts about child development and
how students learn best, other develop-
ments were happening in psychology that
would lay the groundwork for counsel-
ing. For instance, Sigmund Freud and
his colleagues, such as Alfred Adler and
Karl Jung, made significant contributions
to the development of modern psychol-
ogy and the need to understand human
behavior.
When Freud gave a series of lectures
at Clark University in 1923, he intro-
duced several new dimensions to therapy
and general psychology. Among these
were the concepts that childhood experi-
ences are determinants of adult behavior
and authority figures shape personality
development. About the same time, J.B.
Watson was formulating many of the
concepts that would lay the foundation
of behaviorism and social learning theory.
His studies led to a broader understanding
of how human beings learn and behave.

G. Stanley Hall is given credit for making the best use of worker skills and
encouraging the child study movement. aptitudes. It was about this time state
He emphasized each child has unique guidance directors were appointed to de-
characteristics and systematic observation velop and coordinate testing programs.
was necessary to identify and meet the During World War II, as had been the
special needs of children. Subsequently, case in World War I, tests were needed to
additional attention was directed toward screen and place draftees. The use of tests,
dysfunctioning children and how they personality inventories, and psychologi-
coped with their environments. cal counseling received a boost. As these
processes became a routine part of the
The Foundation Begins military, they soon found their place in
While more humanistic approaches high school guidance programs.
to child psychology and education were It was during the 1950s the term
being developed, early pioneers in voca- "mental health" was first used. An afflu-
tional or career guidance were introducing ent and rapidly changing society created
guidance programs in the schools. Frank a need for more psychological services.
Parsons (1909) organized the Vocational Crime and divorce rates were increasing,
Bureau of Boston. Eli Weaver laid voca- traditional values were being challenged,
tional guidance foundations in the New the population was becoming more
York public schools. Jesse B. Davis worked mobile, and urbanization created more
in the schools of Grand Rapids, Michigan, personal stress, as well as opportunities.
and helped form the first professional Mental and correctional institutions were
guidance association, the National Vo- overcrowded and there was a demand for
cational Guidance Association in 1913. more psychological services and trained
These men primarily were concerned with professionals to work outside these in-
matching young people to jobs and pre- stitutions. The American Personnel and
paring them for the world of work. They Guidance Association (APGA), which
have been identified as the founders of later became the American Counseling
school guidance (Aubrey, 1982). Association (ACA), the American School
Providing occupational information, Counselor Association (ASCA), and the
vocational assessment, and job place- American Psychological Association (APA)
ment were considered legitimate guidance were formed during this decade.
functions. School guidance went beyond
teaching students "readin', writin', and The Sputnik Spark
'rithmetic," as schools were seen as places It was the spectacular launching of
to encourage young people to plan for the world's first artificial satellite, Sput-
jobs and participation in society. nik, in 1957 by the U.S.S.R., that sparked
The testing movement of the 1920s the rapid development of school guid-
stressed the measurement of intellectual ance and counseling services. That event
and personality traits. Test results were stunned the nation. It dramatized the
used in schools, industry, and the mili- scientific and technological achievements
tary. When the "Great Depression" hit the of the Soviet Union and marked the start
nation, even more emphasis was placed of the space age. Congress immediately
upon individual assessment and ways of responded by passing a landmark piece of
legislation-the National Defense Educa-
tion Act of 1958. This bill is, perhaps, the

single most important event in the his- Although there were many outstand-
tory of the school counseling profession. ing people who became school counselors
First, it recognized the value of guidance and who were eager to help young people,
and counseling, and more importantly, training and entry requirements enabled
it provided funds for the preparation of thousands of minimally qualified people
school counselors. It gave credibility to to hold school counselor jobs. They did
the idea a specialist in guidance and coun- not know much about the nature of coun-
seling was needed in t.he schools. seling, related job skills and services, nor
Counselor education departments in did they have a clear idea of the role of a
universities and colleges across the nation guidance specialist in the schools.
began to develop graduate programs to Without adequate preparation and
train counselors. During this time, most well-defined guidance programs, many
academic preparation was directed toward school counselors drifted into quasi-
high school counselors. A counselor's administrative positions. They became
job was seen primarily as identifying and schedule changers, test coordinators,
encouraging talented youth to attend col- record keepers, and administrative assis-
lege, particularly those who showed inter- tants. Some were seen as resident substi-
est and aptitude in math and science. tute teachers, clerical aides, or disciplinar-
While the intent was clear and the ians. Many counselors saw the position as
effort a noble one, preparation of school a step toward becoming a building prin-
counselors was inadequate. Nobody was cipal and opted to work in an administra-
sure what counselors should do. In most tive role when given the opportunity.
states, classroom teaching experience Despite a shaky start, school counsel-
was necessary before counselor certifica- ing was emerging as a profession. With
tion could be granted. This requirement the help of leaders in ASCA, state depart-
restricted entry into the profession to ments of education, universities, and
school teachers. In addition, the first school districts, a vision of what school
university programs were limited in scope counseling could be for all students at all
and entrance requirements were minimal. grade levels began to take form (Schmidt,
It was common for teachers to take four 2008).
or five graduate courses and then apply
for state certification as school counselors. The Counselor
The course work, frequently taken dur- in a Changing World
ing the summer, usually consisted of: (1)
counseling theories; (2) tests and mea- APGA appointed C. Gilbert Wrenn to
surements; (3) occupational information; chair The Commission on Guidance in
and (4) general introduction to guidance the American Schools. This commission
services. Only a few graduate school pro- studied the role and function of school
grams required a supervised field or practi- counselors, as well as their preparation,
cum experience. and made strong recommendations that
resulted in a significant report written
by Wrenn in 1962. It was entitled The
Counselor in a Changing World. This work
solidified the goals of the school counsel-
ing profession.

The report recommended counsel- Thus, as characterized by Mitchell and

ors should provide individual and group Gysbers (1980), the first years of school
counseling to students, as well as consul- guidance might be viewed as a time when
tation to parents and teachers. There was occupational selection and placement
considerable emphasis upon counselors was emphasized (1900-1920), followed by
being informed about student develop- school adjustment (1930-1960), and then
mental needs. While the traditional work personal development (1960 to 1990).
of psychological appraisal and assistance The theme of the 1990s seemed to be
in making educational-vocational plans academic testing, assessment, placement,
was advocated, counselors were encour- and adjustment.
aged to take an active part in curriculum New themes continue to emerge that
development. transcend traditional approaches. For
It was evident the commission en- instance, counselors are currently focus-
visioned the counselor as providing ing more on academics and test perfor-
services to maximize student potential mance, learning readiness, and personal
by emphasizing personal growth, self- adjustment. The focus of developmental
determination, and responsibility. Even school counselors has not changed and
though Wrenn later said it was probably continues to be about helping students
too conservative, the report provided a develop personally-to get the most out
needed and valuable reference for coun- of school by learning more effectively and
selor educators and school leaders. efficiently.
The federal government continued Many of the nation's problems can
to influence the development of school be addressed through prevention and
guidance and counseling during the 1960s early intervention. The demands of our
through legislative acts and funds. For multi-cultural society and the need for an
example, the 1965 extension of the NDEA educated and caring citizenship will affect
Act provided the impetus for the growth the direction of educators, as they seek to
and development of elementary school prevent the loss of human potential and
counseling. It provided funds for the provide for the total development of our
training of elementary school counselors nation's youth. There will be an increased
through special institutes and graduate focus on learning and achievement. The
stipends. Later, the Elementary and Sec- goal of educating responsible and produc-
ondary Education Act of 1965 (Titles I and tive citizens who have a global conscious-
III) provided more support for elementary ness will be emphasized. It is the age of
school guidance. The federal government the developmental school counselor.
also continued its influence through such
programs as the Manpower Develop-
ment and Training Act, Job Corps, Youth
Opportunity Centers, and Employment
Services.

Four Approaches to Guid- Counselors, by nature of their train-

ing and job assignments, are likely to be
ance and Counseling involved when students lose self-control
Four general approaches to guidance and need quick attention. Counselors
and counseling can be identified. These sometimes act as mediators. At other
are: (1) Crisis; (2) Remedial; (3) Preven- times, they help negotiate or assist people
tive; and (4) Developmental. It sometimes to talk with one another. Frequently,
may appear these four approaches overlap counselors listen and talk calmly with
one another and it is certainly possible people in crisis, helping them find a rea-
to incorporate all of them into a develop- sonable and responsible next step.
mental approach. However, each ap- Sometimes a crisis can be avoided and
proach has a salient theme that influences at other times it cannot. For instance,
program direction, the type of services a counselor or teacher might suspect a
provided to students, and how profes- student is under a lot of stress and pres-
sional personnel spend their time. sure, but the moment of crisis cannot be
predicted. It might appear a student is
The Crisis Approach behaving in a responsible way, given a
Everyone has problems. The crisis ap- difficult situation. Then, suddenly, there
proach to counseling and guidance is to is an unpredictable change of events that
wait and react to critical situations. When results in an outburst and the counselor
people reach a point where their welfare, reacts with some kind of a crisis interven-
or the welfare of others, is threatened or tion.
when a decisive action must be taken, a Not all problems are of a crisis na-
counselor could provide a crisis interven- ture, but they may have that potential if
tion. ignored or allowed to build up unneces-
Crisis interventions are an inevi- sarily. For example, a boy may be the butt
table part of a school counselor's work. of jokes by his classmates. As the jokes
A teacher and student, for example, may continue, the conflict might increase
exchange angry words. Suddenly, there is and a verbal exchange could erupt into
an awkward and uncomfortable confron- a physical fight. The crisis, in this case,
tation that needs attention. Or, maybe had a history. There may have been some
a boy reports to school and unexpect- critical moments that preceded the crisis,
edly bursts into tears, as thoughts of his which were less intense and where a pre-
parents' pending divorce sadden him. A ventive measure might have taken place,
crisis moment has occurred and a coun- but it was the fight that abruptly brought
selor may help. A girl may refuse to attend the problem to everyone's attention and
a class because a classmate is threatening called for a strong and immediate re-
her. A student may be caught with illegal sponse. Unfortunately, too many people
drugs. In each of these cases, a turning wait until a crisis is at hand before recog-
point is at hand and the crisis might re- nizing the seriousness of a situation and
ceive attention by a counselor. asking for assistance.

Personal and social problems fre- The number of students who are
quently spill over into the classroom. having conflicts in school is increasing.
Teachers do what they can. If some an- Yet, the sources of the conflicts gener-
noying problems persist, then students ally remain the same. They are found in
are sent to guidance specialists, such as the personal relationships that happen
school counselors, for "counseling." The at home and in school. While counselors
expectation is a counselor will do some- complain they do not have time to see all
thing to make matters better, if not for the students who need their help, there is
the students, at least for the teachers. always time to react to a crisis.
From the beginning, when counselors The pressure to "hurry up and fix it" is
were first employed, they were in the "fix- a primary cause of burnout among coun-
it-up business." If students were squab- selors. One crisis seems to lead to another
bling over something, a counselor was and the same students keep showing up
supposed to "patch things up." If students for more counseling as they continue to
had poor attitudes about school, a coun- get into trouble.
selor was to "set them straight" or "put On occasion, if it forces some needed
them back on course." It was as though changes, a crisis can be helpful. A critical
the counselor had some magic solution or situation might produce enough personal
inspiring speech that would make stu- discomfort to make a person take some
dents more cooperative. positive action or try something new. It
The crisis approach to guidance and might be the precipitating event that en-
counseling is an inevitable part of every courages a person to seek out a counselor,
school environment, but it fails to address a therapist, or someone who can provide
the real issues. It forces teachers and coun- timely assistance.
selors to attend to the immediacy of an But, the crisis approach is too expen-
incident. The circumstances for working sive, inefficient, and time consuming to
out solutions are usually not the best, as be the only one used in a guidance pro-
the persons involved are frequently tense, gram. In addition, there are not enough
emotional, and defensive. In far too many helpers available to attend to all the criti-
schools, the operational mode is to wait cal issues and problems that occur. Con-
and react to crises. sequently, many problems that are on the
It appears to be human nature to verge of becoming crises often are ignored
put things off. Sometimes problems are or quickly dismissed in the hope things
postponed until they become explosive will get better in time. Counselor time is
and difficult to manage. For instance, a premium time and it can be consumed
teacher may notice a boy is unhappy with quickly by responding to crisis after crisis.
school and sulks when his work is criti-
cized. But, nothing is done. The problem
is ignored. Then, one day he loses control
and stomps out of class after insulting a
classmate. The boy is suspended for his
behavior and told to see the counselor
before returning to class.

The Remedial Approach The preventive approach tries to

The remedial approach focuses on anticipate problems and then stop them
from happening. However, think of all the
identifiable deficiencies. A remedy is sug-
things society is trying to prevent young
gested or applied in the hope a student
people from experiencing.
will be able to make normal progress and
avoid a crisis situation. • Sexual promiscuity
Some students do not, for different • Unwanted pregnancies
reasons, learn various basic skills as they • Drug abuse
pass through the grade levels. They may • Excessive absenteeism
miss important developmental experi-
ences or tasks. These students can benefit • Poor study habits
from a learning or relearning approach • Juvenile delinquency
that helps them make up their academic • Smoking
or social deficits. Through student assess-
ments, and then focused counseling and • Overeating
guidance interventions, they can catch • Laziness
up before their lack of preparation creates • Indifferent voting
problems.
• Reckless driving
A troubled student might not relate
• Abuse of property rights
well to classmates and teachers. Perhaps
social courtesies were missed along the • Unemployment
way or effective interpersonal skills were And, that is not all. The list seems
absent in parenting. The student might endless. The problem with this approach
participate in counselor-led group activi- is we must know and identify what we
ties where interpersonal skills could be want to prevent. Teaching or counseling
discussed and practiced. As the student strategies are then developed for each
makes up social deficits, relationships one.
with teachers and other students would If we want to prevent children from
improve. catching polio, then we administer a
polio vaccine. Or, if we want to prevent
The Preventive Approach students from writing a disorganized let-
Another approach to guidance and ter, then we teach them about grammar,
counseling is about preventing problems. punctuation, and paragraphing. If we
For instance, instead of waiting until a want to keep them from being disruptive
young couple become pregnant, wouldn't in a classroom, then we teach them ap-
it be better if they knew something about propriate classroom behaviors. If we want
birth control, so an unwanted pregnancy to prevent teacher-student conflicts, then
could be prevented? Instead of waiting we teach them how to cope with teachers'
until a boy physically strikes a teacher, needs and styles. A potential problem is
wouldn't it be better to teach the boy identified and a prevention plan is de-
some communication skills, so differences signed.
could be discussed instead of acted out?

While the term "prevention" attempts Skill building in the developmental

to capture the spirit of education and the approach is related directly to develop-
goodness of helping, it is too limited. It mental stages, tasks, and learning condi-
requires drafting a list of things to pre- tions. Sometimes it may appear there is
vent or to be avoided, which is likely to less personal energy or student involve-
become long and confusing. The list can ment because hypothetical situations are
change, depending upon who is setting frequently used to explore ideas, feelings,
the priorities or drafting the list. Another and behaviors. It may appear to be too
problem is it concentrates on what we do indirect to arouse student interest. But,
not want, instead of what we want. By skilled teachers and counselors prefer to
nature of its perspective, it is a negative motivate students in the developmental
way of looking at things and it sometimes approach, instead of relying on the excite-
forces us to think about obedience more ment and fragmented energy of a crisis
than achievement. situation.
When the developmental approach is
The Developmental Approach used, it incorporates the preventive, reme-
The developmental approach is an dial, and crisis approaches. The develop-
attempt to identify certain skills and mental approach looks at teaching, coach-
experiences students need to have as part ing, tutoring, instructing, informing, and
of their going to school and being suc- counseling as part of the helping process.
cessful. Learning behaviors and tasks are It is a flexible approach that draws upon
identified and clarified for students. Then, whatever is appropriate to meet student
a guidance curriculum is planned which needs and interests.
complements the academic curriculum. The developmental approach to guid-
In addition, life skills are identified and ance emphasizes the importance of the
these are emphasized as part of preparing learning environment. It also recognizes
students for adulthood. students and teachers, as well as other
In the developmental approach, stu- personnel in a school building, work in
dents have an opportunity to learn more concert to form the learning climate.
about themselves and others in advance Therefore, interpersonal relationships are
of problem moments in their lives. They an essential part of this approach and
learn interpersonal skills before they have everyone in the school is considered a fa-
an interpersonal crisis. If a crisis situa- cilitator of personal, social, and academic
tion does happen, they can draw upon growth.
their skills to work themselves out of the The four general approaches to school
problem. guidance and the work of school counsel-
Students are usually more open to ors probably can be found to some extent
learning when they are not defensive. in all schools. However, history suggests
As students learn how to be positive and one approach or another has dominated
interact effectively with others through different grade levels and, subsequently,
developmental guidance, they take a more determined the current status of guidance
active part in learning. They help create and counseling in our nation's schools.
positive school environments.

Guidance and Counseling For example, there has been an in-

crease in the use of convenience foods
in a Changing World and eating habits have changed. The fam-
Born out of the desire to help stu- ily dinner, once a rallying point for family
dents with vocational information and members, is not a nightly scene as much
planning, school guidance first found its as it once was, as more people are eating
place in the nation's high schools. Voca- out in restaurants or sitting in front of
tional guidance was an observable need their television sets.
of adolescents, one that was especially Family life has changed in many ways.
acute during the war years and the times There are more working parents, which
of depression. It is still a viable concept has meant more children are spending
that deserves a special place in a guidance their after-school hours alone and un-
program. supervised. Although there is a concern
As the years passed and society about elementary school children, people
changed, the needs of adolescents also are forgetting about young adolescents
changed. Young people are now confront- (12 to 15 years of age). Many of them
ed by a host of opportunities, decisions, drift aimlessly. At a stage in their lives
and conflicts past generations never knew. when they are full of energy and need-
While many problems apparently remain ing to further develop the skills learned
the same from one decade to another in school, they often lack a safe place to
(e.g., conflicts with teachers, parents, and go-somewhere besides shopping malls or
peers), contemporary youth are growing the internet-to meet their friends and to
up in a different world, a different society, interact with adults.
and one in which there is a need for dif- About three out of ten high school
ferent helpers. students are shoplifters and many teenag-
ers hang out in shopping malls with no
A Fast Changing Society money and nothing to do. A study by
Within the past several years, we the California Department of Education
have witnessed the appearance of digital showed three-fourths of the high school
electronics. Video arcades and stores, CD students surveyed admitted to cheating
records, wireless and smart telephones, on tests. The students said most of their
and lap top computers are common and classmates accept cheating as a general
taken for granted. The internet has be- practice. In a similar vein, 88 percent of
come a social phenomenon, featuring in- the nation's ninth graders reported lying
terpersonal connections such as Facebook, to their parents one or more times during
MySpace, and Twitter. Life styles have been a year.
influenced by physical fitness centers and The "Ozzie and Harriet" model of
athletic gear stores. Popular songs, mov- 1950s fame featured a working husband
ies, clothes, and celebrities have changed. and a wife who stayed home with the
But, only when we take a closer look do children, which was once the dominant
we see significant changes that have af- pattern of family life in the nation. It was
fected families and children. the family picture around which schools
typically built their organizational pro-
cedures. It was the general image school
personnel often carried in their minds as
they thought of their students and made
plans for parental involvement.

Twenty years later, a television sit- the working mothers have full-time jobs
com called The Brady Bunch featured two (Child Health, 2009). This implies there
families and siblings becoming one fam- are a lot of unsupervised young people
ily. This TV icon also was a reflection of drifting about after school when parents
the times (1970s) in which there was an are not a home.
increase in the number of divorces and The number of American children
remarriages. In a blended family, or step living below the poverty line fell to 11.6
family, one or both partners have been million in the year 2000, the lowest in
married before. One or both has lost a 20 years, according to the U.S. Bureau
spouse through divorce or death and may of Census (2000). By 2008, that number
have children from the previous mar- increased to 13.3 million, with 5.8 million
riages. children living in extreme poverty. Nearly
The number of blended families 9 million children lack health coverage
continues to increase. About 50 percent (Mead, 2009).
of marriages are ending in divorce and Ironically, the proportion of poor chil-
75 percent of the people involved will re- dren who live in families where someone
marry. This suggests that by the 2010 cen- worked throughout the year increased.
sus, there will be more step families than Among poor families with children, the
original families. One out of three Ameri- likelihood of being headed by a full-time
cans is a member of a step family and the year-round worker is at the highest point
number is expected to rise in the future on record in the three decades for which
(Sarin & Lee, 2010). Step family members figures exist. Despite working harder,
experience losses and face complicated many low-income parents remained poor.
adjustments to new family situations.
The effects of poverty on children's
According to Kathryn Tillman (2008), education are well documented. Children
a professor at Florida State University from poor families have lower than aver-
who examined data from thousands of age achievement and higher than average
subjects, adolescents from blended fami- dropout rates. These children may not
lies tend to have lower grades and more come to school ready to learn and, there-
school-related behavior problems. Such fore, may need additional services. In the
a home life is apparently harder for boys most disturbing negative trend for poor
than for girls. Their GPAs are a quarter of black children, their rates of residential
a letter grade lower than their counter- mobility increased 14-fold from 1985
parts living with full siblings. But, both through 2007 (Mead, 2009). The learn-
boys and girls in blended families have ing environment for these children lacks
more difficulty paying attention, finishing stability and continuity.
their homework, and getting along well
with teachers and students. Counselors Although often viewed as an urban
can help children talk about their new problem, poverty now pervades every
families and how it affects their attitudes region of the country and the rate has
and work at school. been rising in almost every state. Poverty
is more pronounced in large cities, where
Women have traditionally been the one out of four children is poor and, in
child care-takers. In 2007, more than 71 some cities, one-half to two-thirds of chil-
percent of American women with children in minority groups are poor. Many
dren under 18 worked outside the home, families cannot afford quality childcare.
including 60 percent of mothers with
children under 3. While there is a prefer-
ence for part-time work, three-quarters of

Parents in poverty usually lack the Despite the valiant efforts of many
education to help them find work and poor families to provide for their children,
they frequently lack good parenting skills. approximately seven million school-age
They often take their frustrations out on children are left alone after school with-
their children. During 2007, an estimated out supervision. Lack of adult supervision
794,000 children were determined to often leads to other problems. There are
be victims of abuse or neglect, yet only more opportunities to become involved in
25% received any treatment. Most child risky behaviors.
welfare referrals involve alcohol and sub- The results of a study on risky behav-
stance abuse. ior among U.S. teenagers in the 1990s,
It can be difficult to talk about sexual released by the Center for Disease Control
abuse and even more difficult to acknowl- and Prevention (2002), had some good
edge that sexual abuse of children of all news for parents. Sexual promiscuity, and
ages, including infants, happens in our especially unprotected intercourse, the use
nation every day. Statistics indicate girls of weapons, and the contemplation of sui-
are more frequently the victims of sexual cide are not as commonplace with teens
abuse, but the number of boys also is as they once were. The CDC attributed
significant. Child sexual abuse is a major the improvements to public education.
concern of many communities and the There were other reports that con-
focus of many legislative and professional tained good news about the crime rate
initiatives. An expanding body of litera- of youth. After peaking in 1994, juve-
ture about sexual abuse, public declara- nile violent crime arrests were reduced.
tions by adult survivors, and an increased The number of juvenile arrests declined
in media coverage reflects this worry. in every violent crime category despite
More children suffer abuse and ne- an eight percent growth in the juvenile
glect than is ever reported to child protec- population from 1993 to 1999 (Snyder,
tive services agencies. Child sexual abuse 2000). Yet, despite drops in juvenile crime
has been reported up to 80,000 times a rates, the arrest rate for girls increased.
year, but the number of unreported in- In the past decade, teenagers reported
stances is far greater, because the children smoking more and doing more drugs than
are afraid to tell anyone what has hap- their counterparts in 1999. One-third of
pened and the legal procedure for validat- the students reported having had at least
ing an episode is difficult. One-third of all one drink of alcohol in the month be-
sexual assaults reported involved a child fore the national survey. Marijuana had
under age 12. Of the perpetrators, 36 per- reportedly been tried by 27 percent of
cent were strangers and 45 percent were the students and cocaine by four percent.
friends or relatives (State of America's Approximately one-third of all crimes are
Children, 2008). attributed to children under the age of 18
Yet, it would be a mistake for anyone and many crimes are drug related.
to think poor parents inevitably abuse
their children. Given limited family
resources, some children are held in high
esteem and receive special attention from
family members. Some families sacrifice a
great deal in order to help their children
to learn. The parents' hopes for rewarding
and satisfying lives are achieved through
their children's accomplishments.

Violence has become part of many Ideally, schools should be havens

children's lives. It begins early in life for where students and teachers can engage
some. Exposure to violence in media, in activities related to learning-free of
including television, movies, music, and concern about personal safety. In reality,
video games, can be a risk to the health of today's schools are touched by the vio-
children and adolescents. In addition to lence that is widespread in society.
direct physical harm suffered by victims The number of guns and other weap-
of serious violence, the impact on their ons that are brought to school has in-
mental health and development may increased steadily over the years. In some
crease the likelihood they themselves will communities, young people band to-
commit acts of serious violence. gether in gangs, sometimes as a means of
For example, in the U.S., an average protecting themselves, but primarily for
of 20-25 violent acts are shown in chil- support and a sense of belonging.
dren's television programs each hour. A Street gangs were once considered
significant association was found between loosely organized thugs, engaged in petty
the amount of time spent watching thefts and drugs on only a local level.
television during adolescence, with its Today's gangs are very different. A sophis-
exposure to violence, and the likelihood ticated gang operation can claim thou-
of subsequent antisocial behavior, such as sands of members, crossing state lines to
threatening aggression, assault, or physi- establish syndicates in dozens of states.
cal fights resulting in injury and robbery These criminal organizations engage in
(Browne & Hamilton-Giachritsis, (2005, high-stakes narcotics and weapons traf-
Boyse, (2009). ficking, gambling, smuggling, robbery,
Exposure to violence continues when and other equally serious crimes. Never
children enter school. Students are at- before have gangs been so mobile and
tacked in school each month and fear dangerous and the problem is spreading.
causes as many as one in five second- It has been estimated that approximately
ary students to avoid restrooms. Many one million gang members belonging to
students stay home rather than attend more than 20,000 gangs were criminally
school because they are afraid. During the active within all SO states and the Dis-
2007-08 school year, 85 percent of public trict of Columbia (National Drug Threat
schools reported incidents of violence and Survey, 2008).
this amounted to an estimated 2 million While updated laws and tougher
crimes (Snyder, 2009). penalties are needed by law enforcement
Attending school in an environ- agencies to fight gang violence, education
ment where disturbing events are known and community-based anti-gang pro-
to happen may have an impact upon grams are critical in furthering this effort.
students' sense of security, potentially Teaching children about peaceful conflict
contributing to less effective learning. Ac- resolution, the harmful effects of drugs,
cording to students, incidents of bullying, and methods to develop self-confidence
physical attack, or robbery occurred in are just a few of the ways communities,
schools at all grade levels and a majority schools, and churches are trying to keep
of students witnessed at least one of these youngsters from joining gangs. A sense of
incidents. belonging, being cared about, and being
loved also draws many teenagers into
sexual activity before they are ready for
the responsibility.

About one million teenage girls in the It is a stressful world for students.
United States become pregnant each year. Some have learned to cope with the
Of these, approximately six out of ten most burdensome of situations. Others
result in live births, three in abortion, and are overwhelmed and become depressed,
one in a miscarriage. It is estimated 40 unmotivated, and, perhaps, drop out of
percent of 14-year-old girls will become school. Still others are unable to function
pregnant at least once before they are 20. well in their lives and suffer severe mental
In addition, it is estim.ated teenage preg- health problems. Children often are con-
nancies will cost the nation six billion sidered one of the most neglected groups
dollars in welfare benefits for the next two in mental health.
decades. Children's anxiety is apparently at
Starting early in life, children watch an all-time high. Crime, fear of AIDS,
television shows and movies where they social isolation, and pressure to perform
learn about sex and sex appeal. Sex is in school, among other factors, might
mass-marketed. TV shows and advertise- underlie the high levels of anxiety among
ments, movies, and music are not the today's young people. An analysis based
only influences-the internet provides on two studies that looked at more than
teens with seemingly unlimited access to 60,000 children and college students
information on sex, as well as a steady over four decades showed both groups
supply of people willing to talk about sex experienced increasing levels of anxiety
with them. Teens may feel safe because from the 1950s to the 1990s. Surprisingly,
they can remain anonymous while look- children who were viewed as "healthy"
ing for information on sex. Sexual preda- by 1980 standards reported more anxiety
tors know this and manipulate young than child psychiatric patients reported
people into online relationships and, thirty years earlier (Twenge, 2000).
later, set up a time and place to meet. Teenage suicide is a growing na-
More than half of U.S. teenagers re- tional concern. In a survey of high school
port having sexual intercourse by age 17 students, the National Youth Violence
and some 2.5 million teens contact a sex- Prevention Resource Center (2005) found
ually transmitted disease each year. Hun- almost 1 in 5 teens had thought about
dreds of adolescents have been diagnosed suicide, about 1 in 6 teens had made
with AIDS. Thousands more are infected plans for suicide, and more than 1 in 12
with the human immunodeficiency virus teens had attempted suicide. Females were
and, given the incubation period of 10 much more likely to contemplate suicide
or more years, they will develop AIDS in than males. As many as 8 out of 10 teens
their 20s. Because these are matters of life who commit suicide try to ask for help
and death, AIDS and HIV infection have in some way before committing suicide,
prompted educators and communities to such as by seeing a doctor shortly before
look at politically sensitive issues (e.g., the suicide attempt.
adolescent sexuality, homosexuality). Several factors increase the risk a teen-
ager will attempt suicide:
• Depression or feelings of loneliness or
helplessness.
• Alcohol or drug addiction.
• A family history of abuse, suicide, or
violence.

• Half of teens who commit suicide had Yet, the dropout rate of high school
attempted suicide previously. students also is higher than what might
• A recent loss such as a death, break- be expected for a nation that is moving
up, or parents' divorce. from an age of industry to one of high
technology. In the next decade, 80 per-
• Stress over school, relationships, or cent of the nation's jobs will require a
performance expectations. high school education, as more emphasis
• Fear of ridicule for getting help for is given to automation and electronics.
problems. Approximately 7,000 high school
• Being bullied or being a bully. students drop out every school day,
• Exposure to teens committing suicide which translates to one in three students.
(e.g., at school or in the media). Students who decide to drop out typi-
cally lack the tools to compete in today's
• Access to firearms or other lethal ob-
society and diminish their chances for
jects.
greater success. But such a decision does
• A belief that suicide is noble (some not happen overnight; it comes after years
musical lyrics). of frustration and failure. School seems
• Mental health problems. hopeless. Often, those that drop out have
run out of motivation and have no source
Although it is difficult to obtain accu- of support or encouragement in school or
rate statistics, the data available indicate at home (Balfanz & Legters, 2006).
15 to 19 percent of the nation's children
and youth suffer emotional or other prob- Dropouts make up nearly half the
lems that warrant mental health treat- heads of households on welfare. Dropouts
ment and that prevent them from being also make up nearly half the prison popu-
successful in relationships with others and lation. The prevention of school dropouts
successful in school. is a high priority for counselors in a guid-
ance program. However, on average, only
Each year, about 100,000 young one certified counselor is available for
people are placed in residential psychiat- each 500 students in all schools and one
ric programs, according to the Children's counselor to 285 students in high schools.
Defense Fund (2001). The total number And, they have many assignments that
of children who receive such treatment leave little time to spend with students
is unknown; however, the demand for who are at risk of dropping out (Thacker,
adolescent psychiatric services continues Thacker & Bell (2007).
to increase.
Some commission reports and task
Americans are becoming more edu- forces blame teachers and schools for
cated. Between 1980 and 1994, the pro- a lack of academic excellence. Yet, the
portion of the adult population 25 years nation invariably turns to educators and
of age and over with four years of high the schools for more help with society's
school or more rose from 69 percent to 81 serious social problems. While the public
percent. At the same time, the proportion continues to demand schools expect high
of adults with at least four years of college academic performances from students,
increased from 17 percent to 22 percent it also asks these same students to learn
(Chandler, Nolin, & Davies, 1996). to be responsible citizens who can live
socially productive lives.

Guidance in the High Schools Rogers' theory appealed to many

Before the 1960s, most books about counselors because it placed responsibility
school guidance were directed to teachers on the client. It was the client who ac-
in elementary and secondary schools (e.g., cepted the burden of problem solving and
decision making as the counselor assumed
Arbuckle, 1950; Gordon, 1956). There
the role of an attentive listener. It ap-
were few counseling specialists and most
peared the theory could be implemented
of them were found in the large urban
without extensive training or knowledge
school districts.
of therapy. Consequently, it was possible
The first wave of high school coun- to provide school counselors with a model
selors after Sputnik concentrated most of that could be used with students.
their time on testing programs and college
The door was opened for personal
placement, but it was not long before they
counseling and other theories and meth-
were asked to exceed the vocational needs
odologies. According to Aubrey (1982),
of adolescents and to help young people
an early observer and historian of the
with their personal problems. Many
profession: "The area of school guid-
teachers were at a loss of what to do with
ance became open game for numerous
a new generation of students who were
advocates of counseling, ranging from
growing up in a different world than they
such diverse fields as psychiatry, clini-
had known. Administrators were worried
school discipline was breaking down and cal psychology, psychoanalysis, learning
students needed more help in adjusting to theory, and pastoral counseling. Collec-
school. Parents pleaded for help and the tively, the advocates of these approaches
offered to school counselors a bonanza
schools began to take on more responsi-
of tools and techniques" (p. 199). There
bilities.
was more acceptance of the idea school
The number of high school counselors counselors could and should be involved
increased because of national security in- with students who were having personal
terests. Beating the Russians in the race to adjustment problems.
the moon and the conquest of outer space
Nevertheless, many counseling ideas
was an exciting adventure that captured
were not welcomed openly in the high
the imagination of politicians, scientists,
schools. Counselors felt inadequately
and educators. However, the race paled
prepared to provide personal counseling
in terms of the everyday problems young
services or to draw upon accepted thera-
people faced at home and in the schools.
peutic techniques. Moreover, the theories
There was a need for more counseling
and techniques seemed out of context.
services in the schools and a need for
Skepticism regarding their efficacy started
counselors to reexamine their roles and
to spread. After a few years of experi-
functions.
menting, the large majority of counselors
Carl Rogers' book, On Becoming a concluded the published and popular
Person (1961), and his earlier book, Client- counseling theories and techniques of the
Centered Therapy (1951), helped change time were not applicable to school set-
the role of school counselors forever. First, tings. And they were right.
the personal counseling theory was clear
a_nd the methodology was deceptively
simple, compared to other traditional
counseling theories. It appeared the basic
concepts could be learned easily and
adapted quickly to the work of school
counselors.

The result, however, was a new image Group counseling, at the time, was
of a helper was created-that of a counsel- synonymous with encounter and therapy.
or, not just a guidance worker who gave Counselors feared they would do more
tests and passed out career information. damage to students than good. Only a few
Unfortunately, only a few counselors were counselors had group counseling training.
willing or able to counsel and work with The horror stories about people "break-
troubled students and this image became ing down" in groups and needing therapy
flawed. Most counselors complained other after experiencing an incompetent group
duties and responsibilities did not allow leader were enough to discourage all
them enough time to provide "counsel- except the most confident and adventure-
ing" to students, even if they had the skill some counselors.
(Wells & Ritter, 1979). Group procedures, for the most part,
By the 1970s, high school counselors were dismissed as inappropriate for high
were receiving public criticism. One coun- schools, although group counseling was
selor, in defense of the profession, said, more efficient, and perhaps more effec-
"We are always ready to help, to listen to tive, than individual counseling. The few
students, to understand, and to sincerely counselors who applied the newest group
care about them." But in light of the stud- skills and methods frequently lacked
ies of the national student-to-counselor support from colleagues, teachers, and
ratios that showed an average of 450 to 1, parents. Groups were considered a less
this seemed like an unrealistic statement. personal approach and a passing fad.
In some metropolitan areas, ratios soared High school counselors were failing to
as high as 1,000 to I. It was difficult, if provide a systematic and carefully orga-
not impossible, for counselors to meet nized response to the problems of ado-
and talk with their assigned counselees on lescents. Many had not won the trust of
an individual basis for much time. Indi- students and too often fell into the trap of
vidual counseling for all students seemed lecturing, clarifying rules and regulations,
almost out of the question. This may be or disciplining students who had prob-
the reality of profession, since those ratios lems. Consequently, many students kept
have not changed for decades and the their distance.
same concerns remain.
The result was first shouted in a ban-
Group procedures were suggested ner headline of The National Observer
to compensate for the high counselor- (Gribbin, 1973), which described high
student ratios. But, group counseling school counselors as "No-Help Helpers."
methods were suspect, especially since Public criticism mounted. Pine (1976)
they were an outgrowth of the flamboy- described it as relentless. Parents saw very
ant and deeply introspective group move- little guidance being offered. They were
ment of the late 1960s and 1970s. The critical of the traditional helping role of
idea of leading an encounter group was a the high school counselor and only 20
frightening thought for many high school percent saw counselors helping their stu-
counselors. The public, too, was skepti- dents with career guidance (Gallup, 1979).
cal. People worried that in "sensitivity Opinions had not changed by 1983 (Gal-
groups" more rebellion would take place lup, 1983). Those same kinds of criticisms
rather than cooperation and more psychic remain in 2010 (Gates, 2010).
trauma would occur than psychological
support. There also was the charge such
groups were a form of brainwashing.

While high school counselors defend- In another study completed ten years
ed themselves on the basis that preparing later, many of the same conclusions were
students for college took much of their reached. First, dropouts listed both school
time, one national study of 1, 100 high problems and personal factors as reasons
schools found college counseling, too, for dropping out:
was inadequate (Tugend, 1984). This early • Didn't like school in general or the
criticism continues to capture headlines school they were attending.
(Gates, 2010). Although colleges were
sending out more information than ever • Were failing, getting poor grades, or
before, it was not reaching students. The couldn't keep up with schoolwork.
study also found a typical high school ju- • Didn't get along with teachers and/or
nior or senior received only 20 minutes of students.
a counselor's time as a basis on which to • Had behavior disorders and were sent
begin the complex process of planning an to administrators for discipline and
education and career. This same study also were suspended or expelled.
found counselors defensive. More than 99
• Didn't feel safe in school.
percent of the counselors rated their col-
lege guidance programs as effective. Yet, • Preferred to find a job and get away
less than 25 percent of the counselors had from the stress of school.
asked their students and parents for any • Trouble managing both school and
type of feedback or evaluation. work.
It was alarming that close to a million • Pregnant or became a parent.
school-aged youths annually were drop- • Involved with drugs and failed to at-
ping out of school. Yet, over 50 percent of tend regularly.
the dropouts had no record of disciplinary
infractions and only 17 percent were fail- Despite leaving high school, many
ing. In more than 40 percent of the cases, dropouts said they expected to continue
the reason for leaving school was because their education someday. Most were
of unfavorable teacher-student relation- interested in a career education school
ships. Some dropouts used terms such as or even college. But rather than remain
"they put you down," or "they give you a in school, many thought schools didn't
hard time" to describe their relationships do very much to try to keep them and
with teachers. There is nothing to indi- their families didn't seem to care (Colby,
cated things have changed. 1995). While it is possible these youth
didn't recognize some offers of help, it is
Convinced there are no adults in the important for youth to realize the adults
school to whom they could turn, it is not in their lives do want them to remain in
surprising 72 percent of the dropouts in school and are willing to do a lot to make
a national survey reported they did not it possible.
consult with any school personnel before
leaving. And, more than 70 percent said A study of almost 1,800 high school
they might have stayed if school had been seniors examined the kinds of problems
different, particularly "if teachers paid students would discuss with their coun-
more attention to students," "if we were selors (Hutchinson & Reagan, 1989).
treated as students, not as inmates," and Results showed few students felt comfort-
"if teachers made it fun to learn" (Wells, able seeking assistance from counselors
1983). on personal problems. They did see them
as resources in terms of administrative

concerns in school. It was recommended and revised some old ones. Accountability
school counselors clearly define their roles studies were planned as district projects.
and avoid being seen as "paper oriented Consequently, four years after adopting
instead of people oriented." a developmental guidance approach, the
We know there are many students school board was more satisfied and the
who believe their counselors were helpful counselor positions were secured. Most
and some may credit their counselors for important, the counselors liked their
having been the single most important new image, felt more positive about their
difference in their getting through school. work, and enjoyed being in more control
But, this has been the exception and it is of their roles and responsibilities.
getting to be more so. Drury (1984) warned school coun-
Where does this leave the counselors were an endangered species and
selor? Unfortunately, there is not much claimed, "The tragedy is they have been
evidence high school counselors make a and are still participating in their own de-
positive difference in their work. Account- struction" (p. 234). Counselors have had
ability studies at the high school level are problems in role definition. They create
limited. and poorly manage piecemeal programs
which depend upon the particular inter-
Some high school counselor positions ests of counselors themselves and many
have been eliminated or cuts have been ignore the public relations aspect of their
threatened and, ironically, this is coming jobs. She concluded, "Counselors must
at a time when societal changes are put- stop contributing to their own extinction
ting increased demands on school coun- and take a proactive role in ensuring the
selors and emphasizing a need for their survival and growth of the profession" (p.
services. 239). Some of these concerns have been
A school superintendent and school attempted to be addressed over the years,
board confronted counselors in a Texas but results have been mixed.
school district. They were unhappy with Along the same lines about that time,
the work of the counselors and told them state guidance directors (Peer, 1985) saw
to change their roles and image or their the status of guidance programs eroding
jobs would be eliminated. After some and felt a sense of urgency in challenging
initial anger, disappointment, and feelings counselors and their supporters to give a
of being unappreciated-after all, they greater commitment to change and de-
saw themselves as busy and working long velopment. Almost ten years later, critics
hours-the counselors grouped together claimed high school guidance programs
to examine their job functions, priori- could no longer remain the same as they
ties, and counseling skills. Consultants once were (Hitchner, 1996). Times were
were brought into the district to help different and counselor roles and func-
counselors and district personnel clarify tions are being carefully examined and
roles and the direction in which they evaluated (Marks, 1995).
wanted their programs to move. Counsel-
ors participated in workshops where they
learned some new counseling strategies

The mission of counseling and (2005) (see Appendix A). This model helps
guidance programs had become increas- school counselors design and implement
ingly vague and obscure. Some programs programs that meet the national stan-
focused on special populations of stu- dards and establish school counseling
dents, others on disruptive behavior and as an integral component of a school's
discipline problems, while others have an academic mission.
administrative emphasis (Baker, 2000). However, there is still much work to
Counselors were performing various be done in describing how counselors
non-counseling and guidance tasks such might help students meet those standards.
as scheduling, substitute teaching, hall What are some practical ways in which
monitoring, and record keeping. counselors can manage their schedules,
The constant and overwhelming provide timely interventions, and be ac-
needs posed by a "demand-driven" or cri- countable?
sis-oriented model allowed little time for a A 2009 survey showed high school
counseling staff to address developmental counseling needs to be reformed consid-
issues in students' lives and interfered erably in terms of helping and preparing
with the establishment of a clear mission students for post-secondary opportunities.
that gave focus and coherence to the pro- Results showed rating their counselors
gram. As a consequence, counseling pro- fair or poor for helping them think about
grams are sometimes viewed as expensive different careers. More specifically, the
ancillary services whose activities have responses were:
little direct relevance to the educational
goals of the school. • Helping you decide what school was
right for you: 35% poor, 32% fair.
In response to these concerns, vari-
ous school districts and state departments • Helping you find ways to pay for col-
of education developed frameworks that lege, like financial aid or scholarship
could be used to improve school guidance programs: 33% poor, 26% fair.
and counseling. In Florida, for example, • Helping you think about different
efforts were made to contrast traditional kinds of careers you might want to
guidance and comprehensive student pursue: 29% poor, 33% fair.
development (Florida's School Counsel- • Explaining and helping you with the
ing and Guidance Framework (1995) and application process: 29% poor, 25%
to provide a guide for school administra- poor.
tors (Florida Department of Education,
These statistics do not give high
2002). Student learning and readiness
school counselors much confidence to
for achievement was considered the goal
continue doing what they have been do-
of all comprehensive programs. Student
ing. Its central conclusion is most people
objectives were organized along academic,
who graduated from high school in the
personal, social, and career domains.
past dozen years say their counselors
As part of a national reform move- provided little meaningful advice about
ment in education, the American School college or careers. And many said the best
Counselor Association (2004) described advice they got on the future came from
national standards for students in a major their teachers.
publication. It severed as the foundation
for The ASCA National Model: A Frame-
work for School Counseling Programs

In defensive of some counselors, ASCA One problem that continued to

recommends a student to counselor ratio plague junior high schools is few teach-
of 100:1, but states the national average is ers were specifically prepared for teach-
more like 265:1. Some states have a much ing early adolescents. Many junior high
higher ratio. California, for example, has school teachers were certified as high
a 1000:1 ratio. In Minnesota Arizona
1 school teachers and their preparation
Washington, D.C. and Utah, the rati; is focused primarily on a departmental-
about 700:1. ized curriculum that was subject-matter
Some districts are cutting counselors oriented. Another criticism of junior high
for the 2010-2011 school year. Des Moines schools is they too often are an imitation
Iowa Public Schools are severely cutting of high schools. Thus, they fail to ease the
counselors and there is a strong possibility transition of students from elementary to
high school ratios will be 1,200:1, which high school.
could be the highest in the nation Qohn- Poor transition between elementary
son, Richkind, & Ott, 2010). and middle school has been linked to
In a perfect world, high school coun- dropouts and other problems. For exam-
selors could focus on helping students ple, in Fall River, Massachusetts, a study
enter college or the world of work. How- was conducted that followed academic
ever, that is not the case. Counselors performance of students from the fourth
are busy with other duties. In addition, grade to twelfth grade. It showed for all
responsibility for the guidance program dropouts, attendance began to decline in
cannot rest alone with counselors and the sixth grade and academic difficulties
other specialists. Classroom teachers must experienced during this stage were critical
become more systematically involved in indicators of school success (Fax, 1992).
the demand for guidance and counseling One of the problems is fewer than 16
services. percent of the nation's teachers have been
prepared to work in middle schools. The
Guidance in the Middle Schools vast majority (84%) have been trained
to work in elementary or high school
Junior high schools came into exis- programs (Gursky, 1991). Few had been
tence about the turn of the century when trained in the part they can play in devel-
educators agreed there was a need for an opmental guidance.
intermediate school between elementary
and high school to meet student needs. The challenge of guidance and coun-
Since that time, there have been several seling in the middle schools is centered
organizational schemes, with the highest on the physical, intellectual, emotional,
percentage of school systems adopting the and social development that comes with
6-3-3 plan. This puts grades 7, 8, and 9 in early adolescence. It is the challenge of
the same junior high school. The 6-2-4 helping students form less dependent re-
plan has been the next most popular, lationships, contend with peer pressures,
where grades 7 and 8 attend the junior cope with physical development and
high. To a much lesser extent are the 5-3- sexual maturity, and starting the search
4 and 4-4-4 plans. for "Who am I and what do I want from
life? What is my future?"
Because of the different plans that
have been tried over the years, it has been
difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of
the junior highs. While some are out-
standing, others appear less than satisfac-
tory in meeting the needs of students.

In response to providing a better If you were to visit a junior high

school for students with unique develop- school and then visit a middle school,
mental needs, the middle school move- you probably would be able to identify
ment gathered strength during the 1960s. the differences in guidance programs. Ju-
Although there are different kinds of or- nior high schools tend to have traditional
ganizational schemes, the middle school programs that look like those in the high
is preferably based on the 5-3-4 plan. schools. Career planning and school ad-
This age grouping is ~logical outcome of justment are given highest priority. There
studying the social, physical, mental, and is, primarily, a crisis approach to counsel-
emotional characteristics of children from ing; whereas, middle schools tend to have
kindergarten through grade twelve. a developmental focus.
A combination of other factors-such In addition, junior high guidance
as social change, more rapid maturation programs rely on school counselors to
rates, increased pressure for the ninth provide most of the guidance and coun-
grade to be part of a college-preparatory seling services to students. The guid-
group, and the social activities of older ance program frequently centers around
adolescents-also have contributed to orientation to school, career exploration,
school reform. Currently, the national and crisis-interventions. Large group or
trend is to replace junior high schools classroom guidance activities are almost
with middle schools, although many of absent. Most important, junior high
the curriculum objectives remain the school teachers are rarely involved in the
same. The 6-3-3 plan appears to be on its guidance process, unless it is with trou-
way out. This reorganization of schools bled students.
and the renewed emphasis upon early Middle schools, on the other hand,
adolescence has opened new doors for emphasize teachers are an integral part
developmental guidance and counseling of guidance and sometimes there is no
programs. distinction between a guidance teacher
Middle schools are based on an ac- and a classroom teacher. While a certified
cepted body of knowledge about the and well-prepared counselor is needed,
developmental needs of students in the the core of the guidance program is cen-
age bracket of ten to fourteen. These ages tered in the total curriculum and teaching
are marked by dramatic body changes faculty.
and growth. Puberty and sex-role iden- Most middle schools incorporate or-
tification, changes in self-concept, and ganized guidance periods into the school
the search for personal values are joined schedule. Students are usually assigned or
with the desire for peer approval and au- given the opportunity to choose a teacher
tonomy, unpredictable emotional fluctua- who will be their advisor and referral base.
tions, and the need to be recognized as a Teachers as advisors (see Chapter 3) meet
competent and unique being. Although with all their advisees during regularly
contemporary youth are probably more scheduled homeroom or homebase peri-
sophisticated than in years past, the ods. The homeroom is the foundation for
growth patterns are much the same and a group approach to guidance. In many
the socialization process is just as vital. middle schools, one or more homeroom
It has simply taken time for the middle periods a week are scheduled for group
school concept to be accepted. guidance activities. Students can raise
questions, identify problems, and talk
about their feelings, behaviors, and goals.

Some of the issues discussed in home- The most important consideration

room are related to personal matters, such for any guidance program is personnel.
as peer relationships, getting along with The reputation of a school depends more
parents and teachers, and finding out upon the personnel who are employed
more about one's self. Other discussions and their skills than the physical plant
might evolve from school issues, such as or classroom lesson plans. It is somewhat
homework, study skills, time-manage- surprising, therefore, most middle school
ment, and meeting teacher expectations. teachers have not had much preparation
The homeroom group can be divided into in guidance. Instruction in how teacher-
subgroups for special group activities and advisors work with advisees in a home-
learning experiences. room period and the fundamentals of a
For the most part, the homeroom is developmental guidance program often is
not just a place to take care of routine limited.
administrative details and procedures. In-service training of teachers is a
For example, it is not only a place to take prerequisite for a successful guidance pro-
attendance and compile absentee lists for gram. Teachers need to know how to fa-
the office, to make daily announcements, cilitate students in guidance activities and
or to report briefly before going to class. how to apply some brief counseling skills
It is not a study hall or where students with their advisees. It also is important
gather to socialize "before school really teachers understand the role and function
begins." To the contrary, homeroom is a of school counselors and how counselors
core period, no matter the time of day it and teachers can work together to imple-
is scheduled, and it has a developmental ment a total guidance program for all
guidance curriculum. students.
Calling a school a middle school is no During this passage from childhood
guarantee developmental guidance will to adolescence, middle school students
happen. For instance, a survey of junior need to explore a variety of interests and
high/middle schools indicated student connect their classroom learning to its
apathy was a problem and ninth graders practical application in life and work.
in the junior high felt little intellectual Their high levels of activity coupled with
challenge. Most important, the survey re- frequent fatigue due to rapid growth can
ported few counseling programs for ninth frustrate adults. They are searching for
grade students and no group counseling their own unique identity as they begin
activities. Counseling was viewed by the turning more frequently to peers rather
counselors in the survey as a remedial than parents for ideas and affirmation.
activity in which they corrected problems They can be extremely sensitivity to the
instead of a developmental process to comments from others. There is a heavy
help prevent them. reliance on friends to provide comfort,
understanding, and approval. Middle
school is an exciting, yet challenging,
time for students, their parents, teachers,
and counselors.

Guidance in the Elementary school counselors were

Elementary Schools employed in the schools as early as the
1920s. However, they were few in number
Elementary schools are typically or- and only in large urban cities. Their role
ganized into classrooms where one grade was close to that of a social worker and
level teacher is responsible for 25 to 30 was influenced by high school guidance.
students. A few schools may have more The counselor worked with cumulative
than one grade level of students placed in folders, administered tests, analyzed
the same room with a teacher or team of student data, consulted with teachers,
teachers. Other schools may be organized and provided individual counseling to
into grade level teams and teachers work students with adjustment problems. The
together to meet the needs of the students number of elementary school counselor
assigned to them. Within a team, how- positions grew insignificantly through the
ever, each teacher is usually assigned to next three decades.
a few students who receive their special
attention for guidance. Again, events in the 1960s changed
counseling in the elementary schools. De-
Every school has students who have velopmental guidance and counseling was
problems and some are very serious. described in more detail (Blocher, 1974).
Elementary schools are no exception. Guidance activities were organized and
However, it has been recognized for many presented in a more systematic way. Pre-
years developmental guidance is the best vention was highlighted and the learning
approach for elementary school students. climate received particular attention since
Elementary school teachers work with it affected all children (Chase, 197 5).
fewer numbers of students than do ju- One of the most influential writers
nior/middle and high school teachers. In of the time was Don Dinkmeyer, Sr., who
the elementary school, there is more op- was the first to advocate a comprehensive
portunity to observe children's behavior developmental approach to guidance
patterns and to take note of any changes (e.g., Dinkmeyer & Caldwell, 1970). He
that may happen. It is easier to identify was the first editor of Elementary School
students who have special needs and Guidance and Counseling, an ACA (Ameri-
who are not realizing their potential. The can Counseling Association) publication
school environment is more controlled which went to press for the first time in
and the teacher with an understanding 1965. This journal provided a vehicle
of guidance is in a position to intervene through which counselor educators,
when children are most amenable. The teachers, counselors, and others could
elementary school teacher works with communicate their ideas about elemen-
children during some of the most forma- tary guidance. It helped establish the
tive years of their lives. counselor in the elementary schools.
Historically, the teachers in self-con- In the beginning, it was not economi-
tained classrooms have been responsible cally feasible to talk about counselor-stu-
for guidance activities. It has been only dent ratios at the elementary level. To
within the past thirty years guidance spe- have a reasonable ratio in a school would
cialists, such as school counselors, have have required too many counselors to be
been employed to assist them (Holmgren, employed at one time. Therefore, to help
1996). establish the counselor in the elementary

schools, emphasis was placed upon the It was during the 1970s and 1980s
counselor's consultation role and coun- that developmental guidance services
selors were viewed more in terms of their and programs, and the roles of school
ratio to teachers. counselors, were further clarified (Muro
Verne Faust's classic book for elemen- & Dinkmeyer, 1977; Myrick, 1980). There
tary school counselors was entitled The was less concern about "why" counselors
Counselor-Consultant in the Elementary should be employed. More questions were
School. He listed a hierarchy of roles and asked about "how" counselors really func-
consultation with teachers was first. tioned in their jobs and accomplished
Group counseling came next and indi- their goals. More specifically, counselors
vidual counseling was last. Emphasis were starting to be seen as a part of an
was determined by efficient use of the elementary school guidance team. Less
counselor's time as much as anything else emphasis was given to testing, education-
(Faust, 1968). al planning, and individual counseling.
Rather, consultation and group approach-
Eckerson and Smith (1966) used the es were advocated.
term "child development consultant."
They reported elementary principals most Elementary school counselors pro-
wanted their guidance specialists (the vided classroom guidance units and peer
counselors) to consult with parents, teach- facilitator training and they coordinated
ers, and children, and in that order. It was other guidance procedures such as testing,
easier to sell budget-minded school boards parent conferences, child study teams,
and the public on the idea a counselor- and exceptional student placement. In
consultant would be of great assistance to addition, these counselors accepted the
teachers and administrators than it was challenge of accountability, knowing their
to request counselors based on counselor- jobs depended upon it. Consequently,
student ratios. When teacher-counselor there is more published professional
ratios were the first consideration, the literature on the effectiveness of elemen-
conclusion was most elementary schools tary school counselors than at any other
in the nation needed a full-time coun- school level.
selor. A new type of school counselor was
Some school districts started formal- coming to the front (Myrick, 1989; Rotter,
ized guidance and counseling programs in 1990). These counselors found it practi-
their elementary schools by assigning one cal and feasible to move their work into
counselor to more than one school. Funds places outside of the guidance offices-
were limited and it was not considered classrooms, playgrounds, cafeterias, and
politically wise by many administrators hallways-to have access to students and
to float a bond issue for additional school teachers. Because these counselors used a
personnel, especially for such an un- developmental approach instead of wait-
known position as an elementary school ing to react to crises, the need for privacy
counselor. In addition, other professional seemed less of a concern. Students often
personnel were building a case for em - saw other students meeting and talking
ployment (e.g., social workers, media with a counselor in different places within
specialists, exceptional education teach- the school. Elementary school counselors
ers, and health-related staff). had high visibility because they did not
remain in their offices.

Elementary school counselors were The organization of schools also has

among the first to use published class- been changing. Sixth grade students are
room guidance activities. Kits such as now being moved in to middle schools
DUSO-Developing Understanding of Self and pre-kindergarten programs have
and Others (Dinkmeyer & Dinkmeyer, been added to many elementary schools.
1982), and workbooks such as Magic Circle Children are starting to attend school
(Summerlin, 1985) helped teachers and at an earlier age and schools are being
counselors provide clqssroom guidance. viewed in some communities as a resource
Glasser's (1986) "classroom meetings" be- for childcare, before and after the regular
came an accepted approach to encourage school day. Further, it has been suggested
students to learn more about themselves. pre-kindergarten children and their fami-
The value of psychological education lies require a full complement of guidance
(Mosher & Sprinthall, 1971) in the class- and counseling-related services (Gerler &
room continues to gain support. Myrick, 1991; Vernon, 1993).
Although the basic concept of class- While birthrates declined in the
room guidance was not new, the curricu- 1970s, the school age population grew
lum materials and group methods were. more than eight percent during the 1990s.
Guidance sessions were sequentially or- It was more than a baby boom echo.
ganized around developmental guidance Immigration helped produce the huge
objectives and lesson plans, with activities enrollment increase and will continue to
and discussion questions. Because of their account for the majority of the new stu-
convenience, these kits and materials dents over this decade. What once worked
helped teachers provide more classroom in education may not work as well in such
guidance activities to students than ever a diverse and fast growing nation.
before. Skeptics worry the new generation of
It is surprising, in many respects, that students will not match the educational
formalized guidance programs and ser- levels attained in the past, as there are
vices were first instituted in high schools. too many problems facing the nation's
If the problems older students experience schools. However, through developmental
are to be prevented, then more attention guidance and other strategies, educational
must be given to the early school years excellence and new heights in personal
where the foundation for learning is laid growth and productivity can be obtained.
(Gerler, Ciechalski, & Parker, 1990; Lewis,
Gibson, Mitchell, & Basile, 1993).

Developmental Guidance There were approximately 96,000

school counselors who were counted as
for all Schools support staff for students. This translates
The nation's schools are big business. to about 490 students for every guidance
They have a way of touching almost every counselor reported.
person in the United States, as either a Guidance and counseling in the
parent, legislator, or a tax payer. In the schools has a significant history, although
school year 2009, there were 56 million a short one. At this point in time, the
students enrolled in public elementary developmental approach has become the
and secondary schools (Hussar & Bailey, most accepted approach for all school lev-
2009) in more than 16,000 school dis- els. It is an approach that has influenced
tricts. the work of counselors in other settings
Although distributions and ratios vary too (Baker, 2000; Van Zandt & Hayslip,
greatly from state to state, the instruc- 1994). It is supported by administrators
tional staff (teachers and instructional who recognize the need for school coun-
aides, coordinators, and supervisors) in selors (Stone & Clark, 2001).
the public schools made up 63.5 percent According to the Bureau of Labor
of all staff. Another 26.4 percent of all Statistics (2009), employment of school
staff (librarians, counselors, psychologists, counselors is expected to grow about 14
and other support staff) provided support percent from 2008 to 2018, which is faster
services to schools and students. Admin- than the average for all jobs because of
istrators and administrative support staff increasing school enrollments. Although
made up another 10.2 percent. schools and governments realize the
About 2.9 million full-time equivalent value of counselors in helping students to
teachers provided instruction in public el- achieve academic success, budget con-
ementary and secondary schools. Among straints at every school level can dampen
this group, 1,620,000 were elementary the job growth of school counselors.
school teachers and 1,031,000 were sec- Federal grants and subsidies may help to
ondary school teachers, while the remain- offset tight budgets and enable a reduc-
ing 255,000 teachers taught nongraded tion in student-to-counselor ratios.
classes or were not assigned a specific Developmental guidance and coun-
grade. In addition, there were thousands seling programs are an evolutionary
of instructional aides, who directly as- product of what has already taken place
sisted teachers in their classrooms, and in- in the schools and what is demanded for
structional coordinators and supervisors, the future. Implementing such programs
who helped teachers through curriculum requires specialized knowledge and skills.
development and in-service training. With new variations and new methodol-
There were 133,000 school adminis- ogy, a comprehensive guidance program
trators (mostly principals and assistant can meet the growing needs of students
principals), 55,000 school district admin- and the adults who work with them.
istrators, and about 384,000 school and
district administrative support staff. An
additional 1,329,000 staff members pro-
vided support services for students. These
services included food, health, library
assistance, maintenance, transportation,
security, and other services.

Developmental Guidance:
A Comprehensive Approach
In order to build a comprehensive Basic Assumptions

developmental guidance and counsel-
ing program in your school, it is impor- and Needs
tant to know the basic assumptions and Developmental guidance and counsel-
principles behind such an approach. ing assumes human nature moves indi-
Moreover, it is helpful to understand how viduals sequentially and positively toward
school personnel work together to imple- self-enhancement. It recognizes there is
ment the program. Then, attention can be a force within each of us that makes us
given to the skills and strategies that make believe we are special and there is nobody
a counselor's job unique and rewarding. like us. It also assumes our individual po-
tentials are valuable assets to society and
the future of humanity.
But, this innate drive for personal
expression and uniqueness that each of
us possesses often necessitates compro-
mise with external forces. These come
from other individuals who are striving
for their own special destinies. They also
come from a society that represents a col-
lection of attitudes, values, and laws that
are designed to help people live together.
Sometimes these inner and outer forces
clash and conflict results. Sometimes per-
sonal growth and development suffer.
The developmental approach consid-
ers the nature of human development,
including the general stages and tasks
most individuals experience as they
mature from childhood to adulthood.
It centers on positive self-concepts and
acknowledges one's self-concept is formed
and reformed through experience and

education. It further recognizes feelings, The Theory of

ideas, and behaviors are closely linked
and they are learned. Therefore, the most Developmental Guidance
desired conditions for learning and re- In order to build a developmental
learning are important considerations for guidance and counseling program, there
development. The ultimate objective is to are a few concepts about human develop-
help students learn more effectively and ment to acknowledge. It is true you could
efficiently. act professionally and competently in
A developmental program requires the your relationships with others and not
help of all school personnel in order to have any knowledge of psychology, hu-
accomplish its goals, which are organized man development, or counseling skills.
around a guidance curriculum. Coun- We do not stray too far beyond common
selors and teachers, in particular, must sense when we work with people. How-
work closely together to provide appro- ever, increased effectiveness and efficiency
priate guidance and counseling services in our work often take us beyond intu-
to students. There is a need, therefore, to ition, imitation, and habit. Rather, success
identify the roles of school personnel in depends more upon a thoughtful reflec-
comprehensive guidance and counsel- tion of such concepts as why and what
ing programs and to recognize how they we are trying to do and the directions we
complement one another. Further, there is want to go.
a need to specifically define the job func- The term "developmental" is so
tions and basic interventions of school prominent in counseling and guidance,
counselors who are the guardians of the what else can be said about it? First,
program. human development is a lifelong set of
There is a demand for comprehensive physiological, psychological, and social
developmental guidance and counseling processes that begins at birth and contin-
programs that extend from elementary ues until death. Second, this development
through high school. In addition, there is involves an interaction between what a
a need to reorganize guidance curricula, to person is given genetically and the differ-
retrain school counselors and teachers for ent environments in which that person
new guidance and counseling roles, and lives and grows. Human development is a
to be more accountable in meeting the journey from birth to death in which the
developmental needs of young people. It personality unfolds, changes, and changes
does not involve a revolution in educa- again.
tion, but it does advance the evolution of In addition, development is a term
guidance and counseling in the schools. we commonly use when talking about
orderly changes or changes that appear to
have some kind of direction. Of course,
this order and direction can be disrupted
if certain factors are introduced that
thwart natural inclinations. In addition,
the nature of social institutions and cul-
tural dimensions influence life's process
and stages.

Chapter 2 Developmental Guidance: A Comprehensive Approach
Developmental Robert Havighurst, as early as 1948,

Stages and Tasks presented a theory of human develop-
ment that focused on developmental
During the 1960s, increased atten- tasks. "A developmental task arises at or
tion was given to child study. The devel- about a certain period in the life of the in-
opmental needs of children were being dividual, successful achievement of which
recognized. In particular, the growth leads to his happiness and to success with
needs of children were highlighted in the later tasks, while failure leads to unhap-
works of such authors as Benjamin Bloom piness in the individual, disapproval of
(1964), Robert Gesell, Frances Ilg and society, and difficulty with later tasks"
Louise Ames (1946 & 1956), Robert Havi- (Havighurst, 1972, p. 2). Stages of devel-
ghurst (1953), and Jerome Kagan (1962). opment were outlined and developmental
They emphasized how heredity and tasks within these stages were identified
environment together shaped a child's (e.g., see Figure 2.1).
personality. They suggested achievement
of developmental tasks at one stage of Erik Erikson (1963), in his classic
life influenced success with tasks in later book, emphasized everyone experiences
stages. crises or conflicts in development and ad-
justments to conflicts play an important
The work of Jean Piaget (1970) em- part in the development of an individual's
phasized the cognitive development of personality. Most important, the resolu-
children. He and his colleagues concluded tion of conflicts tends to be cumulative
intellectual development appeared to take in that a person's manner of coping and
place in stages and, therefore, no stage adjusting to conflicts at one stage in life
could be eliminated, since each one was influences the ways of handling the next
dependent on the preceding one. The four conflict. All of us, through our everyday
stages identified were: Sensorimotor (0 experiences, with some experiences being
to 2 years); Preoperational (2 to 7 years); more critical than others, develop a set of
Concrete Operations (7 to 12 years); and complex behaviors which influence our
4) Formal Operations (12 years and older). actions throughout our lives.
For example, according to Piaget's the- From Erikson's viewpoint, there are
ory, children starting school are entering a eight stages of human or psychosocial
stage when symbols are used to carry out development. Each stage presents criti-
mental activities. Children are learning cal learning experiences that exert influ-
properties can change in appearance, but ence over one's remaining life span. For
some factors remain the same, objects can example, autonomy needs are especially
be quantified, and reasoning can result important to toddlers (the "me do it" syn-
from examining the whole and parts of an drome), but throughout life, people must
object. Problem solving improves by the continue to test the degree of autonomy
middle school years because thoughts can they can express in each new relationship
be more deductive and can focus on the and stage in life.
future (Keenan & Evans, 2009).

Figure 2.1
Developmental Stages/Tasks
Infancy/Early Childhood (Ages 0-5)

1. Learning to walk 7. Preparing for marriage and family life
2. Learning to take solid foods 8. Developing skills and concepts for civic
3. Learning to talk competence
4. Learning to control elimination of body 9. Desiring and achieving socially responsible
wastes behaviors, taking account values of society
5. Learning sex differences and sexual modesty 10. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical
6. Forming concepts and learning language to system as a guide to behavior
describe social and physical reality 11. Setting realistic goals and making plans for
7. Learning to relate emotionally to parents and reaching these goals
siblings; identifying relationships
8. Getting ready to read
9. Learning to distinguish right and wrong and Early Adulthood (Ages 19-30)
beginning to develop a conscience 1. Selecting a mate-developing intimate
relationships
2. Learning to live with a marriage partner
Middle Childhood (Ages 6-11) 3. Starting a family
1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary 4. Raising children
games 5. Managing a home
2. Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself 6. Getting started in an occupation, some-
and a sense of self-concept times neglecting other tasks during this
3. Learning to get along with age mates-mov- period
ing from the family circle to groups outside 7. Taking on civic responsibility
the home 8. Finding a congenial social group
4. Learning the skills of tolerance and patience
5. Learning appropriate masculine or feminine
social roles Middle Age
6. Developing fundamental skills in reading, 1. Achieving adult civic and social responsibility
writing, and calculating 2. Establishing and maintaining an economic
7. Developing concepts necessary for everyday standard of living
living 3. Assisting teenage children to become
8. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale responsible happy adults
of values 4. Developing adult leisure-time activities
9. Achieving personal independence 5. Relating oneself to one's spouse as a person
10. Developing attitudes toward social groups 6. Accepting and adjusting to the physiologi-
and institutions, through experiences and cal changes of middle age
imitation 7. Adjusting to aging parents
Adolescence (Ages 12 to 18)
1. Achieving new and more mature relations
with age mates of both sexes Later Maturity
2. Learning socially approved feminine and 1. Adjusting to decreasing physical strength
masculine roles and behaviors and health
3. Accepting one's physique and learning to 2. Adjusting to retirement and reduced in-
use the body effectively come
4. Achieving emotional independence of par- 3. Adjusting to death of spouse
ents and other adults 4. Establishing an explicit affiliation with one's
5. Setting vocational goals for economic inde- age group
pendence 5. Meeting social and civic obligations
6. Selecting and preparing for an occupation, Drawn from Havighurst, 79 72.
relating interests to abilities to choices

Erikson's work on development has Preconventional

proven to be a valuable reference point (Based on meeting personal needs)
for many people, as they attempt to con- Stage 1: Punishment and obedience
ceptualize developmental stages and tasks. 11
"I'll do it, so I don't get punished.
Generally, his eight stages of development
included: Stage 2: Instrumental-relativist 1J'll do
1
it, if you do something for me.

11
Stage 1: Trust (birth to 2 years of age)

Conventional
Stage 2: Autonomy (2 to 4 years) (Based on meeting group norms)
Stage 3: Initiative (4 to 6 years) Stage 3: Good boy or girl orientation
Stage 4: Industry (6 to 12 years) 11 11
I'll do it to please you.
Stage 5: Identity (12 to 18 years) Stage 4: Law and order "I'll do it be-
11
Stage 6: Intimacy (18 to 25 years) cause it's my duty.
Stage 7: Generativity (25 to 50 years) Postconventional
(Based on moral principle)
Stage 8: Integrity (SO years and older)
Stage 5: Social-contract "I'll do it be-
Although times and values change cause it's best for the majority.
11
and the marvels of the medical world

have extended the average life span, Stage 6: Universal ethics "I'll do it
Erikson's "ages of man" still seem to be because my conscience tells me it's right."
relevant. He further suggested if the tasks Kohlberg suggested individuals tend
at different ages are not achieved, then to reason at one particular level more
at each stage emotional consequences than half the time, with the rest of the
occur: (1) mistrust; (2) doubt and shame; reasoning at other levels. Typically, they
(3) guilt; (4) inferiority; (5) confusion; (6) do not regress, but remain where they are
isolation; (7) stagnation; and (8) despair. or move slowly toward the next higher
During middle school, there is more level. Conflicts often result when indi-
need for self-exploration and peer rela- viduals do not understand the reasoning
tionships. Discovering one's identity or process, especially when they are made
sense of uniqueness from others becomes up of lower and higher level arguments.
a significant emotional task. An indi- It is evident that moral development in
vidual's level of awareness in this search this case is dependent upon intellectual or
varies, depending upon personal history, cognitive development (Higgins & Power
achievement in preceding stages, anticipa- (1991).
tion of the future, and the interpersonal Don Super (Super & Bohn, 1970; Su-
skills that have been learned (Friedman, per, 2008), of career guidance fame, based
1999). his work on five developmental stages.
Lawrence Kohlberg (Kohlberg & They are: (a) Organizational (birth to
Turiel, 1971) developed a three-level, about age fourteen); (b) Exploration (age
six-stage approach to moral development fifteen to thirty); (c) Realization (thirty
that has helped counselors and teachers to about fifty); (d) Stabilization (fifty to
gain insight to personal development. His sixty-five); and (e) Examination (after
theory attempted to show how there is a sixty-five). While the age limits are gener-
moral element in behavior. In each stage, ally descriptive, they are only approxima-
the orientation and thinking process tions and can vary from one individual to
might be: another. In addition, these ages may be
influenced by new developments in soci-

ety, such as a longer life-span and career Deficits in the concern for others' well
as a consequence of advances in modern being have long been held as hallmarks of
medicine. We also know young people are antisocial personality disorders. By defini-
maturing faster now than they were fifty tion, a disorder has a history of disruptive
years ago and these maturational changes behaviors. Kochanska (1991) found more
can affect development in terms of life disobedient toddlers were less likely, six
stages. to eight years later, to report prosocial
One inevitable conclusion is if stu- responses to vignettes depicting trans-
dents are taught to master certain tasks gressions against others than were less
and skills that coincide with the different disobedient toddlers. She suggested self-
stages, perhaps learning lifelong skills and regulation, as indexed by the frequency of
attitudes, then they are more likely to disobedient behavior, might predict future
feel a sense of control and success in their problems in conscience development
lives. The result is a more positive experi- through either biological or environmen-
ence of life. tal pathways. The lack of concern for
others in many antisocial adolescents has
Human development is complex and been well-documented (Cohen & Strayer,
has been discussed in much greater detail 1996).
elsewhere. In summary, most theorists
see it as a rather patterned, orderly, and Children's lack of concern for others
distinct process. They agree it is affected and aggressive or disruptive behaviors can
by cultural forces and events that take be detected in elementary school (Vitaro,
place in a person's life. Also, human de- Tremblay, Gagnon, & Pelletier, 1994). The
velopment, while following some general empathic deficits of aggressive individuals
expectations at certain stages of life, must emerge over time, either through arrested
take into account individual uniqueness. development of concern at a relatively
Effective developmental guidance and immature stage or by an actual decrease
counseling programs take stages of devel- from earlier levels. In addition, antisocial
opment into consideration. children may not only lack concern, but
also may actively disregard or be callous
toward others in need (Reinke & Herman,
Development of Empathy
2010).
and Concern for Others
Empathic concern for the well-being
It often is assumed human beings of others may be related to a heritable,
have a biological inclination to attend biologically based response system, but
to and recognize the emotional needs some researchers have found parental so-
of others. Empathy functions as a social cialization and child-rearing attitudes and
emotion, bridging the affective states of behaviors to be a more productive ground
one individual with another. This em- (Eisenberg et al., 1998). A person-centered
pathic awareness has allowed humans parent, for example, includes being warm,
to predict each other's behaviors, to be responsive, and supportive while estab-
aware of other's needs and interests to lishing guidelines for behavior and using
forge personal bonds, and to work ~oop reasoning in conjunction with controlled
eratively. Empathy and concern for others discipline. Authoritarian parents, on
is the basis for altruism and the ability to the other hand, center on harsh, restric-
establish effective social groups (Snyder & tive, punitive, and intensely controlling
Lopez, 2002).

actions. In addition, they often display Thousands of journal and newspaper

negative affect within the context of child articles have been written using the word
rearing, which includes showing anger, self-esteem. If we have high self-esteem, it
frustration, and disappointment with means we appreciate our inherent worth
their children. and ourselves. We have a positive attitude
Tremblay (1992) and his colleagues and evaluate ourselves highly. We are
found disruptive six-year-old boys who convinced of our own abilities and we see
also were highly prosocial engaged in ourselves as competent and powerful-in
fewer disruptive behaviors three years control of our own lives and able to do
later than did boys who were disruptive what we want. We also compare ourselves
and less prosocial. Girls show more con- favorably with others.
cern than do boys from the second year If we have low self-esteem, we often
of life through adolescence (Zahn-Waxler, doubt our abilities and are less willing to
2001). Following individuals from middle participate in challenging tasks or activi-
childhood into adulthood, Hamalaimen ties. Classmates seem to be smarter, quick-
and Pulkkinen (1995) found adult men er, and in more favor. Teachers may be
and women who had been more prosocial viewed as adversaries rather than helpers.
as children were less likely to have been When we are put in situations that foster
arrested or convicted of repeat offenses. or reinforce our lack of self-esteem, it is
Criminality was greatest among adults natural to turn to other places and people
who had been high in aggression and low in order to feel valued and competent.
in prosocial behavior as children.
Learning prosocial behaviors can The Concept of Self
reduce the likelihood or the amount of The self-concept is a relatively stable
antisocial behavior in later years. School set of perceptions individuals hold about
counselors and teachers can use guidance themselves. Human development special-
units and activities to help students learn ists agree we do not have a self-concept or
how to care for others, to listen to their self-picture at birth. As infants, we cannot
feelings, and to engage people in positive survive without interaction with other
ways. beings, yet our brains are not developed
Mayer, DiPaolo, and Salovey (1990) enough to process the social atmosphere
defined emotional intelligence as the into which we are born. Thus, an infant
ability to monitor one's own and other's lying in a crib has no notion of selfhood.
feelings and emotions, to discriminate Awareness of one's unique existence
among them, and to use this informa- comes into play only as the brain devel-
tion to guide one's thinking and actions. ops and the growth process evolves.
Goleman (1995) defined emotional intel- Self-concept has been recognized as
ligence as: an important variable in human devel-
• knowing ones emotions opment and learning. Both self-concept
and self-esteem are considered products
• managing emotions
of how people talk and interact with one
• motivating oneself another.
• recognizing emotions in others
• handling relationships

As the self~concept develops, various Developmental

attitudes and personal styles take shape, Theory and Counseling
which in turn become part of the learn-
ing process. It appears significant attitudes Allen Ivey has been a strong pro-
about self, others, school, and society, ponent of developmental therapy and
which affect how we learn and later func- counseling. He has advocated integrating
tion as mature adults, are formed while the work of developmental theorists, such
we are growing up in our families and as Piaget and Erikson, into helping others
attending school. Student achievement in to grow and change. He sees all clients as
school has been directly related to self- having developmental needs and needing
concept (Purkey, 1970; 2006). assistance to move through cognitive and
emotional stages of life. Through devel-
Therefore, to consider developmental opmental therapy, clients can gain new
tasks and stages without giving attention perspectives on their problems and break
to self-concept might be considered folly. out of destructive modes of thinking as
In addition, it seems clear one's self-pic- they learn to trust their feelings and reac-
ture is shaped by interpersonal relation- tions (Ivey & Thomas, 2007).
ships and these relationships are part of
the conditions in which people learn. Life span development, by whatever
theory, is a phenomenon that plays itself
One disturbing report suggested out again and again through the develop-
school climate can damage the self-esteem mental tasks and phases of parents and
of some students. More specifically, when their children (Ivey & Ivey, 1990). This de-
children in kindergarten were asked if velopment occurs holistically, not in strict
they liked themselves, 95 percent said linear sequence, although the two can be
"yes." But, by the time they had reached integrated. Most theorists emphasize the
fourth grade, their responses had dropped importance of relationships. Each stage of
to 60 percent. By eighth grade, their re- development contains all the other stages
sponses were down to 40 percent and by and one must complete developmental
twelfth grade it was 5 percent (Weinhold, tasks successfully or problems will occur
1999). in life. All theorists stress the importance
It is a mistake to assume children who of environment.
are having social problems, especially In a developmental sense, people
those who are aggressive and disruptive, cannot operate apart from their cultural
have "low self-concepts." Teachers have and historical backgrounds. A student
been known to refer a student for counsel- working on a problem or trying to make a
ing and suggest the disorderly behavior decision invariably brings to the situation
was probably related to a lack of self- their cultural and historical self. It is usu-
confidence or maybe low self-esteem. To ally at an unconscious or very low level
the contrary, some unacceptable behavior, of awareness. Likewise, the helper (e.g.,
such as bullying others, can bring higher teacher, counselor, parent) also works out
social status (Prinstein & Cilessen, 2003). of an unconscious and integrated mind
Developmental school counselors recog- set which structures the interaction and
nize antisocial behavior serves a purpose eventually the relationship.
and is a phenomenon associated with
self-concept.

In a fast-paced multi-cultural society Interpersonal relationships can be for

that is ever changing, and one that prizes better or for worse. Carl Rogers (1957)
diversity and uniqueness, developmental and others (e.g., Carkhuff & Berenson,
theory must be cast in a frame of refer- 1967) drew attention to the desired condi-
ence that is practical. Development must tions in a helping relationship, especially
be viewed as continuous, cyclical, progres- for counseling and therapy. These same
sive, and active. It is a difficult process to conditions also hold true for teaching
operationalize, one that has too long been and parenting (Purkey, 1970; Marzano,
acknowledged in principle, but ignored in 2007). Included in a list of such helping
practice. At the heart of personal devel- conditions are caring, understanding,
opment are fundamental learning con- acceptance, respect, and trustworthiness.
ditions that influence either positive or Other conditions sometimes cited include
negative growth. They are the foundation genuineness, warmth, and concreteness.
for learning and relearning. All these are in contrast to such condi-
tions as cold, distant, sarcastic, judgmen-
Developmental tal, superior, inflexible, and unconcerned.
Conditions for Learning Some writers have focused upon the
During the 1960s, interpersonal rela- "affective" and "cognitive" domains (e.g.,
tionships were closely examined. It was Bloom, 1956; Wadsworth, 2003) in an
an era that might have been called the attempt to describe the learning process.
"Search for Intimacy." There was a drive But, it is impossible to learn anything
to learn more about human relationships of meaning or value without personal
and how people relate to each other. It involvement and emotion. Likewise, it is
was a time when close encounters took impossible to make any sense of what one
place and the human relations movement is feeling and experiencing without using
was born. Sensitivity groups of all kinds cognitive ideas. To focus on one domain
sprung up around the nation. at the exclusion of the other is some-
thing that might be done as an academic
It was partly from these groups, as exercise, but it does not work that way
well as from research about interpersonal in practice. Learning happens best when
skills, a renewed interest was taken in both domains are given attention, wheth-
studying the interactions between teacher you are in a classroom or a counseling
ers and students. After all the studies were office.
reviewed, it was easy to conclude the
quality of a teacher-student relationship
affects learning outcomes and students
learn best in environments where people
interact positively with one another.

Developmental Guidance Goal 1: Understanding the School Envi-

ronment
Curriculum and Goals
Goal 2: Understanding Self and Others
There is an organized curriculum
within the developmental approach to Goal 3: Understanding Attitudes and Be-
guidance. Based upon developmental stag- havior
es, tasks, skills, and learning conditions, Goal 4: Decision Making and Problem
the guidance curriculum is a planned ef- Solving
fort to provide each student with a set of Goal 5: Interpersonal and Communica-
skills and experiences that helps enhance tion Skills
all learning. Such an approach embraces
Goal 6: School Success Skills
all the goals of education.
Goal 7: Career Awareness and Educational
More specifically, the goals and
Planning
objectives of a developmental guidance
program are related to facilitating the Goal 8: Community Pride and Involve-
instructional process. Some people may ment
see personal development objectives as Each goal is further delineated by a
supplemental to academic ones, but they set of general objectives that, in turn, can
are an integrated part of the total educa- be described more specifically through
tion program. While the objectives appear expected observable outcomes. In addi-
to focus primarily on personal growth, the tion, each of the eight general goals is
outcomes might be considered desirable applicable to all school levels (K-12). Par-
for any educational program. ticular attention and emphasis to various
There are many guides that have been objectives are usually grade level related,
published by school systems that attempt considering developmental stages and
to describe program goals and objectives. tasks appropriate for each age group.
Some are more extended and detailed Goal 1: Understanding the
than others. Titles, phrases, choices of School Environment enables students
words, and a particular emphasis may be a in whatever school they are attending to
little different from one system to an- become more familiar with facilities, pro-
other, but a thorough review would show cedures, and programs. It includes helping
there are several common themes. students to learn more about guidance
There are eight goals that character- services and the roles of school counselors
ize almost all developmental guidance and teacher-advisors.
and counseling programs. For the most Goal 2: Understanding Self and
part, regardless of school or school sys- Others focuses on such matters as help-
tem, general and specific objectives can be ing students learn more about their abili-
organized around them. They are: ties, interests, and personal characteristics.
Students learn to identify their strengths
and areas in which they want to improve.
They also think about and develop skills
related to their relationships with peers,
teachers, and other adults. This goal
includes self-assessment, self-acceptance,
and the development of self-confidence. It
values positive differences and uniqueness
among people.

Goal 3: Understanding Attitudes awareness, and to do some in-depth ca-

and Behavior continues to address un- reer exploration related to personal skills,
derstanding of self and others, giving par- interests, and abilities. In addition, atten-
ticular attention to how habits, attitudes, tion is given to making educational plans,
and perceptions can affect behavior. Also including selecting courses, preparing for
examined are how feelings and behaviors graduation and future education, develop-
are related to goals and consequences and ing employability skills, and learning how
how behavior can be changed, if desired. to search for a job.
Goal 4: Decision Making and Goal 8: Community Pride and In-
Problem Solving attends to setting volvement stresses community involve-
goals and making responsible decisions. It ment. It emphasizes how students can be
involves an increased awareness of fac- responsible and productive people in their
tors that influence change and decision communities. It also focuses on commu-
making, as well as helpful procedures for nity resources.
problem solving. There is an emphasis on Some school systems have not only
responsibility and individual choice. identified the general goals of a guidance
Goal 5: Interpersonal and Com- program, but have proceeded to specify
munication Skills emphasizes the objectives, related counselor interventions
value of developing positive interpersonal and services, possible counseling and
relationships and how communication guidance activities, expected observable
skills affect the way in which people outcomes or indicators of success, and
interact with one another. Interpersonal methods for measuring results. Hand-
and communication skills are related to books, outlining and cross referencing
friendships and working relationships activities from popular publications, also
with students, teachers, and family. have been assembled in almost every
Goal 6: School Success Skills is de- school system. These books may provide a
signed to help students be more successful rationale and description of the guidance
in school. This includes study skills, learn- program, as well as describe the various
ing behaviors, time management, conflict guidance roles of teachers, counselors,
resolution with peers and teachers, and and administrators.
developing positive attitudes and habits
which enable one to get the most out of Principles of
school. Developmental Guidance
Goal 7: Career Awareness and In addition to program objectives,
Educational Planning is aimed at there are seven principles of developmen-
one of the most traditional aspects of tal guidance programs that provide direc-
school guidance and counseling. There tion as to how a program can be imple-
have been many attempts to integrate or mented and evaluated (see Figure 2.2).
assimilate career information and guid-
ance within academic curricula. This goal,
however, is more broadly focused on help-
ing students to understand more about
the world of work, to increase their career

Figure 2.2
Principles of
Developmental Guidance Programs
7. Developmental guidance is for all students

2. Developmental guidance has an organized and planned curriculum.
3. Developmental guidance is sequential and flexible.
4. Developmental guidance is an integrated part of the total educational process.
5. Developmental guidance involves all school personnel.
6. Developmental guidance helps students learn more effectively and efficiently.
7. Developmental guidance includes counselors who provide specialized counseling ser-
vices and interventions.
1. Developmental guidance is for The guidance curriculum is concerned

all students. with behavior as much as self-concept.
Although some young people have It encourages responsible decision mak-
more problems or are more troublesome ing and individual uniqueness. It also
than others, and while some need spe- acknowledges society and community
cial attention because of their particular expectations, as well as the rights and
needs or circumstances, developmental self-worth of individuals. The curriculum
guidance is directed to all students. There is designed to help students to be sensi-
will be times, of course, when disruptive to others, to cope and adjust, and to
tive incidents happen or when a crisis- be personally assertive, self-confident, and
type intervention may be an appropriate self-directed.
response. However, an effective guidance The curriculum goals and objec-
curriculum provides continuous assis- tives are usually organized into guidance
tance, support, and meaningful growth units. Each unit, with its general and
experiences to all students. specific objectives, is further organized
2. Developmental guidance has an into guidance sessions that are presented
organized and planned curriculum. to students. For example, if the general
objective of a unit is to "develop a posi-
Within this curriculum, there are tive attitude about school," then a more
general and specific objectives to assist specific objective-perhaps addressed in a
students in their development. The cur- particular session-might be "to be able to
riculum is built upon helping students compliment another person." In this case,
with their cognitive, affective, and physi- it is assumed positive attitudes are related
cal growth, giving special attention to to positive relationships with others and
individual appraisal, potential, motiva- the skill of recognizing and compliment-
tion, and achievement. It concentrates on ing others is a valued part of interpersonal
learning conditions and emphasizes the relationships.
human aspect of the educational process.

3. Developmental guidance is se- In addition, teachers and counselors

quential and flexible. must be flexible enough to seize upon
Experience with students at different moments when "timely teaching" is ap-
age levels provides some idea about when propriate. There are special times when
particular guidance units are best pre- students are ready to learn. Sometimes
sented and studied. In this sense, there is something out of the ordinary has hap-
an attempt to provide some continuity to pened and this might provide extra
the program. It is assumed, for example, motivation or student interest. Ideally, it
all students need to be oriented to the is always best to present a guidance activ-
school building and general procedures ity when there is an obvious eagerness to
during the first part of the year. It also is learn. Counselors and teachers can take
assumed that shortly after orientation, advantage of those times when guidance
students will want to assess their goals lessons are particularly appropriate or
and examine their classroom behaviors. It have special meaning.
is not enough to wait until students have 4. Developmental guidance is an
problems in their classes or have misun- integrated part of the total edu-
derstandings with their teachers before cational process.
they receive some guidance. Rather, stu- Although there is an identified cur-
dents can benefit by identifying the kinds riculum that appears to be separate from
of classroom behaviors that are related the academic curriculum, developmental
to achievement and then rating them- guidance permeates the school environ-
selves or comparing ratings with teacher ment. Timely teaching is part of an effec-
ratings. Next, students might identify tive developmental guidance program.
those behaviors upon which they want to Likewise, counselors may create a person-
improve. This unit may then be followed alized guidance lesson which draws upon
by a "study skills unit" in which students and applies something that has been
learn to manage their time and concen- learned in an academic class. For example,
trate on study habits. students learning to write letters in an
The program must be flexible so English class also can apply those skills
guidance units or sessions can be moved to writing for more information about
around to accommodate student and careers or perhaps applying for a summer
teacher readiness. In addition, sometimes job.
new units must be developed and inserted 5. Developmental guidance in-
into the scheduled curriculum to address volves all school personnel.
a particular need or a growing concern.
Teachers, counselors, administrators,
Although each guidance unit might and all support personnel are responsible
be carefully planned and presented at for guidance services in the school. Some
what is considered to be an optimal time guidance units might best be delivered by
of the school year, it also is possible some teachers through their assigned classes or
guidance units need to be repeated, oth- maybe during a special guidance period
ers need to be modified, and still others when they are working as advisors to
introduced at other times than when first students. Other guidance units might
scheduled. best be delivered by guidance specialists,
such as counselors, school psychologists,
resource teachers, or outside consultants
or resource people.

Although school counselors have been Counseling services are not consid-
identified as those who will take the lead ered therapy. The guidance program is not
in organizing and planning a develop- designed to provide psychotherapy for the
mental guidance program, the program psychologically deviant. However, many
cannot be implemented without the full students who have serious personal prob-
support and assistance of teachers and lems still attend regular school. They have
administrators. The guidance program is to cope with the limitations of the school
not something that can be shuffled off to setting and to adjust to classroom condi-
specialists alone. It requires cooperation tions. They often need help in establish-
among all the adults who are working ing working relationships with teachers
with students. and classmates.
6. Developmental guidance helps Some students with serious personal
students learn more effectively problems respond well to guidance units
and efficiently. or brief counseling by school personnel.
While guidance and counseling em- Many teachers and counselors recognize
phasize personal growth and individual the importance of establishing positive
potential, it does not do so at the ex- relationships with troubled students and
pense of academic achievement. In fact, do so effectively. Regardless of what they
everything in the guidance program is do and their effectiveness, the helping
eventually directed at helping students process is not labeled therapy. Assisting
learn more effectively and efficiently. All troubled students to adjust to school not
guidance objectives have an educational only improves their learning and well-be-
base and all services are related to helping ing, but it improves the learning environ-
students get the most out of school. ment for others. If a student is having
problems with a teacher, that student is
7. Developmental guidance in- not learning and is probably distracting
cludes school counselors who others' learning as well.
provide specialized counseling
services and interventions. School counseling is based upon brief-
counseling theory and draws upon coun-
While many guidance objectives can selor interventions that can be delivered
be met within the general framework within six to eight counseling sessions. In
of the instructional program and guid- a developmental guidance program, coun-
ance curriculum, there are occasions seling is focused. General "rap sessions"
when more specialized services, such as in which students talk with counselors in
brief counseling, are needed by students. unstructured meetings are not as common
Counseling is provided by certified school as they once were. High student-counselor
counselors who are knowledgeable about ratios and limited counselor time make
counseling theories and skills. unorganized or meandering kinds of dis-
School counselors are viewed as hu- cussions impractical, although they may
man behavior and relationship specialists be interesting, productive, and desirable
within a school. They have training in in- on occasion.
dividual and group counseling skills. They Littrell, Malia, and Vanderwood
also have more flexible time than teach- (1995) provided research to show solu-
ers. Subsequently, they can give extra tion-focused brief counseling was effective
attention to some students and provide with high school students and concluded
counseling experiences when appropriate. time-limited counseling is a valuable tool
for counselors in school settings.

In addition to individual and small Hawaii, New Mexico, and Texas. In some
group counseling and classroom guid- counties or districts, a single minority
ance, counselors provide other services, group has the largest portion of the total
such as consulting, training peer facilita- population. It must be noted that, even
tors, testing, and coordinating other guid- in these situations, the group most likely
ance activities. These job functions of the to be regarded as the majority is the one
school counselor will be discussed in the whose members have the most resources
remaining chapters of this book. and political clout regardless of popula-
tion size.
Developmental Guidance Our nation's success reflects the con-
and Students at Risk tributions of many people from different
Education has always meant oppor- racial and ethnic groups. However, our
tunity, but there are many young people country also has had a long, bitter history
who are considered "at-risk." They come of race relations. More recently, there is
from families that are less advantaged an increased awareness communities and
and, consequently, are usually less pre- schools are not designed to accommodate
pared to gain the most out of school. the needs, interests, and concerns of mi-
Many quickly fall behind and never reach norities, especially those from the lower
their learning potential. There are others socioeconomic scale.
who are caught in family or environmen- Too often, expectations for student
tal situations that limit their personal achievement for minorities is low and
resources and chances for success. their access to resources is limited.
Tidwell and Garrett (1994) argued The Asian Pacific American (APA)
the term "at-risk" is too general and not population has doubled each decade
well-defined. It is too inclusive, frequently since 1970. By 2020, the number of APAs
focusing on groups that already are in nationwide is projected to be 20 million,
trouble rather than being the element of or six percent of the U.S. population. Of
prediction. The commonality these young these, nearly 40 percent of Laotians and
people share, regardless of race or ethnic Cambodians live below the poverty rate
heritage, is their living conditions, which and over 94 percent of Tongans, Cambo-
put them at-risk in terms of personal and dians, Laotians, and Hmongs do not com-
social development and success in school. plete college. Only 31 percent of Hmongs
Other books and publications have graduate from high school (U.S. Bureau of
documented the need to help at-risk Census, 2000).
students (Lee, 2001; Lee & Walz, 1998). Because of their racial complexity,
These students often are considered a APAs provide a good example of the dan-
prime population for special attention, as ger of lumping groups together in a single
administrators, parents, and teachers refer racial category. By lumping sets of racial
them for counselor assistance. or ethnic groups, significant differences
Minority group populations continue between groups often are overlooked.
to grow and, although they remain un- There are as many as 31 diverse groups
evenly distributed around the U.S., collec- within the APA community, which are
tively they comprise the largest segment not linked by a single language, religion,
of the total population. This is already the social class, or national origin (Okazaki,
case in several states including California, 2000).

APAs often are exposed to bigotry. • More black students are likely to be
Immigrant children face a multitude absent from advanced placement and
of learning and adjustment challenges. honors courses.
Many experience unfriendly school envi- • When compared to their white peers,
ronments and are the targets of racial hos- middle class African Americans on
tility. These same students believe when the average lag significantly behind in
conflicts arise between them and those of grade point average (and on standard-
other backgrounds, administrators tend to ized tests, including the SAT (Scholas-
deal more harshly with them than with tic Aptitude Test).
others. Moreover, there is a widespread
perception of them as belonging to a These bleak figures underscore a
high-achieving "model minority" which complex social crisis for black Americans.
masks a host of serious problems. Discrimination and bigotry contribute to
poverty, crime, use of alcohol and drugs,
African Americans make up about 13.5 and the disintegration of family and
percent of the total U.S. population, or community, and make them feel deliber-
approximately 40.7 million people (2007). ately disregarded. Early interventions and
That number is increasing each year and developmental approaches in the schools
is projected to become 65.7 million by can help bring down the barriers that
2050. It has been estimated 82 percent thwart so many African Americans.
have at least a high school diploma and
19 percent have a bachelor's degree or Hispanics and Latinos also are experi-
higher. In 2007, there were over a million encing escalating problems. In the near
more black students in college than 15 future, they are projected to become the
years earlier. second largest race/ethnic group in the
United States. This growth is largely fu-
However, blacks often fear they are eled by immigration. Thinking all Hispan-
losing ground in the competition for ics belong to one homogeneous group is
resources and the pursuit of their share a serious misconception. Hispanic Ameri-
of the prosperity. The problem is particu- cans come from as many as 20 different
larly dramatic in the nation's inner cities, countries-and some of these countries
where the multiple conditions of crime, share very little in common. Many His-
drugs and alcohol abuse, AIDS, and lack panics feel engulfed by hardships that
of job opportunities take their toll. are associated with limited English speak-
• Black children are three times more ing skills, unemployment, drug-related
likely than whites to live in a sin- crimes, and teenage pregnancies.
gle-parent household and 43.2 per- Latino schooling in the U.S. has long
cent of all African-American children been characterized by high dropout rates
live in poverty. and low college completion rates. Both
• Homicide is the leading cause of death problems have moderated over time, but
for African-American males between a persistent educational attainment gap
the ages of 15 and 34. Nearly half of remains between Hispanics and whites.
all U.S. murder victims are black. When asked why Latinos on average
• Black males are more likely to be clas- do not do as well as other students in
sified as mentally handicapped or suf- school, most respondents in a Pew His-
fering from a learning disability and panic Center survey (Lopez, 2009) blamed
placed in special education. poor parenting and poor English skills
rather than poor teachers. In addition,
the survey found the biggest reason for
the gap between the high value Latinos

place on education and their more mod- When children face misfortune in
est aspirations to finish college appears to their young lives, such as poverty, family
come from financial pressure to support a discord, violence, substance abuse, linger-
family. ing family illnesses, and language barriers,
Multicultural education, guidance and their learning in schools can be disrupted
counseling services, and civil rights can be and limited. Some become so dysfunc-
legislated, but the social forces of segrega- tional they may not be capable of forming
tion and discrimination are larger than helping relationships with others, perhaps
the law. Alienation, isolation, and polar- resistant to counseling and other adult-
ization create doubts and distrust, frustra- assistance. Yet, given the right kinds of
tion and fears, a lack of communication helping conditions and learning climate,
and poor interpersonal relationships. ' many of these same children can bounce
When it happens in communities, regard- back from adversity and become produc-
less of location and size, then it continues tive citizens (Rak & Patterson, 1996).
into the schools. Our schools are a reflec- Promoting resilience among all children,
tion of our nation's past, present, and especially those at-risk, is a high priority
future. in comprehensive developmental guid-
ance programs.
There also are other minorities,
such as Native Americans, East Indians, Schools, especially those that provide
and various religious groups, that are of developmental guidance and counsel-
diverse power and potential. How can ing programs, can be more effective in
we diffuse ethnic tensions and ease the addressing the needs of students and
transition of immigrants into our schools? prevent many problems from becoming
What can be done to provide a better edu- crises. The learning climate of all students
cation to minority and ethnic students is improved when comprehensive guid-
who are "at-risk?" ance programs and services are made
available to all students, helping them
All students might be viewed as "at- learn to respect the value of diversity and
risk," given the changing face of Ameri- rights of others. They also learn to form
can society. Even those who have a stable positive working relationships with peers
and supportive home environment and and adults. This requires educational lead-
who are generally successful in their ership and school personnel who are will-
academic studies must still attend school ing to work cooperatively as a team, each
with those who are less fortunate or who fulfilling their particular role (Lee, 1995).
are temporarily struggling with difficult
problems. Of course, all students have
typical problems and concerns associated
with their developmental stages. Some
experience these problems to a greater
extent than others, including intensity,
severity, frequency, and duration.

A Comprehensive Guidance school, there may be a curriculum special-

ist who helps develop, coordinate, and
and Counseling Program supervise the delivery of courses and their
Herr (2001) described how a young respective content. The guidance program
school counseling profession evolved in also has a school-wide focus and-while
response to prominent national policy everyone in the school might play a part
initiatives, economic trends, pressing so- in the delivery of guidance curriculum-
cial needs, and school reform movements. responsibility for the program usually
However, most of the prevailing advocates rests with school counselors.
for national school reform, by and large, School counselors must provide the
pay little attention to the personal or leadership that is needed to develop
emotional needs and interests of students. a comprehensive guidance program.
Rather, reform advocates talk about rais- Through collaboration and consulta-
ing academic standards, lengthening the tion with other professionals in a school,
school day, implementing state-mandated counselors influence the learning climate.
curricula, holding schools more account- They are advocates for students and seek
able for student achievement based on to enhance student achievement through
standardized tests, and giving school guidance and counseling services.
"report cards."
Comprehensive guidance and coun-
School guidance and counseling seling programs have attempted to trans-
programs are almost never mentioned in form and reinvigorate the roles, duties,
eminent published reports that describe and functions performed by school
the condition of the nation's schools and counselors. The critical need to trans-
the need for reform. Typically, guidance form school counseling from a marginal,
programs are excluded when implications peripheral service to a program central to
for educational excellence are described. the mission of each school has been well-
Guidance programs appear to be an ad- recognized (Brown & Trusty, 2005; Gys-
dendum of teacher and administrative bers, 2001; Gysbers & Henderson, 2000;
efforts, but of no special importance in Dollarhide & Saginak, 2008; Schmidt,
terms of the overall school curriculum 2008).
and services. Counselors are the unknown
helpers. Statewide competency-based testing
results are a high priority in K-12 schools.
Every school has a guidance program. The No Child Left Behind Act (2001)
Some are better organized and more established math and reading testing
comprehensive than others. To begin, the requirements. Funds were authorized for
administrative office of a school is the states to select or develop their own tests.
official source of authority and is respon- Test scores and high school and college
sible for the management and supervision graduation rates highlighted the "achieve-
of a school's general operations. Building ment gap" between minority and majori-
administrators, such as principals and ty students (Clark & Amatea, 2004, Isaacs,
their assistants, typically focus on school 2003).
discipline, public relations, and making
sure school board school policies and
procedures are followed. Support services
consist of various helpers, including at-
tendance officers, nurses, school psychol-
ogists, media specialists, and school coun-
selors. Depending upon the size of the

Paisley (2001) cautioned school Such a model can serve as a template

counselors should remember they cannot for the development of a school counsel-
work in isolation and provide the types ing program. Counselors can adapt the
of services, programs, experiences, and framework to their current programs and
environments that are necessary in a com- interventions. Special consideration can
prehensive school counseling program. be given to school history, demographic
She suggested counselors think in terms make up and needs of a community, fac-
of collaborative school counseling pro- ulty expertise, and district resources.
grams. Additionally, counselor interven- The model is flexible because it seems
tions seemed to be more effective when impossible to develop one ideal program
they are part of a multifaceted yet inte- that could be used throughout the na-
grated program. (Paisley & Hayes, 2000; tion in every school. There is too much
Keys & Lockhart, 2000). At the same time, variance among states, communities,
counselors, with limited time, can feel and schools, as well as student needs
overwhelmed with the challenge of joint and interests across age and grade lev-
planning, goal setting, and organizing a els. However, the ASCA model identifies
collaborative intervention. This is espe- fundamental domains, standards, student
cially true for beginning counselors (Sink competencies, and those responsible for
& Yillik-Downer, 2001). delivering the program, as well as a pro-
When ASCA published the National fessional counselor's role and function.
Standards for School Counseling Programs All comprehensive guidance programs
(Campbell & Dahir, 1997), it emphasized have a written philosophy, a rationale,
a shift from counselor services to pro- and a counseling curriculum. Certified
grams and working closely with teachers professional school counselors provide
and administrators to promote student the leadership for organizing compre-
achievement. This accented the idea hensive developmental school counsel-
counselors were concerned about all stu- ing programs, which offer a full range
dents, but particularly responsive to those of activities and services. The heart of a
who were at-risk. school counselor's work is built around
In 2001, The American School Coun- individual and small group counseling,
selor Association (ASCA) sponsored a large group guidance, peer helper training
national summit meeting of professional and projects, consultation, and program
leaders to review and discuss the most coordination. These also might be viewed
important elements of a model for school as counselor interventions and they can
counseling programs. Special consider- feature a team approach in which all
ation was given to the ASCA National school personnel are involved (Baker,
Standards that were developed in 1997. 2000; Borders & Drury, 1992; Paisley &
After extensive review and synthesis of Borders, 1995; Paisley & McMahon, 2001).
state, district, and site models, ASCA Developmental theory and principles
outlined a national model that provided are evident in all of the components of a
a framework around which school guid- comprehensive school counseling pro-
ance and counseling programs could be gram. The program is proactive and pre-
developed. A developmental approach ventive in nature. The goal is to promote
was embodied in the model with an personal and academic development by
emphasis on providing guidance services assisting students in acquiring knowledge,
for all students in a school, rather than a skills, behaviors, and attitudes necessary
selected few.

for problem solving and decision making The model further consists of four
in order to master developmental tasks interactive program components that
and be successful (Outerbridge, 1999). delineate the major activities and respon-
Herr and Cramer (1996) were among sibilities of personnel involved in the
the first to propose a systems approach guidance program. They are:
that linked desired outcomes to specific • Guidance curriculum, or structured
elements in a comprehensive guidance classroom activities, organized around
and counseling program. It was assumed domains of student competencies;
a program's ability to promote student • Individual planning, including activi-
growth is maximized when the condition- ties to assist students in monitoring
al fit between learners and curricula is im- and understanding their growth and
proved. School counselors were charged development;
with connecting specific resources to
different types of learners, under different • Responsive services, with such as
school conditions, and promoting differ- information seeking, crisis counseling,
ent types of student development. and consultation with teachers and
parents.
Norman C. Gysbers and his associ-
ates have been developing and refining a • System support, with activities geared
comprehensive guidance program model toward program management and
for the past three decades. It features an operations. (Gysbers & Henderson,
organizational plan that has been adopted 2000).
by many school districts throughout the One central theme that connects ear-
nation. The foundation of the model is lier work to the present has been a long-
lodged in self-development of a person's term commitment to define the essential
life span with an emphasis on the knowl- work of the school counselor around ac-
edge, skills, and attitudes needed for tivities that can be shown to bring about
career development. Accordingly, this desired student outcomes. Comprehen-
model emphasizes three domains of hu- sive guidance and counseling programs
man growth and development: have been conceptualized as results-based
• Self-knowledge and interpersonal skills. systems that construct essential coun-
Helping students to develop aware- selor roles around critical outcomes to be
ness and acceptance of themselves achieved by all students (ASCA, 1999b;
and others and to develop personal Gysbers & Henderson, 2000; Herr, 2001;
standards and a sense of purpose in Johnson & Johnson, 1982).
life. Johnson and Johnson (1982), several
• Life roles, settings, and events. Empha- years ago, made a strong case for view-
sizing knowledge and understanding ing school guidance and counseling as a
of the interrelatedness of various life results-based program. They believed if
roles. essential desired outcomes can be defined,
then processes to accomplish these goals
• Life career planning. Appraising person- can be identified. Further, counselor roles
al values as they relate to prospective and program elements should evolve and
life career plans and decisions. adapt in order to maximize the eventual
outcomes. Likewise, Vanzandt & Hayslip
(2001) advocated counselors move toward

a program rather than services model and A National Model for

to focus on three different kinds of out-
comes: program, student, and counselor School Counseling
outcomes. No matter whether you work in an
Mitchell and Gysbers (1980) sug- elementary setting, on a college campus,
gested comprehensive guidance and or somewhere in between, the American
counseling programs also have a built-in School Counselor Association works to
self-correcting system. based on four inter- ensure it meets the needs of all profes-
related processes: planning, designing, sional school counselors, regardless of
implementing, and evaluating. setting, experience level, or needs. With a
membership of more than 25,000 school
Defining the essential work of the counselors, ASCA focuses on providing
school counselor requires practitioners professional development, enhancing
and counselor educators to continually school counseling programs, and research-
ask and re-conceptualize answers to sever- ing effective school counseling practices.
al fundamental questions. The continuing ASCA also is a division of the American
development of the profession depends Counseling Association.
upon the ability to improve answers to
such questions as (Ellis, 1991): ASCA approved the development
of a national model for school counsel-
• How can counselor roles, duties, func- ing programs and, at the ASCA Tucson
tions, and interventions be trans- National Summit Meeting for School
formed to be of greater benefit and Counseling Programs (2001), measures
impact for all students? were taken to outline it. The idea was to
• How can counselor time on task be provide a framework to organize school
redistributed to maximize benefits for counseling and guidance programs where
all students? the school counselor served as a program
• How can a program be tailored to bet- leader. It also followed the ASCA National
ter meet the needs of each school? Standards, developed in 1997 (Campbell
& Dahir, 1997; Dahir, Sheldon, & Valiga,
• How can the program become cen-
1998), and advocated school counselors
tral to the overriding mission of each
switch their emphasis from service-cen-
school?
tered for some students to program-cen-
• How can better partnerships between tered for every student.
school personnel, parents, and busi-
The standards in this model advocate
ness and community leaders be estab-
a shift from the traditional service/activ-
lished?
ity approach to a programmatic approach
• How can counselors better advocate that is comprehensive and developmen-
for their programs with local, state, tal. It emphasizes measuring program
and national policy makers? effectiveness and student achievement, at-
This book, in subsequent chapters, titudes, skills, and knowledge (Dollarhide
will answer these questions and spell out & Saginak, 2008).
the role of school counselors. In addition,
special attention will be given to various
ways a counselor can intervene to help
accomplish the goals of a comprehensive
developmental guidance program.

School counselors are viewed as lead- Counselor Job Satisfaction

ers in a school. They are proficient in
Despite numerous demands and a
retrieving school data and analyzing it to
changing focus on roles and functions,
improve student success. The data is used
school counselors, in general, are satisfied
to seek educational equity for all students.
with their jobs. For instance, more than
As leaders, they must be action-oriented
90 percent of Virginia elementary school
(Davis, 2005). They must tell and sell their
counselors surveyed in 2001 said they
program and be accountable to others.
were satisfied or mostly satisfied in their
Through collaboration with other pro- positions. However, many reported deep
fessionals in the school building, school concerns regarding mandated statewide
counselors are encouraged to influence accountability testing, cutbacks in per-
systemic change and become an advocate sonnel, school violence, and increasingly
for students (Schwallie-Giddis, ter Maat, & having to take on non-guidance duties.
Pak, 2003). Specifically, 65 percent of surveyed coun-
Since it was not likely one ideal selors reported state-mandated account-
program would fit every school through- ability testing negatively affected their job
out the nation, the ASCA model was satisfaction (DeMato & Curcio, 2004).
designed to be a guide for developing a In a similar study, Baggerly and
comprehensive guidance and counseling Osborn (2006) surveyed Florida counsel-
program. It identified important program ors across elementary, middle, and high
elements such as beliefs and philosophy, schools. A majority of respondents across
mission, and three broad student learning the three levels reported being either
domains: academic, career, and personal/ "very satisfied" in their positions (40%) or
social. "somewhat satisfied" (45%). They also re-
Further, the model emphasizes a ported their positions had become "much
program should assist students to achieve more stressful" or "somewhat more stress-
desired competencies and outcomes. This ful" (87% of elementary school counsel-
would be done by a delivery system that ors, 95% of middle school counselors, and
gives attention to a guidance curriculum 92% of high school counselors), because
(K-12) and a management system that of new mandates for testing and student
is data-driven and identifies counselor achievement.
responsibilities. An accountability plan The researchers also asked respon-
that deals with counselor and program dents to report the frequency with which
evaluation is in place. As school counsel- they performed appropriate and inappro-
ors make efforts to implement the ASCA priate school counselor duties as defined
National Model, they also must comply by ASCA. School counselor respondents
with increasing demands for their time who implemented appropriate duties
and skills (Baggerly & Osborn, 2006). more frequently indicated greater job sat-
They must be able to manage their time. isfaction, while those who implemented
inappropriate duties more frequently
indicated decreased job satisfaction .

The relationships between "matter- Roles of School Personnel

ing to others, " job-related stress, and job
satisfaction was examined in one national in Guidance
study (Rayle, 2006). School counselors It is a mistake to think guidance and
implementing comprehensive guidance counseling services are the function of
programs reported greater perceptions specialists alone. This could lead to a
of mattering to others. This, in turn, was crisis-type approach, as there are not
reflected in higher rates of job satisfaction enough specialists employed in schools to
along with reduced levels of job-related meet the needs of students.
stress. The conclusion was the school Good guidance permeates the school
counseling profession needs to continue environment. Where specific guidance
drawing upon the ASCA National Model and counseling programs are present,
as a means of defining and advocating there also is better school morale among
the role of school counselors, including students and teachers. There is a positive
further delineating appropriate and inap- feeling that can be experienced through-
propriate work activities and functions. out the school. But, effective programs
Bryant and Constantine (2006) take the cooperation and active participa-
studied the relationships between mul- tion of all school personnel.
tiple role balance, job satisfaction, and Schools across the nation are orga-
life satisfaction in a national sample of nized differently. Job titles and assign-
women school counselors. Those who re- ments vary from one school to another
ported role balance in their personal and and some schools have more personnel
professional lives also reported greater job and resources than others. Regardless, a
satisfaction and were more satisfied with comprehensive developmental guidance
their lives overall. Feeling overwhelmed program is built primarily on the work of:
by excessive or imbalanced roles might be (1) administrators; (2) teachers; (3) coun-
predictive of lower overall life satisfaction. selors; and (4) other support personnel.
Specifically, the researchers recom- Listed below are some of their basic job
mended the ongoing development of functions in a guidance program.
counselor role statements that strengthen
and define job roles. School counselors Principal
need to advocate for themselves and take • To provide leadership for the guidance
leadership in shaping their roles within program.
school systems (Clemens, Milsom, &
Cashwell, 2009). • To provide personnel to the school's
guidance committee. This committee
will probably consist of representa-
tives from each teaching team and be
co-chaired by a school counselor and
a teacher.
• To provide administrative support and
encouragement.
• To participate actively in defining and
clarifying the guidance assignments
and roles.
• To provide adequate time, space,
facilities, and materials needed to
implement the program.

• To consult with the guidance commit- School Counselors

tee regarding the organization, moni- • To assume leadership in organizing
toring, and evaluation of the guidance and developing a comprehensive de-
program. velopmental guidance and counseling
• To see guidance services are imple- program.
mented and evaluated. • To provide individual counseling ser-
• To help identify guidance needs in the vices to students.
school and to recommend possible • To provide small group counseling
guidance units or interventions. And, services to students.
on occasion, to co-lead a guidance
activity with a teacher or counselor. • To organize and lead large group guid-
ance units, sessions, and activities.
• To establish supportive and coop-
erative working relationships among • To train and coordinate peer facilita-
administrators, counselors, teachers, tors and related projects.
and other student service specialists. • To consult with parents, teachers, and
• To assist in the establishment of a administrators regarding special con-
comprehensive guidance plan and cerns and needs of students.
structure, including a teacher-advisor • To consult with teachers and adminis-
program that can be implemented trators about guidance and counseling
within the school's schedule. interventions for students.
• To communicate the philosophy and • To develop guidance units that evolve
structure of the program to parents from student needs and assessments.
and the general public. • To help develop and coordinate a
• To consult with the guidance commit- teachers as advisors program (TAP).
tee regarding special issues, concerns, • To co-lead, on occasion, a guidance
or problems that develop among unit or session with a teacher, perhaps
students and school personnel. during TAP.
• To serve as a professional resource to
teacher-advisors about brief counsel-
ing and behavior change.
• To help identify students who have
special needs or problems and to help
find alternative education or guidance
services for them.
• To coordinate faculty and staff devel-
opment programs related to guidance.
• To coordinate other guidance related
services (student assessment, advise-
ment, community resources, special
education, and placement).

Teachers School Registrar

• To help develop and implement a • To coordinate the student record
comprehensive developmental guid- keeping system in a school.
ance program within the school. • To take responsibility for communi-
• To help identify students who need cating new state, district, and school
special attention in learning more ef- policies related to student records and
fectively and efficiently. graduation requirements.
• To work as a teacher-advisor with ap- • To help identify target student popu-
proximately 20 to 25 students, meet- lations who might benefit from guid-
ing them individually and in a group ance and counseling programs and
during TAP time. activities.
• To attempt to know personally each • To maintain all student files pertinent
student who is in the TAP group. to graduation requirements, includ-
• To follow-up with advisees regarding ing: grades, grade-point averages, and
academic progress, grade reports, dis- a check of graduation requirements.
cipline referrals, special concerns, and • To register new students and place
general information. them in appropriate classes.
• To know their advisees' parents/guard- • To coordinate with counselors the
ians and work as a liaison between transition of individual students trans-
home and school, facilitating commu- ferring between schools, with special
nication. attention to those grade-level classes
• To build a group cohesiveness among of students entering and leaving the
an assigned TAP group of students so school.
they might be resources to one an- • To coordinate and maintain the
other. school's computerized record keeping
• To seek assistance for advisees whose system with that of the district office.
needs are beyond the limits of TAP or • To assist counselors, on occasion, in
classroom guidance. the delivery of appropriate large guid-
• To identify student needs and to make ance units that are related to student
recommendations to the Guidance transition, registration, records, and
Committee. graduation.
• To consult with counselors, and other
school personnel, regarding the guid-
ance needs of the advisees.
• To participate in staff-development
programs that will help in providing
guidance activities and "brief counsel-
ing" experiences for students.

Occupation Specialists or School Psychologist

Career Counselors • To diagnose and study individual stu-
• To develop and organize a compre- dents in terms of eligibility for special
hensive Career Resource Center. assistance and services.
• To collect and disseminate national, • To assess academic skills and aptitude
state, and local publications, materi- for learning.
als, and other career resources. • To determine social-emotional devel-
• To provide career development guid- opment and mental health status.
ance units that can be used during • To evaluate various aspects of a
TAP time. student's home and school experi-
• To co-lead TAP advisory groups with ences and to make recommendations
teachers on occasion and when appro- for guidance services and educational
priate. placement.
• To consult with teachers regarding • To provide intensive individual and
career interests, skills, and aptitudes of group counseling or remediation
student advisees. interventions for dysfunctioing stu-
dents.
• To help identify the career interests
and needs of students. • To work as a liaison between school
and community psychological re-
• To work with students and parents in
sources.
terms of career and educational plan-
ning. • To help design educational and
therapeutic strategies for students who
• To create career guidance connections
need special assistance and services.
on the Internet.
• To consult with teachers, counselors,
• To develop organized guidance units
and others in a school regarding the
that help students explore post-sec-
limitations, strengths, and special
ondary career and educational oppor-
needs of students.
tunities.
• To organize, lead, and take an active
role in child study teams, particularly
those staffmgs regarding children with
exceptional needs and their educa-
tional placement.

School Social Worker Other Administrators

• To work with needy families and and Support Staff
coordinate guidance interventions Other support staff and administrators
between school and home. might include: attendance officers, deans
• To serve as a liaison between the or assistant principals, activities directors
school and public health and rehabili- and coordinators, placement specialists,
tation agencies. speech therapists, special education teach-
• To study individual students and ers and aides, guidance technicians, and
their family situations, providing case paraprofessionals. Their roles and func-
information that is relevant to school tions related to developmental guidance
guidance and counseling interven- might consist of the following:
tions. • To work with a TAP group when ap-
• To consult with school and district propriate to reduce the number of
personnel regarding the needs of students assigned to teachers.
families and implications for educat- • To help identify student needs and
ing children in schools. interests.
• To help find outside resources for stu- • To co-lead, on occasion, guidance
dents and families. units or sessions.
• To help teachers follow-up with spe-
cific advisees.
• To lead a guidance unit that has been
specifically designed for the special
needs of some students.
• To lead a special group of advisees
who have been identified as needing
special attention, such as those who
have not been able to adjust to TAP
group settings and activities.
• To assume responsibility for duties
that need attention during TAP time
so teachers and others may make the
most use of TAP.

Summary
These roles are meant to give school
personnel some responsibility and direc-
tion. They revolve around traditional
roles and expectations, but they highlight
job functions as related to a comprehen-
sive developmental guidance program.
There are probably other job assign-
ments, duties, and responsibilities. The
lists are not meant to be all-inclusive.
However, if these roles are ignored or
neglected, then the guidance program
will probably suffer and personnel will
struggle.
School counselors must formulate a
common rationale and perspective for
their role, which is different from other
professionals. The role must be a specialty,
with a core of interventions that gives
them an identity. Clearly, a focus on pre-
vention distinguishes the developmental
counselor from those in clinical practice.
Preventing a problem from occurring may
not be as dramatic as treating a mentally
disordered patient, but it is an essential
contribution to schools and society.
The concept of early intervention
leads counselors and other specialists
to work with normal, healthy students
when they are at risk, but before problems
become severe. Recognizing early warning
signs and providing effective interven-
tions can produce long-lasting positive
results. It is the emphasis on wellness, re-
sponsible citizenship, empowering youth
in positive ways, and increased produc-
tivity that helps distinguish the develop-
mental counselor from others.

The Teacher
as Student Advisor
Our schools have accommodated the The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
public for many years, adjusting success- is a reform of the Elementary and Sec-
fully to a host of demands. More students ondary Education Act (ESEA), which was
from different ethnic, cultural, and social enacted in 1965. It redefined the federal
backgrounds are being served in our role in K-12 education and attempted to
schools. More physically and intellectual- close the achievement gap between disad-
ly impaired students, who were previously vantaged and minority students and their
ignored or pushed out, are being included more successful classmates. It is based on
in the mainstream of school experiences. four basic principles: stronger account-
Experimental and alternative education ability for results, increased flexibility
programs of many kinds have been intro- and local control, expanded options for
duced as the schools try to be a cure for parents, and an emphasis on teaching
all of the nation's social ills. Yet, there also methods that have been proven to work.
has been an erosion of public confidence Some people say there is a "tide of
in the nation's schools. mediocrity" in the schools, as indicated
There is a concern, almost a post-Sput- by declining achievement scores on na-
nik echo, our nation is at risk due to the tional tests, although it appears this trend
failings of its educational system. National is reversing itself. "Our students need
and state commissions have a history of to be more competitive with students
issuing reports that urge higher academic from other nations, whose performance
standards and push for educational excel- scores in math and science are higher
lence (e.g., Boyer, 1983; Gardner, 1983; than ours, is a statement that has be-
11
The State of America's Children, 2008). come a genuine concern among critics.
In response, almost every state legislature
passed laws requiring students to attend
school for longer hours, to take more aca-
demic classes, and to pass more subjects.

Unfortunately, legislators tend to Surprisingly, very little attention, if

ignore problems in the schools that de- any, was given to school guidance in the
tract from the learning environment. For recent state and national reports. It is as
example: though guidance is a fringe benefit in-
• Thirty nine percent of high school se- stead of being directly linked with student
niors reported something being stolen learning. None of the reports mentioned a
from them (Condition of Education, guidance curriculum or the need for more
2001, National Center for Education guidance and counseling services. Rather,
Statistics, 2001). the emphasis for change has been primar-
ily on proficiency in the core curriculum
• Each year, 253,000 teachers are threat- areas of English, math, science, and social
ened with injury in the U.S.A. 127,500 studies.
are physically attacked by students.
The pattern shows higher incidents in Yet, we know learning is a conse-
urban settings, in secondary schools, quence of the environment, for better or
and with female teachers (Pytel, 2010). for worse. Teachers and students working
together create a learning climate, which
• Forty percent of students indicated plays a critical role in educational excel-
the behavior of other students in lence. If students are to learn more ef-
their school definitely or somewhat fectively and efficiently, to achieve more
interferes with their own performance academically, and to be productive and
(State of America's Children, 2008). responsible citizens, then developmen-
• Despite a dramatic decline in juvenile tal guidance must be a part of the total
violent crimes in the 1990s, the over- school experience.
all percentage of students who report
being threatened or injured with a
weapon at school has remained rela-
tively stable since 1993. Boys experi-
ence almost twice as many incidents
as girls (National Crime Victimization
Survey, 2007).
• Although the proportion of students
in grades 9-12 who had been in at
least one physical fight on school
property decreased from 43 percent
in 1991 to 33 percent in 2003, it was
36 percent in 2007. The prevalence
of not having gone to school because
of safety concerns ranged from 3.8
percent to 9.0 percent across state
surveys. (Youth Risk Behavior Surveil-
lance, 2008).

Chapter 3 The Teacher as Student Advisor
Teacher Concerns It is a myth students will, for certain,

receive individual attention and counsel-
There were 98, 793 public schools ing from their school counselors. There
and 28,218 private schools in 2007-08. are not enough of them to realistically
Approximately 56 million students were meet that expectation. More often than
expected to be enrolled in the nation's not, students who receive counseling are
elementary through high schools (grades self-referred or referred by teachers.
K-12) in 2010. Of these, 10.7 million of
school-age children (5 .to 17) speak a lan- Teachers have consistently expressed
guage other than English at home. their concerns about students who are dis-
ruptive, who are disrespectful of teachers,
Expenditures for education in the who use obscene language, who are tardy
nation reach into the billions of dollars. or frequently absent, or who lie, cheat, or
Most of the schools offer a comprehen- deface school property. Many teachers are
sive curriculum and may provide other unsure of what to do with students who
programs and services as well. A smaller are unmotivated, depressed, withdrawn,
number of schools focus primarily on resentful, discouraged, and who are hav-
special education, vocational/technical ing conflicts with peers or parents.
education, or alternative programs.
Teachers also worry about students
Approximately 7.2 million teach- who do not follow classroom or school
ers are employed in these schools. Some
pro~edures, who are unresponsive to sug-
2.9 million teach at the elementary and gestions, and who appear unwilling to
middle school level. The remainder teach change. They are concerned about school
at the postsecondary, secondary, and pre- discipline. Student-teacher relationships
school and kindergarten levels (Statistical appear to be the central issue of these
Abstract of the United States, 2010). concerns.
Counselors held about 665,500 jobs in Two out of five of America's teachers
2008. Employment was distributed among appear disheartened and disappointed
the counseling specialties as follows:
about their jobs Gohnson, Rochkind, &
• Educational, vocational, and Ott, 2010). Despite the many frustrations
school counselors .................... 275,800 of_ teaching, almost half of those surveyed
• Rehabilitation counselors ........ 129,500 said they were more enthusiastic about
teaching than when they first entered the
• Mental health counselors ........ 113,300
profession.
• Substance abuse and behavioral
Furthermore, three-fourths of those
disorder counselors .................... 86, 100
who considered leaving the profession but
• Marriage and family therapists .. 27,300 stayed did so because of the satisfaction
• Counselors, all other. ................. 33,400 they derive from their relationships with
Overall employment of counselors students! These teachers have many of
is expected to increase by 14 percent the same complaints as the teachers who
between 2008 and 2018, which is faster left-inadequate compensation, limited
than the average for all occupations (Oc- resources, lack of professionalism, and in-
cupational Outlook Handbook, 2010). Yet, creasing student needs and problems-but
the ratio of counselor to students remains they like teaching young people and the
unreasonably high in many schools. personal rewards it brings.

Many teachers need help in un- The Teacher and

derstanding students. They need more
classroom management skills or new School Guidance
ways of building positive working rela- The first books about school guidance
tionships with students. They also need were directed exclusively to classroom
to reexamine the guidance services that teachers. For many years, there were so
are available to students in their schools few counselors or other support person-
and to clarify teacher roles in a guidance nel that the only way students received
program. personal guidance was through their
Approximately 70 percent of teachers classroom teachers. Good teaching was
surveyed rated counseling services for stu- considered good guidance.
dents as either "fair" or "poor." This may Since the 1960s, studies have shown
be attributed to ineffective traditional the way teachers interact with students
guidance and counseling methods, which can make a difference in how well stu-
too often rely on individual counseling at dents learn. If students see their teachers
critical moments. Counselors were seen as as caring and interested in them, then
administrative assistants and having too they are more likely to be inspired and to
little time to counsel. Even when coun- enjoy going to school. They feel encour-
seling took place, it seemed to have little aged and try harder.
impact on student attitudes or behavior. Interestingly enough, effective teach-
Developmental guidance and counseling ers have the same characteristics as effec-
approaches are uncommon in many of tive guidance and counseling specialists.
the schools that were surveyed. Among these are the willingness and
In a developmental guidance pro- ability to:
gram, teachers are encouraged to work • See the student's point of view.
personally with students. More time is
made available for teachers and students • Personalize the education experience.
to become better acquainted and there are • Facilitate a class discussion where stu-
more opportunities to build close working dents listen and share ideas.
relationships, which benefit both students • Develop a helping relationship with
and teachers. students and parents.
• Organize personal learning experi-
ences.
• Be flexible.
• Be open to trying new ideas.
• Model interpersonal and communica-
tion skills.
• Foster a positive learning environ-
ment.
It appears good guidance and good
teaching are closely related in terms of a
helping relationship (Bauer, Sapp, & John-
son, 2000).

In a major study focused on the value First, counselors often lack the vis-
of teacher-student relationships, Aspy, ibility of teachers or student peers. Sec-
Aspy, Russell, and Wedel (2000) surveyed ond, their image often is too aligned with
600 teachers and 10,000 students. Their authority, discipline, and administrative
results showed the students of teach- procedures. In fact, it is not uncommon
ers who were trained to offer high levels to see professional counselors near the
of empathy, congruence, and positive bottom of a student's list of potential
regard missed fewer days of school, had helpers because of the image they have
increased scores on self.:concept measures, among students. One group of high
and made greater gains on academic school students, for example, portrayed
achievement measures. They also pre- their counselors in a school skit as be-
sented fewer disciplinary problems, coming large computer-like boxes that kept
mitted fewer acts of vandalism to school repeating impersonally, "Sorry, but that's
property, increased their IQ test scores, the policy... but that's the policy... but
made gains in creativity scores, were more that's the policy."
spontaneous, and used higher levels of Teachers have a long history of help-
thinking. The study also showed these ing students who have personal problems.
benefits were cumulative; the more years Some teachers continue to be a source of
in succession the students had a high guidance to their students long after they
functioning teacher, the greater the gains have finished their studies at the school.
when compared with students of low This is especially true when the teacher-
functioning teachers. student relationship has been a personal
When students have problems, they and meaningful one to both parties. To
turn to those who they think can be build such a relationship, of course, takes
the most help. Surveys repeatedly show some time and a special set of experiences
elementary students first turn to their or circumstances.
parents and then to their teachers. Adoles- It also appears the most popular and
cents turn first to peers and then to rela- assertive students are usually the ones
tives and teachers. Generally, the first line who are able to establish endearing and
of helpers are among those people whom helpful relationships with their teachers.
students see almost every day, especially There are many students who need adult
if they have positive relationships with guidance and a mature relationship they
them. can draw upon. Yet, some of them are too
It may come as a surprise to some shy or withdrawn to reach out to teach-
people that school counselors and other ers for help. Some students assume they
support personnel, who are professionally are not liked well enough to compete
trained in helping people with personal with popular students for teacher atten-
problems, are usually not the students' tion. Still others are aware their attitudes
first choice of a helper. There are some and behaviors in school are not what is
good reasons. expected and assume teachers are not
interested or concerned about them.

Teachers are busy people and they of- A Student Assistance Team is com-
ten feel burdened with their responsibili- posed of school staff and, in some in-
ties. Their time is limited and they cannot stances, members of the larger commu-
build close personal relationships with all nity. The school staff can include: admin-
their students, especially at the second- istrators, classroom teachers, counselors,
ary level. The reality of schedules and social workers, support staff, custodians,
class arrangements in school frequently bus drivers, school resource officers, and
forces teachers to be selective and to take school nurses. Community members may
a greater interest in some students than include: clergy, medical professionals,
in others. The favored students receive mental health professionals, law enforce-
teacher support and personal guidance ment, business representatives, retirees,
while the others must turn elsewhere. and other community members.
Teachers can work well with troubled Teachers can do more than refer. They
students, if given the opportunity. In also can provide developmental guidance
one middle school study, students with as part of prevention education.
behavior problems were divided into two Elementary school teachers have
groups. One group received social skills traditionally accepted their roles as guid-
training from teachers and the other did ance teachers and recognized the value
not receive any particular help until the of classroom guidance. They work closely
study was completed. Significant changes with their students in self-contained class-
were found in favor of those who received rooms and the situation enables teachers
teacher help in social skills. Parents also to be keenly aware of student needs and
reported improvement in social behavior interests. Because they work with the
and self-esteem for the students in the same students for most of a school day,
treatment group. elementary school teachers have more
Student Assistance Programs are part opportunities to build close relationships
of many schools. SAP is a school-based, with their students and to provide them
organized system for prevention, iden- timely guidance lessons and activities.
tification, and intervention for students Secondary school teachers, on the
with identified needs that may affect other hand, work with a larger number of
school performance and healthy develop- students and spend a limited amount of
ment. There are methods for identifying time with them. For example, it is com-
and screening student and family needs, mon for many of the core curriculum
appropriate referrals, and various strate- teachers in junior and high schools to
gies for supporting students. In this case, have six classes, with as many as 30 or
training of teachers often is related to more students in each class. A high school
helping them identify and monitor prob- teacher may meet with more than 180
lem behaviors and then make referrals to students a day, seeing each of them for
SAP for assessment and assistance. less than an hour in a class where academ-
ic skills are emphasized. It is no wonder so
few secondary school teachers understand
the needs, interests, and problems of their
students.

Teachers as Teachers have regular academic as-

signments based on their interests and
Student Advisors training, but each teacher also has a group
There is a need for teachers to be of about 20 students or advisees. There
directly involved in developmental may be fewer or more advisees, depend-
guidance. The single most innovative ing upon the number of students who
approach to meeting this need has been attend a school and the number of faculty
through programs where teachers are and staff who are available to be student
designated as student advisors and they advisors. The best ratio is about 1 to 15
are assigned a group of students who students, but, in practice, it has been
are their advisees. This often is called an lower in a few cases and it has been as
advisor-advisee program or a teacher-ad- high as 1 to 30 when space and personnel
visor program (TAP). Some have called it a were limited.
student-advocacy program. It is designed It is assumed each student needs a
to provide continuous adult guidance friendly adult in the school who knows
within a school (Dale, 1995). lt is an old and cares about the student in a personal
and obvious solution to school-wide guid- way. The advisors are responsible for help-
ance that is once again timely. ing their advisees to deal with the prob-
The need for more advisement by lems of growing up and getting the most
teachers and counselors was supported by out of school. It is the advisor-advisee
a decades long Missouri needs survey. It relationship that is the core of guidance
showed about 48 percent of the students in a school (Myrick & Myrick, 1990).
had not spoken with a school counselor A teacher-advisor is usually respon-
regarding future educational and voca- sible for an advisee's cumulative folder,
tional plans and only 52 percent believed work folders, teacher-student confer-
the schools had provided opportunities ences, parent conferences, group guidance
for parents to discuss their children's experiences, and follow-up on academic
educational plans. Moreover, 41 percent progress reports. Advisors also consult
of the students felt they did not know with other teachers, school counselors,
one teacher well enough to whom they and support personnel about their advi-
might talk if they had a problem Qohn- sees (Ackerman, 2007).
son & Salmon, 1979). Years later, the
Gates Foundation study in 2009 reached Teacher-advisors meet with their
the same conclusion (Gates Foundation, advisees regularly during homebase group
2010). time. This time and place is a home
within the school for students. It is here
The teacher advisor-advisee concept they have a supportive group of peers
was highlighted when it was first intro- with whom they can explore their per-
duced into the middle schools. Middle sonal interests, goals, and concerns. It is
schools, following the lead of elementary here issues that get in the way of effective
schools, place an emphasis on develop- academic learning can be addressed.
mental guidance. Students are no longer
in self-contained classes with one teacher These homebase periods are about
as they were in the elementary schools. 25-30 minutes in length and preferably
Instead, they generally work with a team happen at the beginning of each school
of teachers and they also are assigned to a day. At least two days of the week are
homeroom or homebase group where they scheduled for developmental guidance
meet regularly with teacher-advisors (Alex-
ander & George, 1981; Michael, 1986).

activities. The other three days are more The guidance units are organized
flexible and might be used for supervised sequentially according to a school's cal-
study, silent writing, silent reading, explo- endar and major events in a school year.
ration of music and the arts, clubs, or for For instance, an orientation unit might be
more guidance activities. presented in the homebase periods during
Some schools have other arrange- the first three weeks of school. It can help
ments for scheduling homebase meetings. students review and become more familiar
The five scheduled meetings described with school facilities, procedures, policies,
above seem ideal. Regardless, it appears and resources. A unit about study skills
the period should be no less than 25 typically follows this first unit. The idea
minutes if a guidance curriculum is to be is to assist advisees in developing better
delivered with any degree of effectiveness. study habits and thinking about how they
It takes that amount of time to guide stu- manage their time.
dents through almost any kind of struc- A third unit on self-assessment might
tured guidance activity. Less time leads to then follow. In this unit, students think
rushing and impatience. Teachers tend to about their classroom behaviors and what
talk more at students. Time must be man- must be done if they are to succeed. They
aged very carefully and there is a need to also identify areas of personal strengths
be task-oriented. Some guidance activi- and those areas upon which they want to
ties cannot be used if there is not enough improve.
time to experience them or discuss their Each guidance unit might be orga-
meaning. nized around the general scheme of six
Guidance in the middle schools em- sessions (5 + 1). That is, students take part
braces developmental guidance concepts. in guidance activities for five sessions and
The guidance curriculum, which for the then one session is used to help evaluate
most part is delivered in homebase meet- the unit. This enables teacher-advisors
ings, is based on the assumption certain to complete a unit with their advisees in
guidance experiences will help students three weeks if they are meeting twice a
personally, socially, and academically. The week. If the evaluation in the sixth ses-
curriculum can be organized into guid- sion showed the unit's objectives were not
ance units and sessions, each with guid- met or more time was needed for some
ance objectives and activities. Timewise, skills, then additional guidance sessions
there is a trade-off. When there is sched- could be scheduled.
uled time for guidance and other non-ac- Some sessions are more structured
ademic activities, there are fewer inter- than others. Some are designed to build
ruptions in normal classes and academic group cohesiveness and a sense of belong-
studies can be more productive. ing among the advisees in their homebase
A guidance unit focuses on a par- period. Other sessions attempt to antici-
ticular topic. Some representative units pate the developmental needs of students,
by topic and general objectives are listed while still other sessions depend upon
in Figure 3.1. The list is not meant to be what students want to talk about and the
all inclusive and, as occasions call for it, particular needs and interests that emerge.
other guidance units can be added in light Schools and communities differ and these
of special student needs or interests. differences can be reflected in the guid-
ance program.

Figure 3.1
Developmental Guidance Units-TAP
UNIT 1: GETTING ACQUAINTED

To help advisor group members to know each other.
To build facilitative relationships within the group.
To lay the foundation for advisor-advisee group meetings.
To help advisees learn· how to participate in a group.
To help advisees make positive transitions in school.
To review school handbook and school procedures.
UNIT 2: STUDY SKILLS AND HABITS

To evaluate one's study skills and habits.
To develop effective time-management plans.
To learn and practice classroom listening skills.
To identify various tests and test-taking situations.
To learn ways to cope with test-anxiety.
To understand grade point average (GPA) and report cards.
To discuss school success skills.
UNIT 3: SELF-ASSESSMENT
To identify classroom behaviors related to achievement.
To identify one's strengths in classroom behaviors.
To identify classroom behaviors that need to be improved.
To assess teacher-student relationships.
To assess attitudes about school, self, and others.
To set goals and learn to monitor progress.
To develop an appreciation of individual differences.
To identify one's interests, abilities, and uniqueness.
UNIT 4: COMMUNICATION SKILLS

To learn how to be sensitive and "tune in" to others.
To learn how to be a careful listener.
To learn how to clarify and explore ideas.
To learn how to ask and to respond to thoughtful questions.
To learn ways to compliment and to confront others.
To identify behaviors which block effective communication.
To learn how to be an effective group participant.
To learn how one's behavior has an effect on others.

UNIT 5: DECISION MAKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

To learn models for decision making and problem solving.
To learn how to identify alternatives and consequences.
To identify common teenage dilemmas and factors which influence decision making and
problem solving.
To show how decision making and problem solving skills can be used at home and
school.
To examine the consequences of not meeting school and family obligations and respon-
sibilities.
UNIT 6: PEER RELATIONSHIPS

To examine sex roles and sex stereotypes in society.
To develop positive ways of interacting with peers.
To recognize the power of peer influence.
To assess oneself and peer relationships.
To learn how to develop friendships.
To learn ways to resist undesirable peer pressure.
To increase awareness of how personal needs and interests affect relationships.
UNIT 7: MOTIVATION
To become more aware of one's interests, needs, and desires.
To recognize how one's self-esteem and attitudes are related to the way in which a goal
is approached.
To recognize the value of setting personal goals.
To differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.
To identify motivational techniques, such as goal setting, monitoring, self-talk, action
steps, and positive thinking.
To show how skills and practice are related to success.
UNIT 8: CONFLICT RESOLUTION

To identify the nature of conflict, how and when it can occur.
To learn constructive ways of dealing with conflict.
To identify conflicts related to developmental stages of life.
To practice applying communication skills to conflict moments.
To identify how conflict resolution skills can be applied with teachers, parents, or peers.

UNIT 9: WELLNESS
To identify common health problems in our society.
To identify positive aspects of living a healthy life.
To discuss how exercise, nutrition, positive attitudes, and personal living habits can affect
one's life.
To be aware of the characteristics of "high risk" people, such as: alcohol and drug abus-
ers, those who are suicidal, and potential dropouts.
To examine the value of wellness and prevention strategies.
To examine the long-range consequences of abusive behaviors.
To develop and practice effective ways of coping with stress.
UNIT 10: CAREER DEVELOPMENT

To examine the affect of changing times on the world of work.
To recognize job opportunities and their value to society.
To identify how jobs, occupations, and careers are related to one's interests, needs, skills,
and opportunities.
To identify tentative job goals.
To become aware of the factors that influence job choice.
To recognize how job goals are related to success in school.
To identify how job tasks relate to skills learned in school.
UNIT 11: EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

To recognize options that are available for planning.
To understand the need to plan ahead.
To learn a language of educational planning (common terms).
To learn the sequence of academic courses.
To identify academic requirements and electives.
To develop an educational plan for middle or high school.
To register for next year's courses.
UNIT 12: COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT

To develop pride in the community.
To identify responsibilities of citizens in the community.
To see the value of volunteering for community service.
To identify ways in which young people can help make the community and neighbor-
hoods better places to live.
To see oneself as a valuable contributor to the community.

One teacher-advisor argued students TAP: An Essential

did not like or benefit from a study skills
unit which had been delivered during Guidance Program
homeroom guidance. However, further If the teachers are to be part of a
examination showed the teacher was school's guidance program, then they
depending exclusively upon printed ma- must have time to meet with students.
terials which told students how to study. Homeroom or homebase periods can
The materials were distributed for study provide time regularly. The teachers as ad-
during homebase and students answered visors concept makes a guidance program
questions related to them. This teacher manageable and enables more students
missed the point of how homebase time to benefit from guidance and counseling
can be used and the value of a teacher- services.
advisor program. The same concepts that have proven
It was suggested the teacher put aside their value in the middle school also make
the materials for the time being and the sense for high schools. In fact, we can use
students be encouraged to talk about the term TAP (Teacher-Advisor Program)
study habits from their own experiences. to refer to either a middle or high school
It was a time to find out how they ap- guidance program that involves teachers
proached their homework. What seemed working with groups of students as advi-
to work for them and what did not? In sors.
addition, advisees could develop their Although developmental stages and
own plans based upon information that tasks are different for older adolescents,
came out of the group's discussion. This the need to provide developmental
type of approach made the topic person- learning conditions and developmental
ally meaningful and led to the use of the guidance remains the same. There is still
printed materials later when there was a need to assist students in their intellec-
student readiness to examine them. tual, social, and personal growth. There
When videotapes of teachers' class- may even be a more pronounced need to
room instruction in the United States, personalize and humanize education.
Germany, and Japan were compared Interestingly enough, the activities
(Stigler, 2000), the problem in the United and discussions will change at different
States was not the teachers, but teaching. grade levels as students get older, but the
American teachers, for example, relied topics and focal points can still be timely.
more on rote procedures and memo- For instance, high school students will
rization. They were less likely to push have different challenges and ideas when
students to solve problems or gain under- it comes to managing their time than
standing of underlying concepts. middle school students.
Conditions need to improve so Teacher-Advisor Program (TAP) is a
schools become places where teachers generic term. Such programs have been
have the time and support to examine, referred to as "homebase" in the second-
share, and revise their lessons so students ary schools and as "classroom guidance"
are engaged in the learning process. in the elementary schools. TAP is equated
Guidance units in TAP provide excellent with teacher-led large group guidance,
opportunities for teachers to experiment regardless of grade level. The primary re-
with new methods that encourage stu- quirement is that a certain period of time
dents to participate and share their ideas be set aside during the week to address
in group discussions. developmental guidance topics.

Teacher-Advisor Programs have been The Ferguson-Florissant School Dis-

given special titles to help students and trict, Ferguson, Missouri, started a high
others identify these base time periods. school advisement program that was part
Here are a few secondary programs: of a project funded by the Kettering Foun-
• Prime Time (Sarasota, Florida) dation. The program was later revised and
expanded under ESEA Title IV-C funds
• Quality Time (Tampa, Florida) and, subsequently, became a validated
• Our Time (Green Bay, Wisconsin) model program for many other school dis-
• PRIDE (Overland Park Kansas) tricts. The program provided more com-
prehensive guidance services to students.
• DISCOVERY (Huntsville, Alabama)
Other high school programs, particularly
• STAR (Irvine, California) in such states as Maryland, New Jersey,
• TS-30 (La Porte, Indiana) and Georgia, have helped demonstrate
• BEST TIME (Brandon, South Dakota) the value of TAP. Special funds from out-
side sources can stimulate school districts
• REACH (Lakeville, Indiana) to develop such programs.
• DREW TAP (Detroit, Michigan) Between the years 1984 and 1989, the
Elementary school teachers generally Florida legislature appropriated approxi-
work with a self-contained group. They mately 25 million dollars for the imple-
act as teacher-advisors to their students. mentation of TAP in its public schools.
During the week or each day, a classroom This support recognized the program was
teacher might focus on developmental a valuable component in both middle and
guidance through such various activities high schools and teachers could play an
and programs. important role in guidance. The primary
One public high school created a intent from the outset was to help stu-
structured group program similar to TAP. dents cope with higher graduation re-
Volunteer faculty members, working quirements, which had been imposed as a
as co-leaders, met with interested stu- response to reports our nation was at risk
dents one SO-minute period per week for because of low educational standards.
10 weeks. Groups ranged from 8 to 16 The Florida Department of Education
students. Class periods were rotated each evaluated some outcomes of TAP, and
week so any particular class was missed when data were analyzed, it was evident
only once or twice a semester. Different the program had a positive impact on
topics received attention in each session students in the pilot schools. Credit was
and focused on such issues as women's given in evaluation reports for improved
issues, career exploration, coping with academic achievement, a reduction in
stress, separation and divorce, alcohol and failing grades, and an increase in higher
the family, newcomers to school, "seniori- test scores. Further results suggested that
tis," and learning disabilities. The topics in high schools with TAP, attendance
grew out of student interests as expressed improved 47 percent and more students
in a survey. took college entrance exams. The program
also was credited with helping reduce the
number of high school dropouts.

Each participating school was given Character education was given special
the opportunity to develop an organiza- attention during the 1990s, but the new
tional scheme. Most school employed a millennium brought a greater emphasis
TAP coordinator and an aide who helped on test performance and implied aca-
produce guidance units and materials. demic achievement. Still, character de-
Funds also were made available for teach- velopment is gaining more support from
er workshops and seminars for program parents, even though some are skeptical
and skill development. and worry the school might be teaching
Many high school teachers never had values that are best left to families and
a guidance course and are unsure of how their religious leaders. Some teachers are
to lead a group discussion with adoles- ambivalent for fear they may be treading
cents when there is no academic lesson on morality issues that are controver-
to be taught. It is difficult for them to put sial or could lead to lawsuits (Mathison,
aside old teacher modes and habits and 1998).
focus on being listeners and facilitators. The thrust is simply to help students
Many are uncertain as to how to use TAP learn and talk more about common core
time and far too many do not understand values, ethics, skills, and behaviors that
the basic principles of developmental are related to personal and civic responsi-
guidance. bility (DeRoche, 2000). ASCA (2005) en-
Yet, considerable progress has been dorses and supports character education
made within a short time. For instance, in the schools, declaring school counsel-
most of the Florida schools, after only five ors need to take an active role in initiat-
months of experience with TAP, moved in ing, facilitating, and promoting character
the direction of providing more time for education programs in the school curricu-
teachers to meet with advisees. Students lum. In one report, Schaeffer (1998) cited
in most schools liked TAP and wanted ten schools to illustrate successful efforts.
more time for the program. One middle school faculty decided
Administrators at Pasco High School, over the course of the school year they
Dade City, Florida, credited their TAP were going to use some of the TAP time to
program, which was one of the pilot look at important character traits. Because
schools in the state, for improving school all students (grades 6 to 8) took part in
attendance. The program was limited TAP, the entire school population was
since only poorly performing students involved.
who seemed to need help were scheduled Character traits were viewed as build-
to meet with teacher-advisors and orga- ing blocks for helping people to become
nized meetings happened only once every responsible learners and citizens. Be-
two weeks. However, because of the initial ing around people who have a positive
success of the program, more time was outlook on life and treat others with
scheduled for TAP in its second year and respect led to a fun learning experience
additional training was given to teachers. and students needed that experience. In
this school, a morning announcement
was made about the character trait that
was being featured for the month and
students were encouraged to participate in
the TAP activities and to talk about it in
other classes throughout the month.

For example, "Over the next couple of The diversity of students in today's
weeks during TAP, you'll have opportuni- schools is greater than we may have once
ties to think and talk about RESPECT. It's imagined. Teacher advisor programs
a character trait we need to think about provide a ready venue for addressing is-
more. You will want to talk about in other sues related to all kinds of diversity and
places and, more importantly, do things helping students respect differences and
that show you respect yourself and oth- find commonalities. Effective multicul-
ers." tural communicators are aware of oth-
Although a lot of teachers believe ers' perceptions. They understand how
they weave character education into their world views are influenced by culture.
academic curriculum, there is no evidence Rather than simply telling others how
to indicate if they are effective or even if they should see things, teaching them
it is true. For the most part, teachers are so communication skills can help us better
busy delivering the academic curriculum understand how they view and react to
that honesty, respect, decision making, the world.
being responsible, and other personal School counselors and teachers can
qualities do not receive much attention. help resolve crises that involve ethnic
In addition, the predominant mode of slurs or insensitive and inappropriate
teaching tends to be lecturing and pre- behaviors. They also serve as catalysts to
senting information to students, rather encourage everyone in the school to play
than having them take part in activities a positive role in knowing, accepting, and
where they experience a concept and then appreciating cultural diversity. Valuing di-
discuss it. versity can be taught to others and should
When students have problems, they be a major part of any school's compre-
turn to those whom they know the best hensive guidance program. Through pro-
and whom they think can help the most. grams such as TAP, students have opportu-
Surveys have shown the adults to whom nities to think about the contributions of
students of all ages are most likely to different cultures and to celebrate them.
tum-after their parents-are teachers. A
teacher advisor program (TAP) is one very
effective way of directly involving teach-
ers in developmental guidance.

The Counselor's Role in TAP 2. Counselors will develop some special

guidance units based on particular
One critic voiced the opinion TAP
needs of a student group or student
was simply a device where teachers did population. For example, in one
the job counselors were supposed to be school, older students were bullying
doing. And, teachers were not prepared younger students. The counselors
to be counselors. Within the same school, prepared a four-session guidance unit
at least one counselor was concerned TAP which they presented to some home-
would take away counselor jobs if teach- base groups. In another school, some
ers were to be student advisors. racial slurs increased the potential for
To answer part of the criticisms and student violence and the issue was
fears of counselors and teachers, it is addressed through a special guidance
important to identify the roles each plays unit. In a sense, these counselors
in a TAP program. First, teachers are not developed a "road show" which they
asked to be counselors or to take on the took to the TAP groups.
responsibility of meeting all the counsel- 3. Counselors will meet with small
ing and guidance needs of students. Some groups of students for small group
students will need to be referred to coun- counseling during some of the TAP
selors or other specialists. Second, coun- periods. Because of these TAP time
selors will continue their own programs meetings, counselors disrupt academic
and activities throughout the school day, classes less during a school day to
but, during TAP period, they will probably meet with students and have fewer
pay particular attention to the following scheduling problems.
roles.
4. Counselors will pull students who
1. Counselors will help co-lead some
are disruptive or who are having
guidance units and sessions with trouble adjusting from their homebase
teachers. Some teachers will invite
groups during TAP time and target
counselors to work with them, on them for special attention. These
occasion, including teachers who are students might receive some small
very successful. Then, at other times, or large group guidance and coun-
counselors will work with teachers seling experiences which focus on
who are having trouble managing their problems. In another situation,
their groups. Counselors might model some students might need to obtain
some group guidance skills or serve as and discuss information or guidance
a consultant to these teachers. materials which particularly affect
them more than other students. For
example, financial aid or college ap-
plications might be topics for groups
who meet with counselors during TAP
time, especially on those days when
the teacher-advisor is not presenting a
guidance activity.

5. Counselors will meet with some Building Support for TAP

students for individual counseling.
Despite the apparent value of TAP,
However, individual counseling is
usually reserved for other times dur- there are some middle/junior and high
ing the day, since it is easier to draw school teachers who are reluctant to adopt
individuals than groups of students it. In general, about 20 percent of most
from academic classes. Therefore, the secondary school faculties will quickly
counselor's work emphasis during TAP embrace the program. These teachers like
is on small and large groups, either the idea of developmental guidance and
with a teacher-advisor group or with they have the skills and personality to put
the program in practice without much
a counseling group organized from
preparation. They can make it work with
several teacher-advisor groups.
a minimum of support, as they thorough-
6. Counselors will serve as consultants ly enjoy the opportunity to form closer
and resources to teachers. If a full or helping relationships with students.
part-time TAP coordinator is not em-
ployed in a school, it is common for a There is another 20 percent of a
school counselor to assume leadership school faculty, generally, who are clearly
and coordinate TAP. This is usually skeptical and resistant. They argue against
done with a teacher as a co-leader or it and see only an extra preparation for
through a committee. However, it is themselves. To them, TAP is a waste of
the flexible time of counselors and time. They try to discourage others, er-
roneously believing guidance should be
the fact is TAP is the central part of
left to specialists, such as counselors and
developmental guidance that tends to
school psychologists. This disinclined
involve school counselors as leaders
group needs special assistance or in-ser-
and coordinators.
vice training if they are ever to be sup-
7. Counselors will avoid any routine du- portive and become involved in_ building
ties during TAP time which take them a program. Unfortunately, of this 20 per-
away from working with teachers or cent, probably half of them do not have
students. Teachers want counselors to the personality, skills, interests, or energy
be a part of TAP and to be both avail- to make TAP work and they may need to
able and visible during that time. It is be assigned other duties.
important counselors be accountable
The middle 60 percent of the fac-
for their time during TAP. The coun-
selor's role and job functions are given ulty can make the critical difference. If
attention in Chapter 4 and it will be this group is for TAP, then the program
easy to see how these roles and func- will make a positive contribution in the
school. If the majority of this middle
tions are related to TAP.
group is against it, then the program will
have trouble surviving. It will be sabo-
taged. There will be a tremendous waste
of time and energy. Student needs will not
be met and, being disappointed with TAP,
students will "add fuel to the fire" by their
criticism and lack of interest.
What makes the difference whether or
not the middle 60 percent moves toward
supporting TAP and developmental guid-
ance? The result seems to depend upon
the following:

Teachers need to understand the Scheduling TAP two days a week

philosophy behind TAP and how it seems to be a minimum. Otherwise, there
is related to developmental guid- is a tendency for a teaching faculty to
ance. This includes an understanding of view TAP as an unimportant adjunct pro-
student needs and awareness of student gram instead of an integral one within an
problems. It also includes a recognition organized curriculum. It is difficult to feel
of how guidance is directly related to committed to a program that is not a part
helping students learn more effectively of the regular weekly schedule. When it
and efficiently in their academic work, just seems to pop up on occasion, teach-
including helping them grow socially and ers tend to think less about it and to rely
personally. on whatever spontaneously happens.
One group of high school teachers As one teacher said, "I just wing it
who did not support TAP were asked how and hope for the best." Without a weekly
they would describe the program. Given commitment, teachers are less concerned
a three-minute limitation, all struggled to about how they can best use the TAP
talk about it. None could clearly define period with students, since that time is
TAP or cite essential concepts. None of such a little part of their assignment. This
their statements were student-centered. type of situation inevitably sows seeds of
The time commitment for TAP discontent among teachers and students.
needs to be adequate. Time manage- TAP must have a developmental
ment or the organizational scheme of TAP guidance curriculum, with support-
is a critical factor. Sometimes TAP pro- ing materials and activities. Teach-
grams suffer because there is not enough ers are accustomed to having curriculum
time for advisors to meet with their advi- guides and they often depend on learning
sees. For example, in one school, teach- activities that stimulate student thinking
ers met with their advisees for about 30 and participation. Therefore, teachers like
minutes once every two weeks. In another to have organized guidance handbooks
school, they met for one hour once a which contain various activities they
month. There is very little chance valu- might use in TAP.
able helping relationships between teach- Some schools have developed com-
ers and their advisees will develop in such prehensive sets of materials, including
little time. Commitment is not there. guidance units and suggestions when they
When meeting times are scheduled might best be used during TAP. Teacher-
far apart, there is not much opportunity advisors have the liberty of discarding any
for continuity and consistency. TAP works suggested activity that seems unsuited
best when it is scheduled every school for them or their group, perhaps modify-
day. This gives advisors an opportunity ing an activity or substituting another
to know their advisees and to talk with one. However, the evaluation of the unit
them individually and in groups. During should remain consistent across all TAP
supervised study time, teachers can work groups. Thus, the guidance objectives are
with student folders and make plans to more important than any activity and it
follow-up with other teachers. is an advisor's professional judgment that
determines how best to meet those objec-
tives.

Teachers need preparation in TAP needs administrative sup-

guidance and interpersonal skills. port. Most administrators try to ac-
Since most teachers have not had a course commodate their teachers and to make
in guidance, many do not understand teaching an enjoyable endeavor. They are
how a guidance program is developed to fully aware of how difficult teaching can
meet student needs and how guidance in- be and how some students-and teach-
terventions can be used to help students. ers as well-can dampen the spirit of a
Some teachers have limited interpersonal school. Some students and teachers make
skills and many have not had much prep- everyone's work more difficult and the
aration in how to manage groups. More school environment unappealing.
specifically, far too many teachers rely on Administrators set the tone of a
one group arrangement-all students fac- school. Their personal style and commit-
ing the front of the room-and need more ment is the glue that holds the program
training in how to get students working together. If they are supportive, then
cooperatively in small groups. teachers will try harder. If they are indif-
Most teachers talk too much at stu- ferent, then teachers find other places to
dents. Only a few have learned to facili- invest their time and energy. Therefore,
tate class discussion with group discussion they must not only speak favorably about
skills. They need help in knowing more TAP, but they must take time to under-
about group dynamics and how to facili- stand how TAP works and to find ways to
tate a group. Also, many of them need as- show their support.
sistance in learning how to help a student Administrators can increase their
think about a personal problem and take visibility in the schools by visiting TAP
steps in solving that problem. This does groups and talking with students when
not mean the advisor is a problem-solver. discipline is not an issue. They can talk
Rather, the advisor helps students explore with TAP coordinators about guidance
situations, alternatives and consequences, units and, on occasion, they might lead
and possible plans of action. or co-lead a discussion in one of the TAP
The basic facilitator skills discussed homerooms.
in Chapter 4 of this book are considered TAP needs to be evaluated. In or-
essential for teachers as advisors. With the der for TAP to be an accountable program,
use of the facilitative model, teachers and it must be monitored and evaluated.
students find TAP more productive and Evaluations provide data upon which to
rewarding. make decisions and determine what new
directions, if any, might be taken. Student
and teacher evaluations of TAP are essen-
tial if it is to develop progressively into an
effective program.
Very few schools are able to immedi-
ately implement TAP, especially the way
they visualize how it could be. It takes
time to develop an excellent program.
There are adjustments to be made, new
things to be added, and others deleted.
Priorities must be set and people must
learn to work together. With feedback
from students and teachers, it is possible
to keep TAP moving in a desired direction.

Teachers: Key to Counselor-Teacher

Developmental Guidance Relationships
There are not enough school coun- Unsupportive and uncooperative
selors and other specialists to implement teachers will openly criticize counselors.
a developmental program if they have The complaint is counselors have very
the sole responsibility for guidance. Only little impact on student behavior. Some of
with teacher involvement and commit- these teachers prefer counselors not work
ment, at all grade levels, is developmental with students from their classes. They dis-
guidance possible. like sending students to the guidance of-
Teachers are the heart of a school's fice and could refuse to do so. They argue
guidance program. They work directly counselors do not help and missing class
with students in their classes and stu- time only penalizes students by putting
dent-teacher relationships influence the them farther behind in class work.
school atmosphere. They work as student- There also are some teachers who are
advisors and they collaborate with other suspicious of counselors and they do not
specialists to assist students. want counselors observing students in
Counselors support teachers in their their classes. These teachers worry their
work. They work for and with teachers. teaching methods are being evaluated.
Counselors also need teacher assistance Some even think counselors are the "eyes
if they are to fully understand a student's and ears" of the administration and unfa-
world. Teacher cooperation is needed if vorable comments are passed to building
counselors are to have access to students principals.
for counseling interventions. In order for Still other teachers believe counselors
counselors to excel in their work, school always align themselves with students at
faculties must understand the nature of the expense of teachers. One teacher said,
a counselor's job and how counselor job "Counselors are simply crying towels for
functions are related to the work of teach- students. They believe everything the kids
ers and other specialists. tell them, when half of it is not true. They
Teachers, when working as student sit in judgment of teachers and always
advisors, can draw upon the skills and take the kid's side. They never listen to
resources of guidance specialists such as what we teachers have to say."
school counselors. Sometimes counselors Another teacher complained, "Kids go
may help lead a guidance unit or a session to the counselors and talk about us. That
with a teacher-advisor. On other occa- does not do any good. If a kid has a prob-
sions, counselors may develop a guidance lem with me, he should talk to me first.
unit and lead a homebase group through Then, if that does not work out, he could
a unit or through some sessions. Teacher- go to a counselor. The kids should be sent
advisors, recognizing their own limits in back to talk with their teachers instead of
time and skill, can identify students who gossiping about them with counselors."
need attention from a counselor or other
specialist.
Working together, counselors and
teachers can define their roles in guidance
and differentiate their responsibilities. In
a comprehensive developmental guid-
ance and counseling program, they work
together as a team.

Obviously, there is not much trust For too many years, counselors-often
or understanding between these teach- out of a misunderstanding about confi-
ers and school counselors. Yet, students dentiality and the privacy of the counsel-
probably would not go to counselors and ing relationship-failed to work closely
complain about teachers if they thought with teachers. Counselors frequently ap-
they could go to the teachers. Teachers peared to be distant and incommunicative
can intimidate students. Students say, about students. They worked in mysteri-
"Teachers never listen.to us, so why talk ous ways, cloaked in the privacy of their
with them?" offices where they became the confidantes
The counselor is caught in the middle. of students. They were the child-advocates
There is apparently a fine line between and in charge of the affective domain, or
supporting teachers and listening non- so some said. Teachers took note that such
judgmentally to students. When teachers, claims seemed to exclude them. They
however, know more about how coun- also resented the implied accusation that
selors work with students who complain teachers were insensitive, unfeeling, and
about teachers, they have less to fear and too busy to help students. In too many
they are more supportive. cases, counselors and teachers developed
uncooperative relationships.
The real challenge is for counselors
and teachers to find ways to communicate Counselor-teacher teamwork is critical
what they believe about developmental in a developmental guidance program. An
guidance and to discover how they can open and supportive relationship makes
work together to make their jobs easier. As the work of teachers and counselors easier
counselors and teachers talk about their and faster. There is a mutual respect that
differences and mutual interests, they can goes beyond the roles each has agreed
arrive at some common agreements about upon. The roles are complementary and
guidance and the role each plays in the there is a team spirit. One is not superior
total guidance program. to the other, nor does one assume to be
the most important helper or most skilled
professional. Helping students through
guidance is a shared experience.

School Guidance Target populations and target students

can be identified with the help of school
Committees guidance committees. After considering
One practical way counselors and facts and information, guidance commit-
teachers can improve their working rela- tees can help counselors set priorities and
tionships and build a team framework is find ways to win support for some inno-
through a school guidance committee. vative strategies or projects.
This committee is usually co-chaired by a A guidance committee, regardless of
counselor and a teacher and it has repre- school level, might: (1) review guidance
sentatives from the teaching faculty and materials and activities; (2) recommend
support services. guidance strategies and interventions; (3)
Every school needs a guidance com- identify students who need special assis-
mittee. The committee helps identify tance; (4) examine student data to iden-
student needs and recommends different tify target populations that need guidance
kinds of guidance programs and activities. and counseling services; (5) help evaluate
It serves as a funnel through which infor- the guidance program; (6) discuss ideas
mation can be processed by both coun- before they are presented to the total fac-
selors and teachers. It searches for ways ulty; and (7) serve as a resource group to
all school personnel can work together the counselors.
better. Almost every elementary school coun-
There are certain procedures and gen- selor has formed a guidance committee,
eral practices that are part of operations composed of the counselor and about four
in a school. Sometimes it is necessary to or five teachers. Ironically, such a commit-
elicit support from faculty before some tee is found much less in the secondary
guidance and counseling procedures can schools where there are more communica-
be initiated. The guidance committee of a tion problems because of larger faculties.
school is an excellent place to start. Although counselors often are per-
School guidance committees listen to ceived as those who are responsible for
school counselors' ideas and the differ- school guidance, in reality, the guidance
ent counseling interventions they have in program is a joint effort by administra-
mind. If an intervention involves teach- tors, teachers, counselors, and other sup-
ers, then the teachers on the guidance port personnel. The counselor does not
committee can be polled for their opin- work alone. But, there are specific coun-
ions. They try to anticipate what other selor functions and responsibilities which
teachers might think or how they might can influence the direction of a guid-
react. The committee can be an initial ance program. The management of these
sounding board for new ideas and pro- functions and responsibilities ultimately
grams that are being considered. determines a counselor's image and ef-
fectiveness.

Advantages, Limitations, Conclusion

and Conclusion A school's learning climate can be
positively affected when teachers, coun-
Advantages of selors, administrators, and students work
together to personalize education. All
Teachers as Advisors students have developmental guidance
1. High counselor-student ratios make needs that require attention if they are to
it impossible for school counselors to be effective and efficient learners. When
know all students personally. TAP is adult to student ratios in a school are low
based on one teacher per 20 students, enough, each student has access to an
a ratio that enables all students to per- adult in school who cares and who can be
sonally know an adult in the school of assistance.
who cares about them and who can
TAP puts teachers in an advisory role
assist them with some guidance.
with a limited number of students. As
2. TAP is the only way a comprehensive advisors, they provide their advisees with
guidance and counseling program can guidance units and services. When TAP
be fully implemented in a school be- is given a scheduled time within a school
cause it involves all school personnel. week and teachers are given the respon-
3. TAP helps create positive learning sibility of delivering guidance units to
environments in a school. students in TAP meetings, then develop-
4. Differentiated staffing makes the most mental guidance becomes a reality for all
use of school personnel. students.
5. More students receive more guidance
services because there is a guidance
curriculum which is presented in a
regularly scheduled time period.
Limitations of
Teachers as Advisors
1. Not all teachers can work effectively
as teacher-advisors to students. Some
need more preparation and others
lack interest or commitment.
2. The success of TAP depends upon
administrator and teacher knowl-
edge and support. Currently, TAP is
misunderstood in many places and
is dismissed as a passing fad, an old
homeroom program, or an infringe-
ment on academic time.


The Counselor:
A Developmental
Guidance Specialist
School counselors are developmental Yet, the statement does not mention
guidance specialists who assist students counselors by name or give any hints as
with their educational, personal, and so- to what they will do in their jobs. The
cial development. Counselors understand commitment to developmental guidance
the developmental nature of students and has been reviewed by the association
how they progress toward educational several times, reaffirmed officially in 1980,
and career goals. Counselors are human and revised in 1986 through position
behavior and relationship specialists who statements (Dahir, Sheldon, & Valiga,
provide counseling and guidance services 1998). These statements, however, still fail
to both students and adults. to spell out the role of a school coun-
The American School Counselor As- selor. How does a counselor function in a
sociation (ASCA) was founded in 1953. In developmental guidance and counseling
1979, the ASCA Governing Board defined program?
developmental guidance: During the formative years of the
Developmental guidance is that school counseling profession, there were
component of all guidance efforts very few guidelines regarding how coun-
which fosters planned interventions selors might spend their time on the job.
within educational and other human Even today, school counselors appear to
services programs at all points in the be many things to many people, depend-
human life cycle to vigorously stimu- ing upon the schools in which they are
late and actively facilitate the total employed and how they usually spend
development of individuals in all ar- their time. School counselors have been
eas (i.e., personal, social, emotional, viewed as administrative assistants, school
career, moral-ethical, cognitive, and psychologists, social workers, mental
aesthetic) and to promote the integra- health personnel, educational placement
tion of the several components into officers, academic advisors, and friendly
an individual's life style. disciplinarians-or any combination of
these roles.
School counseling, as a specialty area
of the counseling profession, is still evolv-
ing and has been affected by social, edu-
cational, political, and economic trends.
Paisely and Borders (1995) concluded:

"The appropriate focus for school Counseling Theories

counseling is considered to be on com-
prehensive and developmental programs. Revisited
Such programs include individual, small- Counseling theories help us think
group, and large group counseling, as about the counseling process. They pro-
well as consultation and coordination. vide a systematic way of observing com-
These programs still offer certain types of mon phenomena and they give us a work-
responsive services related to remediation ing framework. We use theories in coun-
and crisis issues, but they now emphasize seling to describe behaviors, illuminate
primary prevention and the promotion of relationships, and develop interventions.
healthy development for all students" (p. They also provide a common language
74). so we can share ideas and communicate
If school counseling is to survive as about our observations and methodology.
a profession, counselors must be able to It has become customary to refer to
describe their unique roles, specify their counseling theories as counseling mod-
job functions, and show how their work els, maybe because people are eager to
is related to helping students learn better. see practical applications of theoretical
School counselors of the future will need constructs. Most of us want a comfort-
a sharper role definition and they will able structure, or a set of guidelines, from
need some new theories and strategies. which to work.
Good theories are like good maps.
They tell us what to look for, what to
expect, and where we might go. They are
explicit and precise, avoiding poetic state-
ments that are inspiring, but fail to give
us direction. Good theories also are com-
prehensive, applicable in many situations,
and yet, specific enough to be feasible in a
particular situation.
The school counselor's basic role as a
helper is found in several counseling the-
ories which are studied by almost every
graduate student in counselor education.
These theories, conceptualized by promi-
nent psychotherapists and educators, are
an outgrowth of attempts to assist people
with their personal problems.
Some classic theories seem to have
stood the test of time. Since they are usu-
ally presented in most counseling theory
courses, they will not be discussed in detail
here. Instead, a few are reviewed briefly to
emphasize their importance to develop-
mental guidance and counseling. To keep
things simple, there are four theories of
counseling you will find particularly help-
ful. Let us look at those first.

Chapter 4 The Counselor: A Developmental Guidance Specialist
Client-Centered Counseling 5. Conflicts arise when self-concepts

If you have studied counseling theo-
and external events are incongruous.
ries, then you knew this theory would Tension increases and reactions to
be listed here. Carl Rogers' classic book, the realities of the environment may
Client-Centered Therapy (1951), introduced be for better or for worse, depending
an important term and focus to coun- upon one's ability to accept, to cope,
selors and therapists. It started a wave of to adjust, and to integrate.
humanistic-oriented therapists, the effects These five principles are the heart of
of which have been felt in counseling, the theory. It is assumed people have the
therapy, and other areas such as teach- capacity to discover for themselves the
ing, social services, pastoral training, and necessary resources for their growth. If
human relations skills programs (Corey, certain helping conditions are present in
2009; Merry & Tudor, 2006). a client's life, then the person will become
Client-centered therapy or the person- more "self-actualizing" and naturally
centered approach emphasizes "fully move toward more positive and self-en-
functioning" individuals are open to hancing behaviors.
experiences in life and trust themselves to Therefore, counselors do whatever
do those things that "feel right." Gener- they can to provide counselees with
ally, client-centered counseling is based a genuine caring experience that fos-
on the following premises: ters feelings of personal respect, regard,
1. A human being functions as a total
warmth, understanding, and self-worth.
organism and any change to one part According to client-centered theory, a
may produce changes in other parts genuine caring relationship is more im-
(e.g., physical, psychological, behav- portant than techniques.
ioral). When Virginia Axline wrote her
2. Individuals have their own perceptual famous book, Play Therapy, it was based
fields, which is their reality. People on client-centered therapy. Axline's ap-
interact with their environments from proach is still considered relevant today,
their perceptual fields and this leads although there are different approaches
to the development of their self-con- (e.g. Drewes, Carey, & Schaefer, 2001),
cepts. because the premises cannot be improved
upon. She suggested counselors enter the
3. The self-concept is a learned sense of child's world by following the lead of the
self. It is dependent upon what one child. She created the helping conditions
has experienced from outside the self, and set the stage for a child to change and
usually from significant others who grow in a positive direction. It is hypoth-
impose or create personal relation- esized the absence of the helping condi-
ships. tions created the need for therapy in the
4. Any experience that is not consistent first place. Children, like adults, have the
with the self-concept is perceived as a capacity to take responsibility for resolv-
threat, although one can learn to be ing conflicts in their lives and will grow
flexible and accepting of the environ- positively if given the opportunity.
mental realities that come with daily In years past, client-centered therapy
living. was the first and only counseling theory
taught to school counselors while they

were in training. It is considered a simple Rational Emotive

and practical model founded on a demo- Behavior Therapy (REBT)
cratic and humanistic philosophy about
life. It does not require knowledge of com- Albert Ellis, a renown therapist, decid-
plex psychological principles or speci~l ed to become more active and directive in
diagnostic skills. It requires very few, if his therapy sessions. Rather than wait for
any, techniques. It is deceptively simple a client to gain insight, he began pointing
because it appears the clients, or students, out inconsistencies in a client's reasoning
do all the work, as the counselors follow and behavior. He gave homework as-
their leads. The primary focus is on what signments. His theory was first described
a person is experiencing, assuming self- as RT or Rational Therapy, but was later
disclosing talk produces the necessary changed to RET (1962) to avoid incor-
insight for change. rect associations with a philosophical
approach known as rationalism. Finally,
The theory can easily be applied to Ellis settled on REBT (1996) because it
developmental guidance. It emphasizes encouraged clients to put their beliefs into
the counselor is a listener and encourages practice behaviorally and push themselves
the client to talk. Therefore, with limited to act on them (Ellis & Wilde, 2002).
time for preparation, the first counselors
in the schools may have left graduate Most people have problems because
school thinking this was the only theory their belief systems have gone astray. It is
of counseling. assumed we talk to ourselves-thinking in
words, phrases, and sentences-and this
Since the early years of school coun- talk influences how we feel and behave.
seling and Carl Roger's earliest work, People who become dysfunctioning or
there have been many extensions of this emotionally disturbed are really telling
timeless counseling theory. There are themselves a chain of false statements
many practitioners and other theorists that are irrational and personally destruc-
who have embraced most of Rogers' ideas, tive.
although advocating specific skills to help
create therapeutic relationships (e.g., Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
Carkhuff, 2000). (REBT) recognizes many illogical ideas
permeate our lives-ideas we have learned
It was Carkhuff and his colleagues through our parents, teachers, peers, and
who studied the behaviors of client-cen- society. Our life experiences influence our
tered therapists and concluded, "Coun- self-talk, which can be for better or for
seling can be for better or for worse." It worse. If it is the source of our problems,
often depended on the kinds of responses then self-talk needs to be reevaluated,
counselors and therapists used and how sometimes eliminated, and positive self-
clients perceived the process. talk put in its place.
Client-centered or person-centered The theory fits easily into a develop-
counselors are concerned about the mental guidance and counseling program.
atmosphere in which counseling hap- As in the client-centered approach, you
pens. They want to help students feel first establish a close working relationship
cared about and safe and to experience by attending to student problems. You
empathy, respect, and genuineness from are alert to illogical ideas and confront
the counselor. Such an approach requires them. As ideas are challenged, resistance
patience and relies on students to assume is anticipated and worked through as part
responsibility for their own direction. of the counseling process.

In contrast to the client-centered 4. "Others are responsible for making

model, after forming a therapeutic alli- me unhappy, like my parents, teach-
ance, the counselor plays a more active ers and classmates." Unless you are
role in analysis and teaching. REBT theo- physically abused or deprived, happi-
rists believe the expression of feelings in ness is a function of perceptions, not
a nurturing relationship is not enough to people or events, and perceptions can
get to the root of irrational thinking and be controlled.
client problems. 5. "You cannot overcome your past."
Common irrational thoughts about The past cannot be denied. It is real
self and behavior can be addressed and cannot be changed. But, the past
through developmental guidance units, does not have to determine future
maybe before such thoughts become in- needs, interests, attitudes, or behav-
grained in a student's self-perceptions. For iors. You can change present and
instance, some typical irrational beliefs future behavior independent of what
that can be confronted as part of develop- has happened in the past.
mental guidance or as part of a problem- 6. "There is always a correct and best
solving situation are: answer to every problem." Maybe this
1. "I must be loved by everyone to be could be so, but it is a frustrating and,
happy." Such a belief means you oftentimes, futile activity to search for
would have to be self-sacrificing most the perfect solution to things. Believ-
of the time to please everyone. Even ing there is only one best answer or
then, you cannot be loved and ap- approach to something results in dis-
proved by everyone because there are couragement and dissatisfaction with
so many people in your life who have life.
their own needs and interests. Teachers and counselors might use
2. "I must be perfect and beyond re- these and other illogical beliefs as topics
proach." It is impossible to be totally in a guidance unit, looking for fun and
competent in everything and not creative ways to present them. Some guid-
experience failures. To be unwilling to ance activities can facilitate student think-
receive criticism dooms you to safe- ing about self-talk and how it is related to
guarding yourself until you do not learning in school and getting along with
enjoy the spirit of living. others. Common techniques are con-
3. "People who make mistakes are frontation, reframing ideas, role-playing,
worthless and should be punished." humor, homework assignments, guided
Everyone makes mistakes and to err imagery, and practice activities.
is human. Punishment is not very REBT operates on the premise emo-
effective when it comes to changing tions and behaviors are learned reactions.
behavior. Because it involves cognitive structuring
and restructuring, this theory will ap-
peal to many teachers and counselors
who want to teach students how to take
more responsibility for their thoughts and
actions. To analyze their own perceived
failures and successes with students (Wein-
rach et al., 2001), counselors also can use
the techniques of rationale self-talk.

Behavioral Counseling 4. Select and apply the methods to be

used, which are guided by whatever
Until the 1960s, client-centered and
ethical means seem feasible to pro-
cognitive approaches dominated the
duce a change in behavior.
counseling profession. Then, a revolu-
tion in counseling happened (Krumboltz, 5. Assess and evaluate the counselee's
1966) as learning theorists began to progress, making appropriate method-
emphasize how their concepts could be ological changes until the desired goal
applied through behavioral counseling. is obtained.
The most recognized contributor was Behaviorists recognized the value of
B.F. Skinner, who described operant con- the facilitative conditions and relation-
ditioning as a mode of learning. B.F. Skin- ships. But, they concluded that, although
ner had famous debates with Carl Rogers necessary, helping relationships are not
about counseling and therapy. In addi- sufficient in and of themselves as client-
tion, Joseph Wolpe and Arnold Lazarus centered therapists advocated. Rather,
outlined behavioral procedures that could after a working relationship is established,
be used to relax and desensitize anxiety- behavioral techniques are needed.
producing situations. Albert Bandura Behavior theorists focus their atten-
posed a theory of social learning based on tion on what they see and hear (Parsons,
modeling, imitation, and reinforcement 2009). Rather than talk about generali-
principles. ties such as "He's a good listener," they
However, it was the work of John are more likely to give attention to the
Krumboltz and Carl Thoresen (1976) that specific behaviors that lead one to such a
inspired school counselors to take a closer conclusion. Gerber (2001) claimed every
look at behavioral counseling, with its effective counseling intervention works to
focus on modifying behavior instead of the extent it incorporates sound leaning
such internal variables as self-concept or principles.
self-esteem. Behaviorists advocated such Personal interviews with more than
methods as positive and negative rein- 100 school counselors from elementary to
forcement, modeling, contracting, behav- high schools showed counselors tended to
ioral rehearsal, role-playing, and system- favor behavioral counseling approaches.
atic desensitization. They still valued client-centered theory,
Generally, the procedures of behav- but found its application in the schools to
ioral counseling involve precise steps, be too time-consuming, slow, and imprac-
including: tical.
1. Identify the problem in terms of The pressure to show immediate
behavior that can be observed and results and to be more action-oriented has
recorded. encouraged many counselors to use such
2. Assess the problem by collecting techniques as behavioral contracts, role
baseline data and ascertaining any reversal, and simple positive reinforce-
relevant developmental history. ment procedures. In addition, behavioral
counseling approaches are easily account-
3. Specify the goals, usually selecting one able through the collection of baseline
behavior at a time with which to work data and assessment of behavior later.
and remembering little steps (succes-
sive approximations) lead to progress.

Reality Therapy Also, self-awareness is related to

current situations or present behavior
William Glasser (1965) used the term
instead of plodding through the past or
"Reality Therapy" to describe his ap-
trying to guess what the future will be
proach to counseling and therapy. His
like. Therefore, irresponsible behavior is
experiences with institutionalized ado-
confronted. Counselees are encouraged to
lescents led him to conclude the driving
pinpoint what they will do and to make
force for all behavior is the intrinsic goal
a commitment to action. Specific plans
of having a different, distinct, and unique
are formulated and then they implement
identity. However, it is the acceptance of
their plans, with no excuses accepted or
responsibility for uniqueness that is the
punishment administered. The counselor
central theme of his counseling approach.
consistently and willfully conveys a feel-
All students want to believe they are ing of hopefulness and persistence.
unique individuals and there is nobody
Teachers and counselors in the
like them. They all seek an identity. If
schools liked Reality Therapy because
they develop a "failure identity," then
of its many classroom and educational
they believe they have little chance of
applications. For example, "classroom
succeeding at anything. They claim they
meetings" were advocated where students
are no good, worthless, and undeserv-
and teachers learn to know one another
ing of anything positive. Consequently,
better and explore their mutual interests
they often have a distressing or nega-
tive attitude about school and life. They and goals.
become critical of themselves and others I
Glasser (2000) also talked about
adopting irrational thought patterns in the power of first developing a helping
defense of themselves. They do not want relationship and then fostering positive
to assume responsibility for themselves addiction and emphasizing control. After
and frequently become apathetic, indiffer- decades of success, he introduced "choice
ent, uninvolved, and show little concern theory" to supplement the original theory
for themselves and others. of reality therapy. It focused on help-
ing students develop routine behaviors
If students develop a "success iden-
and habits that enhanced their lives. It
tity," then they believe they are good and
also made them feel more in control and
can accomplish things in life. They are
responsible for the consequences of their
sensitive and can assert themselves, as-
actions.
suming leadership when it is appropriate.
Others value their positive attitudes and Middle and high school teachers
like to be around them. working in TAP, and elementary school
teachers in their regular classrooms, might
The key to putting this theory into
have "open meetings" in which thought-
practice is first building a positive re-
provoking questions are asked and stu-
lationship and then emphasizing each
dents explore issues that are relevant
person assumes responsibility for their
to their lives. Or, they could have an
own behavior. While attention is given to
"educational-diagnostic meeting" where
behavior change, individuals are encour-
attention is given to evaluating student
aged to understand themselves and oth-
strengths and weaknesses, teaching
ers, to set goals, and to make responsible
techniques and concerns, and the value
decisions.
of ideas and information presented in
the curriculum. "Social problem solving

meetings" are a third type of classroom in some of the conclusions and recom-
meeting where individual or group prob- mendations. In a series of investigations,
lems are discussed. Problem solving is the it appeared low functioning counselors
priority in these meetings as students talk either did not facilitate growth in others
about issues and problems that play an or they impeded it. This led many coun-
important part in their lives. selor educators to conclude only certain
Reality Therapy is a common sense counselor responses were helpful and oth-
theory for helping people (Christensen, ers were hurtful. Further, the analyses of
2002). It fits into a developmental ap- typescripts from tape-recorded counseling
proach and is specific about problem solv- sessions were used too often as a means of
ing when crises occur. It is a rational and judging the worth of a counselor.
cognitive approach based on "here and Some of the counselor responses
now," personalizing behavior, and accept- advocated by Carkhuff were conflicted,
ing responsibility for one's self. such as suggesting a comment contain-
ing a feeling word and a reason for that
Human Technology feeling as the prototypical best response.
Some theorists believed the theories For instance, "You feel (emotion) because
of the counseling profession, such as (reason for the feeling)." This, however,
those by the humanists and behaviorists, is more of an interpretation (a low fa-
should be combined and integrated. Being cilitative response) since it attempts to
eclectic is a trend in school guidance and explain why the client is feeling a certain
counseling because counselors are looking way. Such a response is more risky than
for practical and productive models. Some a simple feeling-focused response that
view the helping process as an applica- reflects only what the facilitator believes
tion of "human technology." (Aspy et al., the client is experiencing.
2000). When Carkhuff's work was first being
Robert Carkhuff (1993) assumed coun- touted, some words and phrases, often
seling and the helping or learning process taken out of context, were denounced
moved through three phases: exploration, as always destructive of the counseling
understanding, and action. These phases process and the client's well being. To
and the interaction that took place were the contrary, it is possible any number of
derived from client-centered, psychody- statements may be facilitative at one time
namic, and behaviorist theories. It made or another, including those where the
sense clients would first explore their per- probability of being perceived as helpful
sonal experiences, thoughts, and feelings is low.
and would gain some personal insight Although the core of the facilitative
or understanding in the process. It fol- model advocated in this book is close to
lowed clients could then construct some the work of Carkhuff and his associates,
concrete actions that would improve their there are some significant differences.
situations. These are discussed in more detail in
This kind of thinking is similar to the Chapter 4 where the counselor as a facili-
developmental guidance and counseling tator is described.
strategies offered in this book. However,
Carkhuff and his associates went too far

Other Theories Adlerian psychology has found a

home in many schools because the
A few other theories may be rel-
concepts are so closely related to parent-
evant for guidance and counseling in the
ing and teaching young children and
schools. Their application often is more
adolescents. In addition, there are several
limited, but they might help the counselor
structured programs that incorporate the
to conceptualize client or student behavior
theory that are practical for use in school
and to think of some counseling strategies.
guidance and counseling programs (Pryor
Psychoanalytic theory, for in- & Tollerud, 1999).
stance, has been around since the end of
For example, Developing Understanding
the 1800s when Sigmund Freud began to
of Self and Others (Dinkmeyer & Dinkmey-
explain his classic approach to psycho-
er, 1982) was the most popular guidance
analysis. It is a fascinating theory that
program in the elementary schools for
suggests behavior is the product of mental
many years. This classic set of materi-
forces and impulses that have their origin
als based on Adlerian theory, provided
in childhood. Nothing happens by acci-
dent and all human behaviors are goal-
ex~ellent examples of how counselors and
teachers might lead classroom guidance
oriented and can be explained. However,
groups. It helped children learn about
the theory proposes we do not always
themselves and others through group ac-
have access to their antecedents because
tivities, songs, role-playing, and classroom
they are buried in the unconscious part of
discussions. Programs based on Adlerian
our personality.
principles also were developed to help
Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic parents learn more about children's be-
theories are important to understand behavior and misbehavior (Slavik & Carlson,
cause they often are used to describe devi- 2005).
ant behavior. The Diagnostic and Statistical
Gestalt theory (Houston, 2003)
Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition
has appealed to many school counselors
(DSM-IV) IV-TR (American Psychiatric As-
because it is based on perceptual psychol-
sociation, 1990) features a new emphasis
ogy and the assumption people respond
upon behaviors, but it is still replete with
according to various levels of awareness.
psychoanalytic language. It is the refer-
Awareness can shift, giving some things
ence book used in most mental health
more importance than others and this de-
centers and by private clinicians. The fifth
pends upon personal needs and choices.
edition will be released in 2013.
The active, confronting, and creative tech-
Adlerian psychology also provides niques of "here and now" Gestalt counsel-
an interesting framework in which to ing are intriguing because they focus on
view behavior. The behavior of students, personal congruence, nonverbal behavior,
for example, is assumed to be purpose- and the use of imagery to cause change.
ful and goal-directed. By understanding Techniques such as talking to an empty
a student's goal, one can understand the chair or drawing attention to incongru-
meaning of the person's behavior. There- ous statements and behaviors have been
fore, Adlerians focus on goal orientation incorporated into many counselors' styles
within a social context, emphasizing of helping (Weiner & Craighead, 2010).
people must see themselves as unique in-
dividuals who have the capacity to make
decisions and choices. Consequently,
students are assisted to gain insight into
behavior and alternatives for solving
problems (Weiner & Craighead, 2010).

Lazarus (1971) coined the term Initial results indicated positive ben-
"multimodal" to describe a broad view of efits in building working relationships,
looking at behavior and counseling in- structuring sessions, and engagement in
terventions. Keat (1990) showed how the the therapeutic process. Since most young
basic modes of such a theory (i.e., behav- people love to play computer games, such
ior, affect, sensation, imagery, cognition, an innovative approach may have prom-
interpersonal relationships, drugs-diet- ise for the future, as it provides a frame-
the BASIC ID) could be used to work with work around which to build computer
parents and children. He added education programs and games.
and learning modes (BASIC IDEAL) to em- Strength-based counseling focuses
phasize the role of the school learning en- on what is going right in a person's life.
vironment. These multimodal approaches The counselor and client work together
draw upon several resources. to find past and present successes and
Solution-focused therapy has use these to address current and future
captured the attention of both therapists challenges. Positive thinking or learned
and counselors (Davis & Osborne, 2000; optimism is about learning a positive per-
O'Connel, 2005; Littrell & Peterson, 2001; spective-focusing on what can go right
Sklare, 2005). However, it is not neces- (Smith, 2006; Vera & Shinn, 2006).
sarily a theory as much as an approach Strength-based counseling draws
to brief counseling. There is a focus on upon an individual's innate and learned
techniques and guidelines that are espe- strengths in dealing with life's challenges.
cially relevant for short-term work. It is It tries to emphasize the positive aspects
action-oriented, emphasizing what can of addressing "problems" without mini-
be done in the near future to resolve a mizing them and builds upon past suc-
problem rather than what contributed to cesses and coping strategies. The task is to
the problem behavior. help people recognize their own ability to
The key question to be answered by a identify solutions and then help them put
client or student is "Where do I want to those solutions into action. Counseling
be?" The person is asked to envision how relationships still are built upon trust and
the future will be different when the prob- respect (Carr, 2004).
lem is no longer present (Elliott, 2009, One counselor said, "In my work with
Parsons, 2009). children, I focus on helping kids under-
Many adolescents resist traditional stand and change the behaviors that are
face-to-face counseling approaches. The causing them problems. I primarily use a
watchful eyes of an adult might seem reality-based, cognitive-behavioral ap-
too intrusive. Personal Investigator (PI) is a proach to achieve this." In many cases, cli-
3D computer game specifically designed ents are asked to take inventories that help
for use with teenagers. The game imple- identify their personal strengths and times
ments a model based on solution-focused when they have felt successful. They also
therapy. A counselor and adolescent sit might be asked to think of the positive
together at a computer and play the game things others might say about them. Or,
together. Issues raised in the game serve "What are some things for which you are
as a context for more detailed discussions grateful?" "What are some things you're
between the counselor and client/student looking forward to?"
(Coyle & Sharry, 2009).

Brief counseling. This term has A Personal Theory

become the norm in many counseling Most counselors and therapists look to
practices because the number of sessions the theories described above or others for
that can be devoted to clients is limited general leads. Some use combinations of
(Feltham & Dryden, 2006). It can refer theories and strategies. They like to have
to counseling that lasts from one to 20 something with which to identify or "to
sessions, although the latter is not prac- hang their hats on." A theory can be com-
tical or feasible in most schools. It has forting, as it provides some understanding
sometimes been referred to as "action" or and direction, especially if it matches a
"time-limited" counseling and typically person's style of working with others.
draws upon techniques associated with
REBT and basic learning approaches. The However, few people seem to be com-
emphasis is on using efficient methods to fortable with just one theory. They might
help resolve problems or to help a client experiment with the use of a theory for
gain personal insights. It uses such tech- an extended time, but soon they begin
niques as goal setting and homework. drawing upon other theories and related
techniques (Mobley, 2005). Drawing upon
Many student mental health coun- ideas and strategies from different theo-
seling services report they see clients on rists has led to the term "eclectic."
average for only two, three, or five ses-
sions. This is by the client's choice, even There is no eclectic theory, per se.
when the service is free and there are no But, counselors do pick and choose from
time limits set, and how many sessions things that seem to work for them and
are available. This has led contemporary others (Parsons, 2009). Selecting and us-
counselors to advocate brief counseling ing various techniques can be very much
by design, while also being prepared for a like moving down a cafeteria line. There
relative minority of clients who genuinely are many choices and those who make
need long-term counseling. wise choices undoubtedly have a basic
theory about nutrition and balanced di-
Because school counselors are limited ets. Those who do not hold to such a ba-
in terms of setting and role expectations, sic premise may select only entrees, only
brief counseling is an appealing concept. liquids, or only desserts. Working without
It also opens the door for pursuing eclec- a theory is interesting, but it can be risky.
tic approaches where counselors assess
their own personality, skills, and ability to Developing a personal theory is ap-
engage students in a helping process. pealing to many counselors (Spruill, &
Benshoff, 2000). When pressed to identify
a theory of counseling, most say, "My
own, which I have developed from my
experiences." When pressed to continue,
they began to draw upon common theo-
ries such as the ones cited above.

The Need for We also need new counseling theories

New Theories and Strategies that are related to special populations.
Think for a moment how students are
The premises of classic theories of different in age, sex, and ability. Yet, it
counseling and therapy are stable enough is assumed what works for one group of
that they will be used for many years to students will work for all students. In fact,
come. However, knowledge of human students come from different cultural
behavior increases every day and this new backgrounds, hold different religious
knowledge will inevitably influence our beliefs, are influenced by different family
thinking about teaching, counseling, and experiences, grow up in different econom-
therapy. For example, the mystery of the ic and social environments, have different
brain and how it functions is still being intellectual levels and abilities, and have
unraveled. Perhaps, future neuro-psychol- progressed through some common devel-
ogists will develop theoretical models that opmental stages at a different pace and
incorporate more biological data to assist with different success.
us in gaining new insights into human
behavior. Some students have the verbal skill
and personal inclination to respond to
Classic theories are valuable starting some of the more intellectual approaches
points. Yet, many counselors are frus- to counseling, such as cognitive restruc-
trated when they try to adapt them to a turing or self-insights. They may have
school setting. There is a need for some the verbal capacity to work with coun-
new counseling theories, ones that are selors in traditional ways. Other students
school based. They would, most likely, be who are less verbal need a more concrete
short-term and time-limited approaches and operational form of assistance, one
that focus on the particular needs and in which they learn by doing instead
interests of students. They most likely will of talking. Some students have learning
be based on problem-solving models. disabilities that cannot be ignored. Still
Likewise, psycholinguistics of the other students need to be motivated and
future may provide us some new insights to identify with the positive aspects in
regarding how language development their schools. Special school populations
affects our thinking and behaving. We may need to be singled out for counseling
know certain cultural experiences predis- theories and techniques that are practical
pose us to perceive and describe experi- for them.
ences in different ways. With the help There also is a need for theories and
of sophisticated computers, it may be strategies that focus on "contextual coun-
possible, eventually, to diagnose language seling." Some theories in family coun-
and thought patterns and learning styles seling in which a "systems approach" is
that influence behavior. applied might lead us to discover how
behavior can be changed and personal
growth can be fostered within the family-
type systems of a school.

Time is precious. Time for counseling The Professional Counselor

students often is difficult to obtain and it
can be wasted if not managed carefully. Being a professional counselor obliges
There is a need to develop brief coun- one to be a member of the state and na-
seling approaches that can be used in tional professional associations. You get
schools where time is limited and the de- the most benefit from belonging if you
mand for services is high. The basic phi- take an active part in meetings and events.
It is a productive networking base, espe-
losophy of a theory may remain the same.
But, goals may have to.be limited and cially as proceedings and information can
techniques may have to be condensed, be shared via the internet.
intensified, reorganized, and presented The primary organization for school
within time limits. counselors is the American School Coun-
Finally, there is a need for theories selor Association (ASCA). With a member-
that describe how people interact with ship of more than 25,000, ASCA focuses
objects and props, such as computers and on providing professional development,
play media. Counseling is primarily a talk- enhancing school counseling programs,
ing process, but counseling theories need and researching effective school counsel-
to embrace nonverbal elements, including ing practices. Its mission is to represent
the interactive forces and dynamics that professional school counselors and to
are involved in a helping process. promote professionalism and ethical prac-
tices.
School counselors need a comprehen-
sive theory. The theory needs to be practi- There are various special interest
cal and simple enough for many people to groups in the field of counseling. Profes-
understand and apply it. It was Stefflre, in sionals and counselors in training gather
a classic statement (1965), who reminded as a group to share ideas about testing,
multicultural needs, or a particular inter-
us:
vention such as group counseling or the
We make the best of theories ... by re- challenges of the primary population they
membering they will not long remain serve. Almost all have valuable contribu-
useful. Since they are bound by space tions to make to school counseling. Many
and time and the present level of our of these groups have formed professional
knowledge, the best theories will not organizations and have become divisions
long serve. If we should accept this of the American Counseling Association
limitation, we should teach our stu- (ACA).
dents not only presently held theories
but ways of building new ones (p. 9). In 1952, four independent groups
established the American Personnel and
All theories, traditional and personal, Guidance Association (APGA), which in
play a valuable role in counseling and 1983, changed its name to the American
guidance. They help us conceptualize our Association of Counseling and Devel-
goals, develop interventions, and influ- opment. On July 1,1992, the associa-
ence our style of working. Which estab- tion changed its name to the American
lished and widely recognized theories Counseling Association (ACA) to reflect
will you draw upon? What is your own the common bond among association
personal theory? members and to reinforce their unity of
purpose. One of the hallmarks of the as-
sociation is its code of ethics (ACA Code of
Ethics, 1995).

There are 19 divisions within ACA. • Association for Counselors and Educators
They elect officers who govern their in Government (ACEG)
activities independently, publish journals Originally the Military Educators and
and newsletters, and have a voice in ACA Counselors Association, ACEG was
governance. The divisions provide pro- chartered in 1984. ACEG is dedicated
fessional strength and satisfy the diverse to counseling clients and their fami-
needs of the counseling community. lies in local, state, and federal govern-
Among the ACA divisions are: ment or in military-related agencies.
• Association for Assessment in Counseling • Association for Counselor Education and
and Education (AACE) Supervision (ACES)
Originally the Association for Mea- Originally the National Association
surement and Evaluation in Guid- of Guidance and Counselor Train-
ance, AACE was chartered in 1965. ers, ACES was a founding association
The purpose of AACE is to promote of ACA in 1952. ACES emphasizes
the effective use of assessment in the the need for quality education and
counseling profession. supervision of counselors for all work
• Association for Adult Development and settings.
Aging (AADA) • Association for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual
Chartered in 1986, AADA serves as a and Transgender Issues in Counseling
focal point for information sharing, (ALGBTIC)
professional development, and ad- This division educates counselors to
vocacy related to adult development the unique needs of client identity
and aging issues; addresses counseling development and promotes a non-
concerns across the lifespan. threatening counseling environment
• Association for Creativity in Counseling by aiding in the reduction of stereo-
(ACC) typical thinking and homoprejudice.
The Association for Creativity in • Association for Multicultural Counseling
Counseling (ACC) is a forum for and Development (AMCD)
counselors, counselor educators, cre- Originally the Association of Non-
ative arts therapists and counselors in White Concerns in Personnel and
training to explore unique and diverse Guidance, AMCD was chartered
approaches to counseling. ACC's goal in 1972. AMCD strives to improve
is to promote greater awareness, ad- cultural, ethnic and racial empathy
vocacy, and understanding of diverse and understanding by programs to
and creative approaches to counsel- advance and sustain personal growth.
ing.
• American Mental Health Counselors As-
• American College Counseling Association sociation (AMHCA)
(ACCA)
Chartered in 1978, AMHCA represents
ACCA is one of the newest divisions mental health counselors, advocating
of the American Counseling Associa- for client-access to quality services
tion. Chartered in 1991, the focus of within the health care industry.
ACCA is to foster student develop-
ment in colleges, universities, and
community colleges.

• American Rehabilitation Counseling As- • Counseling Association for Humanistic

sociation (ARCA) Education and Development (C-AHEAD)
ARCA is an organization of rehabilita- C-AHEAD, a founding association of
tion counseling practitioners, educa- ACA in 1952, provides a forum for the
tors, and students who are concerned exchange of information about hu-
with enhancing the development of manistic-oriented counseling practices
people with disabilities throughout and promotes changes that reflect the
their life span and in.promoting excel- growing body of knowledge about hu-
lence in the rehabilitation counseling manistic principles applied to human
profession's practice, research, consul- development and potential.
tation, and professional development. • Counselors for Social Justice (CSJ)
• American School Counselor Association CS] is a community of counselors,
(ASCA) counselor educators, graduate stu-
Chartered in 1953, ASCA promotes dents, and school and community
school counseling professionals and leaders who seek equity and an end
interest in activities that affect the to oppression and injustice affecting
personal, educational, and career clients, students, counselors, families,
development of students. ASCA communities, schools, workplaces,
members also work with parents, governments, and other social and
educators, and community members institutional systems.
to provide a positive learning environ- • International Association of Addictions
ment. and Offender Counselors (IAAOC)
• Association for Spiritual, Ethical, and Re- Originally the Public Offender Coun-
ligious Values in Counseling (ASERVIC) selor Association, IAAOC was char-
Originally the National Catholic tered in 1972. Members of IAAOC
Guidance Conference, ASERVIC was advocate the development of effective
chartered in 1974. ASERVIC is devoted counseling and rehabilitation pro-
to professionals who believe spiritual, grams for people with substance abuse
ethical, religious, and other human problems or other addictions, as well
values are essential to the full develop- as adult and juvenile public offenders.
ment of the person and to the disci- • International Association of Marriage and
pline of counseling. Family Counselors (IAMFC)
• Association for Specialists in Group Work Chartered in 1989, IAMFC members
(ASGW) help develop healthy family systems
Chartered in 1973, ASGW provides through prevention, education, and
professional leadership in the field of therapy.
group work, establishes standards for • National Career Development Association
professional training, and supports (NCDA)
research and the dissemination of
knowledge. Originally the National Vocational
Guidance Association, NCDA was one
of the founding associations of ACA
in 1952. The mission of NCDA is to
promote career development for all
people across the lifespan through
public information, member services,
conferences, and publications.

• National Employment Counseling Asso- In 1981, the Council for Accredita-

ciation (NECA) tion of Counseling and Related Educa-
NECA was originally the National Em- tional Programs (CACREP) was established
ployment Counselors Association and by the Board of Directors of ACA and
was chartered in 1966. The commit- charged with the evaluation of four types
ment of NECA is to offer professional of counselor preparation programs: (1)
leadership to people who counsel in school counseling; (2) student personnel
employment and/or career develop- services in higher education; (3) coun-
ment settings. seling in community and other agency
settings (entry level); and (4) counselor
A school counselor may belong to
education (doctoral level).
more than one division. In addition,
these same divisions are usually found at CACREP is a legally separate organiza-
state and local levels, each with a special tion, but affiliated with ACA and ASCA.
interest and purpose. Some divisions and University counselor education programs
regional affiliations, depending upon voluntarily submit a self-study that is
counselor membership, are more active reviewed against the CACREP standards
and influential than others. by counselors and counselor educators to
ensure students receive a quality educa-
Professional Preparation tional experience.
Helping school counselors define their In addition, The International Regis-
profession and gain respectable recogni- try of Counselor Education Programs (IR-
tion is a continuing challenge. Profession- CEP), is a subsidiary program of CACREP
alism assures the public certain standards designed to create a global community of
are being fulfilled. Counselors at all counselor education programs. Research
school levels need to receive the best kind shows CACREP graduates perform better
of professional preparation. on the National Counselor Examination
for Licensure and Certification (NCE).
The American Counseling Association
(ACA) currently recognizes three profes- All of these efforts emphasize how the
sional credentials: (1) accreditation; (2) relatively new counseling profession is be-
certification; and (3) licensure. What is coming solidified and how, until recently,
counselor certification? Should school it was possible for many school counselors
counselors be licensed? Should they be to enter the schools with minimal or in-
licensed at a national level? How is licen- adequate training. New standards require
sure related to the current practices of school counselors to graduate from ap-
state certification? Where are the accred- proved programs with at least 48 semester
ited counselor education programs? hours. Many institutions, recognizing the
complexity of preparing counselors and
In 1967, the American School Coun- the difficult nature of their work, offer full
selor Association (ASCA) issued guidelines two-year programs, ranging from 64 to
for the preparation of secondary school 72 semester hours and ending in either a
counselors. In the following year, addi- master's or educational specialist degree.
tional guidelines were adopted for el- Others, because of tradition and lack of
ementary school counselors. By 1979, the resources, have struggled to meet the stan-
Association for Counselor Education and dards and their future could be in doubt
Supervision (ACES) adopted standards for since students want to attend fully accred-
preparation of counselors by universities ited programs.
and colleges.

As accreditation is to university As states consider procedures for

programs, certification is to individu- giving merit to counselors and teachers,
als. Certification is professional recogni- a national standardized test is almost
tion granted to a school counselor when always part of such procedures. The
certain predetermined qualifications have NBCC examination may provide a valu-
been met. Most states have certification able service to state or district groups who
programs that grant guidance certificates, must provide evidence of competence for
enabling a person to be employed in a counselors who are to be hired or who are
public school. However, the requirements to receive merit. Because the NBCC also
for certification among states can vary publishes a national registry of counselors
considerably. Some states require as few who are certified by the organization, it
as 24 hours beyond a teaching certifi- could be used by potential employers.
cate. Others require two years of teaching Certification by NBCC does not imply
experience and then a master's degree in a counselor can do any particular type
school counseling. Sixteen states do not of counseling, but the counselor knows
require previous teaching experience, but about fundamental counseling activities
do require a master's degree with exten- applicable to a variety of settings. To ob-
sive field experiences. tain certification, a person must provide
Certification of school counselors is evidence of academic and experiential
still done by state governmental agen- activities (minimum requirement is a
cies, which are responsible for affirming master's degree) and successfully com-
applicants have the necessary credentials plete a written examination. Many school
and related qualifications to be granted a counselors have obtained this profes-
standardized certificate for employment. sional certification in order to be part of
These state agencies review college tran- a national registry and to emphasize their
scripts and rely on universities to set and professional potential.
measure the standards that are needed to Licensure, as it affects most school
be a school counselor. counselors at this time, is designed to
A counselor certification process was help regulate the practice of mental
initiated in 1982 by ACA when it created health counseling outside of school hours.
the National Board for Credentialing of School counselors who want to be in
Counselors (NBCC). NBCC concentrates private practice with paying clients may
on generic counseling competencies obtain licensure in some states, which en-
applicable to all professional counselors ables them to open offices and to charge
and does not attempt to certify types of for their counseling services. Ethically,
counselors or counselors for specialty school counselors in private practice do
areas, such as school counseling. How- not meet with students or parents in the
ever, NBCC appears to be building a school systems where they are assigned or
reliable foundation that could be used employed.
by school districts and state divisions of
education as a certifying agency because
of its national scope and national testing
procedures.

Continuing Education Another alternative, although a

for Counselors discouraging one, is to reduce the entry
requirements for counselors, allowing
The preparation and training of teachers to take a few counseling courses
school counselors reached a crisis in 1986. beyond their bachelor's degree to meet
There were fewer students enrolled in minimum state standards for employ-
graduate counselor education programs ment. However, this is risky business.
pursing school counseling, despite the First, it could mean many schools would
increased demand for more school coun- employ counselors who were neither
selors. Currently, there are more jobs knowledgeable nor skilled enough to
available than there are students graduat- build and implement a comprehensive
ing from accredited university programs developmental guidance and counseling
in almost every state. As more retirements program. Once a position is filled, it is
occur, the shortage may become acute. very difficult to remove a person, even if a
One alternative is for counselor educa- more qualified person is available. Second,
tion departments to recruit more students it circumvents professional standards and
for school counseling. However, this is accredited university programs. If this
not easy to do, especially in those states kind of alternative became a reality, a
where counselor certification is depen- massive staff development effort would be
dent upon at least two years of teaching needed in the school districts.
experience. It is difficult to convince some Some universities are attempting to
teachers to return to a two-year gradu- offer more off-campus courses and degree
ate program at a university, giving up programs through continuing and dis-
or substantially reducing their incomes tance education. Online courses also have
during that period. It is more of a sacrifice become available.
when school systems do not pay coun-
selors an extra stipend or a salary that Professional organizations have
makes it worthwhile for an individual to become more responsive to counselors'
attend graduate school and earn a degree needs for skill development and offer
in counseling. extended training workshops as part of
the conference proceedings each year.
To complicate matters, within the past Yet, most staff development programs are
several years, the vast majority of coun- typically one-time meetings and there is a
selor education programs in the United lack of follow-up. Staff-development train-
States have been geared toward mental ing for counselors should be a continuing
health and agency counseling. They are process.
not as well prepared to accommodate
teachers who want to pursue a school
Professional Ethics
counseling degree as they once were. It is
not likely they will change in the next few A school counselor's conduct is gov-
years without some substantial incentives, erned by a set of professional ethics. Pro-
such as extra funding from national or fessional organizations (ACA and ASCA)
state sources. The concept of "counselor have published ethical standards by
institutes," such as the NDEA of 1958, which counselors function. A copy of the
may need to be revived in order to avoid a ethical standards for school counselors, as
national crisis. adopted by ASCA and revised in 2004, can
be seen in Appendix C.

One of the first ethical obligations of Counselors also must be aware of their
counselors is to determine whether or not ethical responsibilities regarding student
they are qualified to provide a particular records and parental authority. Students
service. If they do not have the training, have rights which have been extended
skill, or experience to assist a counselee, to them through various court rulings.
then they are obligated to refer the person There will probably be other court deci-
to someone else. This is usually not a sions in the future to further define and
problem for school counselors, but, on clarify the rights of students as they relate
occasion, a difficult case (e.g., suicide, dys- to parental and school authority. If any
functioning parents) may be encountered school procedures seem questionable, it
where consultation, direct assistance, or a is the counselor's obligation to confront
referral is needed. and challenge them, reaching agreement
In general, precautions are taken whereby the welfare and integrity of a
to protect individuals from physical or student is protected.
psychological traumas resulting from the ASCA (http://www.schoolcounselor.
work of a counselor. The counseling rela- m:g) developed position statements on
tionship and confidential information are a number of school counseling-related
considered private, unless a counselee's issues. Among these are those with such
condition or situation indicates an im- topics as:
minent danger either to the counselee or • Acquired Immune Deficiency Syn-
someone else. In this case, the counselor drome (AIDS)
is obligated to take reasonable action and
to inform responsible authorities. Some • Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disor-
state laws (e.g., regarding child abuse or der
suicide) may dictate some professional • Censorship
actions. Even then, however, a counselor • Character Education
must inform the counselee and assume
• Child Abuse/Neglect Prevention
responsibility for the procedures that are
followed. Ethical responsibilities respect • College Entrance Test Preparation
the integrity and welfare of counselees. • Comprehensive School Counseling
If a student is involved in a therapeu- Programs
tic relationship with a therapist in the • Conflict Resolution Programs
community, it is assumed school guidance • Confidentiality
and counseling activities will not inter-
fere with that process. School counseling, • Corporal Punishment in the Schools
although focusing on personal and social • Counselor Supportive Staff
issues, is related to learning in school and • Credentialing and Licensure
general development. School counselors
and therapists are not obligated to confer • Critical Incident Response in the
with one another or to receive approval Schools
from whoever first started working with • Cross/Multicultural Counseling
a counselee. School counseling is not • Discipline
therapy. However, with the counselee's
• Dropout Prevention/Students-at-Risk
permission, there are many times when
consultation between a therapist and a • Educational Planning
school counselor would be appropriate • Evaluation
and practical. • Family/Parenting Education

• Gender Equity ASCA has position statements that

• Gifted Student Programs help parents and administrators iden-
tify counselor roles and functions. These
• Group Counseling general guidelines provide a base upon
• Home Schooling which to build a developmental guidance
• Military Recruitment program, to identify priorities, and to gain
support for a professional role.
• Parent Consent for Services
The job description of the school
• Peer Helping counselor and the counselor/student
• Promotion of Safe Schools ratio affects the outcomes of a guidance
• Role of the Professional School Coun- program. Each school district is unique
selor and what may be an ideal caseload in one
district may be untenable in others.
• Sexual Orientation of Youth
ASCA recommends a counselor/
• Special Needs Students
student ratio of 1 to 250. However, the
• Student Assistance Programs National Center for Education Statistics
• Students-at-Risk (2010) surveyed states and reported a na-
• Student Safety on the Internet tional average of 1 to 467. This was based
on data from 105,519 counselors during
• Nonschool Credentialed Personnel the 2008 school year. Nearly half of the
Hyperlinks to all of the statements public schools reported rising counselor
can be found at the ASCA website - caseloads and increased work demands.
http://www.schoolcounselor.org/library/ Among the states with the highest ra-
positionstatements.doc. They can be tios were California (1:986 students per
downloaded from the Web as a file. counselor), Minnesota (1:799), and Utah
(1:720).
Determining Counselor The use of the internet and comput-
Role and Ratios erized counseling packages is increasing
Who determines the role and func- because of the high student-counselor ra-
tion of school counselors? Practically tios, especially in high schools. Some high
speaking, school counselors usually decide school programs have interactive com-
their own roles and functions. This may ponents, charts and graphic information,
involve some negotiation with adminis- fill-in-the-blank counselor recommenda-
trators, but it is typically the counselors tion forms, as well as lists of colleges and
themselves who help others learn and resources based on a mix of GPA and past
make decisions about what they do. performance. These programs can beef-
ficient, save time, and make it possible
At first, counselors were drawn into for schools with high student-counselor
the idea of following therapy models. ratios to better meet student needs and
It didn't take long to see this was inap-
demands, especially in career planning.
propriate. The idea of spending most of Only time and research will tell if such
their time doing individual counseling an approach is effective, but it is clearly a
was appealing but impractical because of future trend.
high student-counselor ratios. Interviews
in some schools were averaging less than Counselor role and student ratio can
10 minutes. "Hi, how's it going?" "You be influenced by the nature of a school's
know I'm here to help you if you need program. In Lincoln, Nebraska, the coun-
assistance." seling staff in one high school agreed to
move away from a traditional therapeutic

model to a service-based developmental & Mitchell, 2005) indicated urban school

program for all students. The new model counselors were participating in typical
enabled students to be assisted by dif- school counseling activities (e.g., counsel-
ferent counselors and each counselor, in ing, consulting, coordinating) as pre-
turn, was able to focus on their unique scribed by Gysbers and Henderson (2001)
skills and talents. Both students and coun- and Myrick (2003).
selors benefited. Burnham and Jackson (2000) pointed
It is most likely schoDl counselors to the discrepancies between actual
will continue to have higher student- practice and existing models. They found
ratios than those that are recommended a role ambiguity that was present in the
and desired. This suggests counselors in early days of the guidance movement still
the future will put a higher premium on remained an issue. Existing models were
time-management in their counseling and considered viable and they contrasted two
guidance activities as well as time spent (Gysbers and Myrick), upon which most
with students. Certain student and parent state departments of education were draw-
populations will get more time than oth- ing ideas for their state guidelines. It was
ers. In addition, there will be a need for evident from this study school counselors
more large and small group approaches, were performing the functions described
as well as drawing more upon the help in current program models. However, dis-
of paraprofessionals, volunteers, student crepancies and wide variations did exist.
helpers, teachers, and other staff. The authors also acknowledged there were
Some states have proposed legislation some national initiatives for transforming
that outlines and dictates what coun- the counselor role.
selors should do. Professional organiza- In 2001, national leaders from school
tions have lobbied long and hard against districts and universities met to offer
such mandates. Most legislators were not their recommendations on what a na-
privileged to experience a comprehensive tional model of school counseling should
developmental guidance and counseling include. Other meetings and thoughtful
program in the schools they attended. discussions followed. Eventually, Trish
Many never worked closely with school Hatch, San Diego State University, and
counselors, especially those who have Judy Bowers, Tucson Unified School Dis-
implemented the role and function as trict, provided the leadership needed to
described in this book. They simply did put things into writing. They spent two
not exist in many places. Therefore, coun- years assembling, synthesizing, and de-
selors and their professional organizations scribing the collection of information and
must take the lead in determining their ideas. In addition, state models and the
own destiny, rather than accepting one professional literature were reviewed.
dictated by law. Subsequently, the ASCA National
Do guidance programs differ depend- Model (2005) was approved by the ASCA
ing upon whether they are in a rural, membership. The model presented guide-
suburban, or urban area? Does the setting lines for a framework suited for develop-
affect how effectively counselors fulfill mental guidance programs. It pointed
their roles? Apparently not, although the counselors in a direction that would help
amount of time allotted and given to vari- define and clarify their role around four
ous counselor functions tends to differ. fundamental components:
The results of one study (Holcomb-McCoy

• Foundation: Beliefs and philosophy. for school counselors. Yet, this message
• Delivery system: Curriculum, student has not reached all the decision makers in
planning, and responsive services school districts. Many school counselors
(e.g., counseling, consultation and find themselves engaged in functions that
referrals), and system support. are remotely related to the professional
model.
• Management system: Analyzing data,
evaluation, action plans and orga- Despite some encouraging findings
nized activities. (e.g., Chata & Loesch, 2007), principals
continue to rate many inappropriate
• Accountability system: Measuring counselor activities as significant. In a
progress. survey of future principals (Fitch et al.,
In addition, Gysbers & Henderson 2001), over 50 percent of participants
(2006) outlined how counselors might rated registration, record keeping, testing,
distribute their time, especially in the and special education assistance as signifi-
delivery system component. Percentages cant or highly significant activities.
of recommended school counselor time School administrators, unless they
varied among three school grade levels. once were counselors, know very little
Unfortunately, studies have consis- about school guidance programs. The
tently found school counselors are not topic receives such slight attention in the
spending their time as they prefer and courses designed to prepare administra-
much of what they do is not reflective tors that it could be viewed as irrelevant.
of what is currently advocated as best For better or for worse, most principals
practice (Scarborough, 2005). Preferred follow the model and examples of previ-
activities refer to school counseling activi- ous administrators or those with whom
ties recommended by the ASCA National they have worked in other settings. At the
Model, including consultation, coordina- same time, they are ultimately respon-
tion, counseling, and curriculum inter- sible for all school programs, including
ventions. guidance. They evaluate the program and
With the help of state departments of counselor performance.
education, counselor education depart- Most counselors, in order to keep
ments, and professional organizations, the their jobs, will follow the lead of their
role and function of school counselors has building principals or district policy.
slowly moved toward a uniform identity. Most principals expect their counselors
Until the emergence of the ASCA National to take responsibility for developing a
Model, counselor identity was depen- comprehensive developmental guid-
dent upon university training programs, ance and counseling program. Therefore,
the professional literature, and examples considering history and given the man-
drawn from exemplary schools. ner in which administrators learn about
At all grade levels, school counselors the work of counselors, principals need
are encouraged to spend the majority (or to learn more about the ASCA Model and
approximately 80%) of their time provid- how counselors can best function in their
ing direct services to students through job. Studies show principals are respon-
guidance curriculum, individual student sive, can change their views, if necessary,
planning, and responsive services. Less and have been able to prioritize appropri-
time should be spent providing indirect ate and inappropriate school counselor
services through system support activi- activities according to ASCA recommen-
ties. The ASCA Model also includes a list dations (Bringman, Muller & Lee, 2008).
of appropriate and inappropriate activities

A Practical Approach to For many years, especially during the

formative years, the counselor's role was a
the Counselor's Role frequent topic of conversation and debate
In a comprehensive developmen- in the profession. There was much con-
tal guidance and counseling program, fusion. Books and articles were written,
a counselor's work can be described in papers and programs were presented at
terms of job functions and tasks. These conferences, and committees and com-
vary from one school to another and missions were appointed to study the role
often depend upon expectations from dif- issues, but the counselor's role was still
ferent sources and circumstances. As the not fully understood.
job functions or tasks performed by the Counselor educators, for example,
counselor become evident, it is possible to argued for a role that might be compared
have a better idea of the counselor's role. to a counseling psychologist or a mental
Hopefully, the role that emerges is compa- health counselor. The counselor, in this
rable to the one advocated by professional case, was to provide a unique relationship
organizations and educators. to students by virtue of not being aligned
The term "role" is an elusive one. It with authority. It was assumed students
generally refers to the part one plays in a would be more inclined to communicate
given situation, such as the role assumed openly and honestly with counselors who
by a professional worker. Function, as refrained from passing judgments and
differentiated from role, refers to the way who were permissive and unconditionally
in which the worker carries out their part. accepting. Thus, the counselor was to set
Function gives attention to various behav- up interviews where students could talk
iors or tasks that might be performed in about their problems and concerns. The
the role. counselor, often following client-centered
Over the years, many studies have at- counseling theory, tried to enter the
tempted to examine the counselor's role. student's frame of reference and provide
They concentrated primarily on student, assistance by being a good listener.
teacher, parent, and administrator percep- Most administrators, on the other
tions and they also compared these per- hand, saw counselors in a different light.
ceptions to one another. However, taken They needed help in managing the
together, the studies seem incomplete and school, disciplining students, meeting and
ambiguous because of varying and lim- communicating with parents, and orga-
ited samples, questionnaires, and research nizing curriculum. There were many day-
methodologies. to-day problems that needed attention
Some unanswered questions are: and counselor time was flexible. Teachers
How do role perceptions develop? Which were less available to help because they
comes first, role perceptions or job func- were assigned classes that met at regu-
tions? How do role and function interact? larly scheduled times. It seemed inap-
What have school counselors been doing propriate to interrupt teachers, especially
that contribute to current perceptions? when counselors were ready and willing
Who determines the counselor's functions to assist. Although they liked the idea of
and role? How can a person's role percep- counseling and having a guidance special-
tion be changed? ist in the school, most administrators saw
counselors as their assistants.

Professional counselor organiza- In addition, the issues of privacy and

tions, such as ASCA and ACES, tended to confidentiality were prominent as coun-
align themselves with counselor educa- selors talked about their unique role in
tors. They took the position counseling the school. Counselors were to be "stu-
students was the primary responsibility dent advocates" and holders of confi-
of counselors. Although some unrelated dential information. They increasingly
guidance tasks would be part of a counsel- secluded themselves in their offices, form-
or's job, counseling was a unique service. ing an inner chamber within the school
Avoiding specification of duties and per- where students could unload their secrets
formance standards, professional leaders and reveal their problems. Such a position
often spoke in generalities when empha- inevitably created the image counseling
sizing how counselors were to assist stu- was a hidden and mysterious process. It
dents in decision making, career choices, also placed counselors in an adversary
and personal development. In addition, role with many teachers who believed
test interpretation, career information, counselors always sided with students.
educational placement, and consultation Wrenn (1957) reported people in the
with teachers and parents were frequently profession did not agree on the role of
mentioned as counselor responsibilities. the counselor in a school. Ten years later,
Counselors, themselves, seemed according to Bentley (1968), the situation
unsure of their role and most mistakenly had not changed. Now, more than four
assumed someone in the school system decades later, the same issues are being
would know what they should do and tell discussed and there is still concern about
them. When counselors were the "new the role and image of the school coun-
kids on the block, nobody in education
11
selor.
was sure what to expect from them. Since Can and should the counselor's role be
most counselors were minimally prepared, defined? Some suggest it already has been
it followed most also were skeptical about defined by virtue of what counselors have
their abilities and skills in counseling. been doing for the past several decades. In
They were uncertain about how to estab- this case, the role is a restrictive one, espe-
lish a guidance program in which they cially in the secondary schools. And, if we
functioned as specialists. Although the studied the weekly schedules of counselors
idea of providing counseling services to and compiled a list of their job functions,
students was appealing, they had difficul- it is likely we would conclude many have
ty putting counseling theory in practice. become administrative assistants or clerks.
Counselors often found it easier and The exception might be elementary school
more expedient to advise or even lecture counselors, who usually have had more
students on their behavior, instead of tak- training and who have had more latitude
ing the role of a listener to help students in developing their role and functions.
behave in responsible ways. For many Herman Peters (1962), an early leader
counselors, performing administrative in the profession, was concerned and
duties seemed one way of justifying their cautioned, "If we (counselors) do not
jobs and this, in turn, accounted for the define our duties, we will be saddled with
lack of time to engage students in coun- tasks and responsibilities that not only
seling. take away from our primary concerns,
but actually interfere with the guidance
function." And, even more, if those who
are involved in the counseling profession

do not take responsibility for defining the Managing Counselor Time:

counselor's role, then others will, or the
role may be eliminated all together. A Practical Approach
The role of the school counselor Generally, there are six fundamental
continues to be poorly defined in many interventions most counselors use in their
school districts and there are many dis- jobs. Because counselor time, behaviors,
crepancies in role implementation based skills, and activities can be related specifi-
on models (Burnham &Jackson, 2000). cally to these interventions, they can be
In response to a call for more standards used to gain a picture of the role or image
and models upon which counselors could of a developmental school counselor.
agree, ASCA formed a task force that
examined the standards it was promoting
and how they might be implemented.
If counselors know their role, then
they have a reference point to help them
understand the issues related to the job.
They can then communicate their role to
others more effectively, especially to those
with whom they work. This, in turn, clari-
fies expectations, opens doors for creative
innovations, and improves the chances
counselors will be seen as part of the team
of educators in the school.
While there have been some attempts
to differentiate the school counselor's
role by grade level, very little seems to be
gained by such an approach. It evades the
fundamental professional issue: What is
the job of a school counselor? In addition,
the only way a comprehensive guidance
and counseling program-kindergarten
through high school-can be imple-
mented is to have some agreement on the
fundamental role of a school counselor.
For many years the generic roles of
a school counselor have been counselor,
consultant, and coordinator. Within these,
there seems to be a specialist's role related
to specific kinds of job functions and in-
terventions. The nature of student prob-
lems, guidance topics, and focuses of dis-
cussion may change from one grade level
to another. However, the way in which
counselors define their roles and manage
their time around basic job functions and
interventions will not change significantly
from one grade level to another.

Figure 4.1
Counselor Interventions
(Weekly Scheduling Plan)
Counselor General Hours Per

Intervention Caseload Week
Direct Services
Individual 4-6 cases, high priority or target students 2-6
Counseling meeting twice a week for one grading period
Small Group 3-5 groups, meeting twice a week for 6-12 3-10
Counseling sessions over 3-6 weeks
Large Group 2-4 large groups, meeting once or twice a 2-3

Classroom Guidance week
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Indirect Services
Peer Facilitator Trainer/Coordinator of PF program and/or 1-4
Programs and Projects projects
Consultation Individual: Teachers or parents 1-2

(20-30 minutes)
Group: Teacher or parent seminars or 1-2
or conferences (30-45 minute)
Minimal Weekly Time Commitment 10 hours
Coordination Specific coordination activities or events 2-4

highlighted in the counselor's annual plan
(career development, character education,
accountability study)
Flexible Time Unscheduled time to be used at the
counselors's discretio (additional direct and
indirect services, other coordination
responsibilities) Variable

Six Basic Counselor or more. In a few ideal cases, counselor-

student ratios in high schools have been
Interventions known to be as low as 1:250. If the ratio
The six basic counselor interventions were 1:100, the task of providing individ-
are shown in Figure 4.1. The interventions ual counseling to all students would still
outline the work of a school counselor. be formidable. It is simply unrealistic and
They have been described as counselor impractical to rely on individual counsel-
functions, services, approaches, tasks, ing as the only counselor intervention.
activities, or jobs. Sometimes they have Individual counseling by certified pro-
been referred to as roles themselves. For fessional school counselors is becoming a
our purposes, the term "intervention" is luxury in most schools. It cannot be pro-
preferred because it best describes what a vided to everyone. Some students require
counselor does or can do in a comprehen- it because of the nature of their concerns
sive guidance and counseling program. or their inability to work in groups.
Each of the interventions is discussed As a counselor, you might think of
in greater detail in other chapters of this individual counseling on a small caseload
book. However, take a brief look at them basis. More specifically, about six to eight
now, including some related concepts and students might be seen individually for
general recommendations. In addition, a given period of time. Individual coun-
consider how these interventions are as- selees, targeted for your caseload, might
sociated with counselor role and image. meet you for as many as 12 sessions in
a six-week grading period, or about two
Individual Counseling times a week.
Individual counseling involves a per- This caseload would be reflected in
sonal interaction between the counselor a weekly schedule or plan for manag-
and a student when just the two of them ing your time. The estimated individual
are working together on a problem or top- counseling session is about 30 minutes,
ic of interest. It is one-to-one. The helping although it could be longer or shorter,
relationship and counseling experience is depending upon the problem and the type
more intense. There is more opportunity of counseling procedures that are being
to interview a student in greater depth used. This also varies from one counselor
than in other interventions. to another because of counselor personali-
Working with individuals was once ty, working style, and school organization.
thought to be the only way to do coun- Individual counseling time on your
seling. The private, face-to-face meeting weekly schedule is not the "crisis hour;"
was considered to be the best situation in rather, it is for students with whom you
which to form a close personal relation- are working regularly and who have
ship and to solve personal problems. It scheduled appointments. These are stu-
was assumed in individual counseling dents on whom you are concentrating
counselees would "open up" and disclose and taking more time to provide assis-
more than if they were in a group. tance.
Even if individual counseling were the As part of your job, you would con-
most desirable intervention, there are too tinue to have "one-time" interviews with
many students to serve. One elementary other students. They might drop in for a
school counselor, for example, might be quiet chat or to explore something quick-
assigned to a school with 700 to 1,000 ly. Sometimes a brief individual meet-
children. Middle and high school coun- ing is scheduled as part of a follow-up
selors typically have ratios of 1 to 500 to another intervention. Some students

simply want to say a friendly "hello." If all students are to have an oppor-
These one-time sessions vary in serious- tunity to receive counseling, then group
ness and intent, but they usually lack work must be part of the counselor's job.
continuity. Each one has its own purpose Small group counseling, for example,
and moments of closure. Follow-up may makes it possible for you to see several
or may not be needed, depending upon a students at one time and, eventually,
situation. But, one-time, drop-in, sponta- more of the students assigned to you.
neous sessions are not considered a part Group relationships offer a different di-
of a working "case load." These meetings mension to counseling that is needed and
are simply part of the business of being a beneficial.
counselor in a school. Some students go to extraordinary
and inappropriate measures to be recog-
Small Group Counseling nized and accepted by their classmates.
Small group counseling involves a These students may be rejected or thought
counselor working with two or more of as "weird." Since their behaviors are
students simultaneously. Small group intended to receive attention, they need
counseling in the schools most often honest reactions from others about their
happens with five or six students. This attitudes and behaviors, especially from
provides group members an opportunity their peers. Because behavior is generally
to explore ideas, feelings, and behaviors as reinforced or extinguished by the reac-
they relate to one person or to all group tions of others, a group of people re-
parti ci pants. sponding to a person's feelings, ideas, and
Counselors who think it would be behaviors is potentially more powerful
ideal to see all students on an individual than the response of one person, espe-
basis assume more positive things can cially if the group members are viewed as
happen when a counselee receives the un- significant persons in their life.
divided personal attention of a counselor. Common concerns and interests can
This position, however, underestimates provide a foundation for most groups.
the power of group dynamics and ignores When there is a feeling of mutual support
the fact most learning happens in the and a sense of belonging, a group identity
context of groups (e.g., families, class- emerges which enables group members to
rooms, and social groups). risk exploring ideas, feelings, and behav-
When children reach school age, iors at deeper levels. Honesty and genu-
peer influence plays an important part in ineness permeate small group counseling
reinforcing and discouraging behaviors sessions. There is a realization one is not
and building self-concepts. This influence alone and people do care. These are pow-
increases as students become older and erful healing forces and they contribute to
more socially conscious. Students want the learning process.
to be liked and accepted by their peers. Rushing ahead without considering
They frequently turn to their classmates the consequences was a problem to Sarah,
and friends for assistance before seeking a ninth grade student. Parents lectured
an adult. They are interested in what their and teachers criticized, but when a group
peers think about them. of peers gave her some personal feedback
on her behavior, she listened attentively.
She did not want to be perceived as some-
one who was irresponsible and lacked
control. With a heightened sense of
awareness, she set about trying to change.

Group counseling provides an oppor- Limiting the number of counseling

tunity for several students to be part of sessions also enables you to meet with
an interpersonal process that is directed more students. Although most students
to the four facilitative processes of self- would probably benefit if they met more
disclosure, feedback, increased awareness often, it is more realistic to take whatever
and decision making, and responsible gains have been made and move on to
action. If the facilitative conditions, such another group. There are always excep-
as trust, caring, understanding, and accep- tions and you may want to meet with a
tance are part of the group climate, then group for a more extended time. Getting
students will explore their feelings, ideas, some group closure within ten or twelve
and behaviors with the group. sessions is considered practical. The group
Group counseling will be discussed could always meet again later for some
in more detail in Chapter 7. However, a follow-up sessions.
few factors need to be noted here as we Small group counseling is usually
consider the counselor's role in a compre- structured. While there will be times
hensive developmental guidance plan. when group sessions are spontaneous
Small group counseling is time lim- and free-flowing, most school counselors
ited. Students are usually not available lead groups where members participate in
for more than ten or twelve meetings. structured learning activities. These group
Even this may not be realistic in some activities are designed to encourage partic-
schools where academic schedules make ipation and to promote self-disclosure and
it difficult for counselors to have access to feedback. Although similar activities may
students. Students are usually willing and be used, each group has a special unique-
responsive, but the daily schedule in a ness of its own and may react differently.
school can dictate the way in which small Target students can be identified for
group counseling is organized. participation in small groups. Some stu-
It is recommended you meet with dents are difficult to work with individu-
your small counseling groups no less than ally and may respond better to counsel-
four sessions, and preferably six to eight ing in a group. Small group counseling,
times. It also is preferable to meet the especially when it has a developmental
group twice a week, although once a week focus, can make them feel more accepted
is typical. The group sessions are usually and less like a problem. In addition, you
completed during one school grading pe- can use small group counseling to build
riod. Thus, it is possible to provide a series a personal working relationship with
of six to eight group sessions within three individual students, so they might later
to four weeks. be more responsive to other counseling
interventions, if needed.
On occasion, if students are accessible,
you might meet with a group for ten or As part of your weekly schedule, you
twelve sessions, but seldom beyond this might meet four to six small groups of
number. If students are taken out of their students a week, preferably twice a week
academic classes, small group counseling for about 30 to 45 minutes each time.
in some schools might be limited to four This means budgeting about four to ten
sessions. Any less time makes it difficult hours a week for small group counseling
to create a close working relationship sessions (see Figure 4.1). Some counselors
within a group and more time can penal- prefer to work with more groups and are
ize students because of class absences. able to do so because of their personali-

ties, interests, and stamina. Most counsel- In large group guidance, cooperative
ors, on the other hand, find it too difficult learning methods are used in which stu-
to work with more than ten groups a dents work together in small groups and
week, even if small group counseling were with the total group. This helps person-
the preferred mode of intervention and alize and individualize activities. It also
time were available. encourages all students to participate.
Large group guidance, for the most
Large Group Guidance part, has been ignored in the secondary
Meeting with individuals and small schools. Sometimes occupational materi-
groups of students is still not enough, als have been disseminated or general in-
considering the high student-counselor formation about college or vocations have
ratios. There are too many students who been presented to large groups. Yet, even
need guidance and counseling services. in these situations, counselors have relied
Therefore, you also will want to meet with on meeting students individually as their
students in larger groups. customary mode of intervention.
Large group guidance consists of The infrequent use of large group
meeting 15 or more students in a group. guidance in the secondary schools has
Many counselors consider anything above been blamed on lack of teacher coopera-
eight students to be large group work. tion, lack of space, and the difficulty of
Typically, a classroom group of about 25 organizing large group meetings. The
to 30 students is the basis for large group problem, however, seems more related to
work. However, it also is possible to meet counselors working from a crisis, rather
and work with as many as 150 students or than a developmental approach. Far too
more. many counselors are uncomfortable with
Classroom guidance, for example, is large groups and unprepared to work with
a typical counselor intervention at the them.
elementary level. A counselor may meet Although large group guidance has
with an entire class and work with the not been a common practice in junior
classroom teacher in providing group and senior high schools, it has been a part
guidance activities. These can be inte- of many middle schools. Teacher as advi-
grated into the daily or weekly schedules sor programs (TAP) provide an organized
of classroom teachers. guidance curriculum for all students,
Students are familiar with working much like that in the elementary schools.
and learning in large groups. This can be Again, there are still too many teachers
a problem if students have experienced and counselors who are unfamiliar with
teachers who depend primarily on lectur- how to work with students in large group
ing or independent study and who are guidance.
unfamiliar with group procedures that Meeting with students in large groups
encourage students to interact. Most is common sense. The activities that take
teachers, for example, seat students in place in the meetings need to be personal-
long rows of chairs. Group participation ized and this requires careful planning. As
and discussion is limited because of this a counselor, you will give attention to the
seating arrangement. Even when classes topics to be discussed, group participa-
have been organized for more discus- tion, cooperative learning activities, and
sion, teachers tend to talk too much and time available.
students talk with one another through
the teacher.

Currently, elementary school counsel- As we know, counselors cannot see

ors schedule more large group guidance all the students in the school who need
than do other counselors. Their weekly individual attention. Sometimes students
schedules may show them working with prefer to talk with peers instead of adults.
as many as five or six classes. However, When peer facilitators work as special
most counselors at all levels could typi- friends, they are matched with students
cally schedule two to three large groups who need to talk with someone who will
for guidance (see Figure 4.1). listen to them. Peer facilitators are not
Large group meetings are generally trained to be counselors, but they can
scheduled for 20 to 30 minutes in the help other students to think about their
elementary schools and 30 to 4S minutes problems, concerns, or special interests
in the secondary schools. Some counsel- and assist them in finding help, when ap-
ors in high schools meet for a class period propriate.
(e.g., 4S to SS minutes), because it is Peer facilitators can work as small
convenient with a teacher or within the group leaders too. Working together,
school's daily schedule. TAP provides a counselors and peer facilitators can make
regular large group meeting time. large group guidance a practical approach
to meeting many of the guidance and
Peer Facilitator counseling needs of students.
Training and Projects For example, five peer facilitators
Students as helpers to other students worked with six students each in a large
is a valuable concept that has been in room where a counselor was able to super-
education for many years. Many young vise all six groups. The counselor began
people are learning how to help others with a general presentation about coping
through peer facilitator training programs. with stress. Students then were organized
These might even be viewed as leadership into five small groups. Peer facilitators,
training groups. working as small group leaders, helped
group members share ideas. Instead of a
As we shall see later (Chapter 9), most few assertive students dominating a large
of what peer facilitators do can be classi- group discussion while others listened, all
fied into four roles: (1) student assistants 30 students actively participated.
to counselors and teachers; (2) tutors; (3)
special friends; and (4) small group lead- Peer facilitators do not take the place
ers. Students learn how to help others and of counselors. They help extend guidance
participate in supervised projects where services throughout the school by work-
these roles are used. ing closely with teachers and counselors
in supervised projects and activities. Con-
Peer facilitators can assist counselors sequently, counselors-with peer facilita-
in a guidance office with many routine tors as their helping hands-can reach
tasks and they also can be assigned as more students who need guidance.
special tutors to work with students who
are having academic problems, perhaps
because a student is new to the school
or was sick and absent. Counselors who
take time to train and organize tutoring
projects win support from teachers and
parents.
Educational Media Corporation® llS

As Myrick and Erney (2000) ex- Peer facilitator programs vary in

plained: terms of the time required of a trainer.
Very few students can learn to For instance, in some high schools, a
counsel other students. Counseling counselor teaches a peer facilitator class
is a special skill that takes extensive which meets about one hour every day
training, study, and practice. Howev- of the school week. While many projects
er, all students can learn to facilitate can happen during this class period, some
other students. Some will be more projects require a commitment of other
effective than others, especially those times during the week. Some counselors
who have received training in com- meet their groups two days for one hour
munication skills and interpersonal each. Other counselors have trained their
relationships, who are participating peer helpers outside of school hours and
in a peer facilitator program (p. 1). meet with them over lunch on different
occasions for planning, supervision, and
Peer facilitator training programs of follow-up training.
all kinds have developed over the years.
Some have been successful despite very A few schools have designated teach-
little planning and this often is attrib- ers as peer facilitator trainers because
uted to the personalities and styles of the an elective class is offered to students
students and program coordinators. They through the regular social studies curricu-
have energy and enthusiasm and they lum. In this case, successful counselors
are committed. They show interest and a work closely with those teachers, both in
caring attitude that makes their programs presentations to groups and helping them
work. identify projects in which their peer facili-
tators can use their skills.
There are other programs, however,
that are more consistently successful As TAP becomes more accepted in
because they have developed a systematic secondary schools, the TAP periods could
approach to preparing students as peer be used to train peers and help them with
facilitators and there are some well-orga- their projects. But, generally, counselors
nized projects in which the peer facilita- need to plan between one and five hours
tors can participate. Students learn about a week to work with peer facilitators as
facilitative conditions and helping char- either a trainer or a coordinator of peer
acteristics. They develop peer facilitator facilitator projects, or both.
interventions around them.
Who should be responsible for such
Consultation
programs? Who should train and super- Consultation with teachers, parents,
vise students in helping projects? Ideally, students, administrators, and commu-
this person is a school counselor. nity helpers is part of the counselor's job.
Generally, it is the process of helping
There are many places throughout
someone to think about a work related
the United States where school counselors
problem. More specifically, the counselor-
do not pick up the challenge and peer
consultant helps consultees talk about
facilitator training is left to teachers or
problems they are having with a third
other support personnel. Sadly enough, it
party. Consultation is an essential part of
often happens in schools where counsel-
developmental guidance.
ors are not held in high regard. After all,
school counselors should be, by training
and professional specialization, in the
best position to develop and organize peer
facilitator training programs.

One teacher was experiencing prob- selor/consultant acts as mediator. At other

lems with a disruptive girl in her class. times, difficult situations are facilitated
The girl was talking loudly and at inap- so parents, teachers, and others can take
propriate times, making sarcastic remarks action.
to the teacher and classmates, and refus- Counselors as consult an ts are part of
ing to follow classroom procedures. The exceptional education staff meetings and
teacher was frustrated and annoyed. This child study groups. They offer their obser-
situation led her to seek out one of the vations and contribute their knowledge
counselors in her school and talk about on a case that is being considered. They
the problem. In this case, the teacher be- consult with administrators and teachers
came the consultee as the counselor acted about many matters. This might include
as a consultant. They talked about the girl discussions about curriculum, evaluations,
and tried to find some solutions for the or referrals.
teacher.
It is not uncommon for the principal
Perhaps the reason consultation is giv- of a school to rely upon an effective and
en so much emphasis in a developmental supportive counselor to be a confidante.
approach to guidance is because the total "I need to talk with you about a mat-
learning environment of the school is ter.... " was one way a principal alerted
always the first consideration. Consulting the school counselor that it was time for
with teachers helps improve learning en- some consultation. The counselor was the
vironments in classrooms and throughout consultant.
the school. Moreover, consultation with
teachers enables a counselor to benefit Consultation can take place with
more students since helping one teacher individuals. Many counselors mark times
who is responsible for thirty or more stu- on their weekly schedules when teach-
dents is an efficient use of time, perhaps ers and parents can meet with them to
more than trying to see all thirty students discuss special concerns or interests. These
individually or in small groups. times are usually immediately before or
after school. Teachers also have planning
Sometimes student problems arise periods when consultation could hap-
from ineffective teaching procedures or pen. Most counselors try to accommodate
a lack of understanding between teacher teachers who have less flexible time.
and student. The counselor may not need
to counsel a student about a problem Consultation also can take place in
if teacher-student relationships are im- groups. Teacher seminars, for instance, of-
proved through consultation. fer opportunities for counselors to consult
with teachers in small or large groups.
The same thing might also be said These meetings often are scheduled before
about parent-child relationships. Parent or after school. They also can take place
education can be part of a counselor's with a team of teachers during school. In
responsibilities and some counselors are most cases, the counselor as consultant
very active in this respect. For instance, will facilitate a discussion instead of offer-
they might provide or arrange for paring expert advice.
ent education courses and seminars to be
offered in the evenings at their schools.
They might meet privately, usually upon
parent or teacher request, with parents
during school hours to discuss concerns
about their children. Sometimes the coun-

For instance, a group of teachers de- Coordination of

cided they wanted to meet and talk about Guidance Services
academically talented students who were
disruptive and acted as "class clowns." Finally, we come to the sixth coun-
They met for three 30-minute sessions selor intervention-guidance coordina-
after the last class of the day on Wednes- tion. The counselor is a coordinator and
days. The counselor as consultant started administrator of guidance services in the
the meetings, focused the topic, encour- school and this involves many activities.
aged teachers to share their thoughts and You might, for example, be involved
feelings, summarized ideas, and ended in coordinating a school's standardized
the meetings on time. The teachers felt testing program, although you do not
supported and understood in an accept- administer tests. You could choose to ad-
ing group. They had an opportunity to minister individual or group tests for your
learn about how others worked with such own purposes, but school-wide testing
students and, subsequently, they had new is preferably done by teachers and other
ideas to try. support personnel. Yet, many counselors
Consultation is a viable counselor schedule standardized tests, arrange for
intervention and it needs to be scheduled their administration and interpretation,
as part of a counselor's workload. Howev- and handle the routine procedures and
er, just because it usually involves adults paper work. It might be one of the most
is no reason it should take priority over visible aspects of the counselor's job,
other counselor interventions. For in- although it's not listed as a recommended
stance, it is not advisable to cancel a small counselor function.
group counseling session with students Some counselors are responsible for
to consult with a parent who happens to coordinating the data that go into cumu-
drop by the school. To excuse or cancel lative folders, although this responsibility
the group would communicate whatever is primarily given to teacher aides or a reg-
you are doing is not important and adult istrar in most schools. It is possible that,
interests supersede student interests. as a counselor, you could be assigned to
There are several consultation ap- coordinate the procedures and oversee the
proaches that might be used by counselors. storage and retrieval system, especially if
Consultation as a counselor intervention is there is no registrar or other support per-
described in more detail in Chapter 10. sonnel available. Clerical assistance is es-
sential if you are to avoid being entrapped
in coordinating duties.
Counselors usually help coordinate
the educational placement of students.
This might involve coordinating staff
meetings. At the secondary level, espe-
cially, it might mean working with class
schedules to meet student needs. Coun-
selors across the nation complain about
how much of their time is "wasted" in
scheduling procedures. Although the use
of computers has simplified some tasks,
there is still a demand on time for data
management.

Working as a liaison between the The coordination of guidance services

school and social agencies, such as mental takes time. Unfortunately, tasks that are
health centers and health services, also unrelated to guidance and counseling
is a coordinating function. For instance, often become part of a counselor's job.
if you suspect one of your counselees is Administrative expectations and the guid-
a victim of child abuse, most states have ance needs of a particular school influ-
laws that require you to inform state wel- ence how much time a counselor gives
fare and health agencies, which may then to administrative and coordination tasks.
follow-up with an investigation. A social Administrator and teacher expectations
worker may consult with you and ask for can be negotiated, especially if you have a
your assistance in coordinating a meeting plan for how you will be using your time.
with the child's teachers. Using a planned schedule enables you to
Coordinating staff-development or build in "protected time" for implement-
in-service meetings can be a counselor's ing the five other interventions.
responsibility. Counselors can help iden- To avoid being overwhelmed by
tify staff-development needs and appro- administrative tasks, you will want to edu-
priate resources. They also might arrange cate or remind others about counseling
meetings and work closely with external and guidance interventions, the nature of
consultants who provide seminars and a developmental guidance program, your
workshops for the school faculty. weekly schedule, and the priorities you
Obviously, this coordinating function have set. Otherwise, it may appear you
or intervention is the "catch all" category. are always available to "pick up" and "go
Counselors are expected to do many for" a host of things, many of which are
things in a school, often because there is a unrelated to your work as a counselor in a
shortage of administrative personnel and developmental guidance and counseling
there are so many administrative tasks program.
that must be done. Coordinator is a better
term to use in describing this function
than administrative assistant. However,
the plight of most counselors is too much
of their time is spent in administrative
and coordinating tasks.
One way to avoid being overloaded
with certain duties is to arrange your own
weekly schedule so some coordinating
tasks are dealt with on certain days of the
week and within specific blocks of time.
For instance, changing class schedules by
a high school counselor might be limited
to Fridays only or Fridays and noon hours
on other days. This enables a counselor to
schedule other interventions and experi-
ence fewer interruptions and distractions,
especially as students and teachers learn
when a counselor is available.

Managing If you want control of your work and

your time, then you need to approach
Counselor Priorities your work schedule systematically. To
There will never be enough school start, here are a few ways to think about
counselors to meet all the guidance needs how priorities can be set.
of students. School budgets are limited
and administrators prefer to look for less Priority-setting by
expensive ways to manage existing pro- Developmental Needs
grams and personnel. They expect coun-
selors to work within the limits of their One way to begin is to ask the stu-
abilities, the resources that are available, dents and faculty to help you identify
and the time they have available. the guidance needs in your school. This
might be done by interviewing teach-
Considering the range of guidance ers and administrators and noting their
services and the different counselor awareness of the problems facing students
interventions that are possible, identify- in the school. It might be helpful to iden-
ing priorities is essential when planning a tify some students who, because of their
comprehensive developmental guidance personal circumstances, need extra help
and counseling program. It also is a prac- beyond what might be given by most
tical means for personal and professional teachers.
survival.
A needs assessment in the form of a
As a counselor, you will be asked to do written questionnaire could be distributed
many things, some of which are directly to students and teachers. Students, for ex-
related to counseling services and some ample, might check their most important
that are not. You will not be able to meet concerns on a list of common problems
everyone's expectations. To feel a sense and issues. They could suggest guidance
of control and to gain some satisfaction topics of interest to them and their class-
from your work, you have to set priorities mates. When a middle school counselor
and manage your time carefully. administered a one-page survey to stu-
How do you set your priorities? dents, it was learned that many students
Should you give most of your attention to wanted to talk about "Girl-boy relation-
students who voluntarily come to your of- ships," "How to get along with teachers,"
fice and ask for help? Or, should you work and "How to make friends."
primarily with students who have been re- A guidance committee composed of
ferred? Should you concentrate your work teachers and counselors also can be help-
on a few students who especially need as- ful. This committee, for instance, might
sistance? Or, should you try to distribute informally interview other teachers or
your time equally among all the students listen for special needs as they emerge
who have been assigned to you? Should in team meetings. The committee might
it be a first-come first-serve basis? Or, are work with curriculum committees to see
there certain students who, above all oth- how guidance could be integrated into
ers, should be assisted? Do you wait to see classroom activities.
what administrators and teachers have in
mind for you? Or, should you have your Parents and community members can
own plan? help identify priorities and suggest topics
about which they are concerned. Parent-
teacher organizations could survey par-
ents and report their findings.

In addition, state and community re- the school's student body think about the
ports by governmental agencies may pro- needs of the community, their classmates,
vide some clues regarding student needs. and what they might do to make things
One community was especially concerned better for everyone.
about a drug abuse problem that was in- When the space shuttle Challenger ex-
creasing in the area. Another community ploded, many counselors and other guid-
experienced several unexplained teenage ance personnel changed their schedules to
suicides, while still another community respond to a national crisis. It was a time
was aware of the high number of "latch- to help students through the shock. The
key" children who attended their schools. nation grieved. It also was an occasion for
In each of these communities, it was timely teaching when students could talk
thought schools provided a base where about life, death, and how people respond
the issues could be addressed. to grief. For some students, it was an op-
A list of guidance needs could be portunity to talk about some unresolved
elicited from teachers and parents, focus- feelings and experiences in their own lives
ing on both developmental and problem- (Myrick, 1986). The same kind of action
centered concerns. Those needs could be was called for in the year 2001 after the
matched with the developmental needs terrorist attacks in New York (9/11) that
and interests that are a part of the school's shocked and threatened the nation.
developmental guidance curriculum, such In another case, parents seriously
as the objectives of TAP. It is then possible neglected a young boy and his two sisters.
to see where the needs might be addressed They had inadequate lodging and little or
in the regular program and where special no food. The parents were alcoholics and
guidance services might be added. they sometimes were abusive of the chil-
dren. When this came to the attention of
Priority-setting by Crisis a teacher, the counselor in the school met
There are times when a student or with the children and talked with person-
teacher experiences a personal crisis and nel in community agencies to get help.
immediate attention must be given to the The situation called for special and im-
situation. There also are occasions when mediate attention and it was given high
an intense situation happens in a school priority. The nature of the case required
or community and counselors react by sensitivity and confidentiality.
giving it high priority (Fein, Carlisle, & Students have many kinds of prob-
Isaacson, 2008). lems and some are more critical than
When a tornado ripped through a others. Crisis interventions are part of a
small community, many families suf- counselor's job, but sometimes the stress-
fered hardships. Death and economic ful events in a student's life can be met
depression suddenly became a part of through developmental guidance. Events
the students' lives. This called for urgent and circumstances do not have to escalate
action and priorities were shuffled as the to a crisis before help can be obtained and
school and community began the process they do not have to be confronted direct-
of adjusting and rebuilding. The school ly. Sometimes developmental guidance
counselor and some counselors from activities, taking a less direct approach,
the mental health center consulted with can help students to focus their attention
teachers and parents. Small group coun- on a problem that is developing and to
seling was done with students who had take responsibility for doing something
experienced severe losses. Large group about it.
guidance activities in classrooms helped

A school counselor was aware that Faust (1968), on the other hand, listed
Ron, a seventh grade student, was wor- first and second level priorities in terms of
ried about his parent's pending divorce. roles. More specifically, a developmental
There was a lot of stress in the family and guidance counselor is first concerned with
Ron was unsure about his future. He was consultation, and in the following order:
"targeted" for special attention within (First Level Hierarchy) groups of teachers,
the context of a developmental guidance with an individual teacher, with groups
unit that was offered during TAP. The unit of children, with an individual child;
focused on communication with adults and (Second Level Hierarchy) curriculum
and problem solving. Students were asked development, with administrators, with
to think of how they might apply the parents, with school personnel special-
ideas that were being discussed and exists, and with community agencies. Faust
perienced. The counselor and the teacher believed consultation was the key to a
were particularly alert for opportunities to counselor's work because the rationale for
help Ron during this unit. developmental programs was based on
improving the learning environment. He
Priority-setting by also suggested an order of other counsel-
Counselor Intervention ing interventions: counseling teachers in
groups, counseling teachers individually,
Priorities also can be set according to counseling children in groups, and coun-
the interventions a counselor can deliver. seling children individually. This hierar-
This places an emphasis upon the kinds of chy of counseling roles for counselors was
guidance services that are offered and on an attempt to maximize counselor time
the counselor's role and image. and counseling relationships.
Some professional writers have advo- Actually, it is difficult to prioritize
cated a "hierarchy of services" approach counselor interventions beyond the
to setting priorities. They give the highest emphasis group work is preferred over
priority to working with groups of people work with individuals. If interventions are
rather than individuals alone. Dinkmeyer equally effective, then group work de-
and Caldwell (1970), for example, ranked serves more priority, especially in schools
the following as major areas for counselor where the number of counselors is lim-
intervention: (1) Pupil Appraisal and ited.
Child Study; (2) Teacher Consultation;
(3) Counseling; (4) Classroom Guidance; Gysbers and Henderson (2000) wrote
(5) Parent Consultation; (6) Curriculum about developmental guidance and
Involvement; (7) In-service Education for managing a comprehensive program.
Staff; and (8) Administration and Coordi- They described a 44-hour week in which a
nation. counselor would manage certain program
components and related tasks: systems
service (6 hours of coordinating activi-
ties), responsive (16 hours of direct coun-
seling with students), planning (4 hours),
and the guidance curriculum (18 hours of
consulting with teachers and classroom
guidance). This later became the frame-
work for the ASCA National Model (2005).

Priority-setting by The advantage of scheduling interven-

Time Management tions by the time you have available is it
assures you of a balanced program, one in
There is only so much time in a which you are not consumed by any one
school day. Though you may arrive early particular guidance service or interven-
and leave late, a regular school day is tion. It enhances your image if you are
about seven hours, from approximately seen providing all six basic interventions.
8:00 AM until 3:00 PM. The starting and Without a balanced program in which all
ending times vary from one school to six are represented to some extent, the
another and are frequently affected by faculty, students, and general public may
bus schedules, classroom space available, get a distorted picture of your job.
and administrative preferences. Regard-
less, there are only so many hours in your Because priorities are eventually based
regular workday that can be allotted to on how much time you have in your job,
various kinds of interventions (Walsh, you could begin by drawing up a weekly
Barrett, & DePaul, 2007). schedule showing the time available in a
school day. Then, the six basic counselor
One way of prioritizing counselor interventions can be put on the schedule
time and energy is to decide how much by blocks of time until a realistic schedule
time might be spent delivering each of has been developed.
the six basic counselor interventions dur-
ing a typical week. That is, if you work An alternative approach to managing
in a school 35 to 40 hours a week, how time is found at the Wisconsin Depart-
much of your time should be spent doing ment of Public Instruction website (2010).
individual counseling? Small group coun- Worksheets may help school counselors
seling? Large group guidance? Peer facili- when calculating their time commitments
tator training and projects? Consultation? and program ratio within the four deliv-
Coordination? ery components of a comprehensive pro-
gram along the lines of the ASCA Model.
You might decide, for example, the A school counselor time analysis provides
maximum number of times you want to a means of establishing the time spent
meet with small groups for counseling is across the four areas. A time/task analysis
ten sessions a week. This averages to two log provides a tool for school counselors
group meetings a day. You also might to track their percentage of time across
decide you want to arrange the meetings typical school counseling activities.
on two days a week. Therefore, you could
schedule five groups for Tuesday and
another five on Thursday. The frequency
has been set and the time of each meeting
limited to 30 to 45 minutes.
Likewise, the other counselor inter-
ventions might be scheduled accordingly.
For instance, if you decided upon a casel-
oad of six students for individual counsel-
ing and to meet each one for 30 minutes
twice a week, then those 12 half-hours of
individual counseling time would have to
appear on your weekly schedule.

Managing Interventions These individuals are given high prior-

ity in your caseload. That is, they are seen
It is the management of interventions
regularly, usually for one grading period.
within the time that is available that can
Because it is preferable to see them twice a
determine whether you have a realistic
week to have a more intense intervention
and practical program in your school. It is and more continuity, the schedule in Fig-
what you do, more than what you want
ure 4.2 shows a counselor meeting each
to do, that creates your role and image.
student two times during the week. The
To help manage your interventions, you
middle and high school schedules (Fig-
might organize them into a weekly sched-
ures 4.3 and 4.4) also include individual
ule. This schedule also must reflect events
counseling, some students meeting twice
on the annual guidance calendar.
a week and others once a week.
The Counselor's The three weekly schedules each
show four groups that are targeted for
Weekly Schedule small group counseling: GP 1, GP 2,
The basic planning outline is shown GP 3, and GP 4. In Figure 4.2, the four
in Figure 4.1. Counselor interventions groups are scheduled to meet with the
are listed on the left and some minimum counselor twice a week and the meetings
time commitments are suggested on the will be completed within three weeks.
right. Other groups of students then will take
You might begin by making yourself a their place in the schedule at the same or
weekly schedule similar to the ones found different time blocks. Groups might be
in Figures 4.2, 4.3, or 4.4. First, you will scheduled once a week over a longer time.
see a school day has been divided into Instead of twice a week for three weeks,
half-hour blocks of time. The time periods a group might meet once a week for six
could just as easily be divided into what- weeks (Figure 4.3). Or, a group might
ever times a particular school has sched- meet once a week for ten weeks. General-
uled for class periods. ly, the number and frequency of meetings
The next step is to place a set of coun- depend upon the purpose of the group
selor interventions on the schedule. For and the counseling strategy.
example, the weekly schedule in Figure
4.2 shows an elementary school counselor
meeting with five individuals, twice a
week for one half-hour each. Individual
counseling is provided for students ICl,
IC2, IC3, IC4, and ICS. In your own
schedule, the names of students could
appear instead of numbers, but you also
could assure the anonymity of your case-
load by continuing to use the numbers
or some other code. The essential consid-
eration is you have scheduled five target
students for individual counseling.

Figure 4.2
Elementary School
Counselor Schedule
Time Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
7:30 - 8:00 Consult Consult FT Consult FT
8:00 - 8:30 Consult FT FT FT FT
8:30 - 9:00 FT FT FT FT FT
9:00 - 9:30 IC1 IC4 IC1 IC4 Class 3
9:30 - 10:00 FT IC5 FT IC5 FT
1 0:00 - 1 0:30 IC2 FT IC2 FT FT
10:30 - 11 :00 FT GP2 FT GP2 FT
11 :00 - 11 :30 GP1 GP3 GP1 GP3 FT
11 :30 - 12:00 FT FT FT FT FT
12:00 - 12:30 Lunch Lunch Lunch Lunch Lunch
12:30 - 1 :00 Class 1 Class 2 ESE Consult Class 4
1 :00 - 1 :30 FT FT ESE Consult FT
1 :30 - 2:00 FT GP4 ESE GP4 FT
2:00 - 2:30 IC3 FT ESE IC3 Peer Pj.
2:30 - 3:00 FT Teacher ESE FT Peer Pj.
3:00 - 3:30 Consult Seminar FT Consult Peer Pj.
IC= Individual Counseling

FT= Flexible Time
GP= Group Counseling
Class= Classroom Guidance
ESE= Exceptional Student Education Planning Team
Consult= Teacher/Parent Consultation
Peer Pj. = Peer Training and Projects

Figure 4.3
Middle School
Counselor Schedule
8:00 - 8:30 Consult FT Consult Consult FT
8:30 - 9:00 TAP TAP TAP TAP TAP
9:00 - 9:30 GREEN FT FT FT FT
9:30 - 10:00 TEAM IC4 FT IC4 Staff
10:00 - 1 0:30 FT FT IC2 FT Meets
10:30 - 11 :00 FT GP1 FT FT FT
11 :00 - 11 :30 IC1 FT RED GP4 IC7
11 :30 - 12:00 FT GP2 TEAM FT FT
12:00 - 12:30 Consult Consult Consult Consult Consult
12:30 - 1 :00 Lunch Lunch Lunch Peer Lunch
1:00 - 1:30 IC2 ICS GP3 Proj. BLUE
1 :30 - 2:00 FT ESE GP3 Lunch TEAM
2:00 - 2:30 IC3 ESE FT FT FT
2:30 - 3:00 FT FT IC6 Teacher Consult
3:00 - 3:30 Consult Consult Consult Seminar Consult

FT= Flexible Time
TAP= Teacher-Advisor Group Meetings
Team= Grade Level Team Meetings
Staff= Counselor and Student Services Team

Figure 4.4
High School
Counselor Schedule
7:30 - 8:00 Consylt Consult FT Consult FT
8:00 - 8:30 TAP TAP TAP TAP TAP
8:30 - 9:00 FT FT FT FT FT
9:00 - 9:30 IC1 ICS ESE ICS Staff
9:30 - 10:00 Consult FT ESE IC6 Meets
10:00 - 1 0:30 Consult FT ESE FT FT
10:30 - 11 :00 IC2 GP1 FT GP1 FT
11:00-11:30 Peer Peer Peer Peer Peer
11 :30 - 12:00 Facil. Facil. Facil. Facil. Facil.
12:00 - 12:30 FT FT FT FT FT
12:30 - 1 :00 Lunch Lunch Lunch Lunch Lunch
1 :00 - 1 :30 IC3 GP2 GP3 GP2 GP3
1 :30 - 2:00 FT GP2 GP3 GP2 GP3
2:00 - 2:30 IC4 FT GP4 FT GP4
2:30 - 3:00 Consult Teacher Consult IC4 FT
3:00 - 3:30 Consult Seminar FT Consult FT

FT= Flexible Time
TAP= Teacher Advisor Program
Peer Facil.=Peer Facilitator Class and Training Projects
Staff= Counselor Meetings

The weekly schedule for the elemen- meet with individual students during a
tary school counselor also shows how TAP block of time for tutoring or special
classroom guidance was scheduled for a friend projects.
one-half hour period four times a week. In some high schools, peer facilita-
The counselor, in this case, decided to tor classes are part of the academic cur-
meet with four different classes during the riculum. A class period, perhaps 45 to 55
week, but the decision could have been minutes, might be used and taught by a
made to go to one class four times in one teacher or a counselor. If the counselor
week. teaches the class, then that time commit-
The allotment of large group guidance ment should appear on the counselor's
or classroom time depends upon arrange- weekly schedule, as shown in the high
ments that are made with a teacher or school counselor's schedule in Figure 4.4.
group of teachers. However, seeing two In other schools where an academic
groups or classes twice a week instead class is not available, counselors could
of four once a week usually requires less train peer facilitators in a one-day work-
counselor and teacher preparation and shop or in a week-end retreat, and then
is less personally demanding. Classroom follow-up time with peer facilitators
guidance by teachers, of course, is sched- might appear on a schedule. As peer facili-
uled on their own schedules and would tator projects are developed and imple-
not appear on the counselor's schedule, mented, organization and supervisory
unless the counselor was to participate. times also would appear on the weekly
The middle and high school counsel- schedules.
ors' schedules are similar to the elemen- Consultation with students, teach-
tary school counselors' schedule, except ers, parents, and administrators happens
TAP happens at the beginning of each at various times. However, the counselor
day. Teachers, working as student advi- can identify times during a day that are
sors, present guidance units during TAP most likely to be used by those who want
time, perhaps twice a week (e.g., Tuesdays consultation. For example, the first and
and Thursdays). But, a counselor might last 30 minutes of the school day often
develop a special guidance unit that could are marked for consultation, since these
be delivered during TAP time, either by times are most convenient to teachers and
the counselor or in collaboration with parents.
TAP teachers. The counselor also could
pull together two or more TAP groups to lt will be helpful if teachers and ad-
present some general information or a ministrators have some scheduled times
guidance activity. for meeting with you. They may request
to meet at another time, such as during
Peer facilitator training could take their planning periods or perhaps during
place when TAP is scheduled, perhaps as lunch, and you will want to build your
a special TAP group for peer facilitators. schedule to accommodate them as best
Later, during that same time period, peer you can. Therefore, try to avoid student
facilitators could work with other students conferences or small group counseling at
and teachers. For instance, after nine times when most teachers can meet with
weeks of training during a TAP period, you conveniently. Scheduling consulta-
meeting five days a week, peer facilitators tion time can cut down on interruptions,
might assist teachers or counselors with especially if teachers use the time you
small group activities in their TAP groups. have made available to them.
Or, the peer facilitators might be asked to

Group consultation with teachers also Flexible time also might be used for
is recommended. Teachers can voluntarily follow-up with students, going to a class-
meet as a group to talk about some mu- room or an area in the school where the
tual interests or concerns. As a consultant, student might be. It could be used to call
you might arrange for interested teach- in a group of students, to meet with a so-
ers to talk about parent conferences. The cial worker, to make a telephone call to a
middle school teacher seminar in Figure community agency or a parent, or to work
4.3 was scheduled for three consecutive on the computer to call up some records.
Thursdays, with each session lasting about It might be used to talk informally with
30 to 45 minutes. In one series, the coun- students who are in the Career Resource
selor facilitated a discussion about suc- Center or to observe students in a class.
cessful techniques in parent conferences. The time could be used for responsibili-
Aside from teacher seminars, you ties related to coordinating the guidance
might do group consultation with teams program in the school.
of teachers. The middle school counselor, The term "chunking" is used to de-
in our example, found it helpful to attend scribe a technique for grouping similar
the planning meetings of the red, blue, job tasks that could be performed within
and green teacher teams, which met at the same time block. For instance, return-
regular times during the week. ing telephone calls might be reserved for a
Scheduling consultation time can help particular hour in the afternoon. Another
clarify your role and inform people about time period might be set aside for writ-
times when you might best be available. ing notes or recommendations or work-
Therefore, some "best times" are usually ing with school files. In this respect, you
noted on a schedule. When the time is might try to identify a few times during
not used for consultation, it automatically the day or week when some related tasks
converts to flexible time. might be completed. Although labeled
"flexible time" on your weekly calendar,
Flexible time (FT) is shown in all three there might be some routine or typical
of the sample schedules. This is time that activities that often occur at a particular
has not been committed to one of the six time.
basic counselor interventions and may be
used for different purposes. It is the com- Instead of "free time," the term "flex-
mitted time for each intervention that ible time" is preferred, particularly when
maintains the balance of the counselor's you are blocking out your schedule on a
schedule and it is this time that needs to piece of paper. Teachers or counselors may
be protected against interruptions and perceive themselves as having some extra
changes. or free time during a planning period or
when they are not scheduled to meet a
Even flexible time can be a time when class, a group, or a student, but such time
a counselor provides one of the basic is still considered "flexible time" to profes-
interventions, depending upon what sional counselors.
is scheduled for that day or that week.
When flexible time appears on a schedule, Some counselors use a master weekly
a counselor might meet with an indi- schedule as a general guide, editing it as
vidual student who happens to want an needed to show the actual events that
appointment that day or with a parent happened during a week. This "working
who stops by the school. schedule" with its deletions, substitutions,
and notes can be filed as a perm anent
record for later reference.

The management of counselor inter- The Annual Guidance Calendar

ventions and time involves building a The same concepts for building a
weekly schedule in which a minimum set
weekly schedule also apply to an annual
of the basic six counselor interventions
guidance calendar. This calendar shows
and services are arranged and noted. The
school-wide events, such as when stan-
number of commitments appearing on
dardized tests are to be given, when orien-
your weekly schedule will depend upon
tation meetings are scheduled, and when
your special interests, the circumstances
applications for college are due. Seasonal
in your school, and the needs of students
events and holidays that lend themselves
and teachers. However, in a comprehen-
to guidance units or special school tradi-
sive developmental guidance plan, ap- tions also are noted.
proximately 10 to 26 hours of your time
will be scheduled for five of the basic One guidance calendar for a high
counselor interventions. If we assume a school highlighted such events as when
40-hour week, the remaining 14 to 30 standardized tests were administered;
hours are given to the sixth basic inter- College Night, when representatives from
vention, coordinating guidance services, different universities came to campus;
and to other flexible time activities. It is Career Week, when several vocational
the use of this remaining time that threat- guidance activities took place; Educational
ens the image and role of all school coun- Planning, when students planned for next
selors and must be kept under control year's courses; Orientation Week, when
through careful and systematic planning. middle school students visited the high
school and scheduled their classes; Par-
ent's Night, when parents were invited to
an open-house at the school; and cut-off
dates, when various applications or forms
were due.
An annual guidance calendar can
identify events around which some re-
lated guidance units could be developed,
such as those that focus on orientation to
the school, career guidance, educational
planning, friendship, and study skills. The
calendar can suggest times when readi-
ness activities might be appropriate, such
as some test-taking and anxiety manage-
ment skills before a standardized test
week.
Annual guidance calendars for a
school and counselors' weekly sched-
ules coincide a great deal. They can be
changed as a need arises. Weekly sched-
ules are representative and are usually
designed for one grading period.

The schedule might be posted in the It was probably the first time the prin-
guidance office or given to administrators cipal had a clear understanding of what
and department heads so they are bet- counselors could do for students. The
ter informed about what counselors are schedules clarified counselor roles and
doing. The annual calendar is usually pre- functions and improved communication
pared before school starts and additions between the principal, the counselors,
take place at staff meetings. and others in the school. The administra-
A junior high schopl principal re- tor, in this case, was unable to speak with
ported the three counselors in his school much confidence about the work of his
were not very busy. The counselors denied counselors until he had a visual picture of
this, of course. He continued by saying what they were trying to do and how they
he sent different tasks down to the guid- were spending their time. The weekly
ance department as a favor to give them schedules had done more to describe the
something to do. work of the counselors than any profes-
sional publication or written role state-
After the counselors' initial anger and ment.
disappointment receded, they recognized
they were operating out of a crisis-based Schools also are finding it useful to
model. They saw students as they were employ counselors in a flexible schedule.
self-referred or referred by others. The For instance, one high school in Fort Lau-
counselors were reactive more than proac- derdale, Florida, released one of its coun-
tive. Therefore, they decided to imple- selors during the day to meet with stu-
ment a developmental guidance program dents and parents on Wednesday nights.
and to change their visibility and image. Many more working parents were able to
They began by outlining weekly sched- avail themselves of counselor assistance
ules. at that time. In addition to the school
counselor, a mental health counselor, and
The principal, who was given copies a counselor assigned from the sheriff's
of their new weekly schedules, later re- office also worked in the school the same
marked his counselors were now too busy evening. The three counselors provided
for some of the clerical and administrative family counseling and consultation ser-
tasks he formerly assigned to them. Per- vices and met more needs of students and
sonnel in the front office now completed their families.
many of the tasks. He also tried to help
the counselors protect their "schedules" Counselors are being challenged to
so they might work more with students think of new ways of scheduling their
and teachers. He was proud of what the time. Finding new ways to have access to
counselors had accomplished and told more students can be difficult. One group
other principals what the counselors were of high school counselors recognized stu-
doing. dents had time to see counselors during
lunch period, if counselors were available.
Therefore, counselors took turns shifting
their lunch schedules to accommodate
times when students could see them with-
out missing academic classes.

Factors to Consider Flexible times, on the other hand,

are generally unprotected. For example,
There are some other concepts and students may drop by to visit a counselor.
strategies that can help you to be effective During these times, the counselor is vul-
in the limited time you have available at nerable, on occasion, to small intrusions.
school. Some of these are discussed below. Without protected times, counselors will
find too many other duties and tasks that
Protected Time keep them from direct interventions with
Nothing seems to work unless coun- students.
selors have made time on their weekly Without protected time in mind,
schedules for it to happen. Once a coun- many counselors may rarely find the time
selor intervention has been scheduled, to meet with students in developmen-
then that time must be protected. There tal guidance and counseling activities.
are no interruptions during protected Rather, they fall into the trap of always
time periods. That is, there are no tele- operating from a reactive position.
phone calls or "I need to see you for just a
minute" from the principal or teachers. The Law of Parsimony
Protected time on the schedule is The Law of Parsimony suggests you
safeguarded from intrusions, unless there work with students in large groups first.
is an emergency that demands the coun- For example, you may be concerned with
selor's attention and cannot be postponed student attitudes about school. Classroom
for a few minutes until the counselor has guidance or a guidance unit in TAP is
finished meeting with students. A general the first strategy to be used in effecting a
way to describe such a crisis or critical change of student attitudes. Those stu-
situation is: Would someone walk into a dents who do not respond to large group
classroom, interrupt, and ask the teacher guidance might be targeted for small
to leave or report to the main office? If so, group counseling at a later time. Likewise,
who would be responsible for the students if a student fails to respond to small group
at that point? When counselors are rou- counseling, then individual counseling
tinely called from meetings with students, might be in order. If individual counsel-
or other kinds of interruptions take place, ing is ineffective, then a referral might be
the message to everyone, including stu- made to another counselor or agency.
dents, is: Whatever the counselor is doing
is not very important. The Law of Parsimony encourages
you to think about reaching all students.
Not all of a counselor's time can be It helps you implement guidance activi-
protected. That would be ideal but not ties and strategies that otherwise might
practical. The hectic pace of school life not be available to students. In addition,
lends itself to interruptions and crises that the sequence of moving from large group
seem to need immediate attention. There- guidance to an outside agency referral
fore, counselors study and plan schedules provides a systematic approach to inter-
that set aside certain periods of time dur- ventions and services. These can be docu-
ing the week where they can concentrate mented and you can then have a base
and work with students in an interven- from which to talk about any next steps
tion without interferences. The office that need to be taken.
staff, perhaps the principal, is informed of
these times and works with the counselor
to help protect these times.

Multiple Interventions A student who has been referred to

you for counseling, for example, may
Experimental research on counselor
meet with you in small group counseling,
interventions is limited. There is a need
working with others who have similar
for more studies in which a counselor
problems. In addition, you might, on
intervention is implemented with one
occasion, talk with the student on an
group of students and then compared
individual basis (individual counseling)
to another group of students who did
and talk with a teacher about the student
not receive the intervention. There also
(consultation). You might even want to
is a need for more single-case studies, in
telephone the parents (consultation) be-
which baseline data is taken and then
measurement is continued with one fore asking a peer facilitator to be a special
friend or a tutor for the student. In such
person throughout the time a counselor
intervention is administered. The studies a case, several counselor interventions
are being brought into play, with the as-
that are available have not only been lim-
sumption they will intensify the helping
ited, but they also have tended to preju-
process and change might be expedited.
dice our thinking toward using a single
It seems practical to have as many help-
counselor intervention.
ers as possible involved in working with
Doctoral dissertations, master theses, a student, especially if the nature of the
and other exacting and rigorous research case allows for it.
isolate variables for study. For instance,
When a multiple intervention hap-
if individual counseling is to be studied,
pens by chance, it is because the cir-
then efforts are made to control extrane-
cumstances seem to dictate that type
ous variables by not combining it with
of involvement and you make the best
other treatment modalities. If you mix
use of them. However, when a multiple
individual counseling with group counsel-
intervention is carefully orchestrated to
ing as part of an experimental treatment,
maximize impact and increase the chance
someone might ask, "But, which one
of making positive changes, then you
made the real difference, the individual or
are more likely to have more satisfying
small group counseling?"
results.
The legacy of single counselor inter-
When a multiple intervention is
ventions was born out of research stud-
planned, you avoid a "fragmented ap-
ies and has been sustained because most
proach" in which people are trying to
published research focuses on single treat-
help but sometimes working at cross
ments or interventions. Practically speak-
purposes because they are not communi-
ing, a multiple intervention approach can
cating and working together. This wastes
be used as part of your work. It involves
energy and is analogous to a football team
the use of more than one of the six basic
having its players run around in different
co~nselor interventions, simultaneously
directions without any plan or rationale.
or m sequence.
It may work. But, when everyone under-
stands the goal and works together on a
similar plan, then chances of success are
greater. Multiple interventions involve
teamwork and they take time to con-
struct. They are more likely to occur when
you have control of your time and con-
centrate on a few students in a caseload.

The Caseload they needed me." It was a tragic waste of

Given high counselor-student ratios time to line up students outside a coun-
selor's office for a quick interview that was
in almost every school in the nation, it
makes sense for counselors to develop a often rushed, stiff, and meaningless to
caseload of students who will receive high either counselor or student.
priority. These students might be selected Your caseload may be determined
for any number of reasons. They may not several ways. However, let us assume you
be the students who have the greatest have decided to meet individually with
need or who are the most troubled. While eight students. Further, you have decided
such students are good candidates to be to meet with them twice a week for 30
part of a counselor's caseload, one's case- minutes each time. This accounts for a
load often is determined by such factors total of eight hours of individual counsel-
as accessibility, time restraints, availabil- ing time to set aside each week. Next, you
ity of other helpers, specific requests by might decide how many students you will
teachers or administrators, and the prob- see through group counseling and sched-
ability of making a positive difference. ule the groups on your schedule. These
In a developmental guidance pro- students also might be considered part of
gram, some of the students who are seen your on-going caseload, although some
as part of a counselor's caseload will be counselors prefer to think of caseloads
in the normal range of functioning and only in terms of individuals being seen in
have concerns, needs, and interests that counseling.
are not as intense as some dysfunctioning Counselors who use the caseload ap-
students. However, who is to say these proach report they feel more in control
students are any less deserving of a school of their schedules and individual counsel-
counselor's time? ing, particularly, is more productive and
The purpose of the caseload is to help rewarding. By highlighting a caseload of
you manage your time. It also gives you students, there is a better chance more
an opportunity to focus your work and systematic procedures and a defined time
you will feel less torn than if you take frame will be used in working with them.
whatever comes your way, day by day.
Students in a caseload receive special Target Students
attention because they are part of your Research has shown students who are
weekly schedule and you see them regu- more optimistic about their future and
larly. This can make your job, and your see fewer obstacles to future goals are the
time, manageable. You simply cannot be most likely to use school counseling ser-
available to all your assigned students at vices (Scheel & Gonzalez, 2007). They can
all times. assert themselves in a group guidance or
There was a time when school coun- counseling activity and often feel com-
selors were told to see all their "coun- fortable sharing their ideas and concerns.
selees" at least once each school semester. A target student is one who has been
This meant some counselors scheduled singled out for special attention by the
500 individual interviews, which lasted counselor. Target students receive the high-
about 15 minutes each. One counselor est priority and tend to occupy most of the
in this situation said, "I just wanted the thinking and planning time you have to
students to get to know me and to find give in your job as a counselor.
out how things were going for them .... I
wanted them to know I was available, if

In that sense, all individual counsel- Let us suppose you are one of six high
ing cases are probably target students, ex- school counselors working in a school
cept some students who meet briefly, per- that has 2,400 or more students. You and
haps a few minutes, with a counselor and the other counselors might ask the build-
who do not take much of a counselor's ing administrators and department heads
planning time. When counselors target a to use a computer printout list to identify
few students at a time within their ongo- students who need special help beyond
ing caseloads, they are much more likely what classroom teachers can give them.
to consult with other counselors or pro- This list will probably be 150 to 200 in a
fessionals about them, to do some profes- school of this size because administrators
sional research about them, to read a book will think about students with the most
or journal article about their problems, or visible needs.
to chart their behaviors and evaluate their Next, ask the administrators to re-
progress. It is impossible to give that type duce the list in half by identifying those
of attention to all counselees. students who might be most responsive
Target students might be seen in to counselor help within a grading period
group counseling sessions, perhaps with (i.e., six or nine weeks). Or, you might ask
other students who are not targeted but yourself, "Which ones do I think I can
who are there to benefit from the group make a positive difference with, in some
experience. For example, if you are meet- way, during the next grading period?"
ing with a group of five students, one stu- There is no need for further assessments,
dent whom you particularly want to re- discussion, or debate. Time is of essence
ceive attention is more in your awareness. and it is the paring down of the list that
Maybe you want to help that student to is essential. Thus, you will have about 100
self-disclose more or to receive additional student names.
high facilitative responses. Or, you may Now, you and your counseling col-
want the group members to eventually leagues look over the new list and again
use this student's situation or problem cut this list in half by identifying those
as a focus for discussion. While all group whom you think might respond positively
members are part of the learning process, to a counselor intervention. The list is
counselors are keenly aware of target stu- now down to 50 students.
dents and seize upon timely opportunities
to help them within the group. These are your target students. It
might be appropriate to divide the names
How can you identify target students? among the six school counselors, giv-
Of all the students who need help in the ing each approximately eight students to
schools, which ones should be targeted work with closely during the next grad-
for special attention? Here is one simple ing period. Use any one of the counselor
way to identify a group of target students. interventions, or a combination of them
(a multiple intervention), or anything
else you believe will work to help your
target students adjust to school, resolve
their personal problems, or become better
students.

Do whatever you can to make a Career Development

positive difference. Making a difference and Life Style
within one grading period with half the
list can affect the climate of the school. The term "career development" has
Some of the students only need a little been used to describe several lifelong
boost, while others may be targeted again processes, all of which form an individu-
later. Most important, with the help of al's life style and patterns that result in a
others, you can identify students who career identity. How these patterns evolve
need special help and you can manage is based on one's values, interests, skills,
your efforts and time in light of an over- abilities, personal and educational experi-
whelming number of students with whom ences, and environmental influences. Life
you could work. style and career choices characterize one's
life (Herr, Cramer, & Spencer, 2003).
Target Populations In the ASCA position statement on
comprehensive programs and career
Aside from individual target students,
development, it was suggested counselors
there are target populations of students
concentrate on a series of common, core
within a school who need special atten-
experiences and competencies. These lead
tion. For instance, some target populations
to career awareness, career maturity, and
might be: students who have poor study
career readiness. In general, they include:
habits and skills and who do not know
how to manage their time; students who • Clarifying work values and developing
experience high anxiety and stress when plans.
they take tests and perform poorly; stu- • Assessing abilities, personality traits,
dents who have experienced a recent death and interests through formal and
or separation in their families; students informal measures.
who are "at risk" as potential dropouts; • Providing occupational and career
students who are frequently absent from information, linking community re-
school; students who are unsure about sources with guidance.
their job goals; students who are frequent-
ly rejected by their peers; and so forth. • Helping students learn interviewing
and job-hunting skills.
Targeted populations or a targeted
individual could be identified and referred • Increasing awareness of educational
by faculty or students. However, as the and training opportunities, including
counselor, you make the final choices, financial aid.
including the one or two that you particu- • Encouraging skill training, goal set-
larly want to give attention-regardless of ting, and decision making related to a
the reasons. tentative career interest.
• Integrating academic and career skills
in a school curriculum.
• Reviewing and evaluating student ac-
tion plans.

The foundation for career develop- Counseling and Learning Styles

ment and career-related skills is laid In the future, we will know more
in the early school years. Beginning in about learning styles, their effect on
elementary schools, children learn about personal and academic development, and
work-related behaviors and feelings. Field how they affect a student's participation
trips, videotaped programs, and in-class in learning activities. Presently, learning
experiences, for example, are designed to style assessment measures are limited and
increase children's awareness of the world often unreliable. Yet, it is generally recog-
of work. They learn to respect uniqueness nized some students have a predisposition
in the workplace. for visual learning approaches, while oth-
More importantly, children have ers prefer auditory and kinesthetic modes.
an opportunity to learn more about the Some students take socially active roles in
value and importance of work and how learning, while other students are more
it can give special meaning to their lives. introverted and passive.
As children get older and move through This insight is not new to counselors
middle and high schools, their interests who have appreciated, measured, and in-
become more apparent and career devel- terpreted individual differences for many
opment experiences are extended and years. However, it is surprising counselors,
grounded in decision making and plan- like many teachers, have been slow to
ning. adapt their strategies and techniques to
Life-style and career development will student learning styles (Keteyian, 2009).
remain a central focus for most school Counseling is primarily a talking pro-
counselors, but some related issues chal- cess. For some students, this kind of learn-
lenge counselors to do more than what ing situation is workable. Their verbal and
has been done in the past. More attention conceptual abilities are drawn upon in
must be given to the career development the process of counseling. Other students,
of women, ethnic minority groups, and with different learning styles or slower
the economically disadvantaged. This rates of cognitive development, may find
inevitably involves confronting some themselves hopelessly inundated with
traditional thinking, values, stereotypes, words when being "counseled." They may
prejudices, conventional programs, and feel overwhelmed, insecure, or lost in the
methods. intellectual efforts that seem to form the
Career exploration and planning basis of most school counseling and guid-
have been particularly influenced by new ance interventions.
developments in computer technology. As Perhaps, this is one reason why some
Sabella (2003) pointed out, "For better or students are unresponsive to counselor
worse, computers are changing the ways activities and why, at times, counselors
in which we conduct our work, interact, feel frustrated and defeated when working
and especially make decisions" (p. 212). with some students. Counselors who have
Career resource labs in schools feature different learning styles than their coun-
computer technology that can help more selees may experience less success than
students achieve the career competencies usual, unless they are flexible, adaptive,
outlined by ASCA. and learn how to use different counseling
approaches.

Learning styles may be affected by Play media may be used at all grade
cultural backgrounds. Counselors need to levels, but there is a lack of proven activi-
study the diverse cultural groups that are ties and almost no research to support
represented in their schools and discover their use with adolescents in the schools.
the small but significant differences that Using play media is not popular with
influence learning and counseling. Mi- middle and secondary school counselors,
grant students, for example, must often despite the fact most teenagers enjoy
compensate for educational deficiencies learning through games and fun activities.
and subculture differences that influence Some new developments are needed in
participation in school (Atkinson, 2003). using play media to accommodate learn-
All ethnic groups are highly sensitive to ing styles in counseling. One solution to
certain words or phrases that cause them meeting students' needs who have dif-
to feel "put down." Some cultural groups ferent learning styles and rates of cogni-
prefer nontraditional counseling ap- tive development may be found in high
proaches, such as ones with more visual technology, which for many teenagers is a
and active counseling techniques. playground and a major source of enter-
This book, like so many others, places tainment.
a lot of emphasis on the verbal process
of counseling through examples and Using Computer Technology
recommended procedures. First, it is the Advancements in computer technolo-
most popular and practical approach, as gy are rapidly changing traditional school
the vast majority of students can work counseling approaches. New technology
within this counseling process. Secondly, can help counselors develop comprehen-
all of the counseling approaches that are sive programs that enhance students' aca-
feasible for school settings rely to some demic, personal, social, and career devel-
degree on communication via words. opment. Yet, surprisingly, little attention
Play techniques have been popular in the research literature has been given
with child therapists and counselors for to exactly how computer technology can
many years. Elementary school counsel- advance school counselors' professional
ors often use play media in their work. work.
Puppets, art materials, guided fantasies, In one study, 49 school counselors
music and movement, creative dramat- used various technologies to accomplish
ics, and games are part of almost every their goals in what seemed to be a more
elementary school counselor's repertoire. effective, efficient, and professional way.
Yet, it has been only recently that play The counselors believed that applied
counseling has moved beyond the tradi- technology tools would help them better
tional therapeutic approach of Virginia implement the delivery system compo-
Axline (Kaduson & Schaefer, 2000), which nents of the American School Counselor
was considered inappropriate for use by Association's National Model (2005). The
school counselors who do not have a lot results indicated each component of the
of time for individual cases. delivery system was positively affected by
the use of technology (Hayden, Poynton,
& Sabella, 2010).

Today's high tech tools, high speed Counselors often have felt burdened
networks, and fast-paced digital exchang- by clerical tasks that must be performed as
es are more intricate parts of our global part of their job assignments. Computers
society than ever before (Friedman, 2005). immediately made clerical duties easier
School guidance and counseling programs and more efficient. Because computers
are no exception. make more information available at a
For many years, most computer tech- counselor's fingertips, data also might be
nology was used for infqrmation storage used to study groups of students targeted
and retrieval. Counselors marveled when for guidance and counseling. Patterns and
lap top computers were first introduced. trends within a population of students
They began working with students regard- might be identified. Final reports, with
ing career decision making and accessing graphs and summary data, could be easier
information about the world of work on to construct.
a microcomputer while sitting in a guid- Networking among counselors will
ance office. It was the dawn of a career increase in the future. Some school dis-
planning revolution. tricts with secure computers can easily
A computer program might provide transfer a student from one school to an-
data about job opportunities, educa- other within a district because a student's
tional requirements, skills and interests records can be displayed on a terminal
needed, and some appropriate references. in any of the district schools. It also is
Programs such as SIG! Plus, DISCOVER, possible to have a computerized network
and CHOICES enable students to interact of counselors, which serves as a clearing-
with a computer in search and explore house for ideas and activities.
activities. Now, various websites and the In addition to computers, high tech-
interactive nature of the nternet provide nology is providing counselors with other
a depth and range in career exploration ways to match or accommodate students'
that was inconceivable to counselors a learning styles. Videos, some which inter-
few years ago. face with computers, can provide simu-
There was a time when counselors lated experiences in which students gain
and administrators marveled at how a new information, explore alternatives,
basic personal computer saved the school and learn skills.
thousands of dollars when it was used to Digital video cameras and moni-
organize student schedules. They were tors are becoming more affordable and
able to schedule all students for classes might be used to assist students in guid-
within a shorter period of time and with ance and counseling activities, providing
less personnel involved (Strong & Turner, unique opportunities for more decision
1983). Now, computers are used in all making, feedback, or the study of inter-
schools to manage classes, assignments, personal relationships. Using video clips
and student information. and role-playing situations, a counselor
might coach students in communication
or problem-solving skills. A high school
counselor can let students form ideas
about job interviews and then video mock
interviews.

The use of high technology is typi- Systematic preparation of paraprofes-

cally implemented in the military services sionals can make a positive difference.
and business enterprises before it reaches An effective training program introduces
schools. There is a trend for sophisticated participants to the working environment,
electronic equipment to become less explains the roles and functions to be
expensive and more available to counsel- performed, and provides them practice
ors, whose own imagination and innova- with interpersonal skills which can be
tive practices will determine how helpful used with students and adults in a school.
technology can be. Many counselors will Without such preparation, paraprofession-
be challenged to enter the 21st century als feel less like team members and more
of counseling by learning more about like tagalong workers.
computers and high technology (Paisley If paraprofessionals such as parent
& McMahon, 2001; Van Horn & Myrick, and community volunteers assist counsel-
2001, Sabella, 2003). ors in their work, then more students can
receive guidance services. There is more
Share Responsibility time for attention to details and follow-
With Parprofessionals up. They create more opportunities for
Counselors and teachers need not be differentiated staffing. Well-trained and
the only providers of guidance services. enthusiastic paraprofessionals add a posi-
They can teach others basic helping skills tive element to the working environment.
that can be used in guidance related ac- There are many helpers within a
tivities and tasks. school and community (e.g., Big Broth-
There are people who, even without ers and Big Sisters, church groups, neigh-
professional training, seem to have a bors, and relatives) who can help a young
natural talent and inclination for helping person with a problem. While the burden
others. Their personalities, interpersonal of responsibility for personal choices and
skills, and positive attitudes make it pos- changes always rests with the student, the
sible for them to accept some guidance responsibility for caring and being helpful
roles in which they provide direct and can rest on the shoulders of many people.
indirect services to students. However, be- The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
cause they are not professionally certified (NCLB) established higher educational
or formally trained, they often are referred standards for paraprofessionals working
to as paraprofessionals. Their roles are with special education teachers as aides.
limited and supervision is required and The most common strategy school dis-
expected (Astramovich & Holden, 2002). tricts use to support students with severe
Paraprofessionals were first introduced disabilities in inclusive classrooms is to al-
to school guidance during the 1960s in locate a paraprofessional to work with the
order to alleviate critical counselor short- individual student. This does not work
ages. They also seemed to help address the well if the helper is viewed as a detriment
heavy caseloads facing professional coun- to forming positive peer relationships.
selors. The rationale was paraprofessionals
could reduce the noncounseling-related
duties and assist counselors in a variety of
direct and indirect counseling services. In
turn, school counselors would have more
time to develop and implement counsel-
ing programs for students.

For example, Causton-Theoharis and Working with Legislators

Malmgren (2005) found paraprofessional There was a time when counselors did
proximity was the single most important not concern themselves with the work of
classroom condition that negatively in- national and state legislatures, but that
fluenced peer interactions when working time has passed. Counselors now must
with special education children. Appar- take an active part in working toward
ently, it brought too much attention to legislation that affects them and their
students who found it embarrassing and programs.
peer pressure worked against the extra
help. Financial support for counseling and
guidance started decades ago from the
Closely related to the use of parapro- federal government and the funds helped
fessionals is the use of mentors and peer train and employ more counselors and
facilitators (see Chapter 9). It makes sense improve counselor education programs.
to mobilize as many helping resources as This early federally supported thrust had
you can to implement a comprehensive a significant impact on the development
guidance and counseling program. of the school counseling profession and
the role of school counselors. Likewise,
Orientation P.L. 94-142 (1976) not only appropriated
Sometimes it is easy to take things for millions of dollars to help children, but it
granted, especially if you have been do- influenced many procedures and activi-
ing the same for a long time. Counselors ties that are still used in the schools. It
might forget that with each new wave of also determined how some personnel,
students and parents there is need to ori- often including school counselors, would
ent them regarding the guidance program function in their work and forced them to
and counselor roles and functions. You reorder their service and time priorities.
may not need to explain in detail how a Elementary school counseling in
particular guidance model works, but peo- Florida resulted from state legislators being
ple need to be informed about the work of convinced early intervention was the best
a counselor. Then, they will have a better way to help improve the academic, per-
idea of how best to use the guidance office sonal, and social development of students.
and counselor services. Specific legislation was passed which
Technology-based counseling orienta- marked funds for the employment of
tions can be produced locally and shown elementary school counselors. This kind of
during general student/parent meetings. categorical funding protected the counsel-
An introductory video clip or slide pre- or position from encroachment by other
sentation might be played just prior to needs in school systems, of which there
initial counseling sessions. They introduce are many. It gave counselors time to build
a counselor whom a student is about to programs and provide some accountability
see or identify personnel in the guid- studies to justify legislative action.
ance office. Simple and brief orientations Over the years since 1972, elementary
explain how counselor interventions can school counselors in Florida have firmly
work and help clarify expectations. They established themselves and their devel-
prepare students and parents to make the opmental guidance programs as a regular
best use of available time (Moore-Thomas part of the school system. Every elementa-
& Lent, 2007). ry school in the state now has at least one
full-time counselor and this would never
have been possible without the support of
state legislators.

Legislators can give funds and create Take Your Gains

opportunities and they can take them Take your gains where you can get
away. Some promising programs have them. Then, move on. Look for positive
been discontinued in some states because differences and do not expect to get dra-
time ran out and they were never estab- matic reversals every time you work with
lished independent of federal or state students. It is not easy to turn someone's
funding. Some of these programs had attitude around 180 degrees or to signifi-
the potential to be exemplary models for cantly impact a student's grade point av-
other school systems, but when funding erage. When students have problems with
was reduced or lost, the programs melted a teacher, you are unlikely to do anything
away. overnight to help them become good
Counselors, usually through their friends. In these situations, you probably
state professional organizations, can form need to take a few small steps in the right
legislative task forces that work with direction.
legislators. These task forces, sometimes Some counselors have lofty goals for
with the help of paid lobbyists, help keep themselves and their counselees. They
legislators and their aides informed about feel unsuccessful, or even defeated, un-
the guidance and counseling needs of less they reach their general objective.
young people and the value of guidance They fail to consider the difference a f~w
programs to meet those needs. little things can make and to take credit
For instance, the Florida School Coun- for helping a person have the courage or
selor Association and the Florida Counsel- the skill to take a first step. While we all
ing Association develop a written legisla- hope for some quick turnarounds, most
tive platform for each annual meeting of progress is slow and sometimes goes un-
the state legislature. The associations help noticed.
raise funds to employ professional lobby- Intervention and time management
ists. They organize groups of counselors to plans are based on the assumption you
visit and talkwith their local state legisla- work toward and take short-term gains.
tors prior to when the legislature meets, There is little doubt six small group ses-
in order to be informative and build posi- sions are only a start to helping some
tive relationships. Consequently, Florida students learn to communicate more
legislators, in general, have a good idea of effectively or to explore a problem that is
what counselors are trying to do and what facing them. But, time restraints empha-
they have accomplished. size you "take your gains" where you find
them and then work with other students.

One high school counselor, for ex- The Developmental Counselor

ample, was so pleased with one of her
Counselors in developmental guid-
counseling groups she continued to meet
ance programs often are described as
with the group for several weeks. After
human behavior and relationship special-
about 22 sessions, she was asked what she
ists. They focus on the developmental
planned to do next. She responded b~ list- needs, stages, and tasks of students in the
ing several possibilities and hypothesized
elementary, middle, and high schools.
about one or two group members. Her
They adapt the best of counseling theories
enthusiasm ran high. rt was suggested she
to educational settings, relying primarily
get closure on the group and stop meet-
upon brief counseling and short-term ap-
ing them. There were other students who
proaches.
needed a similar group experience.
Developmental school counselors
After some surprise, she realized that
work with a caseload, which they can
many gains had been made and tha~ to
manage within a given week or time-
continue meeting the group was satisfy-
frame, such as a grading period. Target
ing her own needs to feel successful. The
students are singled out for study and
group helped her feel "like a real coun-
given special attention. The concepts of
selor," more so than some other groups.
target students, target populations, and
Confronted with this insight, she ended
caseload make a counselor's work man-
the group and started some others.
ageable and realistic.
Counselor interventions are sched-
uled in a representative work week and a
master weekly schedule can be shown to
others. The counselor's job is defined by
what counselors do, not by what counsel-
ors or the counseling profession thinks or
wishes they could do. Counselor interven-
tions and time management eventually
define and clarify a counselor's role and
image.
Developmental counselors base their
work on helping students learn more ef-
fectively and efficiently. Counselors are
concerned with the personal problems of
students because they can detract from
learning. More effective and efficient
learning is the essence of counseling
and guidance, no matter the counseling
theory or intervention.


The Counselor
as Facili~ator
School counselors and teachers are The Facilitative Model

described as facilitators. A facilitator is
The Facilitative Model has evolved
someone who is adept in the use of inter-
over the years, as practitioners helped
personal skills and who can assist individ-
make it a practical and feasible script from
uals or groups to move toward their goals.
which to work. Although it may appear
Facilitators help people explore their ideas
similar to what others have presented
and arrive at responsible decisions.
(e.g., Carkhuff, 1993), close examination
Numerous books and articles have will show the model is a unique package
described how teachers, counselors, and of selected concepts and skills that are sys-
therapists rely on communication skills. tematically organized and linked together.
Communication is the heart of the coun- It is a workable and practical application
seling process. Consequently, school of interpersonal communication skills.
counselors continue to look for simple
The model can be used with students,
ways to describe their work and for sen-
parents, administrators, and others. It
sible plans that give them direction.
is a practical guide, something to keep
in mind as you manage counselor inter-
ventions. It is not an attempt to replace
counseling theories or strategies you may
already find useful. The model empha-
sizes certain aspects of helping relation-
ships and facilitative processes that can
make you more effective. In addition, it
identifies and clarifies the essential inter-
personal skills needed in developmental
guidance and counseling.
The Facilitative Model consists of four
parts: (1) the facilitative conditions of a
helping relationship; (2) facilitative pro-
cesses; (3) facilitative responses; and (4)
facilitative activities and tasks.

The Facilitative Conditions We have known for a long time cer-

of a Helping Relationship tain relationships are more helpful than
others. Carl Rogers, for example, was a
Sometimes close relationships be- pioneer in drawing attention to the im-
tween people just seem to happen with- portance of "the helping relationship."
out any apparent reason. Some people He believed if certain conditions existed
just "hit it off." From the beginning, there between people, then a process would be
is a friendly bond between them-a bond set into motion that would be productive.
that feels comfortable and secure. These He said these personal conditions were
people like each other almost immediate- essential and sufficient to produce posi-
ly and enjoy being together. When asked tive changes in personality, attitudes, and
to explain it, they often struggle to find behaviors.
the exact words to describe the friendship
or the closeness they feel, but they know Although not everyone has agreed
the relationship is special. these conditions alone are sufficient and
nothing else is needed, they still are seen
Then, there are some people who as essential ingredients in the helping
have unfavorable impressions of one process. Despite theory or method, the
another when they first meet; yet, even- characteristics of a relationship will make
tually they form a close relationship. the critical difference when it comes to
Sometimes they are not even aware of one helping students take responsibility for
another's presence until they are placed in themselves and making desired changes
a situation where they have to take note in their lives.
of each other. Then, the relationship starts
to grow because they listen, share ideas More specifically, if you are perceived
and information, and find mutual inter- as a friendly and caring person, then stu-
ests. Eventually, they learn to value the dents are more likely to be drawn to you.
friendly relationship that develops. If they also experience you as an attentive
listener who is respectful, understanding,
There also are some relationships be- accepting, and interested in what they are
tween people that seem adverse. These thinking and feeling, then they will tell
people dislike being in each other's com- more about themselves and explore ideas
pany. They seem ill at ease and find it and choices with you. If you recognize the
difficult to be attentive to what the other pain and joy of growing up, while patient-
person is doing or saying. They are insen- ly helping them look at realities and the
sitive to each other's needs and interests. positive side of life, then a personal work-
There is usually no bond between them ing relationship can be established.
and, consequently, they have little posi-
tive impact on one another. Unfortunate- Teachers frequently find themselves in
ly, there are a lot of cases in which such situations that have potential for conflict.
unproductive relationships exist among They cannot always be responsive to indi-
counselors, teachers, and students. vidual interests and needs when assigned
to teach large groups of students. Class-
Teachers and counselors want to es- room procedures, which are usually aimed
tablish good working relationships with at managing groups of students, can cause
students. But, close relationships do not some individuals to feel ignored or treated
always come easily. They depend on how unfairly.
people interact and communicate, as well
as upon first impressions.

Chapter 5 The Counselor as Facilitator
Likewise, group teaching methods Caring suggests you are personally

may make it difficult to identify or re- interested and concerned about a person's
spond to individual problems. Many well-being. It also involves a sense of per-
teachers feel trapped in a system where sonal commitment to the person because
decisions are based on what is best for you give something of yourself in the re-
most students and teachers. They also feel lationship. You value the person enough
pressured when time is limited and so to psychologically reach out and be atten-
much academic work needs to be done. tive.
School counselors have more flex- Understanding is a term used to
ibility to work with individuals and small describe the phenomenon of perceiving
groups than do teachers. However, coun- and acknowledging what another person
selors can feel in a bind when it comes is experiencing. There is empathy for the
to following school rules and procedures person in which an awareness of feeling is
that are aimed at managing large numbers communicated. It goes beyond knowledge
of students in a complex school environ- of events in a person's life and touches on
ment. Sometimes easy access to students emotional experiences.
is denied to counselors. Time is so limited Acceptance focuses on a willingness
many feel rushed and they fail to form to believe in and acknowledge the person-
a positive working relationship with al worth and dignity of a person, despite
students before pushing ahead with an the circumstances. We can be accepting
agenda. of someone and still not agree with the
Some counselors have complained person's ideas or behaviors. Even when we
about being seen as "enforcers" more than challenge someone's behavior, the value
"friends" because they are charged with of the person as a human being is always
reminding students of school rules and present.
policies. Others worry they are strangers Respect suggests common courtesies
to their students because they see them so are given to people, including the right to
seldom. express their own ideas and feelings, to be
"I don't like to tell a stranger about responsible for their own decisions, and
personal things. This is the number one
11
to be capable of shaping their own lives.
reason that keeps high school students Friendliness communicates a warm
from seeking counselor assistance. This personal style that invites others to recip-
is followed by, "Afraid the counselor rocate with mutual interest and warmth.
will pass information about me to other It is a factor that often results from some
people" and then, "I did not have time." of the other facilitative conditions. But, in
Forming a counseling relationship, one in its own right, friendliness is best charac-
which a person feels free to self-disclose, terized as a kindly attitude, one in which
depends on some fundamental facilitative there are amiable exchanges and a genu-
conditions. ine sense of comfort.
Trustworthiness involves being en-
Six Facilitative Conditions trusted with confidence or a sense of se-
For our purposes, the facilitative rela- curity. It often inspires faith and reliance,
tionship is characterized by six conditions. but it is primarily founded on a prediction
These are: (1) caring; (2) understanding; (3) someone will act in an honest and forth-
acceptance; (4) respect; (5) friendliness; and right manner so an individual's well-being
(6) trustworthiness. is not hurt.

No doubt, the learning climate of a Three students, two boys and a girl,
school is directly influenced by the inter- disliked a teacher. They resented the
personal relationships between students homework that was assigned and de-
and their counselors and teachers. Facili- scribed it as trivial busy work. They were
tative or helping relationships are ones in upset when the teacher threatened to
which students explore their ideas, feel- lower their grades or remove them from
ings, and behaviors. These relationships class because of their attitudes. After some
are needed in a developmental guidance discussion with a counselor, the students
and counseling program. decided to work on paying more atten-
tion in class, starting their homework at
school, and stopping their inappropriate
The Facilitative Processes talk and remarks in class.
"Okay," you may be thinking, "but if In these cases, counselors and stu-
I'm friendly and have a good working re- dents had general and specific goals when
lationship with students, then what hap- they met together. Likewise, teachers, as
pens?" The answer to that question de- advisors, might have goals in mind as
pends upon the situation or the problem they present a guidance activity. It is the
presented and the processes that receive way in which counselors and teachers
special attention. work with students that frequently deter-
If you are counseling a student, for mines success.
example, you will want to build a helping The facilitative processes that happen
relationship by creating the facilitative in counseling or guidance sessions refer
conditions of trust, understanding, and to the interactions that take place and the
so forth. This is done through mutual dynamics of the interpersonal relation-
self-disclosure and feedback. As the rela- ship. Each facilitative process has its own
tionship continues to develop and aware- special attribute that contributes to the
ness increases, it is then possible to think events in counseling. In addition, these
about how decision-making and problem- processes tend to emerge because of the
solving skills can be activated so the stu- reciprocal actions of counselor and coun-
dent will take some responsible action selee. The facilitative processes also are
toward desired goals. interactive, with one process influencing
A boy wanted to improve his grades. another. They are unique products of the
This general result was further delin- communication of ideas, feelings, and be-
eated and one goal was to reduce his test haviors in a helping relationship.
anxiety in order to improve test scores. In This leads us to consider the four ba-
another case, a girl wanted to feel better sic helping processes of the Facilitative
about herself and to have more self-con- Model: (1) self-disclosure; (2) feedback; (3)
fidence when she played basketball. One increased awareness and decision making;
of her desired counseling outcomes was to and (4) responsible action.
reduce the number of negative thoughts
she had about herself. She also wanted to
reduce the panic she felt when someone
guarded her closely in a basketball game.

Self-disclosure about our feelings and ideas can be useful

Self-disclosure involves revealing one's as we examine situations and attempt to
self to others and it is the primary process understand others and ourselves more.
in counseling. As the trust relationship Borrowing from Harry Luft and Joe
builds between a counselor and a student, Ingram's famous Johari's Window Qoe
there is more sharing of personal informa- and Harry's window), it is possible toil-
tion and greater depth in exploring pri- lustrate several things about the Facili-
vate ideas and feelings, tative Model. A few liberties have been
taken with the original illustration (Luft,
All of us have had experiences in our
1984). For our purposes, we will refer to
lives that made a significant impact on
us. Sometimes we remember the events it as the Relationship Quadrant (Figure
5 .1), since it features four distinct areas
vividly and at other times we can recall
only the general effect they had on us, that are involved in analyzing individual
but strong feelings and impressions linger. or group relationships and the facilitative
The events may not be nearly as impor- processes.
tant as the meaning we give them. Talking
Figure 5.1
Relationship Quadrant
Known to self NOT known to self
Known to
others Open Blind
I Ill
NOT known Closed Potential

to others II IV

Let us see how this might be applied energy, the circumstances of a situation,
to you and your personal relationships. and an invitation to talk about ourselves,
For instance, there are some things that can determine how much we disclose to
are known to you and also known tooth- others.
ers (Quadrant I). This shared knowledge Some sensitive topics are more likely
makes it possible for you and others to to be disclosed when we perceive the
have a base from which to relate with presence of the facilitative conditions in
each other. It is an open area and free for a relationship. It matters not whether it
each of you to make comments. It is with- is with an individual or a group. It does
in this open area ideas and feelings are not matter how long we have known a
explored and it is from here awareness, person.
decision making, and actions eventually
spring. Student self-disclosure. Some
counselors claim self-disclosure has a
If some parents know, for example, strong cathartic value for students. Sev-
you are a counselor and you have taken eral therapies are based on this premise.
courses in family counseling, they may There may be times when students need
talk with you about some parenting mat- to blurt out their feelings or "pop off" just
ters. If students know that to keep fit to drain away some tension. They might
you run at the school race track every talk rapidly and impulsively with you, just
day, they may use this information to to "get it out"-to hear how their ideas
talk with you about exercising or athletic sound to themselves as much as to you.
events. Knowing something about you
may invite them to talk more freely with One way of helping students sort out
you, especially on topics about which their ideas and feelings is to encourage
they have some information. them to disclose more and to explore
their ideas with them. Such a process
Information known to self and to can help them to gain a better picture of
others can be a departure point for fur- themselves and how a situation is affect-
ther discussion. Although limited at first, ing them.
Quadrant I is where you start. It is the
area you want to expand and develop as You might be thinking, "But most stu-
part of guidance and counseling relation- dents are always talking about themselves.
ships. They disclose continually." That might
be true, especially when you consider
At the same time, there are some nonverbal communication. Yet, when stu-
things about yourself others do not know dents talk with others casually about their
much about. These things may be hidden interests and needs, they seldom are in a
or undisclosed for various reasons (Quad- situation where they can share their feel-
rant II). This is not necessarily because ings and ideas in depth. They rarely have
you have deep, dark secrets and are afraid a chance to discuss a topic to any great
to disclose them. It could be because you length because somebody is changing the
have not had a chance to tell certain topic or taking the focus away from them.
things about yourself. Systematically helping students disclose
To reveal your favorite TV program to their ideas and feelings about school, and
someone or share your likes and dislikes the things in their lives that affect their
about sporting events is a form of self-dis- learning, is part of a counselor's job.
closure. These topics become part of the Some students will not "open up"
open area, just as much as telling what to adults. They are accustomed to being
you remember most about your parents evaluated or "put down." Some quickly
and how they influenced your life. Time,

learn to clam up after they have started In a sense, everything you do while in
to reveal things about themselves because the presence of others reveals something
they begin to perceive subtle, or blatant, about yourself. Your choice of words, for
messages that warn them to be careful example, can tell how you feel and what
and cautious. This is especially true when you value. They may expose your attitude
they are not experiencing the facilitative or a hidden agenda you carry into a meet-
conditions of a helping relationship. ing. You cannot avoid revealing some
It is difficult to help students as- things about yourself in counseling, even
sess themselves or change their ideas, if you try. The point here, however, is
attitudes, and behaviors if you do not what and how you self-disclose. What is
know what they are thinking or feeling. the most facilitative way to disclose about
Therefore, when providing guidance and your self?
counseling services to students, you want Most students have heard parents and
to create situations and an atmosphere in teachers tell about their student days, "the
which students feel free to self-disclose good old days." "When I was your age,
and talk about matters. I had to .... " is an opening line that is a
Counselor self-disclosure. There sure bet to turn students away. Similarly,
was a time when counselors and teachers students have heard such things as, "If
were told they should not reveal much of you think it's tough now, I can remember
their own personal thoughts and experi- when I.. .. " For the most part, students
ences to students. It was assumed reveal- have a difficult time imagining adults, es-
ing their own ideas, feelings, values, and pecially teachers and counselors, as young
decisions would be intrusive. Some early people their age. It does not compute well
client-centered theorists, for example, with them.
believed counselor self-disclosure would Most adults usually go astray when
inappropriately influence the counsel- they self-disclose by telling too many
ing process and make it less productive details and not enough of their feelings.
because clients would try to please their They seldom miss having a moral to the
counselors, based on that information. story. The bottom line is usually, "So, I
There appears to be some truth to the idea understand what you are going through,
students may say things they think will and therefore .... " It may even have the
please a counselor, but it is more likely to ring of, "That's what happened to me,
occur when they are not experiencing the here's what I did, and this is what you
facilitative conditions. can do (or should not do)." Students fre-
It was assumed for many years there quently hear more advice than a genuine
was a common self-disclosure sequence shared experience.
that would work well. It would begin with To avoid falling into old cliches and
the counselee first disclosing personal in- boring students with stories about days
formation about needs, problems, history, past, remember to self-disclose more of
and relationships. The helper would then your feelings than the details of an event
reciprocate in self-disclosure by reveal- or situation. Be cautious when telling stu-
ing such information as impressions of dents how you solved a similar problem or
the counselee, reactions to the unfolding how you turned a potential disaster into a
counseling situation, and relevant per- smashing success. Rather, emphasize what
sonal information. Research showed such you were feeling during those times.
mutual self-disclosure could elicit more For example, consider the follow-
client self-disclosure and ratings of greater ing self-disclosure by a school counselor,
helper trustworthiness.

working with a high school senior who The self-disclosure process is the first
was trying to make a decision about col- priority in counseling and guidance as it
lege: sets the foundation for the other facilita-
"I, too, was unsure about the college tive processes. As students disclose more
I wanted to attend. There was a lot about themselves, they can receive feed-
or pressure on me to make a decision. back about their ideas, feelings, attitudes,
Those were confusing times." and behaviors.
Notice how the counselor, in this case, The two facilitative processes of self-
communicated what was thought to be a disclosure and feedback interact together
similar experience. In contrast, the follow- to create a free and open relationship as
ing would probably be less effective. the facilitative conditions continue to
grow (Quadrant I expands). It is in this
"I remember when I was trying to facilitative relationship people can begin
decide between two colleges. I finally to explore their ideas in greater depth,
decided on the one closest to home to evaluate their goals more honestly, to
because that is where my friends were examine alternatives, to make responsible
going and I could get home easier decisions, and to find solutions to their
when I needed to. Today I would look problems.
more at what courses were offered;
but, I guess your first college major
Feedback
does not make any difference. Most
people change. I know I changed my Feedback is a term that probably had
major three times. Now, if I were you, its origin in electronics and aerospace
I would.... " engineering. It implies a circuit is looped
back to its original source and this flow
Interesting, perhaps, but this self-dis-
back allows for a modification of an effect
closure runs the risk of being only tangen-
that produced the results.
tial to what the student is experiencing.
Most attention is directed to the events For example, the thermostats in build-
of the time, with the counselor assuming ings use information about temperature to
these events add credibility to the advice activate air conditioning or heating units.
that is about to follow. Commercial airline pilots use guidance
systems that involve feeding information
If you focus primarily on the feelings
into computers and then confirming or
you experienced in a situation and less
correcting the airplane's flight pattern.
on the event itself, then you are likely to
build a bond that cuts across differences. In a similar sense, personal feedback is
This is true whether the differences are helpful to us as individuals. It sometimes
related to age, sex, socioeconomics, or validates our attitudes and behaviors. At
culture. Similar feelings bridge communi- other times, it helps us modify or make
cation gaps more than similar events or changes in our lives. Feedback from others
situations. can help us stay on track or chart a new
direction.
Self-disclosure will be a mutual expe-
rience for you and your students as you As seen in the Relationship Quadrant
work with them. The appropriateness, (Figure 5.1), there are some things (facts
timeliness, and the extent of personal dis- and perceptions) that are known tooth-
closure will result from your professional ers, but not necessarily known to us. This
judgment and skill. area (Quadrant III) has been called a blind
spot or a blind area and it can be reduced
only by the process of feedback.

What do you know about your Feedback in the Facilitative Model

friends? What do they know about you? If can be equated with personal information
you know the same things about each oth- that is received about oneself. There are
er, then you can talk about these matters several possible sources of data, including
freely. They are subjects of conversation tests and inventories. But, personal infor-
that are easily accessible with one another mation from other people, including reac-
(Quadrant I). You may have told some tions of peers, is the most valuable and
close friends things abqut yourself others useful of all.
with whom you are less acquainted do
not know (Quadrant II). In other words, Increased Awareness
you moved some things from the closed and Decision Making
to the open area (Quadrant II to Quadrant
I) as you found the occasion and time to The third facilitative process is that
talk with your friends. Similarly, they may of increased awareness and decision mak-
have done the same with you. ing. It is this process most people want to
experience when they see a counselor for
There also are things your friends help. Decision making and problem solv-
know or believe about you, but they may ing are not always seen as products of self-
not have shared with you. They have disclosure and feedback. However, these
observed you in several situations and processes are closely related.
noticed how you behaved. They also have
experienced certain reactions to things Most people want their problems
you have done. They have formed impres- solved immediately. They want to tell
sions of you and reached some conclu- their story in brief and be told what to do,
sions about you as a person. Unless they or at least it seems that way. They want
have taken time to tell you, much of this to learn more about themselves in a few
information is still blind to you (Quad- quick steps and prefer everything to be
rant III). as painless and effortless as possible. It
is human nature to wish for an easy and
Feedback from those who have ob- satisfying process that does not take much
served you can add to the open area. time or commitment.
When done in a positive way, it can open
the relationship even more and provide Yet, it usually takes time to establish a
you with some valuable information. It is facilitative relationship. It takes time and
a powerful experience. energy to disclose and explore ideas and
feelings. It also takes time and commit-
As one of the four facilitative pro- ment to receive and give feedback. Finally,
cesses, feedback is an essential part of it is hard work to identify goals, weigh
guidance and counseling services. The alternatives, set priorities, and take some
information students receive can be used action steps.
to assess their development and progress.
It can help them determine if they are
Again, the Relationship Quadrant
accomplishing their goals or objectives. helps us gain insight into the process of
It also reinforces some behaviors and pro- decision making or problem solving. As
vides a stimulus for changing others. Quadrant I increases in scope and depth,
people talk more openly about matters.
In addition, counselors need feedback The processes of self-disclosure and feed-
from students and teachers. They need back help Quadrant I grow and become
to know how they are being perceived in meaningful. The scope and potential for a
their work. They also need to know what relationship (Quadrant IV) also grow be-
counseling interventions are working and cause Quadrants II and III decrease in size
which ones are not. as self-disclosure and feedback take place.

It is in the context of Quadrant I Sometimes an action step involves

people experience a greater awareness of developing a skill or practicing one. This
themselves and others and they feel more might be done in individual or small
confident in making decisions and solving group counseling. It also might result
problems. This third facilitative process, from large group guidance activities. It
then, is a product or outgrowth of Quad- could be an outcome of a student having
rant I, despite its size and range. The more had an opportunity to talk with another
limited the open relationship, the more student about a decision they are trying
limited the communication and, conse- to make.
quently, the ability to become more aware Despite the plan of action, students
of self and others and to make decisions. learn they are responsible for implement-
These three processes are directly related ing the plan and its consequences. It is
to the action a person takes as a result the fear of having to accept the conse-
of working in a helping relationship. Re- quences or the fear they will fail that
sponsible action is the final process and often prevents people from taking action,
final goal. even a first step.
As students take action, they also
Responsible Action learn to evaluate their outcomes and
Considering alternative courses of ac- make new choices. They elicit feedback
tion happens with increased awareness and explore their feelings, perhaps their
when the decision-making process is im- indecision. They reach new understand-
plemented. As students think about what ings of themselves. They can consider al-
they can do and the consequences of any ternatives and find new courses of action.
action they might take, they gain a clearer In the process, they become more mature
picture of their own rights and responsi- and responsible.
bilities. Eventually, they are encouraged
Professional counselors and teachers
to take some action to make a decision or
know they must help create and partici-
solve a problem.
pate in the four processes of self-disclo-
The person ultimately responsible sure: feedback, increased awareness and
for taking action as a result of a valuable decision-making, and responsible action.
counseling or guidance experience with They also remember they are not working
a counselor or teacher-advisor is the stu- alone in making these processes happen.
dent. Helpers have to resist the urge to It is a joint effort between helpers and
rush in to advise and act for the student, helpees.
while students must learn to form their
The facilitative processes during coun-
own courses of action and then to imple-
seling and guidance are directly related
ment them.
to what people do and say in the time
In general, the best way to assure they are together (Figure 5.2). Counseling
implementation of a course of action is to is primarily a talking process. Therefore,
develop a plan and search for some step- special attention needs to be given to how
by-step procedures that will lead to suc- people talk with one another as they at-
cess. Moving toward a goal through small tempt to produce the four facilitative pro-
steps tends to reassure students they are cesses and the facilitative conditions.
moving in the right direction and they are
making some progress toward achieving
their goal.

Figure 5.2
Facilitative Processes
(Individual or Group)
Ill Ill
II IV II IV
(A) (B)
I Ill I Ill
~
RA ~
" IA/DM
II IV II IV
(C) (D)
SD = Self-disclosure
FB =Feedback
IA/DM = Increased Awareness/
Decision Making
(A) The barriers around the open area (I) RA = Responsible Action
can be relaxed through facilitative re- WW\; = Relaxed Barriers
sponses, activities, or both, in order to
enhance the facilitative processes.
(B) Through self-disclosure (SD) and feed- (D) When the open area (I) is expanded and
back (FB), the open area (I) is expanded; developed, there is more opportunity
there is more freedom to discuss and to gain increased awareness about self,
explore issues in this area. others, and special issues or concerns.
Increased awareness by itself may be
(C) As the barriers are reduced, the open (I)
valuable, but it also can lead to more
and potential (IV) areas get larger and
effective decision-making. This, in turn,
the blind (Ill) and closed (II) areas are
leads to more responsible action on the
reduced. This is true for both individual
part of an individual or group.
and group relationships.

The High Facilitative Teachers who view themselves as fa-

cilitators can improve student-teacher re-
Responses lationships through the way they talk and
Years ago, researchers began to take respond in classroom situations. A caring,
note of how people talked with one an- supportive relationship has been shown
other. They were particularly interested to create a positive classroom environ-
in how teachers talked with students and ment and be directly related to students'
how counselors responded to counselees. school satisfaction (Baker, 1999; Corne-
It was not long before it was concluded lius-White, 2006; Stipek, 2006).
that even relationships that are intended Likewise, communication between
to be helpful can be for better or for worse counselors and clients is a critical factor
(Carkhuff, 1993), depending upon the in the helping process (Cornelius-White,
type of talk that happens. 2003). While acknowledging the impor-
Although Carl Rogers never advocated tance of nonverbal communication in
or outlined specific talking techniques counseling, most writers concentrate on
when he described his client-centered ap- verbal interaction and suggest ways coun-
proach to counseling and therapy, some selors might talk with their clients.
of his colleagues and supporters did. For You will find no exception here.
example, Arbuckle (1950) was the first to CounseJor talk is such an important vari-
encourage teachers to use the client-cen- able that everything else pales when com-
tered concepts of the helping relationship. pared to it. Even our attitudes are con-
He described how teachers could be better veyed through how we talk and the words
helpers if they listened carefully and ad- we are chose to express our ideas.
opted a student-centered attitude.
The Facilitative Model is based on the
Fifteen years later, Flanders (1965) assumption personal relationships are the
reported 95 percent of all teacher talk in basis for effective teaching and counsel-
the classroom is in the form of advising, ing. In turn, personal relationships are
judging, giving opinions, reporting facts, built on selective listening and respond-
and providing information. Not much ing. Certain verbal responses and nonver-
has changed since then. Most classroom bal behaviors increase the probability of a
interactions, regardless of grade level, are helper being perceived as friendly, caring,
situations in which teachers talk and the understanding, accepting, and trustwor-
students listen. This may be appropriate thy. Facilitative responses help create the
occasionally, but when it dominates a facilitative conditions and enhance the
teacher's style, then the working relation- helping relationship.
ship is one-sided and less productive than
it could be. The facilitative responses can be used
with everyone, regardless of age. Counsel-
Wittmer and Myrick (1989), among ors, of course, should be selective in their
others, expressed concern about teacher- choice of words and modify their interac-
student relationships and tried to help tion style with younger students. If the
teachers view themselves as facilitators. meanings of words used in the counseling
They wanted teachers to play a more sig- process are explained during the process,
nificant role in helping students grow per- children can understand and work with
sonally and socially as part of the academic them.
process. They emphasized meaningful
learning was a product of facilitative teach-
ing and described how classroom commu-
nication could be improved.

Visual props might be useful to help Feeling words are the key ingredients
ground counseling language in the day- in these empathic statements. A feeling
to-day life of children. For instance, one word has to be present in this type of re-
counselor talked with children about sponse. It cannot be assumed you under-
pleasant feelings as sunshiny feelings"
11
stand and know what the person is feel-
and used a picture of a smiling sun to il- ing. You have to say or do something to
lustrate the warmth they bring. Unpleas- show it. A feeling word must be expressed
ant feelings were described as "cloudy" in in your response.
a rainy picture and portrayed as gloomy. You probably have heard the old ad-
There are six basic responses that are age, "Put yourself in the other person's
the foundation of the Facilitative Model. shoes." It suggests that by doing so you
You will want to increase the frequency will be more understanding. You also
of them in your work. They are: (1) feel- could ask yourself, "How would I feel if I
ing-focused response; (2) clarifying or were in a situation like that?" Or, "How
summarizing response; (3) open question; would I have to feel to do or say some-
(4) facilitative feedback, as a compliment thing like that?"
or confrontation; (5) simple acknowledg- The answers to these questions might
ment; and (6) linking. give you some insight into what the per-
son is experiencing. They might lead you
The Feeling-Focused Response to be more empathic. Yet, the problem
The feeling-focused response is one with this approach is it sometimes traps
of the three highest facilitative responses you into projecting your own feelings on
you can offer to others. It is an attempt to others. We often assume others experi-
go beyond the events or ideas that are be- ence things the same way we do, but this
ing expressed and capture the essence of a may not be true.
person's experience. It directs attention to Being perceived as an empathic lis-
what a person is feeling. tener, one who responds accurately to what
Some writers have referred to this type a person is experiencing, requires you to
of response as "reflecting understand- tune into the person's feelings and respond
ing." People feel better understood when to them. It is not enough to identify the
someone senses what they are feeling in a feelings and say nothing or to think you
situation and mirrors back those feelings. understand and not verbalize that under-
There is a sense of being understood when standing. It is never enough to say simply,
others communicate they have grasped "I understand what you are experiencing"
the essence of your experience. or "I know what you are going through."
Here are some examples of feeling-fo- Neither of these statements communicate
understanding. Such responses are likely to
cused responses:
be ineffective, often met with the thought,
'Tou're really angry, John." "I don't think you do."
"Jennifer, you seem confused." Pleasant and unpleasant feel-
"That was exciting for you." ings. One method to help you be a
"You're feeling more relaxed now." more empathic person is to listen for the
feelings that exceed the literal sense of
"It hurts to think about it." the words. Ask yourself: Am I hearing
11
pleasant feelings, unpleasant feelings, or

both?" This will give you some clues re-
garding what the person is experiencing.

Helping students develop a feeling Figure 5.3

word vocabulary also is a part of guidance
and counseling and is just as important as Feeling Words
teaching them problem-solving strategies. PLEASANT UNPLEASANT
To assist you in your work, a list of pleas- enjoyment defeated
ant and unpleasant feeling words can be satisfied suspicious
developed. You can use the words shown
excited doubtful
in Figure 5.3 or you and your students can
generate your own lists. These lists could loved threatened
be posted for easy reference. happy offended
Review the list. Which words are most contented disgusted
familiar to you? Which ones do you tend delighted guarded
to use the most in your work? Which ones proud angry
are likely to be present in certain situa- hopeful hateful
tions? Which ones are unfamiliar to you accepted rejected
or sound strange? What are some current
slang expressions students use to tell about bright unhappy
their feelings that could be added to the peaceful sore
list? calm cramped
If you are looking for a key to being a warm worried
more empathic counselor, then begin by close troubled
increasing your feeling word vocabulary. strong shocked
This enables you to be more sensitive and optimistic depressed
to respond more accurately to what people
joyful disappointed
say and do. Be as precise as you can, choos-
ing the best words to grasp the person's pleased discouraged
feelings. cheerful pained
Many feeling words are closely related. stimulated abused
Sometimes you might choose one that cap- refreshed uneasy
tures a shade of the basic emotion, such as trusting uncomfortable
"You're irritated," instead of "You're mad." confident sad
It acknowledges the unpleasant experience
secure gloomy
and may not evoke as much defensiveness
as words that are forceful or less socially ac- interested tired
cepted. If you are off the mark, or if people needed bored
want to use even stronger words to empha- powerful fearful
size their emotions, then you can substitute relieved confused
or add another word. relaxed irritated
Making a feeling-focused response, special annoyed
even when it is not exactly on target, will
important angry
usually get you some credit for being an
understanding person. You are trying to uplifted concerned
grasp what the person is experiencing and inspired empty
most people appreciate the effort. You can successful overwhelmed
always be corrected. But, meanwhile, your appreciated defensive
attempt emphasizes how much you want welcomed pressured
to understand. You can hardly lose when
satisfied fragmented
you make feeling-focused responses.

Many people are unaware of their think the team will win tonight." The first
feelings. In times past, people frequently part focuses on the feeling and the second
ignored or suppressed them. "Don't get part goes on to emphasize the person's
emotional" is an expression most of us thoughts or ideas about the game. To re-
have heard, especially when we were ceive credit for this type of response, feel-
trying to make a decision or to solve a ing words (pleasant or unpleasant) must
problem. The assumption is logical and be in the context of the statement.
clear-headed thinking is without personal Another typical response that is not
feelings. This is nonserise. feeling-focused is, "I feel you should study
Our feelings have a powerful influence more." This is an opinion. It suggests
on our behavior. Feelings are a part of liv- what the person should do. The response
ing. There are a few people who are so un- is not person-centered; rather, it is a form
responsive to their environment that the of advice coming from someone else's ex-
extent of their feelings is limited. These perience.
unfeeling people are dysfunctioning. If a Feeling-focused responses can echo
student is without feeling or affect, the feelings that may or may not have been
counselor knows extensive help and ther- expressed overtly. You follow the lead of
apy, probably beyond school resources, the person. Nothing new is offered except
are needed. The person should be referred your own perception of the feelings that
to a doctor or mental health professional. are being expressed.
Most of us experience many kinds We talk and behave with feeling. We
of feelings during a day. We take some always feel something, although we may
routine events in stride while others are not be aware of the feelings that comple-
unsettling. Generally, there is a very low ment an experience. Both our verbal and
level of awareness of our feelings, as our nonverbal behavior reveal feelings tooth-
thoughts and images seem to take pre- ers, especially if they are attentive observ-
cedence in most situations. As people ers and tune into our experiences.
respond to our feelings, our awareness in-
creases. Feelings complete the pictures we Nonverbal behavior and com-
have of ourselves. munication. Nonverbal communication
is a part of all interpersonal interactions,
Feeling-focused responses will help yet it does not receive much attention in
you to be perceived as someone who counseling texts. We need to know more
cares, who is interested, and who is an about it and how to use it in our work.
attentive listener. They help people feel We typically acknowledge its importance
more comfortable and relaxed with you, and sense its strength and power, but we
as you demonstrate your empathic abili- still neglect it. Perhaps we are unsure of
ties and show you are trying to under- what to do with such knowledge.
stand how they see things.
Nonverbal communication comes
To begin a sentence with "You feel..." through the tone of one's voice, the speed
does not necessarily mean you will focus at which one speaks, the pauses, and the
on a person's feelings. For instance: "You hesitations that happen as an event is
feel the basketball team will win tonight." being described. It includes stammering,
This statement is not a feeling-focused stuttering, shouting, whispering, and oth-
response. It is really directed to the per- er vocal expressions. It also includes facial
son's opinion or idea. It might be stated, expressions, hand gestures, foot move-
"You're excited about the game ... and ments, and body position.

Body messages are part of the com- so tired of it all." Or, after hearing a young
munication process. Often the position student express a form of determined
or the movement of one's body will com- defiance, you could squint your eyes, grit
municate pleasant or unpleasant feelings. your teeth, lean over with closed fists, and
A turn of the lip, a frown, a grinding of say, "You get so angry just thinking about
teeth, or a rolling of the eyes can be valu- it." It might even be more dramatic if you
able clues as to what someone is think- shook your body while making the state-
ing and feeling. Although an awareness ment, as you attempt to emphasize what
of nonverbal behavior can be helpful in the person is experiencing.
counseling and teaching, there is no reli- You may feel the need to reach out
able reference book that helps us analyze and physically touch someone. Some
and interpret this type of behavior. counselors, for fear of accusations of mo-
Eventually, the person with whom lestation and lawsuits, make it a rule to
you are working will be assisted to see never touch students. The trend toward
how feelings and behaviors are related. abstaining from touch is probably related
Feelings and behaviors play a significant to efforts over the years to increase aware-
role in decision making and problem solv- ness and sensitivity about sexual harass-
ing. ment and abuse. In some cases, states and
In the general scheme of life, feeling- school districts say unequivocally, "Hands
focused responses are uncommon to ev- off! Touching is taboo." (DelPrete, 1998).
eryday talk. Many people, consequently, Yet, when a student is talking about
complain nobody understands them. Feel- a painful matter and has broken down,
ing-focused responses are considered the sobbing profusely, a gentle touch on the
most critical response in the counseling arm or shoulder to show compassion may
process. They communicate understand- seem like the thing to do. It is intended
ing and enhance the other facilitative to be comforting, perhaps even reassur-
conditions. ing, and to communicate the person is
Counselors who work with people not alone. Such consoling touches appear
of various ages and cultural and ethnic to be appropriate and accepted in most
groups believe nonverbal behaviors play schools.
an important role in communication The counselor must still show good
(Borg, 2008). Some cultural groups, for judgment and avoid anything that might
example, may divert their eyes when talk- be perceived as an erotic touch. This re-
ing, just as small children might when quires some counselor self-assessment.
they are talking with an adult. Eyes may You must know your own personality and
be the mirrors of the soul, but sustained needs and be aware of what your touches
eye contact can be too intense to some- tend to communicate to others.
one who associates it with intimacy or The fact remains some people can
perhaps sternness. touch and say things that are perceived
Mirroring body movements may be as kind, friendly, and even jovial. Mean-
as helpful as mirroring words (Ivey et while, other people, trying to touch in
al., 2002). For instance, when a person is the same manner, may find their touches
speaking with a tired tone of voice, you being experienced as too intense, too inti-
might lean back in your chair and drop mate, or even seductive. Their intentions
your hands, shoulders, and head as you may be misinterpreted.
make a feeling-focused response, "You're

It is obvious some touching is inap- about something else, introducing more

propriate and should be avoided, such thoughts that may or may not be relevant
as kissing, stroking hair, prolonged hugs, to the first idea expressed. Being an atten-
and spanking. Touches that are generally tive listener is not an easy job, especially
regarded as appropriate include shaking when a person is rambling about many
hands and gentle pats on the back, arm, things.
or shoulder. In addition, there may be It can be helpful to make a clarify-
times when a child must be physically re- ing or summarizing response when you:
strained or when counselors must defend (a) are not sure if you are following the
themselves. person's train of thought; (b) are not sure
Appropriate touch certainly has a if you heard something correctly; or (c)
place in school and in the work of a coun- want to draw attention or emphasize
selor. Still, most professional, state, and something that was said. Such responses
school guidelines are vague about this focus on the content of the discussion
topic. Counselors must exercise their best or the events of the story. There is no at-
professional judgment. tempt to use feeling words, although feel-
ings may be heard when the ideas were
The Clarifying or expressed.
Summarizing Response As you try to focus the conversation
If you are like most listeners, you at- or highlight a few ideas, use fresh words
tend to the events or the ideas a person when you clarify or summarize. This helps
is talking about. They are the basis of the you avoid parroting. You can use some
conversation and provide the framework of the same words, but turn the basic
for accurate understanding. Although phrases around, unless you deliberately
emotion is part of expressing ideas, the want to repeat the phrasing for emphasis.
thoughts and the story that are being Some people have referred to this type
communicated also must be understood. of statement as paraphrasing, which is a
rewording of the meaning expressed in
After listening attentively, you may something written or spoken.
want to clarify a significant idea or sum-
marize some themes you heard expressed. When used at appropriate moments,
For instance: clarifying or summarizing responses help
communicate you are interested in fol-
"You apparently have already made lowing the thoughts people are expressing
your plans.
11
and you want to understand them. These

"Let's see then, you intend to enter responses also give people an opportu-
the military service after graduation.
11
nity to hear their ideas and to think more
"You and your parents disagree about about what they have said. In a sense,
what you should do after gradua- they can provide a focus to the discussion,
tion." almost serving as a checklist of ideas that
are receiving attention.
Clarifying or summarizing responses
attempt to capture basic ideas or events. If you have misunderstood, the per-
When so much is being said in a free- son to whom you are talking can correct
flowing conversation, many things are you or add information to increase your
communicated. One statement might ex- knowledge. Then, you are back on track
press a key idea, such as plans after gradu- and can follow the lead of the person as
ation, while other statements support the the story continues. Some typical lead-in
idea. Sometimes the person who is talk- phrases are:
ing will veer off course and begin talking

"If I hear you correctly... :" questions ask for more information and
"You seem to be saying.... " encourage answers with more explana-
tion. Look at these examples:
"If I'm following you, you believe
that.. .. " "Do you get along with your teach-
ers?" (closed)
"In other words, you're trying to .... "
"What can you tell me about your
"Correct me if I'm wrong, but.. .. " teachers?" (open)
"From what you have said so far, I'm "Did you talk with your teacher?"
hearing that.. .. " (closed)
"It strikes me you're primarily.... " "What did you say to your teacher?"
"I've heard these key ideas, 1) .... " (open)
"Let me see if I understand, you The open question provides a broad
said.... " base from which to respond. There is
"What's emerging from all you said some leeway and how the person re-
is .... " sponds can provide valuable clues and
information. The closed question is nar-
"Let's see, you're thinking that.... "
row and only interested in the basic fact.
Such phrases alert the person you are Closed questions also tend to be couched
trying to focus the conversation. They in terms of your perspective, whereas
also provide a little "wiggle room" or a open questions elicit student points of
simple qualification of what you are plan- view.
ning to clarify or summarize. Moreover,
Note the examples below. Which do
they can provide you a lead as you at-
you find more inviting?
tempt to express your thoughts.
"You don't like school, do you?"
Suppose a student came to your office
(closed)
and began talking about a test that was
taking place in the near future. You might "What do you dislike about school?"
respond to the person's feelings (e.g., (open)
"You're worried about the test;" "It makes "Is this task confusing to you?"
you uneasy and nervous to think about (closed)
it"). You might clarify or summarize (e.g., "What is it that's confusing to you?"
"This test is coming up soon;" "You're (open)
planning to spend tonight studying for
the test.") In both cases, you follow the "Are you going to go to college?"
lead of the student, rather than give ad- (closed)
vice or reassuring remarks, and this facili- "What do you think about going to
tates more communication. college? (open)
Open questions are more facilitative
The Open Question because they invite additional self-disclo-
Questions can be either closed or sure. They encourage people to express
open. Closed questions require only sim- themselves more.
ple yes or no responses. They are some-
times experienced as a "just give me the
facts" approach. On the other hand, open

Closed questions also have their When students hear the "Why" in a
value, especially if you are trying to get question, they also hear criticism. They
some specific information or confirm frequently get defensive, even when it is
some thoughts or facts about something. a legitimate question of interest or con-
There will be times when you can speed cern. Therefore, facilitative counselors
up information gathering by using closed and teachers limit their use of this par-
questions. ticular open question, knowing it is not
The most facilitative open questions as productive as turning it into a "what"
tend to begin with "What" or "How" in- or "how" question. For example, look at
stead of "Why." The latter is risky because these contrasting statements:
it tends to ask people to explain or justify "Why did you cut school yesterday?"
themselves. The infamous "Why" ques- "What made you want to cut school
tion deserves special attention. yesterday?"
Most people do not know the reasons "Why don't you like math class?"
they do the things they do. Yet, they
might be asked, "Why did you do that?" "How could math class be better for
Many students respond to such a question you?"
with a quick, "I don't know." They look "Why don't you study more?"
away or shrug their shoulders. They feel "What keeps you from studying
on the spot. Look at these questions: more?
"Why don't you study more?" "Why don't you like school?
"Why did you hit him like that?" "What's your biggest complaint
"Why are you always late for class?" about school?"
"Why do you play your music so The "What and How" questions are
loud?" more specific and they are easier to an-
"Why didn't you talk with your swer. The "Why" questions, although they
teacher?" may produce some insightful thought and
comments, are usually less productive be-
Think about how you feel when such cause they tend to elicit rationalizations
"why" questions are directed to you. and defensive postures.
What kinds of answers are possible? What
kinds of impact do you think they might Clearly, the wording of a question and
have on students? the way in which it is phrased or posed
can make a difference in how a person re- .
We may never discover or understand sponds. Your tone of voice also can make
all the reasons we do the things we do. a difference. It is important to be aware
A rational explanation of some things your questions communicate your values
seems almost impossible. In addition, the and interests.
"Why" question often means something
else besides a question. Look again at the Finally, students frequently say teach-
examples above. Each one implies an ers, counselors, and parents ask too many
opinion. Also, behind each of the ques- questions. Out of habit and social custom,
tions is advice: Study more; Don't hit; Be more than anything else, it is easy to ask
on time for class; Turn down the music; questions. We hear and use them more
Talk with your teacher. than any other kind of response. It also is
easy to fall into the trap of asking ques-
tions and failing to listen to the answers.

Behind every question is an assump- Students want feedback. They want to

tion. The basis of the question is likely know how they are coming across tooth-
to be found in what the person said. ers. This includes both the personal and
Therefore, questions can easily be turned academic aspects of their lives. While they
into statements which are either feeling- may be skeptical of flattering statements
focused or clarifying responses. For ex- or leery of criticisms, they nevertheless
ample, are curious about how others experience
Closed Question: them and the impressions they make.
"Do you listen to hip-hop music?" How can you give people feedback
without judging them? How can you
Statements: compliment or confront people without
"You listen to hip-hop music." making them feel defensive?
"You enjoy hip-hop music." Facilitative feedback consists of a
Open Question: three-part response. It can be either a
compliment or a confrontation, depend-
"What feelings do you have about
ing upon what you want to communicate.
the war on terrorism?"
Part 1: Be spedfic about the be-
Statements:
havior. What has the person done? Give
"The war on terrorism is on your an example and be descriptive.
mind a lot these days."
Part 2: Tell how the person's behav-
"You worry about the war." ior makes you feel. Is your experience a
Turn questions into statements to re- pleasant or unpleasant one? Or both?
duce the number of questions you pose. Part 3: Tell what your feelings
This can be especially helpful if you find make you want to do. Being in the pres-
yourself asking a lot of questions. ence of the person's behavior and feeling
It also is effective to ask an open ques- as you do, how do you want to respond?
tion and follow it with a feeling-focused The three high facilitative responses
or clarifying response. This kind of inter- mentioned earlier (feeling-focused, clarify-
action keeps the focus on the talker and ing or summarizing, and open questions)
facilitates self-disclosure. are powerful tools that keep the focus of
discussion on the students with whom
Facilitative Feedback: Compli- you are working. A feedback response still
menting and Confronting keeps the focus on a student, but it also
Feedback, as a facilitative process, discloses some things about you. It is an
involves reducing blind areas in a rela- honest response that can be presented in
tionship, as presented in the Relationship an organized manner so your message is
Quadrant (Figure 5.1). When you use a clear.
feedback response, you will be telling See if you can identify the three parts
another person the impact that person is of feedback in the following response:
having on you. The response is a personal "Richard, I remember your telling me
one in which you are expressing your about getting a morning job before
own feelings about a person's behavior. school and how rushed you were
going to be, but I've noticed you've
been to school on time every day this
grading period. I'm proud of you and
it makes me want to support you in
anyway I can."

Now, try this example: Students especially like to hear about

"Jennifer, I'm interested but I'm also how they have affected you in a pleasant
confused. I'm not sure what to say way. They will enjoy hearing your compli-
to you. You came in the offi.ce today, ments. It creates warm feelings for them
sat down, and haven't said anything. and they will be drawn to you, although,
You're just staring at me." at first, they may feel a little uneasy to
hear positive things about themselves.
In the first example, a compliment You can help others feel important by
was paid to Richard and the three parts tuning into some of the pleasant feel-
of facilitative feedback were presented in ings you experience when they do certain
the order of parts 1, 2, and 3. In the case things.
of Jennifer, however, the parts appear in a
different order (2, 3, and 1). They also are On the other hand, we have learned
the basis of a gentle confrontation. when we share our unpleasant feelings,
there is a tendency for people to be de-
The order of the feedback parts in a fensive. They may initially pull back and
statement is not particularly important, take a second look at you, then probably
unless their placement creates a different at themselves. Therefore, there are three
emphasis. In fact, the order of the parts guidelines that may be helpful when con-
can be mixed easily. Sometimes only the fronting.
first two parts are relied upon to provide a
basic feedback response. First, do you have any "chips in the
bank?" This is another way of asking,
The three parts of the feedback model "Have you taken time to listen to and
help us to organize our thoughts and know the person?" Have you tried to be
to communicate them. They provide a understanding? Every time you are an at-
framework, just as though you were writ- tentive listener and use feeling-focused
ing a thoughtful letter and you were us- responses, clarifying or summarizing
ing your best knowledge of grammar and responses, and open questions in your
paragraphing. talk with a student, you are putting some
The difference between a compliment "chips in the bank." In essence, you are
and confrontation can be found in part building up a reserve that can be drawn
2, regardless of where it appears in the upon when it is time to confront.
feedback statement. Your pleasant feelings Some counselors and teachers have
will be perceived as a compliment, while reported they intended to confront stu-
your unpleasant feelings will probably be dents, but after listening to their stories
viewed as a confrontation. and using facilitative responses, there was
Both compliments and confrontations more understanding and fewer unpleasant
can be difficult for people to receive. Most feelings. There was no need to confront.
people are not used to them. They may. Second, is your unpleasant feeling a
feel defensive when confronted and a bit persistent one? Nobody likes a grouch or
surprised or uncertain when compliment- someone who "pops off" at every little
ed. Feedback statements are sometimes turn. Life is full of little conflicts and it
dismissed in an off-hand way because would be counterproductive to confront
they are so personal. Few people have ex- others every time their behaviors create
perience in how to respond positively to some unpleasant feelings in you. How-
them. However, the words are likely to be ever, it is neither healthy nor wise to let
heard and the impact felt. things build to the point they "boil over."
That can be messy and hard to clean up.
When persistent feelings are left to sim-

mer and stew, then a relationship suffers. A suggestion or advice may, on oc-
Timely confrontations are valuable and casion, be included as one aspect of the
have a place in facilitative relationships. third part of the feedback model, but it is
Finally, which words best commu- qualified. It also is linked to the source-
nicate your ideas? If you are too intense your feelings. Those who receive feedback
and choose words that are loaded with are ultimately responsible for whether
heavy emotion, you run the risk of not they want to continue or to change their
being heard. The impact of the feedback behavior. But, they need to know how
response could be diminished, if not dis- their behaviors affect others. It is part of
missed. the facilitative processes.
There are many words that describe Facilitative feedback may be direct or
unpleasant feelings and could be used indirect. The direct approach can be seen
in a confrontation. Some are similar, but in the examples already provided. Direct
have slightly different shades of mean- feedback is straight-forward and relies
ing. For instance, it may not be helpful to upon a clear choice of words to draw at-
tell a person how much "hate" you feel. tention to the person's behaviors and to
It might be better to tell how you feel "ir- your reactions. The indirect approach
ritated" or "annoyed." Words that are too uses metaphors or similes to describe the
intense can miss the target. Obviously, impact behaviors have on you. Inanimate
your choice of words depends upon the objects, animals, or fantasized ideas can
situation, your judgment, and your own be used to help communicate your experi-
personal style. ences.
Facilitative feedback, as a compliment For instance, something like this
or a confrontation, is efficient. It offers might be said:
you a degree of control over your own "Derrick, you remind me of a book.
emotions. It can generate energy and re- It's brand new and has never been
lease tension. After you give feedback to opened. I don't know much about it,
people, then it is time to carefully focus except what I have heard from oth-
your attention on them and tune in to ers. The cover is interesting and I find
any reactions. It is time to continue mak- myself wanting to look inside and get
ing facilitative responses to enhance the a better idea of what it's about before
relationship. I recommend it to others."
Like the other responses, compliments Or, "Renee, you remind me of a fast
and confrontations are most effective race horse. You have so much energy
when the timing is right. Again, the more and you plunge right into things. I
"chips in the bank" you have, the more envy your ability to get things done
receptive the person will likely be. If you so quickly. It makes me want to be
are working with a student who is in a around you more, because I think
shell and does not want to spend time you'll win a lot of races and you're
with you, then your words will probably {Un to watch."
bounce off like water off a turtle's back. Do you have any ideas about these
On the other hand, if you use facilitative two people? Do you think this feedback
responses to have an open and positive would be helpful to them? In both exam-
relationship, then your time together will ples, the speaker is being descriptive. You
be more productive and you will feel like can do the same. Tell size, color, location,
you are a counselor. and unique qualities. Include your feel-

ings and what you want to do with the These responses and others like them
object when you are in its presence. All help avoid the "plop experience" that
three parts of the facilitative feedback re- often occurs when someone says some-
sponse are included. Also, the parts could thing and there is no response before at-
have been put in a different order. tention shifts to someone else. It is easy
Indirect feedback may have a lighter enough to recognize you heard the person
tone, but it can be just as effective as di- without discussing or making reference
rect feedback. It sometimes allows us to to any specific ideas. In addition, such a
communicate things that would other- response is effective in bringing closure
wise be difficult to say through the direct to someone's comments. It acknowledges,
approach. It is dramatic and creative. It but does not encourage the person to
appeals to some students and catches talk more-at that time. It is a polite way
their attention more than other kinds of of telling a person you are now going to
responses. move on to another topic or another per-
son.
Feedback, the art of complimenting
and confronting, is an essential skill for
Linking
counselors and teachers. It enhances the
helping process. In addition, we also learn The linking response is especially fa-
more about ourselves through feedback cilitative in groups. Although it could be
to others because we invariably disclose used to refer to another person who is not
some things about ourselves. present, it is effective when a group leader
identifies similarities (or perhaps differ-
Simple Acknowledgment ences) that are occurring among group
members. For example:
People like to be acknowledged for
their contributions. They might be embar- "Juan and James, you both seem to
rassed or feel awkward if what they say have a special interest in soccer. v
is ignored. Therefore, a simple acknowl- (Linking content).
edgment can be facilitative, especially in "Juan and James, you're excited
groups. about trying out for the soccer team."
Here are a few common simple ac- (Linking feeling).
knowledgments: As a group leader, you can look for
"Thank you for sharing that." opportunities to "link" events, ideas, or
general experiences students have in com-
"Okay.I)
mon. You also can link feelings. Listen for
"Thanks.I) unpleasant and pleasant feelings as they
"All righC' are being expressed by group members
and, on occasion, try to show how these
feelings are shared.
Linking responses help develop a
sense of togetherness in a group and add
to group cohesiveness. They accentuate
relationships by linking information or
feelings from one person to another and
enhance the facilitative conditions within
a group.

The Low Facilitative When advice is relevant and practical,

it can be helpful and it might facilitate
Responses people toward their goals. This is especial-
While all responses-at one time or ly true when it is offered at an appropriate
another-might be helpful, some are like- time and is in the form of a suggestion,
ly to be less facilitative than others. Three instead of a directive or command. Stu-
common responses that are generally con- dents will look to you for some timely ad-
sidered to be low facilitative are: (a) advis- vice and you will want to advise them, on
ing/ evaluating; (b) analyzing/interpreting; occasion. But, remember, it shifts the re-
and (c) reassuring/supporting. Let us see sponsibility for decision making. In most
how these fit into the facilitative model. cases, it is not perceived as a response that
communicates respectful understanding
Advising/Evaluating and accepting.
Advising/evaluating responses tell Evaluative statements are judgmental,
people how to behave or judge their be- whether positive or negative, and are un-
havior. For instance: likely to be facilitative. Even when used
"Don't drop geometry, you'll need it as a secondary reinforcer, as advocated
later to get into college." by learning theorists (e.g., That's great!
Good!), evaluation often closes the door
"Instead of arguing, you should try to to open communication. People are less
see his point of view." inclined to self-disclose for fear of being
"If you'd make a study plan, then rejected. Praise and criticism, although
you'd get more homework done." well-intended, communicate you are
"What you need to do is to talk with judging the person.
your teachers about your concerns." Advising and evaluating responses are
"One of the best things you can do rated among the least facilitative respons-
now is to apologize and ask to get es for building a helping relationship. Yet,
back in class." they do have their place in the work of
counselor and teacher. It is the timely use
Advice is cheap and it is given by of them that will make the critical differ-
almost everyone. Listen to a group of ence.
people for a while and you will soon hear
some form of advice creeping into the
conversation. Students hear a lot of advice
from their parents, teachers, and coun-
selors. It is easy to recognize and follows
such lead-ins as:
"You should .... "
"If I were you, I would.... "
"The best way is to .... "
"If you do not..., then .... "
"If you would only.... "
"You need to .... "
"The thing to do is .... "

Analyzing/Interpreting Reassuring/Supporting
Analyzing/interpreting responses Reassuring/supporting responses are
probably gained their popularity from the intended to tell people we believe in
theory that there is always an explana- them. These responses are meant as en-
tion for why people do the things they couragement, but they can easily dismiss
do. And, if people only had more insight someone's feelings and fail to facilitate
about their behaviors, they could change. self-disclosure. For example:
Look at these responses: "Everyone feels like that at your age."
"Don't you see being critical of school "Things will tum out okay. 11
is just another way of expressing your

unhappiness with your family's situ- "You remind me a lot of another boy,
ation?" Chris, and he did real well in that
class."
"You want to be an engineer because
your father wants that for you." "I know how you feel."
"You don't participate in class be- "It looks bad now, but things will be
cause you're shy and afraid of fail- better tomorrow. 11
ing." "There's nothing wrong with you that

"You just want to be in Mrs. John- a couple of years of growth won't
son's room because she was your help."
sister's teacher.
11
Unfortunately, most of the time the
The intent is to explain the reason be- reassuring statements miss their mark,
hind the person's thoughts or behavior in probably because they imply individu-
the hope this will provide insight. These als need not feel as they do. They suggest
responses are marked with "because" ter- one's feelings are common, normal, un-
minology and suggest what the student necessary, or temporary. They often are
might or should think. There is an at- followed by advice or advice is implied.
tempt to provide some meaning to a situ- They suggest they should not be con-
ation, but most people do not like to have cerned and should feel differently.
their behavior or ideas interpreted. To test the impact of the three high
An interpretation may be accurate, and three low responses on the facilita-
but most of the time it is only a guess, a tive relationship, three discussion leaders
hypothesis at best. Too often interpreta- were each assigned two different groups of
tive statements are textbook cliches (e.g., eighth grade students who were matched
"You threw your pencil at her because you for age, sex, academic achievement, and
wanted attention.") It may or may not be attitude about school. The groups met
true, but is it facilitative? twice with their leaders, who were coun-
selor education students, to first talk
Interpretations tend to discourage about school and then pet peeves about
self-disclosure by confronting people who adults. The groups were very similar,
then become defensive and hesitate to except each leader was instructed to re-
share their thoughts. Want to slow down spond to one group with high facilitative
rapid and long talking bores? Interpret a responses (feeling-focused, clarifying/sum-
few of their statements or behaviors and marizing, open questions) and to the oth-
watch what happens. er group with low facilitative responses
(closed questions, reassurance, interpreta-
tions, and advice).

Tape recordings validated the leader's The LEAP response might help answer
use of responses in each group. After the the question, "Why are we doing this?" or
two meetings, the students completed a "What am I supposed to get out of this ac-
relationship inventory. Results indicated tivity?" It might be viewed as the "bottom
students who experienced the high facili- line" or, perhaps, a practical conclusion
tative responses described their leaders that can be drawn from the counseling
as more empathic, caring, interested in process and what participants are observ-
student ideas, and respectful of students, ing and experiencing. While it could be
among other positive helping character- connected to some famous maxim, epi-
istics. The study was repeated three dif- gram, or saying such as "practice makes
ferent times with similar results (Myrick, perfect," it is usually more subtle and cli-
2003). ches are avoided.
Because many counselors want to For example, one counselor led an
push things along in their busy schedules, activity that featured seven students who
they have a tendency to use too many grasped hands and arms in a tight circle.
low facilitative responses. Impatience and Another student, who was on the out-
a press for time often cause counselors to side, was instructed to "see if you can get
rush in with low facilitative responses, inside the circle," while the seven others
with disappointing results. Low facilita- attempted to keep the person out. The
tive responses have their place in counsel- counselor occasionally commented on
ing and guidance activities. You are going what was taking place. Almost always,
to give advice occasionally. You will give outsiders attempted to force their way
reassuring statements and, occasionally, into the circle by pulling and pushing,
you may make interpretations. But, it is shoving and hitting, faking and darting,
timely advice, timely interpretations, and and jumping over or crawling under until
timely reassurance that is the critical dif- the circle was broken and entry is com-
ference. plete. Others became exhausted and gave
up. Once a student was in the center of
The LEAP the circle, the challenge then was to break
The LEAP is a counselor response that out.
attempts to provide personal meaning by The LEAP in this activity took place
relating the process and concepts experi- after a few students had taken turns try-
enced in a counseling session or activity ing to break in and out of the circle. "Let's
to events and experiences outside the stop," said the counselor, "and think
session. LEAP is an acronym that means: about what has happened." Sitting to-
Linking and Extending the Activity Pro- gether, the participants were asked to talk
cess. It can provide insight or an "ah ha" about their experience as the counselor
experience that appeals to one's intellect used high facilitative responses to help
and imagination. Further, it connects the them talk. "What happened when ... ?"
"here and now" experiences of the coun- "So, you were determined not to let him
seling process to "there and then" experi- in." "You felt challenged." "It seemed so
ences outside of the counseling session. silly to you at one point." "You felt it was
It links the present with both past and hopeless and decided to give up."
future.

Making a LEAP, the counselor then said, Another counselor used an overhead
"Do you suppose this is what it is like for projector to show picture puzzles that
people to try to break out of a social group could be viewed from different perspec-
or perhaps their environment?" "Is it pos- tives. "Are you looking down a tunnel or
sible many of the feelings and behaviors at the top of a beach ball?" "Do you see
we saw today are the same or similar to two people or three vases?" After a few
ones that happen when a person wants to pictures and the observation that a design
change-maybe break away from an old or picture can produce more than one
neighborhood, gang, or group? Or when a perspective, the counselor made a LEAP.
person tries to break into a new environ- "Do you suppose when students get
ment or circle of friends?" into arguments that some people are
One student commented it was sad only looking at one possibility when
everybody in the group first tried force or actually there are more sides to the
trickery and none had calmly approached issue?" "Is it possible some people
members of the group and respectfully re- can only see one option and, no mat-
quested to get in or out. Another student ter how hard they try, they cannot
related it to times when minority and ma- see other things in the picture? "I'm
jority groups clashed, while another said wondering if some of the rumors that
the behaviors and feelings elicited from get started in our school are because
the group activity also might be applied of different perspectives and not just
to how some women feel when entering a people wanting to be mean?"
male dominated field of work. LEAPs often begin with such words
A LEAP does not have to be a final and phrases as:
statement or summary, so it can be used "Is this what a person might be experi-
at any timely moment. But, it is usually encing when .... "
made toward the end of a session, after
the activity has elicited behaviors and "Is this what people tend to do when ... "
feelings from the participants. It requires "How is what happened today similar
the counselor to be observant and aware to ... ?"
of how such feelings and behaviors are re- "Could it be what you saw happen today
lated to various life situations and events also takes place when ....
11
in life.
"Is it possible what (name) experienced
For instance, "Ann became discour- is what others experience and do when
aged and finally gave up. She sat down faced with the same kind of situation?
and said she couldn't do it. Is it possible
"I was wondering if what happened today
other people who are trying to break in or
is like .... "
break out of a situation also feel frustrated
and give up?" "Brian pushed the group as "This activity was designed to help us
hard as he could until a few members fell think about.. ..
11
over and then he dived into the middle. The LEAP response might be an open
It made some of you mad. Can you think question that leads to further discussion
of times when others have forced their or a closed one that is looking for consen-
way into a group by pushing and shov- sus. It could be a rhetorical question that
ing, perhaps bullying?" "Is it the nature of helps conclude the session. Or, it may be
people to first think of and use aggressive a final statement that ties the activity to
tactics?" the session's objective.

Facilitative Responses Feedback responses can be used with

individuals or the total group. To compli-
in Groups ment the group, an counselor might say,
The six high facilitative responses "I was pleased and encouraged to see we
are effective with students when you are could start our group on time today, espe-
meeting them individually. You are the cially knowing it's not easy for you to get
only listener and you are totally respon- here. It makes me want to make the most
sible for responding to the individual. of our time together today." An example
They also can be used with groups for an individual might be, "Jessie, I was
of students. In this case, you still can re- impressed with the way you told us about
spond to an individual in the context of your situation. You shared some personal
the group or you can respond to the total information and you weren't afraid to talk
group. about your feelings. I'm touched by your
trust in us."
For instance, you may notice a group
member is apparently fatigued and strug- When a counselor is the only one
gling to be attentive. You might make a who responds after each group member
feeling-focused response such as, "Jen- has shared something, the process tends
nifer, you're tired and it's not easy to be to look like individual counseling before
a part of the group right now." Or, if the an audience. It chokes off communication
group is experiencing fatigue, you might among group members, the very strength
say, "As I look around, I'm sensing there of the group. Group members need to talk
is a loss of energy in our group. It seems with one another, not just to the coun-
like we've hit a snag and it's dragging us selor.
down." Eliciting the high facilitative respons-
Likewise, it is possible to clarify a es from members of the group helps them
group member's point of view or some of to be more responsive to each other. It en-
the ideas that have been expressed by the hances the facilitative relationship in the
total group could be clarified or summa- group and builds greater cohesiveness.
rized. For example, "If I followed you, Ra- For instance, you might elicit a feel-
chel, you think the school policy should ing-focused response by saying something
be changed." Or, "Let's see now, in this like this, "Jessie's been telling us about
past half-hour, our group has suggested at some things that are important to her.
least four different ways of changing the Let me ask the rest of you in the group,
policy. First, you said .... " are you hearing pleasant or unpleasant
Questions can be directed to an in- feelings as she talks?" Then, using a "go
dividual or to the total group. Simple around" procedure, each member tells the
acknowledgments usually are made to feelings that were heard.
individuals, but could be directed to the The same might be done with a clari-
whole group. Linking events and feelings fying or summarizing response. "What
tends to be used in the "here and now" as basic ideas have we discussed so far in our
a group works together. group?" Or, "Who can summarize what
you heard Jessie say to this group?"

Likewise, questions can be elicited. The Facilitative Activities

"Who can ask Jessie a question that will
help us think more about what she's been The facilitative responses are power-
telling us?" "What's a question that needs ful tools and alone may be adequate to
to be asked at this point?" facilitate your students. In one group
counseling session, for instance, partici-
You also can elicit a linking response pants might be invited to share what is on
by asking the group to take note of simi- their minds, followed by an open discus-
larities among membei;s. For example, sion of matters. You hope there will be a
"Who in our group has some things in spontaneous flow of ideas and feelings, as
common when it comes to the type of you and your students move toward some
jobs they want to have someday?" Or, "It guidance and counseling objectives. The
seems some of you have had some similar movement and direction of the group, in
experiences or feelings when interview- this instance, might depend entirely on
ing for a job. Who remembers the feelings the dialogue that happens between you
some of our group members shared in and your students.
common?"
Nevertheless, facilitative activities also
Thus, you can respond to individuals can be used to build relationships and
within a group or to the group as a whole. expedite the facilitative processes. These
You can make the facilitative responses or activities are structured learning experi-
you can elicit them from group members. ences that may be used with individuals
Consequently, the original six facilitative or groups. Some activities, for example,
responses can be doubled when practiced are designed to elicit self-disclosure and
in groups, considering they are coming increase self-awareness. Others encourage
from the counselor and participants. self-assessment and feedback. Still others
Increase the frequency of the facilita- focus on decision making and problem
tive responses. They are not representative solving.
of a particular theory. They can be incor- The term activity is used to generally
porated into whatever theory you find describe a planned and structured experi-
useful or whatever role you want to play. ence. Each activity has a set of procedures
They are not a panacea by themselves. that outline the steps to be followed.
Taken out of context, they may even ap- Counselors pay particular attention to
pear contrived or phony to you. However, procedures since they structure the flow
in the context of guidance and counsel- of the session. In addition, participants
ing sessions and at the appropriate times, in an activity are given tasks that call for
they can make a difference. They provide their responses. Some counselors use these
a focus and help build close working re- terms interchangeably, but it can be useful
lationships. And, within those relation- if they are viewed more precisely.
ships, they also help create the facilitative Facilitative activities are structured
processes of self-disclosure, feedback, and learning experiences that tend to elicit
decision making. They help you accom- the facilitative processes of self-disclosure,
plish the goals of guidance and counsel- feedback, increased awareness and deci-
ing. sion making, and responsible action.
Some counselors and teachers think of
them as exercises. An activity also might
be viewed as a composite strategy with
procedures and tasks.

Facilitative procedures are the sequence Facilitative tasks are specific assign-
of steps to be followed. They describe a ments that direct a person to do some-
course of action or a way of doing something. They may be given alone or as
thing. They are the general guidelines that part of some group procedures. One task
outline a manner of proceeding in a struc- might request a person to "Tell one thing
tured experience. you do well." Another might be "Tell
Facilitative tasks are more specific as- one thing about yourself you would like
signments. They request specific action to improve." These tasks focus on self-
from participants. They may call for cer- disclosure.
tain behaviors or responses and are usu- Group members also might be direct-
ally posed as a question or some type of ed to "Tell something positive you have
directive. noticed about someone in our group."
For example, during group counsel- Another task might be "Tell one thing you
ing, it is common to begin with introduc- have noticed about how we work togeth-
tions (an activity). You might first put er." Both tasks focus on feedback.
group members in pairs (procedure) where As you might imagine, tasks also can
they then interview each other (proce- be directed toward decision making or
dure) before introducing one another to problem solving. For example, "List ten
the rest of the group. things you want to accomplish this year
One direction that might be given to and then rank order the top three." Or,
each pair is: "During your interview, find "List three things you can do to resolve
out the name of a famous person your the problem. Then we'll discuss the conse-
partner admires and would like to visit" quences of each one."
(task). The task, in this case, focuses on a Many of the activities and tasks used
specific area for self-disclosure, making it in guidance and counseling grew out of
easier for group members to reveal some- human relations training and the group
thing of themselves. This introductory ac- movement of the 60s and 70s. Sensitivity
tivity, with its procedures and tasks, aids groups, encounter groups, growth groups,
the facilitative process. and other kinds of groups evolved around
In an individual counseling session, certain exercises or procedures. These
a counselor used an activity to help a interpersonal groups increased opportu-
student begin talking about future plans. nities for self-understanding and human
A piece of paper that contained some awareness.
unfinished sentences (e.g., What I want Some of these human relations groups
most is .... ; Happiness is .... ; When I am and their related procedures were integrat-
under pressure, I.. .. ; One thing I want out ed into academic and guidance programs.
of life is .... ) was given to the student, who A few teachers quickly adapted some for
quickly penciled in responses that came use in their classrooms. However, most
immediately to mind. Then, the student teachers and counselors found them to
and counselor talked about the list and be controversial or were unsure how to
some of the responses. In this case, the ac- "process" them. Some activities were more
tivity consisted of using some unfinished facilitative than others and some were en-
sentences. The procedures described the tirely inappropriate for the schools. But,
stages and steps within the activity (e.g., we have learned a lot since those soul-
Give the student a paper with unfinished searching days and now we borrow the
sentences and some directions; talk about best ideas to make our work easier.
the experience) and the task was to com-
plete the unfinished sentences themselves.

Activities and tasks can be organized Facilitative Counseling

in a sequence as part of a guidance or
counseling session or unit. Activities can and Teaching
be arranged so they are likely to lead stu- The Facilitative Model, then, consists
dents sequentially through the facilita- of building interpersonal relationships in
tive processes. Self-disclosure is usually which students experience the facilitative
the first step, followed by feedback. After conditions of trust, understanding, ac-
a few activities along tpese lines, it is as- ceptance, caring, respect, and friendliness.
sumed the counselees are more open to These conditions develop as you and stu-
exploring and making decisions with the dents self-disclose to each other, reducing
help of additional activities. some of the hidden areas that block com-
Activities and tasks can elicit behav- munication.
iors and responses from people. They can These conditions also are fostered
help focus a discussion, keeping individu- through the process of feedback, where
als on task. They expedite matters; how- an honest exchange of perceptions can
ever, they are not an end to themselves. help students know more about their im-
They do not do the work of the counselor. pact on others. Interestingly enough, as
You must be selective of activities and the these two facilitative processes hap-
make decisions about the best procedures pen, the helping relationship is further
to follow. After giving counselees a task, enhanced; students become more open to
you must still be the facilitator to move exploring ideas, feelings, and behaviors;
them toward their goals. The activities and responsible decision making and
you choose will fail or have only marginal problem solving can happen.
success without your selected use of high The model applies to working with
facilitative responses to "process" the ex- individuals, small groups, and large
periences that result from, and during, the groups. It is useful not only for problem-
activity. focused situations, but for developmental
and preventative ones as well. Moreover,
when used in the classroom, the model
can facilitate academic as well as guidance
curricula.


Individual Counseling
as a Couoselor Intervention
When most people think of coun- The early history of guidance in the
seling, they think of two people sitting schools suggests individual counseling
across from one another and talking consisted primarily of interviews about
about a personal matter. The counselor is occupational plans. Students explored
settled back, relaxed, and listening atten- their career interests and abilities and test
tively as the counselee describes a person- results were interpreted to them. They
al event. After a time, the counselor offers received occupational information and
interpretations, insights, advice, and suggestions about job placement. Voca-
encouragement as the counselee reflects tional counseling, the foundation of all
and considers their meaning. It is a scene school counseling, was generally an in-
of two individuals-one a professional- dividual counseling process. As the years
working together to discover causes and passed, a greater emphasis was placed on
solutions to problems. helping young people with their personal
Not surprisingly, it is the intensive na- and social problems, which still involved
ture of individual counseling that attracts individual meetings between a counselor
persons to counseling. It also is this same and a student. It often was called personal
scenario which appeals to many people counseling.
who want to enter the counseling profes- Very little research has examined the
sion. At the same time, there are people underlying assumptions teachers make
who find the idea of personal counsel- about the helping relationship and the
ing intimidating. This especially may be role of the counselor when a referral is
true of young people, who often envision made. One five-year study Gackson &
being "psychoanalyzed" or "treated like White, 2000) took place at an elemen-
"mental cases." tary school with 430 students and 45
staff members. The school was culturally
diverse with 38 percent African American,
33 percent Hispanic/Latino, 20 percent
European American, and 9 percent from
other cultural backgrounds. It was con-
sidered a low-socioeconomic school, as
defined by the number of students receiv-
ing free and reduced lunch (92%).

The researchers found the school Individual Counseling

counselor received an average of 200
formal requests for individual counsel- Defined
ing each year and saw these individual By definition, individual counseling
children an average of three times each. happens when a counselor meets pri-
Overall, kindergartners were referred most vately with a student for the purposes of
frequently for counseling (23%) while counseling. It is this dyadic interaction
fifth graders were referred least (11 %). between counselor and counselee many
Boys (55%) and girls (45%) were referred think is the essence of the counselor's job.
to the counselor at almost equal rates. Many young people are reluctant to
The percent of referrals for European talk about personal matters or concerns in
American children (44%) and African classroom discussions with teachers. Some
American children (41 %) were almost hesitate to talk in front of small groups.
equal. Only 9 percent of the counseling Therefore, individual counseling in the
referrals involved Hispanic students, al- schools, taking its lead from psycho-
though they comprised 21 percent of the therapy, was based on the assumption a
school population. In turn, the counselor counselee would prefer to talk alone with
referred 20 percent of all referred students a counselor.
to an out of school agency for special Furthermore, confidentiality was
help. always considered the cornerstone of
One of the most important findings counseling. Consequently, it was assumed
was teacher referrals were based on the students needed a private meeting with a
perception of the school counselor's role. counselor to confide their thoughts and
Almost all teachers making a referral to be assured their disclosures would be
viewed individual counseling as the most safeguarded.
likely counselor intervention. Individual counseling as an interven-
As students learn more about the role tion gained its popularity from theoretical
and function of their school counselors, and philosophical premises that empha-
they are more likely to refer themselves sized respect for individual worth, differ-
for counseling. Some students may feel ences, and rights. The counseling relation-
less pressure to resolve a problem alone ship is considered a personal one. It allows
and be willing to work with a counselor in for some distinct kinds of communication
a small or large group setting. The major- between counselor and counselee, protect-
ity of self-referrals, however, will initially ing the integrity and the welfare of the
seek a private conversation. They, too, counselee.
may think individual counseling is the
only counselor intervention available.

Chapter 6 Individual Counseling as a Counselor Intervention
Many people picture counseling as Because individual counseling seems

an intense or intricate process, with each easier to understand and to manage, most
word, gesture, and silent moment being beginning counselors start with that kind
considered significant. It could happen of counselor intervention in their practi-
only between a skilled counselor and a cum experiences. Counselor education
willing counselee, together searching for programs have expanded their course
hidden meanings behind behaviors. Such offerings to include group counseling,
a personal examination would necessitate consultation, and other interventions.
permissiveness and freedom to explore However, individual counseling is still the
ideas in depth, under the watchful eye of a primary focus during counselor prepara-
counselor. For many years, it was assumed tion.
this experience could happen only in a For these and other reasons, individ-
two-person interaction. ual counseling is a popular counselor in-
Individual counseling continues to tervention in the schools. It is a valid job
be a primary counselor intervention in function and it will always be a unique
schools for many reasons. First, most and important part of the counselor's role.
school organizations are structured
around classes and classroom teachers.
Teachers are more inclined to release
one student at a time from their classes
because it is less disruptive of their class-
room routines. Individual counseling is
easier to schedule than other interven-
tions and may seem to be more practical.
Subsequently, it is the most frequently
used counselor intervention.
In addition, many school counsel-
ors acquired a preference for individual
counseling through their graduate stud-
ies in counselor education. Burnham and
Johnson (2000) suggested there might be
an over-reliance on individual counseling
because it is consistent with traditional
counselor education training. In addition,
it is a convenient and comfortable way
to work with students. Counseling theo-
ries and techniques, for example, most
often are illustrated through individual
case studies. Many of these have emerged
from the long history of psychotherapy,
where individual case studies have been
recorded.

Stages of Counseling Although counseling topics change

and can merge and the sequence of events
Most of us like some order in our are sometimes unpredictable, it is pos-
lives. Among other things, we organize sible to identify representative stages of
our days, our households, our personal counseling. These provide a convenient
belongings, and our work. Some of us checklist and occasionally suggest some
envy people who seem to be more system- directions in which you might work.
atic and efficient than we are.
Let us take a look at eight stages that
Unfortunately, counseling is not typically characterize the general nature of
always an orderly and logical process. We counseling.
would like, for instance, to have coun-
selees start their stories from the begin-
ning, touching on only the most relevant
Stage One:
details, as they proceed step by step to re- Beginning and Orientation
late significant events and circumstances The first stage of counseling is charac-
that have led to their concerns. Likewise, terized by getting acquainted, gathering
it would be convenient if they would some background information, forming
clearly articulate their dilemmas, alterna- a helping relationship, clarifying roles
tives, and consequences and then system- and expectations, making some initial
atically arrive at some insightful meanings assessments, and setting some goals.
or plans that would solve their problems. Counseling is initiated and the counselee
Counseling often does not seem to is given some orientation to the nature of
follow such an easy path. First, counselees the counseling process. While this stage
are frequently distressed and full of emo- might be completed in one session, it may
tion. They are confused or frustrated and take as many as two or three sessions,
cannot think clearly. Typically, they avoid even in short term counseling.
or resist examining critical issues and The first stage is when you and your
ideas, as their rambling dialogues become counselees discuss what you will do
part of their defensive postures to explore together and mutually agree upon some
ideas and consider change. roles and procedures. Even when these
Nevertheless, close observation of are stated in general terms, there is an at-
many counseling sessions has revealed tempt to identify some parameters for the
some common patterns. The easiest place sessions.
to begin is to think of the three basic parts No matter the setting or the occasion,
of a counseling interview: (1) initiation, the first meeting sets the tone for the rest
or statement of the problem or situation; of the counseling sessions. First impres-
(2) development or exploration; and (3) sions are formed immediately as counsel-
closing. These three parts indicate move- or and student meet. The student might
ment and direction in an interview. be thinking, "Can this person help me?
The actual amount of time given How much can I trust this person? What's
to any one part may vary extensively, going to happen? Should I really do this?"
and sometimes the parts are difficult to Meanwhile, the counselor might be think-
identity. In many respects, the totality of ing. "Will this person trust me? How can
counseling with all its sessions is parallel we best work together? How can I make
to an individual session. There is a begin- the best use of our time? How serious is
ning, a working, and an ending period. the problem? Where do we begin?"

This is the time to get acquainted. Such questions may make some
Both you and a counselee might exchange people feel on the spot, but they are rea-
some friendly greetings and words as you sonable inquiries and have the advantage
reach out and invite the student to talk. of letting counselees begin wherever they
Relationship building begins from the first are most comfortable. It is always better to
moment the two of you set your eyes on let people state their reasons for wanting
one another and continues to grow as you to see you, even when you might already
exchange ideas. The g~neral rule is to fol- have an idea.
low the lead of your counselees, helping When counseling is the result of a
them self-disclose as you "put chips in the self-referral, small talk or "ice breakers"
bank" by responding with high facilita- are usually not needed to get things go-
tive responses. Through your "chips" ing. The person has something in mind
(your responses), you build the helping and is anxious to get started. As long as
relationship and increase your credibility. you do not rush in with a lot of unnec-
Nonverbal communication during essary reassuring words, the person will
the early minutes of the first meeting usually begin to talk, even when unsure
plays a significant role and could be more of how counseling works.
important than anything that is said. For If a first meeting is not a self-referral,
instance, a counselee's eyes will examine but is counselor-initiated, it will be your
your demeanor, looking for personal clues responsibility to clarify the reasons you
that suggest how to act in your presence. called a student into your office. Even
They scan around the room, searching for then, in the beginning, you will want
things that will tell how comfortable and to ask open questions and avoid any
safe the environment might be. long speeches or lectures. Some coun-
It is common to see students spend selors make the mistake of quickly tell-
time looking around the room instead of ing students they are in trouble with a
speaking directly to a counselor. Stealing teacher and the possible consequences
close glimpses of the counselor is com- if the problem is not resolved. This only
mon among students who are generally makes students think defensively and
insecure around adults, especially author- tends to create a picture of the counselor
ity figures. The eyes soak up unspoken and teacher conspiring as a team against
information and influence the counseling them. The task is to get students to talk as
process. openly as possible about their situations
Some tension is usually present as and perspectives and to avoid speaking for
you and your counselees test one another teachers or others.
and move toward a working relationship. An English teacher referred Allen,
Therefore, like most counselors, you may a ninth grade student, for counseling.
want to begin your first meeting by asking His classroom behavior was described as
students, especially if it is counselee initi- uncooperative and inappropriate. Ap-
ated, "How can I help you?" or "What's parently, he paid little attention to class
on your mind?" or "What did you want lectures, made side remarks to classmates,
to see me about?" All these are straightfor- and became sullen when confronted. He
ward questions, although counselees may was considered disruptive and the teacher
not know what to say, where to begin, did not want him back in class.
or what particular reasons brought them
there. This type of question gives them an
opportunity to think about and tell what
has led them to see you.

The counselor began by asking a series and how they experienced the counsel-
of open-ended questions, such as: "How's ing process. This again follows the lead
school going for you, Allen?" "How would of the student. It gives you information
you describe your English class?" "How that might be helpful and buys some time
do you get along with your teacher in that as you decide how you might best be of
class?" Each of these questions, of course, help.
was followed by clarifying and feeling- After hearing the initial thoughts and
focused responses. feelings of a counselee and any requests
Some counselors may prefer to begin and expectations, it is time to explain
by revealing the motivation for calling the and clarify counseling as you see it. What
student into the office, such as: "Allen, is counseling? What is your job or role?
I had an opportunity to talk with your What services do you provide? Who else
English teacher this week. She's concerned is available to support you in your work
and has asked me to talk with you. How's or also might be available for assistance, if
it going for you in that class?" This gives needed? How does the counseling pro-
the discussion a focus and, while it could cess work? What are your expectations,
elicit some initial defensiveness, it identi- ground rules, and limitations?
ties the reason for the meeting. It assumes The first meeting is a critical aspect
a candid and straightforward approach of counseling. Some call the first session
encourages counselees to be honest and an "intake interview," drawing upon the
open. work of mental health counselors and
Most counselees are unfamiliar with therapists. The term is not commonly
the counseling process. It is usually a used in school counseling, but some
new experience for people to talk with counselors use it to identify a starting
a trained professional who helps them place.
think about their ideas and feelings in Mental health centers and counseling
depth. Most counselees will not know agencies typically have intake specialists
what to expect from counseling or from who gather general information from
the counselor. They are unsure of what each new client before any therapeutic
roles each person plays. They enter the experience. Then, based on the intake
counselor's office with more hope than information, assignments are made to
knowledge of how to get the most out of counselors or therapists. High school
counseling. counselors in Lincoln, Nebraska, used this
It is risky to assume counselees know procedure as they attempted differenti-
who you are and what counseling is ated staffing. As a rule, school counselors
about, even if they have had experiences conduct their own intakes because they
with other counselors or therapists. It are assigned to a designated class or popu-
might be foolhardy to assume others work lation of students.
in the same manner as you or share the
same philosophy, theories, and skills. In
fact, they may have used approaches or
worked in a way that was contrary to the
approach you might use. If a counselee
has had some previous experience with
other counselors, then it may be appropri-
ate to ask how the counseling worked out

In addition, there is less need for tra- Some counselors prefer less formal
ditional intake procedures and informa- methods, following the lead of the
tion in schools because most background counselee and noting information as it
data are available in student records and emerges from a relatively unstructured
cumulative files. Drawing upon data that interview. Others prefer to expedite mat-
follows students through the school years ters and use more structured procedures,
can save you time and reduce the need to gathering particular information to use
ask general background.questions. How- in formulating a counseling plan or
ever, it is always valuable to hear how contract. One counselor said, "Without
students describe their situations instead some basic information, a counselor is
of depending totally on school records. not only delaying a counseling strategy,
Regardless of circumstances or set- but could go off on a tangent and waste
tings, the first meeting is the beginning of a lot of time." Others have countered by
counseling. When you meet a student for saying, "Yes, but there is no need to rush
the first time, first impressions come into and push things along. The basic referral
play. Opinions are formed, subtle deci- information is all that is needed at first.
sions are made, and personal perceptions The highest priority is to build a working
begin to influence the interaction. The relationship."
first meeting usually sets the direction of By the end of the beginning and ori-
the counseling for other sessions-for bet- entation stage, counselees should know
ter or for worse. more about you, your roles and func-
During your first counseling sessions tions, the general procedures to follow,
with students, you will form some pre- and the services you can give, including
liminary hypotheses as you look for clues your limitations and expectations. You
about the problem and the best direction should know what help you can and
to take. Beware letting the first meeting be might give in light of your current com-
reduced to merely a fact-finding question mitments and some idea of your next
and answer period. Otherwise, despite step. This might be to schedule more
the reason for being there, counselees individual sessions or to form a small
might conclude counseling is a process group. You might mutually agree to stop
of answering questions that will eventu- at this point. The orientation and intro-
ally lead to being told what to do to make duction stage needs special attention to
things better. Consequently, you may help you and your counselees make the
want to look for some effective ways to most of your time together.
collect information without falling into
a "just give me the facts" type interview.
Make sure a focus on information gather-
ing does not supersede the attention you
give to building the relationship.
Collecting some general and specific
information in the first meeting can clari-
fy the reason a person is seeking counsel-
ing and some of the resources available
to that person. Background and history
might be useful in diagnosis or in making
decisions on how to proceed. How and
when this information is collected can
vary from one counselor to another.

Stage Two: Building the been conditioned about the nature of

Relationship and Assessment tests and how they are used. Few students
support them, even among those who
If you decide to work with the coun- always perform well. Tests are considered
selee beyond the orientation and intro- a "necessary evil" in school and there is
duction stage, then it is likely you will en- no reason to believe tests and inventories
gage in some assessment procedures and administered in the guidance office will
continue to build the helping relation- be perceived differently.
ship. Assessment of a counselee's situation
or problem is a continuous process, one Informal assessments are those that rely
done jointly. Sometimes you may want upon first hand observations, a simple
to administer a brief form or inventory to checklist, or counselor intuitiveness.
obtain baseline data as you start counsel- While formal assessments, such as stan-
ing to help assess progress. There are two dardized tests, provide specific kinds of
types of assessments: formal and informal. information and insight, counselors also
Both can provide valuable information can gain information through informal
and each, in its own way, affects the assessments, such as the use of drawings
counseling relationship and process. (e.g., Cobia & Brazelton, 1994) and early
recollections (e.g., Clark, 1994).
Formal assessments consist of standard-
ized measurements to which a student re- The biggest criticism of the less formal
sponds. Such instruments provide norms assessments is they lack reliability and
for comparison and can enable both the validity. However, experienced counselors
counselor and students to gain some idea develop an idiosyncratic set of norms that
of how they compare to others. They enables them to use informal assessment
might focus on intelligence, attitude, procedures with confidence. Some coun-
values, achievement, interests, concerns, selors have even developed their own
skills, or aptitudes. Standardized tests and school norms.
inventories are explained in greater detail There are seven primary areas of as-
in other books, but it is important here to sessment that can be addressed using both
recognize their role at this stage of coun- formal and informal methods.
seling. 1. Physical. The manner in which a
Formal assessment usually takes more student physically presents oneself
time than informal assessment. Data is can provide the first clues to a stu-
collected through recommended admin- dent's situation or problem. How is
istrative procedures. Students often feel as the person dressed? Groomed? What
if they are taking tests, although it may be about physical posture? What do
only an interest or career inventory. Tests the student's eyes tell you? Is this an
and inventories are usually paper and energetic or fatigued individual? What
pencil devices. This puts some distance, outward signs of stress are evident?
although temporary, between the coun- What evidence is there about overall
selor and student. Sometimes students health? Are there hearing or vision
assume, after completing the "exam," you problems? Do medical records suggest
now have all the information needed to any unusual health problems (dia-
help solve any problem. betes, etc.). Is the student taking any
Formal tests and inventories are medication?
impersonal and, during interpretation,
it takes a skilled counselor to reduce the
threat, suspicion, and personal distance
most instruments create. Students have

2. Social. How well does the student re- 5. History. What general and specific
late to you and to others in the office history is relevant to the situation or
or immediate area? Does speech flow problem? Have there been any par-
easily or hesitantly? Is the person's ticular events in the student's life that
demeanor generally positive or nega- may have contributed to any prob-
tive? What attitudes are expressed in lems of difficulties (e.g., traumatic
both verbal and nonverbal behaviors? events, frightening episodes, unstable
Does this person form social relation- family, migrant history)? What par-
ships easily or is it difficult? Does the ticular circumstances have and are
individual have any friends or fit into contributing to the person's present
groups around the school? state of mind and patterns of behav-
3. Cognitive. How well does the stu- ior?
dent conceptualize ideas? Do words 6. Future Perspective. Does the stu-
flow easily or falteringly? Is there a dent have any goals for the future? Is
logical flow to discussion or does the the future seen as positive or nega-
person jump from one topic to anoth- tive? Is the person hopeful, although
er? What about the tone of voice, the the situation is difficult? Can prob-
pitch and speed at which the person lems be seen as solvable and as part of
talks? Is the individual taking any life's process? Is the person fatalistic or
medication or drugs that might affect is there a sense of control over one's
thinking processes? How good is the destiny? Can goals and objectives be
person's testing of reality? Is there an described in realistic terms? Is there a
understanding of the consequences of sense of how past, present, and future
behaviors? What kinds of values tend are related and the future can be af-
to influence the person's thinking and fected by current behaviors? How will-
behavior? Is there any evidence of in- ing to take control and responsibility
appropriate affect or inability to think for the future is the student?
logically about matters? 7. The Presenting Problem. What is
4. Cultural. What cultural (religious, the situation or problem that has been
ethnic, family lifestyle or background, given as the reason for counseling?
environmental) factors have influ- The level of awareness will vary from
enced the person's thinking, feeling, one person to another, but does the
and behaving? Are there any special student have some idea of what has
pressures or difficult to control cir- led to the situation? Of all the prob-
cumstances for the student that make lems that might be presented, which
it difficult to make choices? Does the one has the clearest theme? Keep in
person feel stigmatized, isolated, per- mind the presenting problem is so
secuted, or rejected because of cultural named because it is the place where
factors? Can the person appreciate you are starting. It may not be the
cultural differences or is there a ten- most serious problem or even a prob-
dency to think in terms of disadvan- lem, but it is a place to begin.
tages or to devalue?

Some assessment information might ideas and feelings can lead through some
be obtained by simply asking the coun- confusing mazes of thoughts and dead-
selee a list of questions. However, most ends in terms of personal insight. Yet, the
information can be obtained by being a process is, more often than not, consid-
careful listener as you help counselees talk ered productive.
about their situations. It is during this It is as though counselees are search-
time you also are building your working for treasures. They may not find what
ing relationship. Following the lead of they are looking for, but the experience
the counselee and using high facilitative can provide valuable information about
responses are still appropriate counselor them and it can be an exciting adventure.
behaviors in this stage. This is especially true if they are making
the journey with a trusted friend who has
Stage Three: provided some timely reassurance, in-
Exploring and Discovery sights, and encouragement.
The third stage can be described as This stage can be characterized by the
a working stage. It is a time when the use of structured or relatively unstruc-
counselor and counselee explore events tured activities that are designed to en-
in an attempt to find some special mean- gage a student in the counseling process.
ings, discover some new ideas, gain Play media, perhaps drawing or painting
insight, and consider alternatives. It is materials, may help students open up and
a time to think and feel freely about can provide an avenue to help explore
a situation without restraints and it is barriers to school success.
frequently characterized by spontaneous
talk. Structured activities can help stimu- Stage Four:
late thinking and feeling. They also help Centering and Setting Goals
identify patterns of behavior, self-pictures,
influential values, and significant others. Eventually, the time will arrive to
Sometimes it is helpful to use stories and take what has been learned in the previ-
metaphors as tools to explore ideas. ous stages and put it to use. This usually
requires a focus be given to the discus-
In this stage, you provide the counsel- sions. This might come because of pat-
ee the luxury of weaving through images, terns which clarify a person's attitudes
collecting ideas, sharing fleeting thoughts, and behaviors. Or, it might come through
and momentarily gaining glimpses of general themes that keep recurring in
past, present, and future. You assist the discussion.
counselee to move from an external to
an internal frame of reference and un- As counselees get a focus on what
derstanding. It is a time for patient and they want to happen in their lives, some
attentive listening and gentle structuring. personal goals can be identified, clarified,
and made more meaningful. They are
This can be a difficult stage because described generally and in specific terms
you, the counselee, or both of you often to obtain an image or picture of desired
are eager to move ahead toward some outcomes. In this sense, the process of
solution and may grow impatient, espe- counseling is much like working with a
cially if the sessions tend to ramble. While camera. It takes some fine-tuning to get
stimulating, this process of exploring a clear image and the camera's eye takes
in only so much of the landscape. In

counseling, as in photography, there are Stage Six:

choices to make about which scenes to Collecting Data and the Interim
explore now and which ones to return to
later. In the counseling process, it is usu-
ally appropriate to identify a starting
point. This may be done in the first stage
Stage Five:
and first meeting. Or, it may come after
Planning and Taking Action specific goals have been identified (e.g.,
During this stage, a: counselee identi- more homework completed or improved
fies a specific goal and arrives at a plan attendance record) and some baseline
of action. This plan is primarily a "next data are collected and examined. Data col-
step." It may have several parts, but the lection can continue as the plan of action
most immediate course of action is identi- is implemented.
fied. It is the responsibility of the counselee
One of the intriguing traits of humans to begin the plan, to note any conse-
is our ability to have fantasies-to dream quences, and to make decisions. The time
about things we would like to see hap- when the counselee is implementing
pen. How often have you thought about some course of action is considered an
doing some things, but did not do them? interim period. Sometimes supportive ses-
We can think about what we would like sions are needed to help a counselee keep
to have happen, but sometimes we fail to focused or to practice skills; but, for the
take action and so nothing happens. The most part, this is a waiting period for the
lack of action reduces energy and commit- counselor.
ment and the goal slips away into fantasy
or is forgotten altogether. Stage Seven:
It is assumed a first and next step Follow-up and Evaluation
will trigger other related positive behav- The follow-up and evaluation stage is
iors if a next step is carefully planned. a time when the counselor and counselee
While other goals and more plans may look at what has been accomplished, as-
be sketched out in detail later, preparing sessing progress and the effectiveness of
for some immediate responsible action is the counselee's plan or behavior. Some
given high priority in school counseling. counselors choose to follow-up cases only
Discussion of consequences, alternatives, when the counselees need more help or
role-playing, and skill-development might things have not gone according to plan.
be included in this stage. Yet, it is just as valuable to hear a coun-
selee tell a success story as it is to focus on
parts of a plan that did not work or that
need improvement. Having a follow-up
listener is reinforcing to counselees and
gives them an opportunity to clarify what
happened, to identify the parts of their
plan that contributed to success, to think
of how the results might be generalized to
other aspects of life, and to start thinking
of new goals and objectives.

"How did it go?" "What happened?" Although some interesting ideas or is-
"How did things work out?" "Tell me sues might be introduced during the final
how you started." "What did you like stage, it is usually best to avoid any new
best about what you did?" "If you were counseling material. If necessary, another
to change things, what would you do contract for counseling services can be
differently?" "How would you approach agreed upon, perhaps for another two or
it now?" "What did you learn or relearn three sessions. "If we had some more time
from your experience?" All these open- to spend together in counseling, how
ended questions are possible entry state- could we best use that time?"
ments for this stage as you follow the lead During closure, you will want to end
of the counselee. You also might listen on a positive note. Perhaps, you will want
for behaviors that can be reinforced and to summarize any progress the counselee
generalized. made, even celebrate the gains. Or, you
Based upon a joint evaluation with may want to ask the counselee to think
the counselee, it is possible to make such about what has been learned or relearned.
decisions as whether the plan of action Final impressions might be in order. Some
should continue as it is, be modified, or counselors end by using some of the time
be terminated and another plan devel- to compliment the counselee about some-
oped. An evaluation may suggest coun- thing, using the feedback model.
seling is ready to end. In that case, it is One counselor would always remind
during the last part of this stage you make her elementary school students that al-
plans to phase out the counseling process though the counseling sessions were end-
or to make a referral. ing, the connection was not. She would
be around the school and continue to see
Stage Eight: them, on occasion. She would make every
Closing and Separation effort to visit the counselees' classrooms
In this final stage, you help fashion an and give a friendly "hello," letting the
end to the counseling arrangements and young students know she was still around
bring closure to the counseling relation- and available, if needed.
ship. It is time to separate because coun- Without some limits, however, this
.seling is over. popular counselor found students did not
It can be helpful to have some con- want to end their counseling sessions. The
cepts and strategies for termination or counselor provided a warm, caring envi-
ending counseling with a counselee. If ronment that was difficult to terminate.
managed effectively, it can maximize Therefore, she took some precautions in
counseling outcomes and minimize nega- helping students find closure to counsel-
tive reactions. Parting can be a sad and ing.
difficult experience for both counselor Almost all counselors forewarn their
and counselee, especially when it occurs counselees about the number of counsel-
abruptly. ing sessions that remain. For example,
you might say to a student, "We have two
more meetings or sessions together. How
do you think we might spend that time?"
Or, "Next week is our last session, so what
can we do today to make the best use of
our time?"

Even in a one-time counseling ses- Factors to Consider

sion, closing remarks can make a lasting
There are a few factors to consider in a
impression. As time comes to a close, you
practical approach to individual counsel-
might ask, "Our time is about up; is there
anything else you'd like to say?" ing. Some beginning questions might be:
Who? When? Where? and How?
One favorite way of terminating coun-
seling is to ask counselees to summarize Who should receive
what counseling has meant to them from
their point of view. Or, you might take
individual counseling?
the lead and provide a summation of the Some situations are especially suited
sessions. Then, ask the counselee what for individual counseling. For example,
might be added. Any final statements are there will be students who lack self-con-
positive and you conclude by wishing the fidence and are hesitant to participate in
person well. other kinds of counselor interventions,
such as small group counseling. They can-
No two counseling cases are the same.
not imagine others understanding their
Every counseling session is different. Yet,
situations or even caring. Speaking in
these common stages seem to appear in
front of a group is unthinkable to them,
one way or another. They are intended as
a practical guide and should not be con- as they struggle to find the courage to talk
to one person.
sidered a concrete path to success.
There are other students who lack
social skills and are quickly rejected by
others. Their lack of personal sensitivity
sometimes leads to socially inappropriate
remarks or behaviors, which can make
it difficult to obtain group support. One
student, for example, had an offensive
body odor and dressed in odd-appearing
clothes that tempted other students to
joke about him. They made every effort
to avoid his presence. It was not practical,
in the beginning, to put him into small
group counseling, although he and other
students could learn from each other.
He needed individual attention to help
prepare him for group counseling, where
he could receive feedback and help from
his peers.
Some students have problems that are
intensely emotional and they need the
privacy of individual counseling to risk
talking about their situations. Some topics
are so confidential and sensitive that it
may be questionable to work on them in
a group.

A young girl, in one case, worried some students. It is especially valuable for
about her older brother who was selling those who need more self-confidence or
illegal drugs to buy a motorcycle. She was social skills or those who need to experi-
unsure of what to do, particularly because ence being accepted by at least one person
he had been unresponsive to her pleas who will provide undivided attention.
to "stop pushing drugs" and her warn- Sometimes the urgency of a problem
ings he might be caught. She did not makes it necessary for you to meet alone
want others to know for fear they might with a student. This often occurs in a
turn him in to the police. She needed to crisis intervention. The problem needs
think through her concerns. She needed immediate attention and circumstances
individual counseling because her prob- suggest you talk privately. For instance, a
lem threatened the welfare of her brother report came to a guidance office that a girl
and she was uncertain how others might was staggering in the hallway and seemed
respond. disoriented. After reaching her classroom
Child abuse, teenage pregnancies, desk, she sat quietly and stared out the
family violence, and drug abuse are other window with a fixed gaze. Her school
examples of situations where individual counselor found her and they sat together
rather than group counseling may seem in the privacy of a nearby alcove where
appropriate. However, there are many they talked about the girl's behavior and
skilled counselors who can form support- what she was experiencing. As it turned
ive counseling groups in their schools out, the girl had taken an overdose of a
where almost any topic can be discussed prescribed medication.
by a group of counselees in a responsible This might be a good time to empha-
and confidential manner. Therefore, topic size one student should not necessarily be
sensitivity is a general guideline instead given preference over another, although
of a steadfast rule for determining who crisis-interventions sometimes call for an
should be seen in individual counseling. exception. Suppose a student is having a
Individual counseling also appeals to very difficult time at school and has sud-
some students because of their develop- denly reported to the guidance office for
mental needs. For example, some teenag- help. If possible, try to avoid canceling
ers may be afraid of being perceived as your other counseling commitments and
different or they may be afraid of what schedule the student to return as soon as
others might say. They do not want to be possible. This does not mean you do not
described as "weirdos" and think it would care about the student. It says your time
be impossible to be open and honest with with whomever you are seeing at that
their peers in a group meeting. moment is important and that, when you
You will find almost any topic can meet with students, you value your time
be discussed in individual counseling with them.
(e.g., study habits, test anxiety, family One counselor was scheduled to meet
problems, depression, how to get along with a group of students who were in
with a teacher, and fear of failure). While their fourth session together. Another of
the same topics also could be discussed his counselees showed up in the guid-
in group counseling sessions, individual ance office and said she needed to see the
counseling might be the first step for counselor immediately. Her problem had
become more difficult and needed atten-
tion and she was at a loss of what to do.

The counselor was concerned and decided Of course, exceptions are rooted in
to cancel the group meeting to respond professional judgment. One guideline for
to her situation. Eventually, the girl's interruptions might be the same that a
problem was resolved, but it came at the principal would apply to a teacher who is
expense of the group. Group members re- responsible for a class of students. Would
ceived the message the girl's problem was a teacher be interrupted and called out of
more important than their own. session? If so, what would happen to the
Could the counselor have met with class of students? Flexibility of counselor
the girl after the group finished meet- time is not meant to imply the counselor
ing? Was the girl's situation so urgent she is always available to respond to every
needed immediate attention? Was there crisis or adult whim.
no one else who could help the girl until The development of your schedule,
the counselor finished meeting with the with special attention to when you will be
group? Do students have to be in crisis be- meeting with students in your caseload,
fore they can gain and maintain a coun- will do a great deal to communicate your
selor's attention? role and image. Periods designated as flex-
Similarly, suppose you are counsel- ible time on your schedule will be used for
ing a student individually and the parent individual counseling when appropriate,
of another student unexpectedly arrives but unless you guard your blocks of times,
in the guidance office and asks to see her there will be no time for counseling.
child's counselor. Should you interrupt
or cancel the session with the student to Where does individual
immediately give attention to the parent? counseling happen?
If this is the case, then what is the mes- Like most school counselors, you
sage to the student? To the parent? Most probably will have a small office where
important, what is the message about you can hold individual counseling ses-
the work of the counselor? If it happens sions. Ideally, this room is in a guidance
regularly and as a matter or practice, then center and will be suited for private con-
the strongest message is whatever the versations.
counselor is doing is not too important to
interrupt. Be careful about the arrangement
of furniture in your room. The order
Therefore, interruptions and cancel- and appearance of a room can influence
lations should be the exception instead counseling interactions. For instance, one
of common practice. Principals, teachers, counselor was given a traditional, bulky,
parents, and students can be assisted to businesslike desk for her small office and
understand this policy, especially if your conversation could happen only across
work schedule is available to them and it the desk. This fostered an impersonal
identifies times when they can see you. relationship and tended to communicate
This also means someone in the guidance authority. The counselor had the desk re-
office, maybe another counselor or guid- moved and replaced it with a small table.
ance aide, must help protect your coun- She also removed the large filing cabinets
seling time by working with whoever has and brought in a small couch, an easy
walked into the office or by identifying chair, an end table, and an attractive table
the next time when you will be available. lamp. She wanted a more relaxed atmo-
sphere in which to counsel and was aware
of how distant and impersonal formal
office furniture can be.

Individual counseling need not always Individual counseling is usually scheduled

take place in the counselor's office. Dyadic by caseload, as described in Chapter 4, but
interactions have the advantage of be- crisis interventions are unpredictable and
ing able to happen in many small spaces come at various times. Such interventions
throughout the school. For instance, one are obviously not scheduled or shown on
counselor knew a certain hyperactive boy your weekly calendar. Even though crisis
who often was disruptive in classes felt situations may happen often because of
caged in when he was in the counselor's circumstances in your school or the na-
small office. Therefore, the counselor ture of the student body, it is unlikely you
asked him to walk with him around the will be able to keep all students-in-crisis as
school. They walked and talked, occasion- a part of your caseload.
ally stopping to sit in secluded corners During the early days of school coun-
of the building. They sometimes walked seling, many counselors followed the lead
to the gymnasium where they sat on the of psychotherapists. The traditional fifty-
bleachers and talked. This occasional minute-hour, upon which therapists based
reprieve from the confines of the coun- their work, was considered reasonable.
selor's office seemed to make the meetings Now, such meetings are seen as unrealis-
more productive. tic and an exception. Instead, it seems 30
No doubt, you will have your own minutes is a feasible and practical time in
preferences for room arrangements and which to do individual counseling.
places to talk with a counselee. While Half-hour time blocks reduce the time
space and room arrangements are not students are out of class or other school
critical, they can contribute to your image activities. Nevertheless, a few teachers pre-
and working atmosphere (Pressly & Hee- fer a student remain with a counselor an
sacker, 2001). Trust your judgment and entire class period (e.g., 45 to 55 minutes)
do not be afraid to be creative, especially instead of entering late and disturbing the
when the occasion calls for some unusual class. You need to know each teacher's
approach to reach students. preference, although you may not always
be able to honor it.
When does individual Some counselors learned individual
counseling occur? counseling could be as few as 15 to 20
Individual counseling can occur at minutes and quick follow-up sessions
almost any time during the school day. might be only 5 or 10 minutes. One mid-
Counselors wanting to implement a dle school counselor who had met with
comprehensive developmental guidance a group of five boys regarding their study
program try to schedule their individual habits and classroom behavior decided
counseling sessions during times when it to follow-up group counseling with some
is not practical to meet with groups of stu- individual sessions. Each boy was assigned
dents. Because it is easier to gain access to a day to meet with the counselor at the
one student, group counseling times take beginning of the school day for about 5 to
precedence when developing a weekly 10 minutes. Discussions usually focused
schedule. on the boy's plans for that week and con-
As you look over your week, there will cluded with a quick progress check. It was
be times when individual counseling ap- a supportive effort and not intended as a
pears to be most practical because of the time to explore matters in depth.
school's daily schedule. Try to schedule
individual appointments for those times.

Again, the scheduling of classes or counseling in the schools takes the form
the bell schedule in your school will help of "brief counseling," in which goals and
determine the best times and how long to techniques are more focused and limited.
meet with students on an individual basis. It is a mistake to think a student who
You may find it practical to meet with has a serious problem can benefit only
some students longer than others. But, from long-term counseling or therapy.
try to avoid seeing students individually Unfortunately, old models of counseling
for sessions longer than 45 to 50 minutes. and therapy continue to dominate some
This has rarely proved any more produc- counselors' thinking. They have reported
tive and is usually reserved for special feeling guilty when they are unable to
kinds of crisis interventions. provide extensive counseling and believe
How often does individual counsel- their short-term work with students is not
ing happen? Practically speaking, it seems really counseling. Yet, short-term indi-
best to meet with individual counselees vidual counseling can be very effective for
who are a part of a targeted caseload at many school-related issues when provided
least twice a week. There will be more by counselors who understand the pro-
continuity in the sessions and the stu- cess.
dents often need more concentrated focus
and support than once a week. However, How is individual
many counselors find it workable to meet counseling done?
once a week.
There is a tendency for counselors
As recommended earlier, students who have been schooled in one approach
who are part of your individual counsel- or theory to be attentive to certain dy-
ing caseload (about 6 to 8 individuals) namics, symptoms, counselee behaviors,
might be met twice a week for one grad- and counselor techniques. But, there is
ing period. The grading period is a con- a need to re-conceptualize counseling
venient time around which to organize theories, especially their applications to
counseling interventions. Therefore, in a school settings. The effectiveness of any
six-week grading period, a counselor and counseling approach or technique always
a counselee might meet for a total of 10 to will rest more in the ingenuity, talent, and
12 times. As a rule, six individual counsel- capacity for caring of the counselor than
ing sessions are considered practical for the theory or techniques themselves.
most students, which means if a student
is seen twice a week for three weeks, it Part of being an effective school coun-
would be possible to see 12 to 16 students selor is knowing a school system and how
in individual counseling as part of your it works; understanding the expectations
caseload in one six-week grading period. of administrators, teachers, and parents;
and teaching students some simple skills
Obviously, this type of individual that can make life easier. It is helping
counseling precludes extensive in-depth make school more palatable to students
counseling and lends itself toward cogni- who do not want to be there and helping
tive and behavior counseling theories. them find ways to cope with day-to-day
This is usually a more direct and guided situations that makes the difference.
approach, with an emphasis on clarifica-
tion of ideas and feelings, goal setting, and
behavior management. Most individual

Sometimes it is assisting students to There are no shortcuts to some prob-

cope with a particular concern or issue lems. There is not always a sure step or
outside school, something that distracts an easy road to follow. You might, for
them from their school work. But in most instance, work with a young person who
cases, it is coaching students through the has some serious family problems that are
system, helping them to adjust and to get frequently displaced on people at school.
the most out of school, that is, perhaps, You might feel powerless to do anything
the central mission of school counseling. about the family situation. Or, recogniz-
More brief-counseling or short-term ing the student needs more extensive help
counseling theories need to be devel- than you can give, you might feel guilty
oped and applied to school counseling. for not giving more of your time or not
Such theories and techniques are usually being able to make things better. These
more structured and the counselor plays unpleasant feelings can paralyze you to
an active part. Typically, one important the point you do nothing for fear things
problem is clarified at a time and relevant would only get worse.
behaviors are identified. Priorities are set. Without minimizing the severity of
It is a systematic approach, pecking away any problem, you can make a positive
at one symptom or problem behavior at a difference with even the most dysfunc-
time. tioning of students by focusing on those
Counselors who use solution-focused aspects or symptoms that are school-relat-
approaches in brief counseling often find ed and proceeding to work in those areas.
it more productive to emphasize successes You can, for instance, work on the child's
than failures. Instead of talking about personality and lifestyle as manifested in
problem behaviors, one might look for school.
appropriate behaviors, or exceptions, that Most troubled students, unless placed
are working (Sklare, 2005). The counselor in a residential treatment center, continue
uses purposeful questioning to learn what to go to school and participate in school
an individual is already doing well and events. They may be working with profes-
builds on those strengths. Such an ap- sional therapists, social workers, or medi-
proach also can be used with a group of cal personnel outside school. While the
students who work together to discover student is in school, it is the structure of
personal competencies, abilities, and com- the school that takes precedence over the
patible solutions (Lafountain, Garner, & structure of the family and other profes-
Eliason, 1996). sional facilities.
The most common steps of individual
counseling are: (1) Identify and assess the
problem; (2) Define goals and objectives;
(3) Develop a plan; (4) After the student
has implemented the plan, evaluate the
progress that has been made, and finally;
(5) Conclude the counseling relationship.
This general outline characterizes the ma-
jority of individual counseling cases and
the counseling stages discussed earlier fall
within its parameters.

Let us look at two examples of indi- The Systematic

vidual counseling approaches that might
be helpful to you in your work. The first Problem-solving Model
is an interview procedure that has been Everyone has problems. Some need
called the Systematic Problem-solving immediate action; others need careful
Model. It encourages the counselee to thought and time before they can be
do most of the talking and thinking. It is resolved. Regardless, school counselors are
especially helpful wheµ you are limited seen as experts in problem solving.
in time and do not have access to all the The art of problem solving need not
facts of a case. The second example is of be the exclusive domain of the counselor.
a behavior contract. Behaviors that are There are many resources within a school
contributing to a problem are identified. that can assist people. Students, them-
Then, using methodology founded on selves, can even be trained in problem-
principles of behavioral counseling, a solving skills as part of their academic
plan is articulated and implemented. Both training and then be assisted in applying
approaches are examples of short-term those skills in their personal lives. How-
counseling. They can be applied to many ever, by training and by job description, a
different situations and they are appro- school counselor is considered a primary
priate for use in elementary, middle, and resource to be drawn upon.
high school settings.
A review of professional literature
suggests problem solving and decision
making involve several steps.
First, the problem is identified.
What is the situation? What has hap-
pened to cause the problem? Who is in-
volved and what parts do they play in the
problem? (Littrell, & Peterson, 2001).
Identifying the problem can be a diffi-
cult task as the "presenting problem" may
not be the "real problem." The present-
ing problem may only be a symptom or a
manifestation of the source of the prob-
lem, but it is a place to begin. It is a safe
place in the minds of most counselees.
Later, other related problems or behaviors
may emerge during the process of coun-
seling and these might receive attention.
They might even take precedence over
other issues that were first introduced.

Problem solving can be tedious work. other instance, a younger boy was having
It is not always easy to know where to be- trouble choosing between two groups of
gin once the problem has been identified. friends, each of whom liked to do differ-
Some problems are particularly stressful ent things. One group was very athletic
and frustrating. They can cause some and involved in sports while the other
anxious moments for both you and your group spent more time in the arts, such as
counselees. There is an uncertainty that dance and a creative crafts club. He liked
permeates most beginning counseling re- both groups, but realistically knew time
lationships when a problem is presented, was limited and he could not join in all
especially if there is no obvious solution. the activities. The values chart was a start-
A second common step is to de- ing place for both students.
fine the problem. As you explore the The final steps are selecting a
situation, you will want to break down course of action, developing a plan,
the problem into areas that can lead and then acting upon it. After ideas
to further understanding. Defining the and values are clarified and goals are iden-
problem in specific terms and behaviors is tified, courses of action are considered.
especially helpful. Obviously, this involves choices and with
For example, if a student complains a each choice there are some consequences.
teacher is bigoted and insensitive to eth- Suppose a student, perhaps a girl in
nic minority students, it is best to specify the eighth grade, has asked you for help
actions and behaviors that have led to because she was dismissed by a music
this conclusion. Or, if a student is worried teacher for being disruptive and inat-
about receiving a passing grade in a class, tentive in class. Her return to the class
the problem might be defined in terms is on the condition she meet with you
of teacher expectations and assignments, and work out her "problems." Otherwise,
study habits and behaviors, and current she will be dropped from the class. The
grade status. girl is defensive and immediately talks
Once a person has a clearer picture of about how unfair the teacher is with her,
the problem, it is possible to have a better emphasizing that others in the class take
understanding of what might be done. Al- more advantages and do not receive the
ternative courses of action can be consid- same reprimands.
ered. This may involve the exploration of What are your choices in this case?
values and some possible next steps. For Where do you start? How can you help?
instance, some counselors have assisted Perhaps, it would be helpful if the girl
students to build a "value hierarchy" first clarified her situation and identified
chart in an attempt to identify factors the specific problem that led to her being
that influence decision making. Ideas or excused from the class. It might then be
values might be listed and given a positive helpful to think about what she has done
or negative weighing of their significance. and could do to take some positive action.
They might then be ranked from most to As you help others solve problems,
least important and then related to pos- one practical framework from which you
sible courses of action. can work is the Systematic Problem-solv-
One high school girl was having a ing Model. It is an organized approach to
problem deciding whether to attend a thinking through a problem and finding
college in her local area or go to one out a possible next step. It places responsibil-
of state. She wanted to be close to her ity on the counselee or the person who
family, but she also wanted to meet new has the problem. It assumes a person
people and be more independent. In an- will benefit by being coached through a

thinking process, which makes it possible Because the model is flexible, it can
to put the problem into perspective and accommodate most counseling theories
to arrive at an action that can be taken in and techniques that are used in school
the near future. The experience with the settings. It gives direction. In that sense,
process also enables the counselee to learn it can be comforting to you as a counselor
how to approach other problems and ap- because you have some idea of how your
ply the same process. While it emphasizes time might be spent and where a counsel-
responsibility for solving the problem ee is headed. It can be used in situations
rests with the individual, it also gives you where you have only limited of knowl-
an opportunity to give timely suggestions edge because most of the work is being
or advice. done by counselees as they think about
There are four steps to the model. their problems.
These are couched as four open-ended Counselees will have the most per-
questions. They are arranged sequentially tinent details and information in their
according to a natural flow of thinking minds. They are the ones responsible
which tends to occur when people sys- for bringing information to a session,
tematically try to solve a problem. More exploring what has been done and what
specifically, they are: (1) What is the prob- alternatives remain, and identifying some
lem or situation? (2) What have you tried? actions that might be taken.
(3) What else could you do? (4) What is The four questions provide only the
your next step? parameters of a counseling session. The
You might think of the four key ques- questions lend themselves to several fol-
tions as "trigger questions." They trigger low-up responses. After you ask each ques-
the imagination of the counselee, guid- tion and a counselee responds, you will
ing the person into a particular area of have an opportunity to use high facilita-
thinking about the problem. In addition, tive responses.
the counselor is in charge of pulling the For instance, you might listen for
trigger on each question when it seems pleasant and unpleasant feelings and re-
appropriate to move onto the next area to spond with a feeling-focused response. Or,
be explored. you might demonstrate you are following
The decision to trigger a question is the counselee by clarifying or summariz-
governed by such things as the nature of ing ideas or events that were described. In
the problem, the emotional intensity with the same sense, you also might ask more
which a counselee describes a problem, questions, either closed or open-ended
the ability to identify the problem, the ones, which will help the person to dis-
degree to which relevant feelings and be- close more information. In addition, com-
haviors are explored in each of the ques- pliments and confrontations are possible
tion areas, and the time frame in which at each step. Similarly, the model might
the counselor and counselee are working. be used with a group of students. In this
The model has been used successfully case, you would be able to use and elicit
within a 15-minute counseling session all high facilitative responses, including
as well as a SO-minute session. It also has linking.
been used over more than one session by Let's take a closer look at each of
giving the questions attention in different the questions because they suggest four
counseling sessions. important steps in problem solving. The
Case of Kellen will help illustrate.

The Case of Kellen Counselor:

You're concerned for your friend and uncer-
"What is the tain what you should do.
problem or situation?" Kellen:
That's it. He really needs help and if she gets
When you start by asking this simple pregnant, then it's good-bye college, good-
open-ended question, you encourage bye future.
counselees to begin by telling you what
they are thinking and feeling. It is espe- Counselor:
cially important to be alert to opportu- You don't see a future for your friend unless
nities to show your understanding and he goes to college.
respect by responding with some high Kellen:
facilitative responses. You are not only Well, I guess he'd have a future all right, but
helping them to identify the problem, but it sure isn't the one he's been talking with
you are fostering the facilitative condi- me about all this time. I really don't think he
tions of the counseling relationship. wants to get married right after graduation,
You are letting the counselees know you but she does. I know he doesn't because he
care, you are interested in what they are tells me he still wants to go to college with
experiencing and you want to help them me, together like we always planned. What
explore the matter further. would you do in a situation like that?
Counselor: Counselor:
What's your situation, Kellen? I'm sensing you're frustrated, wanting to
Kellen: help your friend go on to college but see-
I'm having a lot of trouble with a friend of ing him involved in something that could
mine. He's doing some pretty stupid stuff change his plans ... and yours.
and he's going to be in some deep trouble Kellen:
if he doesn't shape up real soon .... It's just Yeah, it bugs me. It really does. She just
plain stupid. wants to keep him at home. She doesn't
Counselor: care if she gets pregnant and he's not ready
You're worried about your friend. to be a father. He's younger than me and I
know I'm not. I don't understand how he
Kellen:
could be so caught up with her.
Yeah. It's Andrew; you know him. You see,
he's dating this girl and they are getting Counselor:
pretty close, if you know what I mean. He's You just can't imagine yourself in his posi-
a senior, right? He wants to go to college tion ... and the situation irritates you.
and he's got good grades. No problem Kellen:
there. But his girlfriend is talking about get- Yeah, it sure does. Andrew, he's my friend,
ting married, saying he doesn't need to go keeps asking me what I'd do and what he
to college. She's saying he can work for her should do. He's a mess. I just don't know
dad, who has a business in town. Marriage how to help him.
is all she can think about. And, she's afraid if Counselor:
he goes to college, she'll lose him to some You really want to help your friend, Andrew.
other girl. I honestly think he wants to go
to college and we were planning on going Kellen:
together, but he's so involved with Michelle, Uh, uh: I really do.
his girlfriend, he doesn't know how to deal
with it. I know, because he's talked with me,
lots of times.

"What have you tried?" Kellen:

After a counselee has described a prob- Nope. He listens to me ... you know, just like
lem or situation and defined it enough he's hearing me, but then nothing.
to have some type of focus, this second Counselor:
open-ended question inquires about any For instance, what things do you suggest?
action that has been taken. There is no Kellen:
use to make a suggestion or give some Well, for one thing, I told him he'd better
advice if it is something that has already not depend upon her for birth control. She
been attempted. Or, if your idea has wants to get married and getting pregnant
already been tried, you would at least like is a sure way of that.
to know how it is different from what the
Counselor:
counselee did or how the same idea might
So, you've cautioned him about taking re-
be modified to make it a possible alterna-
sponsibility for birth control. What else have
tive.
you done?
For example, you can follow-up the
Kellen:
key question with another open-ended
I've told him I think he should break it off
question such as "And, how did that
with Michelle, right now, before it's too late.
work out?" or "Okay, and how did you go
But, he tells me he really loves her.
about doing that?" These kinds of ques-
tions provide the counselor an opportu- Counselor:
nity to discover if what was tried seemed You've advised him to break up with Mi-
reasonable and might be workable with chelle, but that's unacceptable to him.
some changes. He really cares a lot for her. Anything else
you've done in trying to help him?
Surprisingly, this second key question
in the problem-solving model often catch- Kellen:
es people off-guard, especially students I told him to think about his future and to
who expect somebody else to solve their think about what college can do for him.
problems. Asking a young man about But he's starting to think maybe he can do
what he has done to resolve a conflict he without college and that worries me. If he
is having with a teacher can be thought- gives up the idea of college, then it's all
provoking and help him see he has some over.
responsibility in the situation. Too many Counselor:
students prefer to complain instead of You've encouraged him to look to the
take some positive action to make matters future, especially college and what it could
better. mean for him. But it's been discouraging to
Counselor: you when he says he's also thinking he may
Well, Kellen, what have you tried in helping not need to go to college.
Andrew? Kellen:
Kellen: Yeah. He says there is a future in her father's
I don't know. Lots of things. We talk about business. But, ...
it all the time. It always comes up whenever Counselor:
we're alone, like when he spends the night Anything else you've tried?
at my house. But, he never listens to me. Kellen:
Counselor: That's about it. Maybe there is something
So, you've talked with him about it and on else but I don't know what it is. Do you have
several occasions. But those talks haven't any ideas?
been very satisfactory to you.

Counselor: ties can just as easily receive no response

Well, let's see, you've .... (Counselor sum- or perhaps a simple acknowledgement,
marizes Kellen's attempts at helping Andrew "Okay, and what else could you do?"
before asking the next key question.) After a counselee has offered as many
ideas as possible, you might suggest other
"What else could you do?" alternatives, if you think of any. These are
This third key question encourages usually not offered as advice; they are sim-
people to think more about their situa- ply other possibilities for consideration.
tions in terms of some other courses of They might even be a result of brainstorm-
action-some new possibilities. It focuses ing, without weighing their value.
attention on other alternatives or even Counselor:
previously tried actions that might be at- Anything else you could do, Kellen?
tempted again.
Kellen:
As counselees think about their situ- I suppose I could get him to talk with
ations, some ideas might come to mind someone besides me ... maybe you ... or
they have not thought of before, especial- some other counselor. And, then, maybe it
ly as you guide them through a systematic would help if we took off and went to see
process of talking about the problem. The the college campus, so he could see what he
process helps organize their thinking and would be missing. That's a real possibility.
places events in perspective.
Counselor:
Notice again, this question also places Anything else you could do?
responsibility on the counselees, encour-
Kellen:
aging them to search their minds for more
I'm not sure. Maybe ... I could talk with Mi-
ideas. As they explore ideas with you
chelle but... nah, that's not too good of an
and you continue to use high facilitative
idea because she thinks I'm trying to break
responses, they gain additional insight.
them up anyway... and I guess I am. I'd
They feel supported. Moreover, the pro-
probably make things worse.
cess also is setting the stage for timely
advice or suggestions. Counselor:
So, you could talk with Michelle but that
As each possible action is considered,
doesn't appeal to you right now. You don't
you might ask related open-ended ques-
think you could be very objective. All right,
tions such as, "And, how do you think that
what else could you do?
might work?" or "What might result from
your doing that?" This kind of follow-up Kellen:
question is aimed at helping the person to Well, let's see. It is hard to see her point and
think of what it takes to complete such ac- to keep from thinking he's so foolish. But,
tion and what the consequences might be. that's just the way it is.
Consideration of the consequences Counselor:
for every possible action can be a wearing You sound so convinced Andrew is making a
procedure on both counselee and counsel- serious mistake with Michelle and that con-
or. It is laborious and fatiguing to review tinues to annoy you. Although it's Andrew
each alternative and the consequences. who has to make the decision about his life,
You may decide not to comment on some you still want to do something.
alternatives, assuming as you work on Kellen:
others a counselee will learn the process Yeah, it's really Andrew's problem ... but...
of thinking about actions. Some seem- but ... well, let's see .... Maybe they could go
ingly illogical or inappropriate possibili- together to talk with someone ... you know,

to make some decisions about their future. Most counselors want to do some-
I know neither of their parents want to see thing that will start counselees moving
them get married now. in a desired direction. It is possible a next
Counselor: step is to wait a period of time before do-
So then, another possibility is to talk with ing anything. After that, another decision
them about seeing a counselor or someone can be made about what to do next. A
to help them explore their situation and decision to wait, however, is preferably
what they want to happen in the next year part of a planned course of action.
or so. How would you go about doing that? Counselor:
Kellen and the counselor continued What then, Kellen, is your next step?
to think about things Kellen could do to Kellen:
help his friend. Although not reported I suppose the next thing that needs to be
here, the counselor also asked what might done is talk with Andrew and Michelle ... to
happen if Kellen acted on some of his get them to talk with someone else who
ideas. could talk some sense into them.
There are many things that can be Counselor:
done with a list of alternatives, besides You want them to talk about their situation
look at the consequences. They might be with someone who can help them think
reviewed in terms of one's values, skills, things through. How would you go about
energy, commitment, or time. They might that?
be rank-ordered in terms of feasibility. Kellen:
Role-playing might be tried with some, as I don't know, just tell them what I think
a counselee attempts to see how an idea I guess. It won't be easy, knowing how
might be implemented. Some alternatives Michelle thinks but I guess I'd say, "Hey,
might be examined in terms of their com- you guys got a problem and you should talk
ponents, segments, steps, or procedures. with .... "
Counselor:
"What is your next step?" All right, so although it's going to be dif-
Finally, after some thinking about ficult and you're a little skeptical about how
different courses of action that might be it might turn out, you want to encourage
taken and possibly their consequences, them to see someone, perhaps me. Well,
it is time to help the person take some let's see, Kellen, what would happen if you
action. It is not enough to simply think told them first of your feelings and then sug-
about a problem, to analyze it, and obtain gested they talk with me.
some insights. In fact, many people are
Kellen:
willing to talk about a problem, and in
What do you mean?
the process lessen their concern and anxi-
ety. Some hope it will go away by itself. Counselor:
Others leave a counselor's office and may Perhaps you might say something like, "I
still be undecided as to what they want to know you two care a lot for each other. But,
have happen, where to begin, or what to I care about you, too. I've been thinking you
do next. should see one of the counselors, just to talk
together about your future plans." Now, Kel-
len, that may be a little wordy, but the key is
to share with them your feelings instead of
emphasizing they have a problem. How does
that sound to you?"

Kellen: Counselees are always responsible

That sounds pretty good. I can do that. for taking any next steps. Therefore, they
Counselor: have the power to change their minds,
Then your next step is to talk with them and modify their plans, or try something
to express your concern, suggesting they else. The process of thinking through the
see a counselor.... All right, when do you see problem is considered the essential part
yourself doing this? of counseling, although a reasonable and
responsible plan of action is a desirable
Kellen:
outcome.
Probably this week.
On occasion, you may be asked by a
Counselor: counselee to do something as part of a
Better the beginning of the week or the last plan. For example, one girl wanted her
part of the week? counselor to go with her to talk with a
Kellen: teacher about a grade that seemed un-
Probably tomorrow sometime. fair. Another girl wanted a counselor to
Counselor: talk with her parents about her progress
Better in the morning, the afternoon or at in school and to participate in a plan in
night? which a weekly progress report would be
given to her parents so she could be rid of
Kellen:
home restrictions. Another counselor was
Tomorrow night. We plan to meet after
part of a plan of action by writing a letter
football practice and I can ask them to hear
of recommendation for a student who was
me out then.
applying for a job after school hours.
The next step often is broken down
In all these cases, the counselors were
into other thoughts, such as what, how,
part of the plans of action. They collabo-
and when. "What will you do?" "How will
rated with the students. There is nothing
you do it?" "When will you do it?" These
wrong with this, but the counselors have
additional questions give a focus to a next
to accept responsibility for their own ac-
step that grounds it to reality. It clarifies
tions and parts in the plans.
and calls upon a commitment. It elicits
a public statement, in a sense, that has a The Systematic Problem-olving Model
way of encouraging some action. Even if alson can be used with students who have
the person does not follow through with problems but are resistant to doing any-
the idea as discussed, there is a greater thing about them. You may find it neces-
probability something will be done. If the sary to bring a problem to their awareness
step is not taken, then it can become the and then lead them through the model.
focus of the next counseling session when
the counselor asks, "How did things go?"
"Okay, what kept you from taking that
step?" "All right, what now?" Or, "What
else do you need before you can take that
step?"

For instance, suppose Christy, an Contingency Contracts

eighth grade girl, is having a problem
It is common to hear educators talk
completing her class assignments. A
about student problems in terms of self-
frustrated teacher asks you to talk with
concept, attitude, or intelligence level.
Christy about the situation. You might
Some problems are even excused to some
begin by saying, "Christy, there seems to
extent by referring to a student's unfortu-
be a problem developing in your English
class, at least according to your teacher. nate home life.
I'm curious, what's the situation there?" But, problems also can be discussed in
Once Christy has shown an awareness terms of observable student behaviors. It
of the problem and clarified the situa- can be helpful occasionally to ask: What
tion from her perspective, you might has a student done that allows us to con-
proceed in sequence with the other key clude that person has a low self-concept?
questions: "What have you tried so far?" Lacks motivation? What behaviors allow
"What else could you do to make things us to infer the person has a poor attitude
better for yourself?" "What do you see as about school? And, if a student's self-
a next step?" This approach confronts the concept or attitude were to improve, how
student, prompts her to think about her would we know? What behaviors would
situation, coaches her through a thinking be different?
process, and motivates her to take more There are many times when it is use-
responsibility and action. ful to focus on specific behaviors and to
The model's success is directly related help students learn to manage the contin-
to the facilitative model discussed in gencies that affect the behaviors. Learn-
Chapter 4. The high facilitative responses ing theorists have provided us with some
are integrated within the four key steps. effective counseling strategies that are
As the facilitative responses are used with particularly applicable to school settings
the problem-solving model, you will (Bradley, Emily & Young, 2010).
become increasingly aware of their value, Behavioral counseling approaches
including their simplicity, directness, have found their way into school counsel-
and flexibility. You may be surprised how ing because of their efficacy and because
creative you can be with them, as they al- they lend themselves to brief counsel-
low room for all of your counseling skills. ing. The major assumption in behavioral
Most important, they can make you more counseling is behavior is either strength-
effective in your work and make your job ened or weakened by its consequences.
easier. This is reinforcement theory in its sim-
plest form. Subsequently, if one can man-
age the factors that elicit behavior and the
consequences that follow behavior, then
behavior can be changed.

The terminology used in behavioral The Case of Deborah

counseling (e.g., positive and negative
Counselor:
reinforcement, shaping, successive ap-
proximation, chaining, reinforcement Well, let's see, Deborah, you say your
schedule, modeling, and punishment) can teacher thinks you are lazy and don't care
help you conceptualize counseling strate- about your school work. What do you do
gies. For our purposes, we will focus only that might give her that impression?
on how a behavior contract can be used Deborah:
in counseling. I don't know, she just has it in for me. She
Contingency contracting is a tech- picks on me all the time.
nique in which the counselor and coun- Counselor:
selee work together to identify desired be- You seem discouraged. It's not easy to at-
haviors and manage the reinforcing contend class when things aren't going well.
sequences that control the performance of Deborah:
those behaviors. It usually involves some That's right ... it makes me wonder if it's
form of agreement in which a student is worth it all. Sometimes I feel like quitting.
promised rewards in return for perform-
Counselor:
ing a desired task or behavior. Behavior or
You're so disappointed you don't even know
contingency contracts can be used at any
if you want to continue .... You're frustrated.
grade level and with various problems.
Behavior contracts have been found to be Deborah:
efficient and effective in eliciting more ap- Yeah, I am.
propriate school and home behaviors. Counselor:
There are seven basic steps in contin- (Pause) Okay, one more time, what is it
gency contracting: (1) Identify the behav- you do in class that causes so much conflict
ior; (2) Introduce and discuss the contract between you and your teacher?
idea; (3) Develop a contract and present it Deborah:
to all involved people; (4) Outline super- I don't know.
visory or follow-up procedures; (5) Initiate Counselor:
the program or plan; (6) Record progress Suppose I could talk with her, what would
and evaluate outcomes; and (7) Modify she say?
the contingencies, terms of the contract,
and reinforcement schedules as needed to Deborah:
obtain or maintain desired behavior. Oh, she'd probably say I've got a rotten
attitude and I'm uncooperative ... you know,
The Case of Deborah will help illus- the usual stuff.
trate the steps.
Counselor:
Be more specific. What do you do that lets
her reach that conclusion?
Deborah:
Nothing, I guess.
Counselor:
You do nothing.
Deborah:
Well, I don't do my homework and what
I do finish, I don't turn it in. She's unfair.
She ....

Counselor: Counselor:
Okay, but what else would she say? Well, let's see, Deborah, you've noted sev-
Deborah: eral things one might do in that class. Look
Oh, she'd say I talk too much. I do talk a lot at this list. (Counselor shows list of items that
with Ann, she's my best friend. But, the class were written down as Deborah mentioned
is so boring and that's how I stay awake, them: 7) Attends class on time; 2) Removes
talking to Ann. gum before entering class; 3) Starts home
work assignments; 4) Completes homework;
Counselor: 5) Turns in homework; 6) Talks at appropriate
So you don't do your homework assign- times; 7) Completes Friday written assign-
ments, you often don't turn in those that ment; 8) Takes notes on class lectures; and 9)
you do, and you talk with Ann. What else? Reviews for Thursday tests.)
Deborah:
Deborah, where would you rate yourself
I know one thing that bugs her is I chew on each of these items as they stand now,
gum and she is forever asking me to spit it using a 0 as low and a 5 as high? (Deborah
out. It's one of her stupid rules. Yet, other rates each behavior.) Now, let's think of a
kids do it and it's okay. way to help you improve on these items.
Counselor: Which two do you particularly think you can
You feel treated unfairly, although chewing improve on immediately? (Deborah points to
gum is breaking a classroom rule .... Okay, 7 and 2).
what else gets you in trouble? How can you go about getting some im-
Deborah: provement in those two? (Deborah says she
That's enough, don't you think! can talk less during classes and spit her gum
Counselor: out in the basket by the door when she enters
What do students have to do in that class, the classroom.)
Deborah, to get along ... to make decent Now, let's see. If you can improve on these
grades? What would be your advice to a two items this week, what is a special re-
student who is new to the school and just ward you might give yourself?
starting that class?. Deborah:
Deborah: What do you mean reward?
I'd tell them not to let her get on their case Counselor:
or she'll never let up. (After describing possible rewards and the
Counselor: principle of positive reinforcement) So, what
It's important to get off to a good start with do you like to do after school?
her, but be more specific. What does a stu- Deborah:
dent have to do to survive, to do well? I usually go to Ann's house and we talk,
Deborah: sometimes do our homework together, and
Take notes and listen to her lectures. Her just listen to music.
tests, every Thursday, are based on them. Counselor:
And then, always do the Friday writing as- Do you think Ann would help us put to-
signment because that's what we talk about gether a contract, an agreement, that would
in class. help you do better in class?
Deborah:
(Nods yes.)

Counselor: 6. Be positive and focus on accomplish-

Okay, let's start by keeping track of how ment instead of obedience. Negative
often you can attend class on time and with- contracting involves a threat: "You'll
out gum in your mouth. If you can do these be punished if you don't .... " And, "If
two things each day, for four days, then on you don't ... , then you won't get the
Thursday you can both come to my office reward." Instead, it might be worded:
during study hall and listen to the radio "If you accomplish ... , then you will
while you study for Friday's class. We've got receive .... "
a small room in the back that's not being For example, to get an "A" grade, a
used right now. However, the teacher has student must do many tasks that may
to sign a progress report showing you did seem simple to a casual observer. Yet,
complete our agreement. Okay? it involves several things-starting and
Deborah: finishing home work, turning homework
Yeah, okay, sounds like fun. But, I do get to in on time, having a pencil in class, being
bring Ann on Thursday, right? attentive to the teacher, following direc-
Counselor: tions, and participating in class discus-
Right! Now, let's make this more formal. sion. Each of these, and others that might
(Counselor writes out terms of contract and be listed, could be isolated for special
both sign at the bottom.) attention. You might encourage a student
to select a few items or behaviors and take
There are a few guidelines for making a few steps, rather than trying to focus
a behavior contract. These include the on all of them. After some discussion,
following: possible reinforcers (rewards) might be
1. The problem should be diagnosed identified and then linked to one of the
and stated in terms of behaviors. Be desired behaviors. A contract also specifies
specific. Use examples to illustrate, if the frequency of the behavior that must
needed. be obtained and the form of the reward.
2. The premise of the contract must be Conditions of the agreement are spelled
clear and explicitly stated. It is honest out in a contract, including what part (be-
and fair. haviors) each person involved is expected
to play.
3. Initial contracts call for small bits of
behavior which are frequently re- The final objective of any contin-
warded. Reinforce small approxima- gency contracting arrangement is to
tions. Or, focus on one small problem help a student learn more about man-
behavior at a time so some degree of aging their own behavior through self-
success can be experienced. contracts. If contracting is always in the
hands of teachers, parents, or counselors,
4. Rewards should be agreed upon and
then a student does not learn how to be
given immediately when progress
independent and is always looking to
occurs, not before. Tokens also can be
someone else to account for life's prob-
used to build toward a special reward.
lems. On the other hand, self-contracting
In addition, rewards can come in
encourages people to identify their goals
many forms, but they must be ac-
in behavioral terms, to devise plans that
knowledged as desirable to the stu-
consider successive approximations and
dent and in the contract.
adequate rewards, and then to implement
5. Be systematic and follow through. and monitor the plans by themselves.

One counselor, after a few contracts The use of fantasy provides a bridge to
with a sixth grade boy, suggested he think a child's inner life. The rosebush fantasy
of something he wanted to improve is an illustration of how fantasy can be
upon, either at home or at school. Then, structured to engage students in play-
without revealing the desired goal to the ful ways and to help them think about
counselor, the student was asked to use themselves (Ray, et al., 2004). In this case,
the same steps that had been used in the the counselor asks children to imagine
other contracts and to develop a personal themselves as a rosebush. Specific ques-
contract. The plan was written down and tions help a child to define the self as the
put into an envelope, which the coun- rosebush.
selor held in his office. Two weeks later, For example, as the child's eyes
the student was called in to talk about the remain closed, the counselor might ask:
plan. The envelope containing the self-de- "What kind of rosebush are you? Are
veloped contract was opened. The coun- you small or large? Do you have flowers?
selor began with, "How did it go?" The What are your stems and branches like?
boy reported things had not gone as well Do you have thorns? Where are you ... a
as expected. The counselor then helped garden, a park? Are you by yourself? Does
him to identify parts of the contract that someone take care of you? Of course,
were successful and parts that needed questions and discussion of the experi-
more attention. Because self-discipline ence can be directed toward whatever
and self-management of behaviors were issues or objectives will make the session
the goals of counseling, the student was productive. Just don't ask so many ques-
encouraged to try the exercise again. tions you overwhelm the child.
Students of all ages respond positive-
ly to creative counseling approaches, espe-
cially in elementary schools. Traditional
"talk therapy" is not especially effective
with young children in pre-operational
and/or concrete operations stages of
cognitive development (Ray, Perkins, &.,
Oden, 2004). Elementary school counsel-
ors, subsequently, rely on creative arts in
their work.
Elementary guidance offices typi-
cally have shelves and drawers of toys and
other props that might help a child talk,
explore, and discover. Crayons, paints,
dolls, storybooks, dress-up clothes, pup-
pets, games, and various materials are
used to engage younger children in coun-
seling. Play is the young child's world and
counselors use play to enter that world.
The framework of individual counsel-
ing approaches discussed above can give
structure and direction to play activities as
children gain coping and learning skills.

Helpful Hints The primary purpose of confidential-

ity is to offer counselees a relationship
Here are some special issues and help- in which they can feel free to deal with
ful hints that are related to individual their concerns, without the fear of being
counseling. disclosed. School counselors work hard at
honoring this trust and confidence. Coun-
Confidentiality and selors take great care in adhering to P.L.
Legal Responsibility 93-380 (The Buckley Amendment, which
Confidentiality comes from the word was part of the omnibus 1974 Education
"confidence" which is defined as "the Amendments). It speaks to the rights and
mental attitude of trusting in or relying privacy of parents and students, especially
on someone." In counseling, it involves recorded information.
reliance and faith, assuming private con- The ASCA ethical guidelines (see Ap-
versations and actions will be held secure pendix C), which are generally in line
in the counseling relationship. This sense with state laws, require school counselors
of security allows a client to feel free to to report and/or refer cases when:
fully disclose information. The idea, of
• there is real or potential danger to
course, is to safeguard the person's welfare
the safety or well-being of someone,
from harm.
including the counselor or counselee.
Confidentiality often is assumed to be
• there is a suspicion of child abuse,
the essence of therapy and counseling as
sexual abuse, or other situations are
it enables clients to move from a public present and legal requirements de-
persona to a more private one. This al- mand disclosure.
lows for risk-taking and letting the person
explore the less known self. It also might • severe dysfunctioning behavior or
pave the way to personal insight and op- abuse are beyond the expertise of the
portunities to change. counselor.
However, in school counseling, there Counselors, administrators, teach-
are limitations and these may need to be ers, and support personnel should make
discussed with students. Not everything a careful review of school procedures and
can be held in strict confidence (Isaacs & policies in order to respect the dignity and
Stone, 1999). rights of others. It is helpful for an ad-
ministration, working cooperatively with
School counselors do not have privi-
counselors, to have a set of procedures
leged communication, as do doctors,
in place. A recommended flow chart of
psychiatrists, lawyers, religious clerics, guidelines often can make difficult cases
and mental health counselors. The mem- easier to manage in terms of a referral
bers of ASCA have continued to affirm process or any protective action.
their stand, however, that counselors fully
respect the right to privacy of those who Counselors can communicate caring,
enter a counseling relationship. Confiden- respect, trust, support, and confidence in
tiality is an ethical term, denoting trust how they act with and respond to their
and privacy. It is not the same as privi- counselees. The frequent use of high facil-
leged communication, a legal term, that itative responses (Chapter 5) creates such
lawfully protects information shared in conditions. Still, there are times when the
private. counselor must confront a difficult issue
and inform the student others must be
told or become involved in the helping
process. This requires counselors to be

aware of their own values, responsibilities, Brief Counseling:

and the rights of children (Pellitteri I Stern I The General Rule
Shelton, & Muller-Ackerman (2006). It
also means knowing when and how to re- The school counselor's work will
fer counselees to others and being familiar consist primarily of brief counseling. It is
with the school district's referral process. limited in terms of time spent with coun-
selees and the duration of counseling.
In one case, a counselor was working This has already been discussed to some
with a Jeff, a teenager,·who had disclosed extent in Chapter 4, which focused on the
that since his former girlfriend began management of counselor time and the
going places with other boys, he thinks setting of priorities.
more and more about taking his own
life. "She'll be sorry when I'm gone." The Time-limited counseling should not
counselor responded: "When you said be equated exclusively with a cognitive-
you didn't want me to tell anyone else behavior approach as has been done in
about your situation, I sensed you wanted most brief therapy models. The general
to talk about something very important paradigm that might be applied is: first fo-
and private. I wanted to listen and give cus on helping students self-disclose and
you a chance to think about your situa- clarify the situation, following their lead
tion. Now, I am uneasy because I realize with high facilitative responses. Then,
in order to best help you, I have to talk help them move toward exploring one
with( ...... ). But, we can do this privately part of a problem or situation, carefully
and together. Come on, let's go .... " considering how feelings and behaviors
are related.
In another situation, the counselor
said to a counselee: "I care about you. The mode is focused more on ac-
I want to be of help, but both of us are tion than insight and sessions often are
unsure of what to do next. You need help characterized by more structure, perhaps
and you need it now. You're feeling really the use of props or activities. Assign-
low and confused. What you're facing is ments outside the counseling session
tough and there is no reason for you to (homework) may be used, followed with
have to face it alone. Let's think together a discussion of the outcomes. At the end
about who else can help." In this case, the of each session, there is almost always an
counselor might steer the person toward identified "next step." What is the person
another professional counselor or respon- going to do now? What is needed to help
sible adult. make the person successful?
One counselor, after hearing a coun- Biblio-counseling, personal journal
selee talk about an abusive family situa- writing, skill coaching, and role-playing
tion, said, "You should know I am le- can be useful strategies in brief coun-
gally and ethically bound to report cases seling. There is a spirit of encouraging
that involve child abuse or the danger students explore and try things in order
of someone being harmed. I know you to see what works.
would like to keep this just between the Single-session brief counseling has
two of us, but that isn't possible at this been recognized as a practical interven-
point. Let's talk about where we go from tion that might be used by many counsel-
here." ors who feel the press of time limitations.
It is considered a concise, action-oriented
approach that, even though limited, can
provide timely assistance to students. In
general, the approach consists of quickly

identifying a problem on which the stu- cooperative, or incorrigible, among other

dent wants to work, delineating attempt- things. The question is: Who has the
ed solutions, setting a specific but limited problem? Is it the adult or the student?
goal, and giving an assigned task related Some students will know the kinds of
to the goal. While not the best strategy for services they can receive from counselors
all problems, single-session brief counsel- and will voluntarily seek out a counselor
ing is viewed as an appropriate tool. for help. They are self-referrals. Conse-
Structured activities and assign- quently, they are motivated and appear
ments often are considered part of brief to be an easier group with whom to work.
counseling in an attempt to expedite the However, self-referral alone does not
process. In one study, structured counsel- mean a person is committed to change or
ing approaches and behavioral programs to taking responsibility.
based on operant learning were found to Other-referred students are those
be more effective than person-centered who have been sent to the counselor by
approaches in raising grade point averages a concerned teacher, parent, or admin-
with students. The results showed 80 per- istrator. These students may or may not
cent improvement of students in a struc- want counseling. They may not see any
tured counseling intervention, while only need to talk with a counselor because it is
27 percent in non-structured counseling someone else who has concluded there is
showed gains. Volunteers were more suc- a problem. These involuntary counselees
cessful than referred students. Parental can be difficult to engage in counseling,
involvement seemed to make a difference. especially at first, but they can become
Skill training, such as coaching in study willing participants (Harris, 2007).
skills, was helpful (Gibson, 2008).
Regardless of whether or not students
see you on a voluntary or involuntary ba-
Voluntary and
sis, some questions must be answered for
Involuntary Counselees them at either a conscious or unconscious
In many schools and families, young level, including "What's in it for me?"
people have few choices or rights. Because For some, it will be temporary relief from
they are dependent, they are limited in whatever else they were doing. For oth-
their options and they usually refrain ers, it will be a challenge. Still others will
from challenging adults. They have to enjoy playing the devil's advocate and try
adjust to adult rules and expectations. to be argumentative, maybe insisting they
Sometimes adults have unrealistic expec- have been treated unfairly and nobody
tations or their personal styles clash with really cares about them. Resistance to
students' personalities. Therefore, the fo- introspection can run high, especially
cus in many counseling sessions is how to when they do not know what counseling
help young people get along with others, is about, who you are, and what you are
especially parents and teachers. trying to do.
Most students learn how to cope
with adults. These students are sensitive Counseling and Discipline
and know how to modify their behavior Counselors are involved in school dis-
when it is appropriate. They can adjust to cipline. You will work with students who
different situations. Less adept students have broken school rules or who have
frequently have conflicts with these same conflicts with school personnel. However,
adults and are seen as undisciplined, un- the way in which you are involved can
influence your image and work.

When a teacher sends a troublesome and talk willingly about their situations,
student directly to the guidance office, others will come only on an involuntary
students see school counselors as disci- basis, perhaps assuming counselors will
plinarians, even if it is just a place for reprimand them, as well. Being a sensitive
the student to sit and wait until class is listener is a prime condition for following
over. One teacher sent a boy to his coun- up discipline cases.
selor with the following note: "He's out Thus, you will probably be involved
of control again; just }<.eep him until the in school discipline as part of a team. You
bell rings. I don't want him in here." This will want to work out some procedures
is an inappropriate use of the guidance with your administrators regarding the
office. way in which discipline cases are handled
Schools have rules and procedures and referred. There is no need to give the
and students are expected to adjust to same lecture, set the same limits, or offer
them. Teachers also have their own sets the same advice the student already heard
of classroom rules and procedures and elsewhere. Put yourself in the position
students are expected to adjust to them. of being a student advocate, the follow-
In addition, students themselves live by up person who encourages students to
their own codes of conduct. talk openly about their situations and
A list of student offenses in school introduces strategies to help them learn
could include: "chewing gum in class," new behaviors or take responsibility for
"talking at inappropriate times," "refusing change.
to follow a teacher's directions," "fight-
ing with another student," "texting," and Introducing the
"using profanity." Sometimes students Counseling Game
provoke one another by teasing, calling Students are not necessarily logical,
names, and making insulting gestures. rational consumers of counseling services.
The result is conflict, which may lead to a A common misunderstanding is they
disciplinary report. know what guidance and counseling is
When students receive disciplinary re- about. It is practical, in the first counsel-
ports, they should report to a building ad- ing session, to explain the nature of coun-
ministrator or designated disciplinarian. seling and your role as a counselor. You
This person talks with the students about need to tell counselees how the counsel-
their cases and then administers some ing game is played.
form of discipline, depending upon the Most students will not have had an
offense and school policies. Reprimands, occasion for individual counseling, unless
restrictions, conditions, and agreements brief one-time interviews are called coun-
are usually parts of the discipline process. seling sessions. If this is the case, they
Counselors become involved in dis- may have a wrong impression and expect
cipline as part of a referral process. That you to do all the work, ask a few ques-
is, administrators in charge of school tions, and give them information. Having
discipline may encourage, but not require, never experienced in-depth counseling,
students to meet with their counselors they will tend to behave as they usually
and talk about their problems. Counsel- do with adults-be quiet and listen.
ors, in turn, might talk with the students You may have to sell the idea of coun-
about their situations, how they are seling to some students. They may be un-
proceeding, and the meaning it has for familiar with counselors and counseling,
them. While some students will volun- or perhaps enter with skepticism based on
tarily want to meet with their counselors previous experiences with adults. Initially,

most students will not be able to describe This gives you an opportunity to learn
the counseling process or know how they what students are thinking and some
can participate. They seldom explore their of their initial feelings about being in
ideas and feelings, beyond a few state- counseling with you. It will provide some
ments with friends or family members. clues about purpose, motivation, and
You are providing them a unique experi- commitment to counseling. Listening to
ence. Therefore, you will want them to the choice of words students use also will
learn about counseling. give you an idea of what misperceptions
You might say, "Well, let me begin by or misinformation need to be corrected
explaining how our work together might at sometime in your work. Clearly, such
go .... As a counselor, I want to provide questions focus on first impressions and
you an opportunity to think about some the initial helping relationship. Perhaps,
of your ideas, feelings, and behaviors. As most important, they also give you an
you take a look at those kinds of things, opportunity to use some high facilita-
you can gain a better picture of yourself tive responses that focus attention on the
and your situation. My job is to help you counselees and establish yourself as a car-
think aloud, to listen carefully, and to ing and interested person.
help you better understand your thoughts You will want to always use words
and feelings .... What you say here is be- that are appropriate for a student's age
tween us and no one else. We will prob- level. With a much younger child, per-
ably meet four or five times, for about 30 haps one in kindergarten or first grade,
minutes each time. This will enable us to you might begin by saying, "Do you know
think about several things, and perhaps who I am?" And then continue with,
help you decide what your next steps "That's right, I'm a counselor and part of
might be. What happens in our sessions, my job is to help students like you. Some-
of course, depends a great deal on how times I go into classes and sometimes I
much you are willing to share your ideas meet with children one at a time, talking
and to let me help you think about them. with them about such things as how to
You are not going to be asked to share get along with others, how to get along
anything about yourself you do not want with teachers, and how to get the most
to talk about.. .. Now, what questions or out of going to school. Tell me, what do
comments do you have at this point?" you like best about school?"
You may then need to answer some Another question that must be an-
more specific questions about your job swered for students is: "Okay, now that
and what you have in mind for the sched- I'm here, what do I have to do?" Students
uled counseling sessions. You also might want to know what is expected of them.
ask, "How did you feel about coming here Perhaps, the initial statements about
today?" This is an excellent place to start, counseling, your role and how counseling
especially if the student was called in works will help them figure out their own
and is not there on a voluntary basis. Or, role. But, the question runs much deeper
"What were some of your thoughts as you than that. It addresses such student
were on your way to my office?" "What thoughts as: "Who am I?" "How do I act
have you heard about what I do?" "What with this person?" "What do I have to do
do you know about counseling?" to survive here?" "What's really expected
of me?"

Students have learned to look for Dealing with Resistance

clues from parents and teachers regarding When a student is told to talk with
how to behave. Their common sense tells you about an attitude problem, you can
them adults set the rules and not to upset expect some defensiveness during counsel-
the system. Many have learned to do ing. You will probably be seen as part of
what has to be done, but not to volun- the establishment-" one of them." Some
teer extra information, as it could be met students see school and family systems as
with criticism or advice or be dismissed disrespectful of their wishes, inconsiderate
as unimportant. This defensive posture is
of their needs, and unfair. That can put you
common among students and they bring in a hole when you start your first counsel-
it with them when they enter counseling. ing session.
Dan, a fourth grade boy, was in his If students are verbal, even argumen-
second meeting with a school counselor. tative, you have a place to start. You will,
The counselor noticed before he would of course, try to draw them out by using
say something, Dan would raise his hand high facilitative responses. You help them
about shoulder high. During a quick disclose more and more, maybe facilitat-
exchange of ideas between the counselor ing them to talk through their anger,
and the student, this provided almost disappointment, or discouragement.
a comic routine of rapid hand raising Resistance then can melt away.
behavior. Finally, the counselor said, "You
don't have to raise your hand in here Many students who are sent to see
when you want to speak." And, that was counselors have had trouble in school be-
the end of the hand raising. It was either fore and probably at home. These trou-
a conscious or an unconscious habit Dan blesome students have learned passive
brought with him from his classroom aggressive behavior, such as sulking or
experiences. staring but saying nothing, is annoying to
adults. "You can't make me say anything;
Even when students understand how you can't make me do anything. I refuse
the counseling game is played, do not to play your game, just so you can put
be surprised if they are still hesitant to me down like all the others." With these
share their ideas. Some may be resistant thoughts, students find the silent treat-
or reluctant to talk openly. Others may ment works best. It puts them in control.
talk, but they talk about irrelevant things It frustrates adults and ends a confronta-
and avoid talking about themselves. tion before it begins. It is the ultimate in
Regardless, part of counseling readiness is defiance and defensiveness.
"knowing how the game is played."
Highly resistant students frequently
shrug their shoulders, look away, and
avoid eye contact. They shut you out and
dare you to invade their domain, know-
ing you are powerless to do so. The~ know
from classroom experiences mumblmg
"I don't know... " and then saying noth-
ing else can have a powerful impact. It
puts them in control. They also know
most teachers will take the pressure off by
quickly moving on to someone else. It is
an easy way to avoid being center stage
and having to perform, to produce, or to
be accountable.

Rarely will a classroom teacher say, Interestingly enough, the counselor

"That's okay. Take a little more time and later requested another meeting with the
think about it. We can wait." To do so student and he was more receptive to talk-
seems to jeopardize control of the class ing, ready to tell his side of a classroom
as others would have nothing to do and incident. The facilitative conditions and
would become restless. Or, rarely do relationship really had begun in the first
teachers say, before moving onto another session, but could only be drawn upon
student, "All right, nothing is coming later.
to mind right now. Think about it some Other forms of resistance may come
more and we will come back to you in a through the personal coping skills stu-
minute." Then, make it a point to go back dents use when interacting with others or
to the student. Students bring this knowl- as ways of reducing personal stress. Ratio-
edge, their learned behaviors, and coping nalization, for instance, has been cited as
skills with adults into counseling. a common defense mechanism students
One resistant young man would not use to explain away their problems and
talk at the beginning of counseling. The to avoid taking personal responsibility
counselor responded to feelings, such as (Clark, 1995). It is easy for young people,
"You're not sure you want to be here," as well as adults, to quickly dismiss and
and then paused. "You look uncomfort- avoid talking about a stressful topic if
able, perhaps uncertain about what's to they fear it will expose them as weak,
happen here." Paused again. Then, "It's incompetent, and vulnerable. You must
not easy to talk." The boy continued to sit draw upon your best facilitative skills to
with his arms crossed, looking away, say- gain the confidence of those who initially
ing nothing, with only occasional shrugs. resist talking about themselves and taking
Next, the counselor said, "That's okay, part in the counseling process.
you don't have to talk. You may want to One novel approach to breaking down
just sit and think to yourself for awhile." resistance and building a bridge into a
The counselor waited. Still nothing. The child's life is the use of animals (Trivedi &
counselor continued with, "I have some Perl, 1995). Burton (1995) described how
work to do here on my desk, let me know a yellow Labrador retriever puppy was
when and if you want to talk with me. used in an elementary school counseling
Unfortunately, it looks like it's not possi- program. She noted pets offer uncondi-
ble for you to go back to class right now." tional love, are accepting, listen without
This student did not talk the first judging, and can keep a secret. Counselors
session. He was full of anger and it was can use animals, just as they do dolls, as
displaced on the counselor who was a diversions. After petting and playing with
convenient symbol for a world run by an animal and becoming acquainted with
adults. Perhaps his personal survival the counselor, there is a gentleness and
system was cautioning him not to talk for easiness that sets the tone for a counsel-
fear he would say things that would get ing relationship. The counselor enters
him into trouble. Besides, he might have the child's world via the animal, sharing
been thinking, "Who is this person? Why experiences and looking for opportunities
should I say anything?" for more in-depth exploration of ideas
and feelings.

Here and Now vs. 4. "We don't know each other very well
There and Then and you're feeling uneasy right now."
A close examination of some of the re- 5. "It's fascinating you right now just to
sponses used to deal with resistance in the think of the possibilities."
example above will show a focus on the These statements have a more im-
present feelings of the counselee. "Here mediate focus, giving attention to feel-
and now" statements emphasize the pres- ings and events that are present. They are
ent moment, what the counselee is expe- usually perceived as more intense, more
riencing when with the counselor. "There intimate, and more personal, although
and then" statements refer to events and there and then responses also focus on
feelings that occurred outside the room in personal feelings and events. The present
which counseling is taking place. moment is dynamic and self-disclosure is
Some examples of there and then at its most vulnerable state.
responses include: Here and now responses, although
1. "So, you felt like hitting back when he very powerful, are more exciting and
pushed you in the hall this morning." more threatening. There is more com-
fort when there and then responses are
2. "You talked with your teacher and used as they are less real, perhaps more
her comments only discouraged you into the mind's fantasy of the past or the
more." future. Consequently, the excitement and
3. "What were you feeling when that the intensity of the present moment are
happened?" diffused.
4. "It made you uneasy to talk with When things appear to be boring, in-
people you didn't know very well." crease the use of here and now responses.
5. "Think how you might feel if you did When things are too intense, increase the
something like that." use of there and then responses. When
you are first getting started with a person
In each of these five examples, the
in individual counseling, both of you
choice of words and focus are not in the
may find it more comforting to use more
present moment, but refer to feelings
there and then responses. When you are
and events that have already passed and
searching deeper and exploring matters
that happened elsewhere or, as in the last
in greater depth, here and now responses
example, are hypothetical and somewhat
will add a significant dimension.
removed from the reality of the moment.
Using these same five examples, it is Diagnosis and Assessment
possible to make "here and now" respons-
es. Some students call counselors
"shrinks" and assume the guidance office
1. "You're still angry and feel like hitting is where they are tested, analyzed, and
back." evaluated. While the office may be associ-
2. "You're discouraged just thinking ated with standardized testing programs
about your meeting with your teacher. and personal and career assessment mea-
You look really down." sures, testing may or may not be a part of
3. "As I listen to you talk about what individual counseling.
happened, you seemed so excited;
you're just bubbling with enthusi-
asm."

Currently, there are no diagnostic Diagnosis and assessment are always

manuals for school counselors to help happening, although no formal measure,
classify counselees and their problems. such as a paper and pencil test, is used. As
While some students may have been a counselor, you will look at various forms
diagnosed by a psychiatrist or mental of formal and informal data to assess the
health worker according to the DSM-IV- general functioning level of a counselee.
TR-Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revi- Functioning or Dysfunctioning
sion (American Psychiatric Association, If you want to know how serious a
2000)-few school counselors, if any, use problem is or whether some behaviors
this classification system in their work. are beyond what might be expected of a
Yet, they are frequently called upon by particular age group, the following four
school personnel to help assess a student's guidelines might be useful: (1) Frequency;
personal and social functioning. It is done (2) Duration; (3) Intensity; and (4) Ap-
within the context of the school setting propriateness of affect. Or, how often
and by observation more than by formal does the behavior about which you are
inventories or tests. concerned occur? How long has it been
There are formal standardized tests going on? How much energy is invested
and inventories to assess a student's intel- in the behavior? Are the person's feelings
ligence, achievement, attitude, classroom and expressions socially appropriate and
behavior, and goals. There also are some appropriate for the situation?
informal inventories and general records These four guidelines can be used to
available. Together they can provide help you identify and assess dysfunction-
useful information for counseling. They ing students. Judgments can be based on
might be used as baseline data, provid- your professional observations without
ing information about where you are the use of assessment instruments, which
beginning with a student. They can be could be used later to confirm your initial
used again after counseling, as a means of diagnosis. The guidelines have proven
assessing outcomes. They also can be used practical to many counselors who do not
during counseling as a means of helping have immediate access to professional
students to gain insight, assess their prog- personnel or resources to decide whether
ress, and make decisions. an individual is dysfunctioning or not.
When used in counseling, assessment A middle school girl, Rachel, had a
measures must be considered part of the history of being successful in school. Her
counseling intervention. Sometimes this academic records showed she made A and
will facilitate matters and sometimes B grades and teachers liked her. She was
not. One student assumed, after taking well-groomed, respected by other stu-
a battery of tests, the counselor had all dents, and took part in after-school activi-
the information needed to resolve her ties. Then, one day a teacher suggested to
problems and she looked to the counselor Rachel's counselor that the girl might be
for specific directions. Another student as- having some problems and the counselor
sumed because the tests probably revealed called her into the guidance office.
everything, there was nothing to hide and
began talking more freely than before.

The counselor learned Rachel had The intensity, duration, and frequency
missed at least two days of school each of Gary's behavior did not suggest the
week for the past three weeks and she had same seriousness as that experienced by
not completed any class assignments for another boy, Randy, who had a history of
two weeks. This was unlike her. When the skipping school for two years. He came to
counselor asked her about this, she ex- the counselor's attention because he had
ploded in anger and said she did not care. missed several days of school during the
Then, she withdrew and refused to talk. previous grading period and was failing
The next week, Rachel continued the his classes. When he was brought back to
same behaviors. When approached by the school by an attendance officer, he said
counselor, Rachel leaned against the wall, he did not care and would probably skip
sighed deeply, and choked back tears. again in the future. He seemed defiant
Some intense feelings were there. The un- and rebellious. The counselor's assessment
usual pattern of school behavior suggested of the students showed Randy to be more
something had happened to distract her dysfunctioning than Gary, although both
from her schoolwork. She began tell- were guilty of breaking the same school
ing about family violence in which her rule.
alcoholic father abused her mother and You can look for patterns of behavior
threatened to move the family out of the to help you assess the degree to which
state. She dreaded going home and wor- a student is having a problem. You will
ried about her own safety and the safety have to make some professional judg-
of her family. She was dysfunctioning. Her ments regarding how much counseling a
coping mechanisms had broken down. student needs and whether you are in a
She felt overwhelmed and it seemed her position to provide the counseling. You
world was crashing down on her. Rachel also will need to know both the student's
received some individual counseling and limitations and your own.
was later referred to a counseling agency
for more help. Depth of Exploration
Gary was a boy in the same school Counselors use individual counsel-
who skipped school for two days. He and ing to help students to self-disclose and
his friend decided to go to a shopping explore their thoughts and feelings. There
mall where there was an arcade. They is a general assumption counseling differs
played games until on the second day an from other kinds of helping services in
attendance officer brought them back to the topics discussed and the depth of their
school. It was Gary's first time to leave exploration.
school without an excused absence. He What does it mean to explore some-
talked with his counselor about the mat- thing in depth? Is it related to time or
ter and seemed remorseful. In retrospect, the information that is disclosed? Or, is it
he thought it was poor judgment on his reflected in the personal meaning that re-
part. sults for the counselee? Are there levels of
communication, some of which are more
valuable than others?

Figure 6.1
Depth of Self-Exploration
L Talk of Others and Things:

E General events and ideas
v 1 Intellectual concepts
E Universal and public issues
L "There and Then"
Talk of Self and Ideas:

0 Personal events and opinions
F 2 Personal goals, future, interpretations
"There and Then"
D
I Talk of Self and Feelings:
s Personal experience and meanings
c Personal feelings and perceptions
L 3 "Here and Now"
0
s
u
R
E
It is not possible to answer these ques- In another case, a counselee said, "I
tions in detail here, but it can be useful suppose I should go to college. It's is a
to conceptualize the counseling process good way to prepare for life, even if you
as facilitating the counselee to talk about don't know what you want to major in.
matters according to three different levels It can't hurt a person. On the other hand,
of personal exploration. The first level there are lots of people who wait and go
(see Figure 6.1) is characterized by intel- to college later after they've had some
lectual ideas and superficial talk. This talk work experience. That might be a good
is focused on other people and what they idea." Again, this first level of communi-
are thinking and doing. For example, cation might be interesting, but there is
"You know my friend, Helen? Well, she's not much depth in the exploration. Look
planning to move away in two weeks. She at the counselee's language. There is no
is not very happy about it. They are going personalization. There are no personal
to south Florida somewhere. She's never feelings expressed, although the topic is
been there before and .... " There is little of interest to the counselee.
information about the person who is talk-
ing, only about her friend.

A second level of communication One way to determine whether you

emphasizes talk about self. You hear the are facilitative in your individual coun-
pronoun "I" used more often. There is an seling is to look at the impact of your
attempt to reveal personal information, responses. Do they help a person explore
but personal meaning and experience are matters in depth or do they steer the
lost in the event that is described or the conversation to a more superficial level?
ideas being shared. For instance, "I want How much time in counseling is spent
to get better grades in _English and I know at a superficial level? Is the absence of
I could do it if I tried. It's something I exploring matters in depth a consequence
have to do and just can't put off any lon- of counselor skill or counselee resistance?
ger. I know my teacher thinks I can't do The facilitative model recognizes you will
it, but she's got the wrong idea about me. need all the high facilitative responses
She sees me as a C student, so that's what to encourage counselees to explore their
I'm going to get. I know, I can tell." situations in depth.
While this student is talking more In counseling, you encourage stu-
about a situation from a personal view- dents to explore their ideas, feelings, and
point, the language focuses on general behaviors at all three levels. Sometimes
ideas about the class and the teacher. You it is comforting and easier to talk about a
should not be fooled by all the references topic at an intellectual level before look-
to self as they are limited and only in con- ing at its personal meaning. A review
text of the event. of counseling typescripts suggests most
The third level centers on the impact students jump from one level to another
an event has had or is having on a person and back again as they attempt to talk
and its personal meaning. Counseling about themselves. Counselees who under-
theories tell us this is most likely to be stand the counseling process and who are
expressed in feeling words or personal experienced with it can probably stay at a
statements that indicate what a person is deeper level of self-disclosure and explora-
experiencing. This invariably has to do tion for longer periods of time.
with pleasant, unpleasant, or both kinds There is another concept to think
of feelings. It is the subjective core of the about, especially as you consider what is
person's life experience and is directed and what is not facilitative. The facilita-
to the person's values, perceptions, and tive model is built upon probabilities.
attitudes. That is, high facilitative responses are
For example, "I'm so discouraged right more likely to elicit the facilitative condi-
now. You see, I've tried hard in that class, tions. When high facilitative responses
but I come up short each time. It's really are used, there also is a higher probability
getting to me. It just seems hopeless and counselees will move through the facilita-
I'm not sure what to do about it." In this tive processes of self-disclosure, feedback,
case, the words not only provide informa- increased self-awareness, decision making,
tion about the topic or event, but they and responsible action. Moreover, high
reveal personal experience and meaning facilitative responses tend to encourage
behind the words about ideas and events. counselees to explore matters in depth.
They are penetrating thoughts or feelings
that go to the depth of the experience.

Figure 6.2
Facilitating the
Depth and Direction of Self-Exploration
L Talk of Others and Things

E
~,~1
Talk of Self and Ideas
0
F 2
) n3
*(/2 t
D 4
I
s
c
L 3
0
s Talk of Self and Feelings
u
R I* *I =Critical Facilitative Points
E
------------------- 1 ------------------------ 2 ------------------------ 3 ------------------------ 4 --------------------
A COUNSELING SESSION I OR
SERIES OF COUNSELING SESSIONS

Yet, perhaps the real test of whether Advantages, Limitations,

or not a response or an action is facilita-
tive-moving the counselee toward a and Conclusion
desired goal and through the facilitative
processes-is how the counselee acts or Advantages of
responds to it. For instance, eight critical Individual Counseling
points in terms of facilitating the depth 1. There is a base of knowledge that sup-
of exploration are shown in Figure 6.2. ports the use of individual counseling
Regardless of the issue or topic or what and much of counseling theory is
was said or done, these points indicate founded on work with individuals.
something happened to move the coun-
selee (or perhaps a group) in a different 2. Most training institutes give primary
direction, toward a different level of focus to individual counseling and,
self-exploration. An analysis of a recorded subsequently, counselors are usually
typescript, for example, might reveal what most comfortable with it.
happened at those points. It would then 3. It is easier to gain access to one stu-
be possible to designate the counselor's dent for counseling than groups of
actions or responses as either facilitative students, especially at the secondary
or not. school level.
Labeling a counselor's responses and 4. Counselors frequently feel more in
actions based on general expectations and control of the dynamics of counsel-
probabilities alone may lead to inaccurate ing because it is easier to concentrate
or misleading assumptions. By them- and focus on one individual than on
selves, they mean little. It is in the con- several.
text of counseling that their facilitative 5. Some students disclose more thoughts
value must be demonstrated. Therefore, and feelings and talk more openly
it is suggested you increase the frequency about their problems when meeting
of the high facilitative responses to help privately with a counselor.
counselees explore matters in depth. Take
6. Some socially sensitive topics and situ-
note of the impact your language and
ations, including crisis interventions,
behaviors have on a counselee and then
lend themselves better to individual
decide what you want to say or do next.
than to group work.
In-depth counseling focuses on per-
7. Individual counseling is a place to
sonal feelings and meanings and em-
start.
phasizes the value of insight and aware-
ness. An essential ingredient in effective 8. Confidentiality is easier to safeguard.
counseling is identifying related verbal
and nonverbal behaviors. People are what
people do. This includes both their overt
and covert actions, both of which can be
a focus of counseling.

Limitations of Conclusion
Individual Counseling Individual counseling is a valuable
1. Counselor-student ratios are too high and respected intervention and is the
to enable counselors to see all their as- most favored approach by school counsel-
signed students in individual counselors. It often is considered to be the only
ing. mode of counseling by many teachers,
2. It is a less efficient use of counselor administrators, and parents who are less
time than meeting with students in familiar with other forms of counseling.
groups. However, most schools do not have
3. Counselors work harder as they are enough personnel to provide all the coun-
the only ones present to listen and seling services needed if counselors only
respond. The counselor is the only meet individually with their students.
interpersonal resource at the time of Moreover, individual counseling must be
counseling and this limits the perspec- thought of in terms of brief counseling.
tives that might be given. Perhaps the average number of
students who are being seen by counsel-
ors for individual counseling, as part of
their case load, will be six to eight, and
they generally will be seen in six to ten
30-minute sessions. Of course, there will
be other sessions with other students, but
they tend to be shorter in duration and
not necessarily linked.
As an intervention, individual coun-
seling is usually more direct, tends to fo-
cus on behaviors related to achievement,
and uses progressive steps toward personal
goals. It could be viewed as the primary
counselor intervention, but it is not the
most efficient use of counselor time.

Small Group Counseling
as a Counselor Intervention
People are born into groups, live and There are many components of a
work in groups, become dysfunctioning comprehensive school guidance program
in groups, and can be helped in groups. that are best delivered by means of group
Family groups, peer groups, social and counseling. According to ASCA (2008),
school groups, and other groups are part group approaches are the preferred
of a student's life. Therefore, some young medium of delivery for developmental
people are more comfortable and willing guidance and counseling activities. Small
to participate in group counseling than group counseling is part of the delivery
individual counseling. system of the ASCA National Model and is
Group counseling in the schools ap- an effective responsive service offered by
peals to many students even more as they school counselors to meet the personal/
discover others often have similar inter- social and academic needs of all students.
ests and concerns. They like knowing oth-
ers have feelings and thoughts about the
same things. They enjoy the support of
group members who are working together
toward both individual and group goals.
Group counseling in the schools is
a valid counselor intervention that can
meet the needs of many students (Brig-
man & Earley-Goodman, 2008; Green-
berg, 2003). By allowing individuals to
develop insights into themselves and
others, group counseling makes it possible
for more people to learn to work and live
with others.

Group Counseling Defined Small group counseling, on the other

hand, is usually done with a smaller
Small group counseling is a unique number of students who form a close
educational experience in which students
working relationship in which they can
can work together to explore their ideas, explore matters in depth. The group usu-
attitudes, feelings, and behaviors, espe- ally requires and attains greater levels of
cially as related to personal developmei:~ trust, understanding, and acceptance than
and progress in school. A counselor faoll- in group guidance, increasing the degree
tates the interactions among participants
members feel free to express themselves.
in a special learning experience where In addition, group counseling has been
helping relationships are formed. Mem~ characterized by greater privacy, personal
bers self-disclose, listen carefully, and give involvement, and a willingness to investi-
feedback to one another. While the con- gate more sensitive issues and situations.
tent or topics of discussion may, at times,
appear to be similar to other educational However, as counselors and teach-
activities, the counseling experience is ers become more skilled facilitators and
more personalized and intense. group managers, the differences between
guidance and counseling often rest more
Attempts to differentiate group guid- with the size of the group and the extent
ance and group counseling have focused of personal risk taken than anything else.
on the topics presented, the size of the Some of the distinctions are arbitrary and
group, leadership, and the kinds of group it is not easy to see them, especially when
interaction. Group guidance is usually group guidance is personalized.
done with larger groups of students and
discussion is less personal. Participation
is more limited and it is not as easy to
give individual attention to all members.
Some writers also have suggested group
guidance involves more information giv-
ing and teaching and a counselor plays a
more active role in structuring the learn-
ing experience.

Chapter 7 Small Group Counseling as a Counselor Intervention
Three Small Group Other times, when crisis-centered

small group counseling has taken place
Counseling Approaches include: conflicts between student groups;
Group counseling might involve three conflicts that happened on a school bus;
kinds of approaches: (1) Crisis-centered; and conflicts that resulted from racial
(2) Problem-centered; and (3) Growth- slurs. One group was formed of eight
centered. Each has its place in a com- students who were receiving failing grades
prehensive developm~ntal guidance and in a required class. A crisis was at hand
counseling program. because they needed to pass the class
in order to graduate. Group counseling
Crisis-centered provided them a means to examine their
Crisis-centered small group counsel- situation and to think together about
ing is concerned with an urgent problem. some possible solutions.
There is a need to give immediate atten-
tion to some incident or circumstance. If Problem-centered
the group has already been meeting and Problem-centered small group coun-
has established a group cohesiveness, a seling also focuses on problems that are
crisis situation might easily be worked on concerning students. But, the nature of a
within the context of either a problem- problem is usually less urgent and has not
centered or growth-centered group. After reached a critical point. Emotions are usu-
the crisis has passed, the group would really not running as high as when a crisis
turn to its original focus. Yet, some groups is at hand. Sometimes after the intensity
are formed and start their relationships as of a crisis has passed, the students will
a result of a critical event or situation. shift their focus to a remaining issue and
Six high school students were hav- continue as a problem-centered group.
ing a conflict with a teacher and walked A high school counselor provided
out of class in protest. They believed small group counseling to some girls who
they were being treated unfairly and they were pregnant and who still wanted to
wanted some changes. The school admin- finish school. Another counselor worked
istration, to support the teacher and dis- with a group of students who wanted to
approve of the way the group dealt with rid themselves of the excessive stress and
the problem, suspended the six students pressure they were experiencing in their
for three days and requested parent con- daily lives. Still another counseling group
ferences. Instead of attending the class, was for students who had conflicts with
the group met with a school counselor to their parents and were considering run-
talk about their situation and to explore ning away from home.
ways to resolve some of the problems. It An elementary school counselor orga-
was crisis-centered group counseling, as nized a problem-centered group focused
the students first vented their angry feel- on problems during kickball games on
ings and then moved to finding a reason- the playground at recess. Apparently,
able solution for their predicament. After two boys were too aggressive, arguing
the students returned to class, they con- and fighting with those who did not fol-
tinued to meet with the counselor once a low their wishes. They were "bossy" and
week for three more weeks. would cheat in order to be on the win-
ning side. The two boys needed counsel-
ing and were put in a problem-centered
group with some of the other students

who played in the same games and Typical kinds of problem-centered

disliked the boys' behaviors. The group groups are: achieving better grades; resolv-
focused directly on the problem, encour- ing conflicts with teachers and peers;
aging each member to talk about what making career choices; coping with stress;
they liked and didn't like about playing finding a job; getting along with parents;
kickball together and how they could get coping with peer pressure; avoiding the
along better in the future. abuse of alcohol and drugs; and anger
In the problem-centered approach, management (Senn, 2003).
the purpose of the group is clear. It is
based on coping with a common con- Growth-centered
cern or situation that is causing students A crisis or a particular problem need
discomfort or unhappiness. The problems not be the only reason for group counsel-
distract students from learning well in ing.Growth-centered groups focus on
school. The group members identify a the personal and social development of
problem and commit themselves to doing students. A growth centered group, for
something about it. Groups which meet example, might concentrate on learning
to resolve such problems are motivated, more about self and others through some
know their problems, and try to find ways close and friendly interpersonal experi-
to resolve them before they become more ences (Akos, 2000).
critical and lead to a crisis. Growth-centered groups are designed
Problem-centered groups have a to give attention to the general needs and
central focus. A problem is identified and interests of all young people as they expe-
explored and decisions are made. Mem- rience various developmental life stages.
bers often pursue a direct approach when Growing up and going to school are usu-
talking about the problem and there is a ally fraught with problems, some more
candid discussion about the issues. For serious than others. Students can benefit
example, one group of concerned high from talking about specific concerns
school girls met with a counselor to talk related to their personal development.
about issues of body image, self-esteem, Small group counseling gives them this
weight, and eating. Through a 10-ses- opportunity. Students do not have to wait
sion counseling unit with structured until a problem arises before they explore
activities called Body Talk, the students some of the personal and social issues
talked openly about relationships, ap- of their lives, such as accepting respon-
pearance, and what it meant to be female sibility, changing behaviors, learning to
(Daigneault, 2000). communicate with others, assessing self,
Confrontation and probing questions setting goals, and solving problems.
are seen as essential to the group process. Common anxieties and dilemmas are
Sometimes group members might discuss frequently explored in growth groups. For
a general problem, using it as a spring example, one group of elementary school
board for personal meaning. Specific students met together to talk about what
details related to a personal situation it was like when they went home after
or event may not be needed. The group school to an empty house, knowing their
might look at the problem area in terms working parents would not be home for
of prevention, for example, in which case two or three hours. They explored their
hypothetical situations might be dis- worries and their worst fears. They talked
cussed and role-played.

about ways to use their time at home An elementary school counselor was
and what to do if an emergency should concerned about James, who was having
develop. They shared ideas and learned problems getting along with teachers and
they were not the only ones who had to other students. He had a negative atti-
manage for themselves after school. tude, a difficult home life, and was sul-
Another elementary school group met len and unsociable. He was called to the
to talk about friendship. They discussed guidance office to be part of a "friendship
what people look for in friends and the group." There were five other students
things about themselves that would make and the group met for four 45-minute
them a good friend. They also considered sessions. The counselor deliberately put
things they could improve upon to make James in the growth-centered group as a
them even better friends. One activity in "target student."
the group was to think of ways in which James was not confronted about
friends supported each other. his behavior around school, nor was he
Some people do not see personal singled out for individual counseling in
and social growth as subjects for small the group. It was assumed he would take
group counseling. They prefer to see what information and personal meaning
such growth activities and experiences he could from the group activities and
conducted in large groups where more discussions. The group was less threaten-
children at a time can be reached. There ing than other approaches. His problems
is some validity to the argument and we were not the focus of the group, except as
will examine this concept more in the he chose to disclose them.
next chapter when large group guidance Later, after the group ended, the
is discussed. However, some students are counselor talked with James informally
more responsive to small group experi- in the hallways and continued building a
ences where the activities enable them friendly relationship. Still later, she initi-
to be more involved. They also cannot ated individual counseling which seemed
obtain the same closeness or the degree an appropriate next step. The counselor
of trust to risk exploring some issues in a believed the growth-centered group had
large group. helped put "some chips in the bank" so
Moreover, growth-centered groups individual counseling was not as threaten-
provide a counselor an excellent oppor- ing and there was not as much resistance.
tunity to meet with a random selection Putting target students into growth-
of students on any number of different centered groups is a common practice
topics. There is no pressing problem. among experienced counselors who
Problems are presented and discussed, but want to avoid direct confrontations with
only as they emerge from whatever the students and who see the need to ease
group is exploring. The focus is frequently into counseling relationships. In addi-
on "here and now" experiences that are tion, such groups also allow students with
inherent in growth group activities. That problems to work with peers who are
is, students participate in an activity and models or who have had success in avoid-
then talk about what they experienced ing or solving similar problems.
and learned. Eventually, experiences are
linked or generalized to life situations
outside the group.

The crisis-centered, problem-centered, Another "club" that proved success-

and growth-centered approaches are ful was the Scholar's Club. It was orga-
general descriptors used to organize small nized as a growth-centered and support
group counseling. However, small group group to help minority students form a
counseling approaches also can be titled peer network in which academic achieve-
according to such things as: (a) a coun- ment was valued and promoted (Isaacs
seling theory that is primarily used; (b) & Duffus, 1995). Counselors led discus-
the topical content (problem area) of the sions about self-esteem, motivation, and
group; (c) the counselor function and skills for personal success. The number of
activity; or (d) the population of students participants and the degree to which the
drawn to participate. Duncan and Gumaer counselor can have members interact with
(1980), in their book on developmental one another often determine whether
groups for children, provided several ex- such a club is viewed as group counsel-
amples by different contributors of groups ing or group guidance (see Chapter 8).
titled along these lines. Both require the counselor to be a group
Almost all small group counseling ex- facilitator.
periences described in the professional lit- However, it is practical to think of
erature can be categorized into one of the groups in these fundamental ways be-
three basic approaches described above. cause the terms suggest a general focus
No doubt other names might be used. around which to organize small groups
The term "support groups," for instance, for counseling and some possible goals
has been used to describe small groups of (Ripley & Goodnough, 2000). The group
students who have common situations approach you choose may give you an
where sharing a "mutual experience" can idea of your primary leadership respon-
be reassuring. Some have described this sibilities and the activities that might be
approach as intentional group counseling used. The actual interactions that take
(Ivey, Pedersen, & Ivey, 2001). place in small group counseling, as well
Grade retention sometimes is used as as the group activities that are used, the
a way of trying to maintain high academ- particular emphasis that is given, and the
ic standards, especially in the elementary outcomes obtained are totally dependent
school years. In some cases, students sim- upon the facilitative skills and processes
ply are viewed as too immature and held you employ and the choices you and the
back a grade in order to let them gain group members make.
some age- and grade-appropriate physical
and social skills. "Fresh Start" was formed
as a support group for academically re-
tained children in an elementary school.
It featured structured activities organized
around a developmental guidance ap-
proach (Campbell & Bowman, 1993).

Stages of Small When the working stage is reached,

members know more about how the
Group Counseling counseling process works and the rules of
It could be argued the same counsel- the group. They have more confidence in
ing stages outlined for individual counsel- the group and there is more effort to give
ing, discussed in Chapter 6, are true for and receive feedback, to learn more and
small group counseling. The counseling help one another, and to discover some
process in both cases tends to move along ways to take responsible action on life's
the same lines. Some writers, however, problems and situations. Caring and sup-
have abbreviated the stages to help us port by members is high, as each person
grasp how the group evolves. learns more about self and others. Fi-
Mahler (1969) was among the first to nally, the ending stage is when everyone is
describe how group counseling could be thinking of how to apply what they have
used effectively in schools and he out- learned or relearned in their own lives
lined four stages: involvement, transition, and to gain some closure on issues before
working, and ending. This set of stages is the group is disbanded.
easy to identify and still relevant and In addition to gaining a general idea
practical. of the kinds of counseling groups you
The basic purpose of the involve- want to provide students and how groups
ment stage is to help members clarify will move through different process
their reasons for being in the group, to stages, you will want to think about how
get acquainted, and to begin building the organization and structure of a group
a climate of trust and acceptance. Dur- can influence group dynamics.
ing the transition stage, group members
continue to learn how to share their ideas
and feelings in greater depth, patterns
of behavior begin to emerge, and under-
standing of behaviors begins to increase.
Most important, it is during this stage
attention is given to resistances to looking
at self, working through initial defenses
and anxieties, and learning to facilitate
one another. The group continues to build
cohesiveness and a sense of belonging.

Factors to Consider Villalba (2003) identified a target

group of Latino/Latina children whose
Group counseling is an effective limited proficiency in English contributed
means to provide services to elementary, to their being unwilling participants in
middle school, and high school students
class and to having difficult school experi-
on a range of topics. As with individual
ences. Such cultural differences and lan-
counseling, several factors need to be
guage difficulties could even lead to their
considered when organizing and structur-
being placed in special education classes.
ing small group counseling approaches,
A six-week group counseling intervention
regardless of grade level (Davis, 2006).
helped the students with skills and adjust-
Among these factors are:
ments. This is an example of a specific
target group of students.
How do you organize a group?
In another instance, an eighth grade
In organizing a group for counsel- class in a middle school was organized
ing, you will want to think about such into such target populations as: students
things as: (1) purpose; (2) accessibility of who are low performers yet have high
students; (3) member motivation; (4) peer ability; students who are at risk of drop-
relationships; and (5) member abilities ping out of school; students who are un-
and interests. After that, you will give certain about career plans; students who
attention to whom you will select, where have been referred to the school office
and when you will meet, what approaches for discipline; and students who are shy
you will use, and how you will proceed. and withdrawn. Such a list seems endless
The purpose. The purpose of the when grouping is based upon common
group is the first consideration because it needs or interests.
can affect other organizational decisions. From a large target population, such
Groups can be organized to meet a variety as high school students who have poor
of student needs. What will the group working relationships with teachers,
try to accomplish? What individual and some students could be identified for
group outcomes might be expected? After small group counseling. In a sense, all
the group has ended, what will the mem- the students in the small group would
bers probably say about the group? What have a need in common: to improve their
is it all about? relationships with teachers. This becomes
The rationale for meeting the group a central purpose of the group. In another
is important, not only to gain student approach, a counselor might assign some
cooperation and participation, but also of these students to groups where they
in obtaining teacher and parent support. would be, in the counselor's eyes, "target
Even an unstructured group needs a reason students" working on a problem within
for meeting. Once a general or specific the context of a group.
purpose is identified, then it is possible to Safran and Safran (1985) recommend-
think about the other factors that influ- ed focusing on target behaviors within a
ence group interaction and process. group. They believed behavior awareness
A practical approach to organizing should be taught in groups as a requisite
groups is to think about target popula- for changing behavior and recognized the
tions and target students. Though schools value of "peer group participation." They
typically classify students by grade levels suggested students might first be guided
or subject matter classes, it also is possible through some desensitization experiences
to identify student populations according
to special needs and interests.

designed to define and identify disrup- At other times, it may seem more ap-
tive behaviors. Students rate the behav- propriate to form a heterogeneous group,
iors generally and then rate themselves. perhaps a random selection from a class.
Finally, they discuss consequences and The purpose of the group might be to fo-
alternative behaviors. cus on the general guidance and counsel-
One middle school counselor formed ing needs of students at a developmental
a "Girl Talk" group composed of girls who stage or level. Almost all counselors have
wanted to talk about boy-girl relation- developed a small group counseling unit
ships and other interests and problems that focuses on helping students be more
related to being an adolescent girl. An- successful in school (Gladding, 2003).
other middle school counselor formed a All students can benefit from learning
group of all boys who resisted dressing for communication skills through a personal
physical education classes and who were growth group.
being failed for the course. An elementary Cassandra was a below average stu-
school counselor organized a group of dent although she had above average
children who were having problems in academic ability. Her teachers reported
school and who seemed to lack parental she was insensitive to classmates, rude to
guidance. teachers, and had a negative attitude most
Sometimes it is helpful to think spe- of the time when in class. She did not
cific commonalities and select homoge- complete her homework assignments.
neous group members. Lee (1991) devel- The counselor decided to put Cassandra
oped a Black Manhood Training Model to in a small growth group with students ran-
be used in group counseling with 13- to domly drawn from her school class. She had
17-year-old African American males. been unresponsive and even defiant when
Parker and McDavis (1989) provided a confronted by teachers and administrators
similar model for black elementary school about her attitude. She was not identified as
students. This homogeneous grouping being in the group because of her problems.
assumed racial identity was important in The purpose of the group was to develop
the exploration of issues related to black some general communication skills.
male development. Mitchum (1991) The counselor seized upon opportuni-
found a six-session group counseling pro- ties to give Cassandra special attention,
gram for navy children in public schools such as encouraging her to participate and
whose fathers were on deployment was reinforcing her efforts. When group activi-
productive. It positively affected self-es- ties and tasks were related to her problem,
teem, especially in terms of academics. the counselor made an effort to respond
Adams (1994) selected children across to Cassandra more.
primary grade levels in order to provide In this sense, the heterogeneous
bereavement counseling. She focused on grouping in the communication skills
helping group members think more about group provided an indirect and safe ap-
their concerns and fears about death, proach to working with a student who
as well as celebrate the contributions of needed a less confronting form of assis-
those in the family who had died. tance. The group experience also benefit-
ed the other members.

One rural high school was concerned You may find it helpful to "contract"
about students (ages 14 to 18) who had with teachers to release students from
behavior problems and failing grades. their classes. The contract explains the
Thirty students participated in small general purpose of the group, the time it
group counseling sessions for a period of meets, and the total number of sessions.
nine weeks. There were two groups of girls Teachers sign the contracts and excuse
and two groups of boys that met for one group members from their classes. The
hour each week and the groups received contract is an agreement, but it also has
different approaches. However, all the the advantage of alerting teachers to
groups appeared to be effective in helping how much time will be missed from class
students in terms of self-esteem, reduced and reducing potential conflicts between
detention rates, and improved grades. It teachers and students in your groups.
further showed the importance of estab- Sometimes a verbal contract is all that is
lishing bonds between at-risk students needed, but busy teachers frequently for-
and a significant-other adult in the school get. A written agreement can be a friendly
environment, a critical component for reminder.
the prevention of school dropouts (Bauer, Teachers and administrators often
Sapp & Johnson, 2000). feel pressured to take measures to reduce
With a national emphasis on closing interruptions and keep students in aca-
the achievement gap among students, demic classes. Some state laws prescribe
small group counseling can provide op- the number of hours students need to be
portunities to work with students at a present in a classroom before they can
more personal and intense level. Partici- receive credit for a class. However, most of
pants lean about study skills and behav- the same laws recognize counseling and
iors that lead to achievement (Campbell advisement times are legitimate reasons
& Brigman, 2005). for an excused absence and do not penal-
ize students who work with counselors
Who is accessible? during an academic period. Nevertheless,
Accessibility or availability is the sec- high school counselors, in particular, have
ond major consideration when organizing found it difficult to organize small group
a group. After you have identified poten- counseling sessions because of various
tial group members, the next question restrictions and teacher reluctance.
is: "Can the students meet together as a Many counselors have learned to meet
group regularly?" If not at the same time with groups on a class period basis, rotat-
for each session, can you and the selected ing meeting times through the school
members negotiate meeting times with week. In one case, a counselor met with
teachers and administrators so you can her group of high school sophomores dur-
meet consistently as a group? It makes ing first period on Monday, second period
practical sense to identify and work with on Tuesday, and third period on Wednes-
those groups of students who are avail- day. The following week, the group met
able to you. You probably will have many two more times-fourth period on Thurs-
students who could benefit from group day and fifth period on Friday. Students
counseling, more than you can possibly missed only one period from their regu-
meet during a school year. Therefore, if larly scheduled classes.
some students are not available, meet
with those who are.

Counselors use variations of this ar- School counselors cannot ignore the
rangement to contract with groups. Dur- value of TAP (Teacher-Advisor Program).
ing the first meeting, students are given When schools have regularly scheduled
a calendar showing the group's changing TAP periods, such as the first half hour
meeting times and teachers are notified of of each school day, then counselors have
the days the students will be out of class. more access to students for group work
It works. However, while this procedure is and there is less need to pull groups of
practical when considering loss of aca- students out of academic classes during
demic class time, it can become wearing the day.
on most counselors to make and maintain
such arrangements for all their groups. It What about motivation?
is not an easy system to manage for most Motivation plays an important role in
counselors. In addition, a rotating sched- the work of a group. We know voluntary
ule of meetings results in more absentee- or involuntary participation can make
ism and tardiness, as many students get a difference, just as it does in individual
confused about the changes of times or counseling. If a group is involuntary, as
they forget. And, those are usually the stu- many are, then you may need to work
dents who most need the group counsel- harder at selling or motivating the mem-
ing experience. bers on the purpose and benefits of the
Some students are able to meet before group. They will surely be thinking,
or after school. This option may not be "What's in it for me?"
available for some students, especially Although you may initiate the coun-
those who ride a school bus. You might seling process, each student's participa-
take students from your target list, for tion in activities and discussions can only
example, who are within walking distance occur voluntarily. People might pass on a
to school and organize a series of four discussion topic, if asked, and wait until a
30-minute group sessions for them. later time to comment. Resistance usually
Still another time to meet students is can be overcome by using "go-around"
during lunch period. When arrangements procedures, in which warm-up tasks and
are made, students can bring their lunch- encouragement are given. Starting with
es to the guidance office. While this may topics that are relatively less probing
have some limitations, such as less eye and sensitive can stimulate participation
contact and some minor disruptions from which can then be reinforced.
the noise of eating, it has proven to be a Students who are skeptical, uncertain,
practical meeting time when counselors or reluctant to be in a group can be more
have access to students. responsive after they understand the pur-
Middle school counselors often have pose of the group and take part in a few
more access to students during regular activities that build group cohesiveness.
class periods than do high school coun- The same facilitative conditions that are
selors, as class credits have not yet begun helpful in individual counseling also are
to accumulate for high school graduation needed in group counseling. Once mem-
and the same class attendance restric- bers experience the facilitative conditions,
tions do not usually apply. Still, middle motivation and interest increase.
school teachers dislike having their classes
interrupted. Elementary school counselors
appear to have less trouble in arranging
small group counseling, but meeting times
can be a problem at all school levels.

Relationships among students can be What about abilities

affected by many factors, including age, and interests?
gender, social status, prior acquaintance,
similar experiences, and personal styles. Similar abilities and interests provide
Due to personal and social likenesses a homogeneous group that can work well
I
some groups are immediately compatible together almost immediately. While social
and form quick bonds. Other groups de- maturity and skill come into play, perhaps
velop a group cohesiveness as they come verbal ability is the most critical factor.
to know each other, but it takes more If a group has one or two slow, deliber-
time. ate speakers, there is a tendency for the
group's energy to sag. Group process is
Many counselors find similar age is usually dependent upon group talk and
an important variable when working with this requires some social skills such as
students. Although students from grades listening, attending, responding, concep-
six, seven, and eight can be grouped tualizing ideas, and being sensitive to oth-
together for academic experiences in a ers. While some of these process skills can
middle school and can take part in similar be taught to members, a group member
group activities, eighth graders are less who is clearly deficient in these areas may
tolerant of sixth graders and sometimes first need tutoring and individual counsel-
they will take a cool, reserved approach ing before becoming a group member.
in counseling. Sixth graders, on the other
hand, because of developmental differenc- In a similar vein, when group mem-
es, can feel intimated by eighth graders, bers have extremely varied interests and
who are usually physically and socially experiences, it is sometimes difficult for
more mature. While there are exceptions, them to attend to each other. They can
working within a two-year age span is lose interest and find the group boring,
generally a comfortable arrangement. especially if there is no attempt to person-
alize group experiences.
Gender does not seem to make a dif-
ference in how groups function, unless a One counselor met with a group of
boy and girl who are "a couple" are in the high school students who were uncer-
same group. Then, there seems to be more tain about career plans and were anxious
guardedness and role-playing. Sometimes about what they were going to do follow-
a topic related to physical growth can be ing graduation. Some of the students in
more sensitive when both boys and girls the group had very low grades and were
are present and can inhibit group partici- not interested in pursuing any more for-
pation. But, in today's world, boys and mal education. A few others were success-
girls can learn to talk openly about most ful students who were undecided about
things and can be of valuable assistance in which college to attend because they were
giving feedback to one another. unsure about their career goals.
Exploring the interests and needs of
these two groups stagnated the group's
cohesiveness until the counselor posed
questions and provided activities that
were meaningful for all group members
(e.g., "List three goals you hope to achieve
someday." "Name a personal strength
you have going for yourself and then

something about yourself you need to What should be the size

improve." "Tell about someone who has of the group?
supported you in your decisions and what
you like or admire about that person"). The answer to this question has varied
over the years, with the standard number
Another group of students was meet- recommended in counselor education
ing because the members were all failing group counseling courses ranging from
a social studies class they needed to pass ten to as high as twelve or fifteen. How-
in order to graduate. Two of the eight ever, experienced school counselors prefer
were negative and said they did not care if to work with five or six and no more than
they passed or not. The presence of these eight. The trend is to meet for shorter
two members inhibited the other mem- periods of time and with smaller groups.
bers from exploring their needs, interests, Having fewer members allows for more
and the barriers they had to overcome to participation by each person in the group.
graduate. It was difficult to facilitate inter-
action because there was no agreement on With a group of six members, counsel-
the value and purpose of the group. The ors can use most small group activities, in-
counselor had to reconsider the appropri- cluding go-around activities. A go-around
ateness of this group for the two negative is when the counselor gives the group a
students. task (e.g., "Tell about what you look for
in a friend") and then, usually starting on
Friendships and prior acquaintances the counselor's immediate left, the first
can sometimes inhibit group participa- person speaks to the topic. Then, the next
tion, as small cliques might rely on each person to the left speaks, going around in
other for support or form some sense of a circle until all have responded, includ-
exclusive loyalty to each other. Yet, you ing the counselor. If the group has more
also can let friends start their own groups than six members, such a procedure can
by identifying topics they want to discuss become tedious and time consuming. It
with a counselor and finding a mutual would not be practical.
meeting time.
Groups of eight or more rely on spon-
A middle school counselor recom- taneous contributions and participation.
mended that two girls who were experi- The topic or task may remain the same,
encing test anxiety and excessive pres- but group dynamics are different. Some
sure to do well in school find four other members participate less while others
students who were experiencing similar tend to dominate. Some may receive inad-
concerns and who could meet for some equate attention and tend to withdraw or
group counseling activities. The girls took fidget. The counselor's leadership function
the responsibility for recruiting other is affected. Interactions are more com-
members who could meet during one of plex and there is more group behavior to
the counselor's available time slots. which to attend. One problem with large
groups is a tendency for them to become
more like a regular school class than a
counseling group.

It may be possible to have too small a 30-minute periods a week rather than a
group, especially with high school stu- one hour period. To some extent, how
dents. The counselor and two students often and for how long a group's meet-
can make up a group, but this number ings are will depend upon your leadership
can be fatiguing as the interaction is in- style and the kinds of group activities or
tense and fast moving. Elementary school experiences you want to provide.
counselors, however, often work with If meetings are held infrequently,
three or four primary grade children in a once a month or once every two weeks,
group. It is practical and effective because group cohesiveness tends to wane, if it
of their attention span and lack of social ever develops. There is less personal com-
skills. mitment by counselor and students, as
the group is an event which seems almost
How often should groups out of context. There often is a lack of
meet and for how long? continuity and the group must begin
Generally speaking, one session a anew each time it meets. Sometimes such
week per group is the average for most stretched out meetings are unavoidable
school counselors. It is preferable to meet and you will have to decide what skills
twice a week and sometimes more. The and activities are needed to keep the
purpose of the group and the urgency group involved.
with which you are trying to accomplish
some objectives can influence how often What is the duration
you meet. Most developmental counselors of the group?
like the idea of meeting twice a week for Some experts suggest a minimum of
three weeks and building group counsel- ten sessions is needed before most small
ing around six sessions. If more sessions group counseling can be effective and
are needed, then a new contract is drawn. may be only a start. Practically speaking,
Rarely do school counselors meet students however, ten sessions is about the limit
in small group counseling for more than for most school counselors. Six to eight
10 or 12 sessions. sessions seem more manageable. Some
The length of the session varies among counselors typically make plans for four
counselors, but many middle and high sessions before ending the group or re-
school counselors generally find it expedi- contracting for a few more sessions.
ent to schedule meetings for the duration Obviously, the longer you meet with
of a regular class period. Usually, this is your students, the more opportunities you
about 45 to 50 minutes. It is uncommon will have to build a solid helping relation-
for a group to meet more than one period, ship and to talk about more matters in
unless a crisis intervention is taking place. depth. But, this is a luxury and students
Typically, elementary school counselors often are not available for long-term
choose to meet for 20 minutes with pri- counseling. Therefore, counseling groups
mary grade children and 30 minutes with organized for a specific purpose and with
upper grade children. limited goals tend to be the choice of
You might think about using 30-min- most school counselors.
ute sessions. While they are typically Many of the same factors that apply
more structured than longer sessions, this to individual brief counseling also apply
time frame allows counselors and students to brief group counseling. In general, this
an opportunity to meet without tak- usually means the use of more cognitive-
ing too much time away from academic behavioral approaches and structured
studies. It seems better to meet for two activities (Furr, 2001).

Where does the group meet? members (see Chapter 5) will anchor the
Not surprising, considering the histo- group leader's role. In addition, group ac-
ry of school guidance and counseling, the tivities can be used to expedite the coun-
vast majority of school counselors have seling process (e.g., Zinck & Littrell, 2000).
offices that are too small and inadequate Structured group activities tradition-
for group counseling. Counselors usually have been part of developmental
ally need more space for group activities, guidance and counseling. These often are
especially those that involve movement. organized into a counseling unit with a
A conference room might be available or general topic or focal point. This allows
you might use an unoccupied classroom. for time-limited strategies to be organized
But, space often is at a premium in today's around a logical flow of events through a
schools and you may find yourself meet- series of connected sessions. The sessions
ing in some unusual places. Counselors lead members to a group goal or set of
have found meeting places in storerooms, objectives. Counselors might begin, for
auditoriums, cafeterias, media centers, example, with activities that help a group
hallways, and coatrooms. to get started and members to feel con-
Ideally, the group counseling room nected as they self-disclose matters on a
should be small enough to provide inti- particular topic. In other sessions, feed-
macy, but large enough to be comfort- back activities are incorporated, as well as
able. It should provide enough privacy so ones in which group participants explore
group members are not distracted or feel ideas, think of alternatives, solve prob-
inhibited by outside observers. Although lems, and make decisions.
students are accustomed to sitting in Guidance and counseling units are
desks or around tables, it is best if you can similar to teachers' classroom lesson
arrange the chairs in a circle without the plans and may consist of several work-
presence of desks so there is a greater feeling sessions or meetings. A unit is di-
ing of openness and each person's person- rected toward a particular group and set
al presence can be felt. A few students will of objectives. Counselors often are able
want to sit behind a table, as it provides to adapt a unit or some of its activities
a sense of security and something to lean to fit different populations and objec-
on. They feel less exposed. While they tives. Because of time constraints, many
might be able to write ideas down better if counselors organize a unit around 4 to 6
they are seated around tables or in desks, sessions, although there might be time for
the general rule is try to avoid them. more. Additional sessions can be added or
Another guideline is to have all members contracted with a group, as needed. Each
sitting in a similar fashion-all on the session in a unit generally has a topic or
floor, around a table, or in desks arranged focal point, purpose or objectives, materi-
in a circle. als needed, activities, and a list of steps or
procedures. Some units may include hints
How do you facilitate a group? regarding what the counselor might say,
perhaps even read, at certain points.
The facilitative model (see Chapter 5)
works well with individuals and groups. Getting off to a good start can put ev-
The four facilitative processes (self-disclo- eryone at ease. During the first session, the
sure; feedback; increased awareness and reason for the group is explained. Everyone
decision making; and responsible action) then gets better acquainted through some
continue to be benchmarks for the coun- mutual sharing activities. Some light-
selor. Increasing the use of high facilitative hearted tasks-often called "ice breakers"
responses and eliciting them from group or "warm-ups"-may be suitable, depend-

ing upon the time that is available. This is cause most school counseling groups meet
especially true for developmental groups. for a short duration, it is understandable
The first and, perhaps, most impor- they may have some unfinished business
tant task is to help members learn more which could be addressed if more time
about the purpose and nature of the were available.
group. They will be wondering: "Why am Groups might be called in for a fol-
I here? Okay, now that I'm here, what do I low-up meeting, but this is rarely done in
have to do? What's in it for me?" the schools. Tapering-off sessions might
Developmental school counselors often be in order for some groups, but this can
start with teaching the group about feeling usually be done in the session before
words-pleasant and unpleasant. Members the last one as you prepare the group for
might name and list some examples and use closure.
them for reference. One counselor, for exam- In most cases, group members will
ple, started by saying, 11 Our group is about have full knowledge of the overall plan
sharing ideas and listening to one another. and be aware the group counseling ses-
Try to think about the feelings people have sions are limited. They will know the
when they are talking or telling us about group is meeting for a specific purpose
something. For instance, you can think in and most will be pleased to have had such
terms of whether you are hearing pleasant or an opportunity. Most students accept the
unpleasant feelings. Let's name some pleas- last meeting as the end of the counseling
ant feeling words." The counselor made a group.
list on a large pad of paper and posted them An elementary school counselor told
on the wall before asking the group to name how a group of fifth grade girls enjoyed
unpleasant feelings. meeting together so much they began
Counselors don't have to work as hard thinking of other problems they were
if they help group members learn how to having or could have. In the two weeks
play the "counseling game," which in- that followed the end of the group, two
cludes listening and responding. As group girls regressed from the progress they had
members talk, the counselor might ask made. Some old and new disruptive be-
members, on occasion, 11 Are you hearing haviors began to appear in the classroom.
pleasant or unpleasant feelings, or both?" When confronted, the girls responded
It follows the group can then think about with, "But, we need to meet more as a
how behaviors, thoughts, and emotions group and work out our problems." The
are related and can be identified in vari- counselor helped the girls process their
ous situations. feelings and refocus on their gains. Soon
their disruptive classroom behaviors de-
How do you end a group? clined again.
The same closure issues that confront Typically, counselors like to end
you in individual counseling also are groups on a positive note. Therefore, part
present in small group counseling. Some of the last session is usually aimed at "cel-
groups will resist termination and think ebrating" the group's accomplishments
of reasons for continuing. If the reasons and having had an opportunity to experi-
are legitimate and if you want to con- ence something special together.
tinue, then renegotiate and re-contract A common activity used by counsel-
with group members and their teachers. ors focuses on "strength bombardment,"
Otherwise, resistance to ending the group where members tell each other some of
might be viewed as a healthy sign the the positive things they have noticed. An-
group has enjoyed the experience. Be- other closing activity asks each member in

the group to make a final statement, per- Communication Labs:

haps using a go-around procedure. There
is no attempt to discuss the statements A Growth Group
or elaborate on them. After everyone has Experience
had a turn, including the counselor, the Communication anxiety has been
group is ended. linked to high school dropouts (Barton,
2006). One way of providing a small
How do you evaluate a group? group counseling experience to many
The expectations for schools to be ac- students, including potential dropouts,
countable and show gains are high. Coun- is to offer a series of group sessions that
selors, too, are expected to show they are focus on communication skills. The group
making a positive difference in their work. might be called a communication lab be-
Collecting data on group results as re- cause it is a type of laboratory experience
lated to objectives makes sense. Research in social skills.
evidence has consistently supported The group has two purposes: (1) to
the effectiveness of group counseling in provide a brief experience in learning
schools (Cook & Kaffenberger, 2003; Riva and practicing communication skills and
& Haub, 2004), but the need for coun- (2) to increase awareness about self and
selors and group leaders to evaluate their others. The group members learn to listen
own groups is paramount. carefully, to ask facilitative questions, to
A formative evaluation based on give and receive feedback, and to think
verbal feedback during the last session about problems.
can give the leader some idea of group In addition, the group allows you to
effectiveness (Kayler & Sherman, 2009). form some close working relationships
Participants might respond to a simple with students before other counseling
set of statements (perhaps 5-8) that can situations might arise during the year.
be answered on an agree-disagree scale. Therefore, one or two target students
Another option is to use open-ended can be included in a group of about six
questions. students.
Written responses add to what might This type of group usually meets for
have been sensed during any feedback an established time, perhaps six sessions.
members gave each other or about the The sessions are structured in an order
group during the counseling process. that considers the basic group counseling
They can later be studied and analyzed stages. The group members participate
with a keen eye. in various activities and the interaction
Observers outside the group (e.g., of the group members makes each group
teachers, parents, and peers) also might experience unique. As the group leader,
be given a brief checklist regarding group you give directions to provide structure.
members' behaviors. Of course, pre and You also take a turn with the students in
post observations are ideal, but this isn't the activities and tasks.
always practical (see Chapter 12). Using An illustration of a structured group
the collected or otherwise available data, experience for communication skills is
the counselor evaluates the group and its shown in Figure 7.1. The titles, general
impact on members. The group approach focus, and some of the activities of the
is confirmed or modified for use at an- sessions are outlined briefly. These can
other time and the counselor compiles a give you an idea of the flow and purpose
report, if appropriate. of the group and the sessions.

N 0
,j::. Figure 7.1 (!)
0 <
Facilitating Groups (!)
0
(Communication Labs) "C
3(!)
::I
.....
Cl
T
I
T
1
"Getting
2
"Self-disclosing
3
"Secret Pooling"
4
"Indirect
5
"I've Got a
6
"Strength
"c.:
c:
Cl
::I
L Started" Flag" Feedback" Secret" Bombardment" n
(!)
Cl
E ::I
c..
n
0
F Begin the group Self-disclosure Self-disclosure Increased awareness Decision making Feedback c:
::I
0 Structure the Building Increased awareness Problem solving Positive impact "'
~
::I
c process cohesiveness Feedback Feedback Responsibility Action plan l.O
u Feelings/behaviors Increased Member exchange Increased awareness Closure

s Self-disclosure awareness of information
Build cohesiveness
A Introductions Sharing symbols Pooling impressions Using metaphors Pooling secrets Giving feedback
T C Ground rules High facilitative Guessing identities Feedback Exploring problems Next step
A T Pantomime responses Eliciting feedback Go-Arounds and actions Final statements
~
0 s I Feelings words list Hypothetical cases Summary
~
"';:::\. K V Go-Arounds Role-playing End the group

~ I
~"
,'7<:'
T
y
~
l:J
More specifically, group sessions are The Case of

presented horizontally across time from
left to right and the focus and interac- Jennifer and Andrew
tion activities for each session are shown Jennifer and Andrew were eighth
vertically from top to bottom. In the first grade students who were not perform-
phase-sessions one and two-there is an ing well in school. They had above
attempt to establish group identity. Also, average intelligence and had made good
through self-disclosure.activities, group grades through seventh grade. Teachers
members learn the facilitative conditions questioned their motivation and inter-
such as trust, understanding, acceptance, est and both appeared on a list given to
and caring. They also learn to be sensitive the school counselors of students who
listeners, which includes focusing on feel- needed more time and attention than
ings and being aware of self and others. teachers could give them. Both students
Some simple guidelines help the members participated in a "communications skills
understand how they will function in the group" with four other students who were
group. interested and available to participate in
During the second phase, consisting the group and who did not appear on any
of sessions three and four, the counselor other guidance referral list. The group
directs more attention to here-and-now met six times. Below is an outline of those
situations where feedback (compliment- sessions.
ing and confronting) is introduced and
practiced. The third stage is more flexible, Session 1: Getting Started
depending upon the interests and prog- The group members were first asked
ress of a group and may include problem about the kinds of groups they had been
solving, role-playing, nonverbal commu- in before this time. The counselor then
nication, or a group member's problem. It explained this was going to be a different
often is used to explore typical problems kind of learning group, one in which they
students their age might have. The final would work together to learn about and
session always involves some positive practice communication skills.
feedback activity, typically a "strength The group was told they would meet
bombardment." six times, twice a week for three weeks, for
The case of Jennifer and Andrew will about 30 minutes each time. The positive
help illustrate a small group counseling focus of the group and the emphasis upon
intervention in which the counselor used learning ways to communicate with one
a growth group approach that also includ- another reduced the pressure often associ-
ed target students. ated with "being counseled because of a
problem," especially with Jennifer and
Andrew.
Group members were paired and they
interviewed each other, trying to learn
things they did not already know. After
about three minutes for each interviewer,
members introduced their partners to
the rest of the group. The counselor then
introduced the idea of talking about and
listening for feelings as one of the things
to do in the group. Members thought
about times they could "hear" or sense

someone else's feelings or thoughts, even Session 2:

when they were not saying anything. The Self-Disclosing Flag
Some nonverbal expressions were role-
played to help get the group thinking as After going around the group and call-
members tried to guess the feeling. Then, ing each person by name, members w.ere
the counselor elicited feeling words from asked to review some of the commumca-
the group and wrote them on a large piece tion skills they learned in the first session.
of paper under "pleasant" and "unpleas- The counselor then gave them each a
ant" headings. The list was posted for easy handout with a flag divided into four sec-
reference. tions. Group members filled in the quad-
rants of their personal flags with little
Students took turns telling something symbols or pictures to show: (1) Some-
that had happened to them during the thing I Like About School; (2) Something
past week, as the others listened for un- I Do Not Like About School; (3) What I
pleasant, pleasant, or both kinds of feel- Would Most Like To Do Someday; and (4)
ings. After everyone had a turn, the coun- Something I Am Good At Right Now.
selor talked about how a few guidelines
usually help groups work more smoothly Next, each member had a turn to
and suggested the following: share one symbol, while the counselor
helped the other members to ask ques-
We talk about our feelings and ideas. tions and clarify ideas. They also identi-
We listen to what others are saying fied feelings and put them into sentences
and how they are feeling. as they continued to practice their listen-
Anyone can pass on a turn to talk. ing skills. After all had shared one sym-
bol, a second round took place in which
What happens in the group stays in another symbol was shared.
the group (confidentiality).
Jennifer drew some numbers for her
Because the counselor liked to use second symbol and said she hated math
"go-around" procedures, starting on the class because it was uninteresting and
left, Jennifer and Andrew were seated in
boring. The counselor responded, "You
the third and fifth places in the circle.
say that like it's so tedious and weary for
They would have a chance to hear oth- you." "That's right," Jennifer continued,
ers participate before their turns. It was "and I just hate going to that class." The
important they say something in the first counselor then commented, "It's not
session and the group accepted what was easy for you to attend math class and you
said. Using high facilitative responses, the don't look forward to going there each
counselor encouraged everyone to partici-
day.... Okay, John (the next person), tell
pate.
us about one of your symbols."
When it was Andrew's turn, he said
he was good at football and it was a lot of
fun to play on the school team because
they had a winning record. The counselor
turned to the group and said, "As An-
drew told us about his symbol, were you
hearing primarily pleasant, unpleasant,

or both kinds of feelings?" The group was The group members were instructed
encouraged to look at their feeling words to remain silent while the others tried to
list from the first session. The counselor guess which words they had written. This
elicited such words as "proud," "happy," helped the others to continue the guess-
and "excited" to reflect Andrew's self- ing, identifying the words and behaviors
disclosure. After a minute or so, the next that led them to their guesses, and giving
member took a turn. more specific observations. The papers
The counselor used this opportunity were only a vehicle to promote feedback.
to give and elicit some high facilitative The counselor also wrote down three
responses to the two target students, words and participated, just as when the
knowing "chips in the bank" build posi- self-disclosing flag was used in the second
tive relationships. Group members did session.
not discuss their symbols in great detail or
explain why they used particular symbols. Session 4: Indirect Feedback
No attempt was made to interpret art In this session, group members
work or evaluate contributions. In addi- learned how to give indirect feedback
tion, the counselor made sure none of the through metaphors. They took turns de-
students was asked to talk (self-disclose) at scribing each other as an animal or object.
great length before the next member took A simple lead-in was used: "(Name), I see
a turn. Subsequently, no one felt pres- you as a .... " The counselor coached them
sured or on the spot for very long. to add some details such as color, size,
where it was located, what might be done
Session 3: Secret Pooling with it, feelings about it, and what they
After reviewing briefly what had hap- wanted to as a result of those feelings. In
pened in the first two sessions, the mem- this activity, members did not proceed
bers each wrote on a piece of paper three through a go-around as in previous ones,
words they believed classmates might use but everyone took a turn. The counselor
to describe them. The counselor collected kept the three-step facilitative feedback
the papers, shuffled them, and read them model in mind while encouraging mem-
one at a time. Members tried to guess who bers to be descriptive.
would use such words about themselves. The group members all liked this
The procedures were structured so the session. It was fun and had a game-like
group members spoke directly to each quality. Yet, the feedback statements were
other. For example, to the words "Big, not valid reflections of how students were
smart, and likes sports" one person said, being perceived and experienced by oth-
"I think that's you, Andrew, because you ers. Special efforts were made to assure
think we all see you as just a big, dumb the members spoke for themselves and
athlete ... which isn't true, of course!" The a group consensus was avoided. When
counselor picked up on the statement as group members used a similar animal
an opportunity to elicit feedback. "What or object, the counselor helped them to
is it about Andrew that makes you say it provide their own unique details and
isn't true?" perspective.

One of the members said, "Jennifer, Session 5: I've Got A Secret

I see you as a star hanging on a tree. You
After a brief review of the communica-
have so much potential to sparkle and
tion skills from before (listening and per-
shine so bright, but sometimes it is hard
sonal feedback), the counselor began the
to see you hanging on that tree. It's like
session by asking members to think about
you're hung up and can't really do your
problems students their age have-one
thing." The counselor facilitated the
they or someone they know might have
member by asking, "And, what are you
had or, perhaps, one they worry about
feeling when you look at the star and
having. Next, the members wrote down
what do you want to do?" She continued
one or more secrets or problems on pieces
with, "Well, I don't know... maybe a little
of paper without signing their names. The
sad, but then I'm happy because the star
counselor said there were some problem
could be real bright if it wanted to ... and ...
statements from other groups that would
and ... I guess I want to reach up and wipe
be added to the ones from the group.
off some of the dust off the star. .. maybe
untangle it so we can see it better." The pieces of paper were collected.
The counselor shuffled them and read
Some group members were more cre-
the first one. It said, "My problem is my
ative than others in choosing an animal
parents won't let me stay out late or stay
or object. But, as the counselor facilitated
overnight with some of my friends." The
with a few open-ended questions, they all
group was asked how they might feel if
made their descriptions take on special
they had that problem and, later, ho_w
meaning. As the group members received
they might act if they had those feelmgs.
feedback, they learned more about them-
After a brief discussion, a second problem
selves and the impact they were having
was read aloud, "My problem is I have a
on others. Giving feedback helped them
teacher who doesn't like me." Again, the
to learn the power of reaching out to
same discussion procedures were used.
communicate to others about things they
noticed about them. Excitement was high The counselor, knowing Jennifer and
and some group members wanted to have Andrew would benefit from a discussion
another round. of student-teacher relationships, made
sure such a problem was included and dis-
cussed. Jennifer and Andrew, in particular,
were asked to share their thoughts when
it was introduced.
Not all problems were discussed in
detail. Some discussions stopped after
feelings and related behaviors were ex-
plored. Some were carried to the point of
thinking about different alternatives and
possible solutions.

Session 6: After completing a school district

Strength Bombardment workshop on small group counseling,
six middle school counselors agreed to
The sixth and final session was a posi- provide the communication lab group
tive one in which each member in the experience to students in their schools
group took a turn sitting in the middle of (grades 6 to 8). Each counselor met three
the circle, while the other members told groups, with six students per group (N
what they saw as the person's strengths =104). Likewise, nine high school coun-
and best qualities. This was not a go- selors who attended the same in-service
around, but the counselor made sure workshop each led two groups of about
every member gave at least one positive five or six students (N = 103).
comment to each of the others. After all
members had a turn in the middle, their A post evaluation took place one week
reactions and questions were encouraged. after the groups were completed. Data
were complete on 104 of the 108 middle
The counselor asked the members to school students and 103 of the 108 high
talk about what they had learned from school students. As shown in Figure 7.2,
the group experience and then sum- results were favorable at both school
marized the communication skills and levels. The group experience apparently
some implications for outside the group. made a positive difference in no less than
Finally, using a go-around procedure, each 90 percent of the cases.
member took a turn making a final state-
ment to either someone in the group or In particular, 67 percent of the middle
about the group. school and 74 percent of the high school
students reported the group had some
Before leaving, group members com- affect on their behavior outside the group.
pleted a group evaluation form. All evalu- Most agreed it increased their understand-
ations were positive and the part members ing of self and others and they would
liked least was the group was too short recommend the group to other students.
and coming to an end. Positive results also were found using
The communication skills group similar group experiences in the elemen-
described here has been used with con- tary schools.
siderable success at all grade levels. There
are different variations you can use,
depending upon the members in the
group and the target students you want to
experience a growth group. For example,
some counselors have chosen to make
session five more flexible and to focus on
problems that are of general interest to
the group, including some role-playing
activities. Others have chosen to teach
the direct feedback model to students in
session four or to introduce it in session
five after the members have experienced
indirect feedback.

Figure 7.2
Group Evaluation
(Communication Labs)
(In terms of percent)
MIDDLE SCHOOL (N = 104) SA A u D SD
The group increased my understanding of others. 42 49 8 1 0
The group had no affect on me. 1 8 5 26 60
The group had some affect on

my behavior outside the group. 19 48 18 10 5
I disliked being a member of the group. 0 0 3 19 78
The group increased understanding of myself. 36 44 12 5 3
I would recommend the group experience for others. 66 23 7 1 3
HIGH SCHOOL (N = 103) SA A u D SD
The group increased my understanding of others. 25 70 0 5 0
The group had no affect on me. 0 3 5 41 46
The group had some affect on

my behavior outside the group. 16 68 13 0 3
I disliked being a member of the group. 3 0 5 27 65
The group increased understanding of myself. 32 46 14 8 0
I would recommend the group experience for others. 73 21 3 0 3
SA= Strongly Agree

A= Agree
U= Unsure
D= Disagree
SD= Strongly Disagree

Group Counseling for Handmade cards with feeling words

written on them were distributed ran-
Negative Attitudes domly among the group members. Using
Students who have negative attitudes a go-around procedure, members read
about school often have learning prob- the words on their cards and the group
lems. In addition, they often disrupt other discussed each one. For instance, the
students from learning. Their behaviors counselor said, "Okay, Jason, your word
distract or annoy teacht;rs and make their is disappointment. What does that word
work difficult. mean to you?" Then, she asked Jason and
A small group counseling approach the group, "Is it a pleasant or unpleasant
was designed for sixth grade students feeling?" "How can you tell if a person
who had negative attitudes about them- feels that way?" "Have you ever seen any-
selves and school. The approach has been one who felt that way?" "Have you ever
used successfully at other grade levels. It felt disappointed?"
consisted of a series of six structured small The questions were sequential, mov-
group counseling sessions of about 30 ing the discussion from a general to a
to 45 minutes each. In this case, all the more personal focus, always beginning
group members knew from the begin- with the nature of the feeling word before
ning they had been asked to participate focusing on specific behaviors related to
because teachers were concerned about it. As members took a turn telling the
them. In particular, their teachers men- group their words, the counselor gave
tioned the negative feelings they seemed them the first opportunity to self-disclose
to have about themselves and school. before asking for the feelings and ideas of
A brief description of the six sessions the rest of the group. This general proce-
is provided below. Notice the parallel dure had a way of easing the group into
structure the problem-centered group has talking about personal matters and giving
to the growth-centered group (communi- each member an opportunity to partici-
cation skills) described earlier. The mem- pate.
bers for this group were selected from a As they were discussed, the words also
list of students given to the counselor, all were listed on a large piece of paper under
of whom were viewed as having negative the categories of "pleasant" and "un-
attitudes. pleasant." Other words that came out in
discussion were added to the list. Finally,
Session 1: Feelings About School the counselor asked the group to quickly
The counselor began by asking the six think of other words to add to each cat-
members to introduce themselves, includ- egory, although time did not allow a dis-
ing one thing they like to do when not in cussion of them. The lists of pleasant and
school. She then explained the purpose unpleasant feelings remained in view for
of the group was to help students think all sessions and other words were added
more about themselves and school. The from time to time.
students seemed resigned to being in the Guidelines for this group were not an-
group and they had no questions about it. nounced in advance. Instead, the counsel-
or chose to introduce them as they seem
needed. This can work more smoothly
with students who are likely to interpret
guidelines negatively and become resis-
tant to the group process.

Session 2: Illustrated Tee Shirt defensiveness and resistance. The coun-

In the second session, the counselor selor focused the discussion to help group
capitalized on the fad of slogan tee shirts. members understand the relationship
Students were given a handout showing between classroom behaviors and teacher
the outline of a tee shirt that has five sec- perceptions.
tions. They were asked to draw symbols
to represent: (1) Something about this Session 3: Dear Abby
school; (2) Something you would like to The group activity for this session
change about school; (3) Something you began when the counselor said: "Think
like about school; (4) One thing about of a problem you are having in school...
yourself you would like to change or im- or perhaps a problem someone else you
prove upon; and (5) Three words teachers know is having ... or maybe a problem
might use to describe you. students your age might have in school
Using a go-around procedure, each that would be interesting to discuss. Now,
member (including the counselor) took using the paper I am handing out, write
a turn to tell about one symbol on their down a problem, but don't sign your
tee shirts. Go-arounds continued and name. I'll collect them and then we'll
group members shared their ideas and discuss some of them in our group."
feelings. The counselor used high facilita- As each problem was read aloud, the
tive responses, often referring to the list of counselor began by saying, "If you had
feeling words and adding new ones when a problem like this, how would you feel?
appropriate. Then later, after some discussion, she
The students liked talking about asked, "Well, then, if you had these feel-
school, especially being able to express ings (or feeling), how might you act or
their negative thoughts without being behave?" Still later, "Okay, what could a
corrected, put down, or asked to account person do in a situation like this?"
for their feelings. The counselor was care- Group members learned they were
ful not to probe or ask too many ques- not alone in their feelings about school.
tions. The basic strategy was to encourage They continued to learn feelings and
students to talk, clarify ideas, and respond behaviors are related and how problems
to feelings. No one was forced to take a often resulted from the consequences of
turn or to talk for very long before the inappropriate behaviors. They explored al-
next person was asked to share a symbol. ternative actions to a few of the problems.
By design, the students participated in a The counselor made sure to avoid giving
friendly atmosphere where their ideas and advice while concentrating on under-
feelings were respected and they were not standing the dynamics involved.
forced to defend themselves.
The group continued to think about Session 4: Giving
how feelings and behaviors are related, and Receiving Feedback
both in and out of school. When stu- Group members learned the three-step
dents shared how teachers might describe facilitative feedback model: (1) Be specific
them, the counselor sometimes asked, about the behavior you see or hear; (2)
"What do you do that makes them see Tell how the behavior makes you feel (or
you that way?" Also, "If you wanted to what you experience when in the pres-
be described differently, what would you ence of that behavior); and (3) Tell what
have to do differently?" Such questions, you want to do based on your feelings.
while not directed at everyone, were Members first practiced the model by
used in a timely way so as not to provoke

thinking of examples and identifying Session 6: Being Positive

people outside the group who might be The counselor began the last session
recipients of feedback. An empty chair by asking the students to describe what
was used, as members imagined talking to
had happened to them during the week
someone while trying out the model. when they tried to take their first steps for
After the members saw how the model self-improvement. Next, each group mem-
could be used to compliment or confront ber (and the counselor) took a turn sitting
someone, each person thought of some- in a "cool seat," while the others who
one outside the group, perhaps a teacher, were sitting in the "hot seats" bombarded
parent, or friend, to whom positive them with positive statements. The
feedback (a compliment) could be given counselor set the tone for the activity and
during the coming week. Everyone was modeled by going first. The statements
to try the model and be able to talk about were based upon things that were noticed
the experience at the next session. both in and out of the group. Finally, the
This session encouraged students to group concluded when each member gave
think positively and to learn an effective a final statement, focusing on what they
way to be positive with others. It is not had learned or relearned in the group.
uncommon for students such as the ones An experimental study involving
in this group to become used to criticism several schools compared students who
and then, unfortunately, model the be- received the group counseling unit with
havior most often directed toward them. ones who did not. A significant differ-
Thus, the members of this group needed ence was found in favor of the counseling
to learn some positive ways of behaving group regarding classroom behavior and
and to take some positive action before general attitude, according to teacher re-
they could begin receiving more favorable ports. When students in the group evalu-
responses from others. ated the experience, 72 percent agreed
the group had increased their understand-
Session 5: Some First Steps ing of themselves and 86 percent said it
First, the counselor encouraged the helped them gain a better understanding
students to tell about their feedback ex- of others. In addition, 62 percent indi-
periences and how they put the feedback cated the experience helped them change
model into practice. Then, each member their behavior outside the group and 60
was asked to complete this statement: percent said they liked school better be-
"One thing about myself I want to im- cause of the group. Eight out of ten would
prove upon is .... " After a quick go-around recommend a similar group to other
in which areas for improvement were students.
identified, each person (including the It was concluded the group was ef-
counselor) talked about a possible next fective across genders and across schools,
step. Group members listened and offered suggesting both boys and girls benefited,
suggestions to each other about how to despite the school or school counselor. It
get started. Finally, members were encour- appeared students liked the opportunity to
aged to begin their first step during the share their ideas and feelings and to learn
coming week. about themselves and others. The group
enabled them to disclose feelings about
themselves, others, and school and it pro-

vided some feedback. It encouraged them Motivational

to think about their behaviors, including
some they wanted to improve upon in Group Counseling
school. Another study involved a small group
Not everyone who experienced the counseling approach used with students
group liked it. As expected, some students who had negative attitudes and who were
had negative attitudes, not only about unmotivated. Low-performing middle
teachers and classes, but about other school students were divided into three
things related to school, including coun- experimental groups and a control group,
seling and guidance activities. Some stu- each consisting of six to eight students.
dents disliked some of the activities that Students in the first experimental
were used to bring the group together and group participated in a six-session group
others described the group as "pushy" and counseling unit that consisted of struc-
"trying to get me to change." However, tured activities. This group met for about
when asked what they liked least about 40 to 50 minutes twice a week for three
the group, the large majority complained weeks. The second experimental group
there was not enough time. Although all received the same unit in only one day
the counselors in the study thought the in an extended (marathon) group coun-
group sessions had a positive effect on seling approach. That is, the group met
most of the students, they were able to at the beginning of the school day and
identify some who needed more individu- went through the first session, then took
al attention or further group work. a short break and came back for the next
Obviously, some activities could be session, and so on, until all sessions in the
changed or the sessions could be more unit had been completed.
flexible, perhaps without a planned activ- A third experimental group focused
ity. It also is possible to extend the num- only on behavior awareness, simply going
ber of sessions and/or adapt the unit to over a classroom behavior checklist each
almost any age group. time they met. This group did not partici-
pate in any structured activities or use all
of the scheduled meeting time. A control
group did not receive any assistance until
the study was completed.
When compared to the control group,
all the groups, including the one in which
students met only to complete a behavior
checklist, made significant gains in terms
of improved school attitude and class-
room behavior. Group members also gave
favorable reviews of the group process.
The marathon group had the advantage
of providing unmotivated students with
a more immediate and intense interven-
tion, one in which the problem of conti-
nuity and nonattendance was eliminated.

A general description of the six coun- Session 3: Assuming Responsibil-

seling sessions follows: ity. Group members explored "cop-out
Session 1: Getting Started. After phrases" that negated taking responsibil-
introductions and a few shared interests, ity. Reframing ideas was introduced, such
students talked about something they like as "I can't do it" was rephrased to "I won't
to do when not in school. Then, three do it" and "I'll try" to "I'll do it." Again,
structured activities followed. First, in a role-playing concluded the session in
"go around," membel's told what they which students practiced verbalizing tak-
would do with $1,000 if free to spend it ing responsibility.
as they chose. Next, the counselor used Session 4: The Positive Self. The
some guided imagery that focused on terms low and high self-concept were
school as a pleasant place to be. Group contrasted in terms of attitudes and be-
members pictured themselves meeting haviors. The effects of self-doubt and half-
friends, receiving friendly greetings, hear- hearted commitment to tasks were related
ing compliments, and getting help and to performance in various activities. Nega-
support. tive self-pictures were related to failure.
They also imagined having success The group discussed positive affirmations
on a school team and were encouraged to and visualizations and then experienced
remember what they liked about elemen- their power through guided imagery and
tary school. In a group discussion, they role-playing. Three steps for making posi-
described a day in the life of an imagi- tive affirmations were outlined:
nary student who was very successful in 1. Identify your goal (e.g., to turn the
school. For the third activity, the students next math assignment in on time).
listed behaviors related to school success 2. Identify the negative thought or
and each person identified ones in which message (e.g., "I can't do this." "I'm
they might improve. not smart enough." "I don't know
Session 2: Who's In Control. This where to begin." "I'm too tired." "The
session focused on responsibility and be- teacher doesn't like me."
ing honest with one's self. To get started, 3. Rephrase the negative thoughts into
members categorized a list of statements positive terms (e.g., "I can do it." "I
provided by the counselor according to have the ability to do this." "I can ask
the following: (a) takes responsibility for more questions and find out where
self; (b) places responsibility on others. to start." "I'm going to do this now."
For instance, the following statements "My teacher wants me to do well.")
were read aloud and discussed: "I lost my
homework" versus "Someone took my Session 5: Plan for Success.
homework" or "My homework is miss- This session focused on short-term and
ing." "I was mad" versus "You made me long-range goals. A "partner system" was
mad." Discussion of various scenarios created to serve as a support outside the
and role-playing situations helped the group. Each group member was assisted
group study the meaning of responsibility in developing specific plans for perform-
around the home and school. ing better in school. Partners agreed to
check on each other through phone calls,
reviewing homework, and checking to see
if assignments were recorded.

Session 6: The Encouragement The Go For It Club

Card. During the final session, group mem-
When elementary school children
bers helped each other identify personal
receive failing grades, they need timely
strengths and related them to achievement
assistance. This often means giving them
and success in school. The counselor started
more opportunities to learn school suc-
the activity by having the group make a list
cess skills, such as how to pay attention in
of positive physical, intellectual, and social
class, to take notes, to follow school rules,
traits. With the list as a reference when
to take part in class activities, and to get
needed, the students took turns bombard-
along with others, including their teach-
ing each other with positive statements, as
ers.
the counselor recorded them on an "en-
couragement card" for each student. The Small group counseling provides a
group then became more specific, using the way for students to learn and practice
facilitative feedback model (Chapter 5). The these skills. In addition, it offers timely
members also recorded on the back of their support and encouragement, especially
cards three of the affirmations that had when creative strategies are used.
special meaning for them. The Go For It Club was introduced to
The participants' attitudes toward elementary school children who had at
school and their classrooms behavior did least one failing grade in a subject area as
improve. In particular, the ones in the two indicated on an academic progress report
experimental groups that used structured or report card. They were invited to join
activities especially liked the group experi- the "Club" and attend weekly meetings,
ence: 80 percent said the activities helped which usually lasted six weeks or one
them to obtain a better understanding of grading period. The idea of joining a club
themselves and others; 90 percent reported was attractive to the students and encour-
liking the group experience, becoming aged their willing participation.
more responsible, and having more con- In the first meeting, the counselor
fidence and self-control. Nearly all of said, "As members of the Go For It Club,
them would recommend a similar group you will have a chance to earn prizes
experience for others. In response to some (pointing to boxes with prizes in them)
open-ended questions, some of the things and a party. We will meet once (or twice)
they liked best were: a week for some fun activities and games.
• " ... talking about our strengths." On Fridays, you may pick a prize you have
earned. Here is how it works."
• " ... the last activity." (strength bom-
bardment) The counselor then explained each
child would have a Go For It (GFI) subject
• " ... the guided image ones."
and rewards depended upon improve-
• " .. .it made me try not to blame other ment in that subject as rated by the class-
people." room teacher. Each Friday, the teacher
• " ... stuff about myself." would record the letter grade the student
• " ... that I can do better." earned on a GFI card. Students could then
come to the group and pick prizes from
• " .. .learning to never say never." different letter grade boxes, depending on
• " ... to depend more on myself." their achievement for the week. During
Teacher reports confirmed many of the last part of the first session, the chil-
the students had made progress in school dren also learned a GFI cheer and received
and were approaching their classes with a their own GFI cards. Using their personal
different attitude. cards, they would be able to record their

perceptions of how well they were doing From a list the counselor compiled dur-
each day: "I did my best," "I did okay," ing the discussions, the group ranked the
and so on. The GFI cards were kept on three or four best ideas. Then members
their desks and brought to each of the rated their own behaviors against sugges-
meetings during the week. tions.Well-paced moving activities and
Generally, there were two weekly discussions related to learning behaviors
meetings prior to "prize day" on Friday. made the "club meetings" dynamic and
Because most memben; had been given fun. These included writing a group story
several warnings and pep talks by teachers (writing sentences); solving a puzzle
and parents before "joining" the GFI club, (math skills); reading a mystery story
the group counseling sessions focused on (reading skills); and "Simon Says" (raising
fun experiential learning and kinesthetic your hand game).
activities. For example, in the second ses- In one study, 41 third, fourth, and
sion, the group played "Rhythm Sticks." A fifth grade students were asked to be
stick was passed quickly from one group members of the club. Of these, 76 percent
member to another until a recorded song showed improvement after one week.
stopped. Beginning with the person hold- The number increased to 80 percent the
ing the stick, members, in turn, first said second week and reached 83 percent by
aloud their GFI subject and the music the end of the grading period. Those who
began again. The next time the music continued to fail or have classroom be-
stopped, group members named things havior problems were identified as need-
they were doing to improve the grade in ing additional study and perhaps another
their GFI subjects. educational placement. This small group
Other tasks when the music stopped counseling approach, which is tied to
included telling about a time when they reward contingencies, has consistently
felt successful in school, a best time to do helped 70 percent or more of group mem-
homework, one way to study for a spell- bers to make some kind of improvement
ing test, and so on. Responses were sum- in their GFI subjects. Some important
marized and some were discussed at the keys to success include the support and
end of the activity. appropriate participation of teachers and
a continuing array of desirable prizes.
Another example of a GFI activity was
the "Eggstra Special Egg Hunt" which con- Calling the counselor intervention a
sisted of hunting for plastic eggs. Inside club, rather than group counseling, can
the eggs were statements related to aca- make the sessions more attractive to stu-
demic achievement: "I will make a better dents, regardless of grade level. It can help
grade in my worst subject this week." "I group members feel less self-conscious
will know the answer to a question when and defensive about their problems or the
my teacher calls on me." "I am ready to issues they are exploring.
take my math test." "I do my homework For instance, other appealing group
before watching TV." As students found counseling clubs might be: The Daybreak
the hidden eggs and opened them, they Club (for students with problems getting
took turns telling what must be done to to school on time); The New Directions
make the statement come true. Club (experiencing family changes); The
In another session, members talked Morning Edition (meeting at the begin-
about what they would say to a new ning of the day and focused on how to
student to the school, one who wanted to get more out of school or get along better
be successful and work well with teachers. with their teachers); Power Talk (assertive-
ness training and managing self-talk).

The Journey: Group School counselors, as behavior and

relationship specialists, are in a position
Counseling for ADHD/ ADD to provide support for these students
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disor- and their teachers. Group sessions might
der (ADHD) is a diagnostic label used to closely approximate real life peer relation-
describe people who have developmen- ship situations and have the potential to
tally inappropriate levels of inattention, enhance skill acquisition and generaliza-
hyperactivity, and impulsivity. The term tion. Group counseling activities that
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) is typi- elicit the behaviors and feelings associated
cally used when an individual's pattern with academic and social problems allow
does not include hyperactivity or acting counselors to intervene and assist chil-
out behaviors. People with ADHD or ADD dren who are performing poorly in school
find it difficult to organize themselves and who have difficulties with their peers
and to complete routine tasks. They seem and others.
unable to concentrate on the same task Although the onset of ADHD/ADD
for an extended period of time. Fidgeting for most children is prior to age four, it
frequently, many of them have difficulty most often is diagnosed when a child is in
inhibiting behaviors that can distract oth- elementary school. This is when chil-
ers. dren are introduced to the structure and
An estimated three to five percent of demands of the educational system. How
the school age population has ADHD or students learn to manage themselves and
ADD with boys out numbering girls. It is the learning environment during their
one of the most commonly diagnosed and first few years of school often determines
studied disorders among children and it how successful they will be in later years.
is receiving increased attention by school Many of these students require
administrators, teachers, and counselors academic tutoring and, even then, may
(Thomas & Guskin, 2001). repeat a grade, while others may be
Students with ADHD often have prob- placed in special education programs. As
lems in school where rules and procedures many as 46 percent are suspended from
require them to sit still, be attentive, and school with up to 35 percent dropping
stay focused on academic tasks and class- out completely and not finishing high
room discussions. If they also have been school. Without assistance, students may
identified with a specific learning or emo- develop emotional problems laden with
tional disorder, they may receive some anger, aggression, depression, and anxiety
assistance from special education teachers (Campbell, 2000). Learning skills, such
who typically have smaller classes and as listening, attending, following direc-
use behavior management techniques. tions, and social competence, have a
However, between 85 and 90 percent of strong correlation with successful social
students with ADHD/ADD are still served and academic achievement in school.
in general education classrooms for all or Without these skills, the lack of success
part of a school day. Many teachers are and repeated confrontations experienced
unsure of what to do and need support. by students with ADHD/ADD can lower
self-esteem and increase anxiety. Incon-
sistent performance in school, low test
scores, disorganized desks and backpacks,
and disruptive behavior are parts of these
students' pattern.

The Journey: A Group The sessions were based on the theme

Counseling Intervention of a journey students might imagine
they.were taking. Of course, the journey
Part of what students need to do to r~quued ~reparation, being able to recog-
address this disorder is to confront the mze certam road signs, and being able to
disorder and recognize it is part of who manage their vehicles in such a way they
they are. The disorder, by itself, will not would arrive safely at their final destina-
keep them from their personal, academic, tion. Because they had ADHD, the group
or career goals. To the contrary, there are members would be a different kind of
many individuals with ADHD who have traveler and, at times, take different routes
made valuable and significant contribu- than others, although eventually arriving
tions to society. The secret to success is at the same destination.
being able to manage one's thoughts, feel-
ings, and behaviors. The metaphor of a journey provided
opportunities to construct group activities
Fourteen elementary school counsel- that were fun and enabled participants
ors from one school district used a small to reflect on goals and goal setting, how
group counseling intervention called "The personal characteristics can influence
Journey" with students who had been ways to achieve goals, and personal man-
identified as having ADHD. The counsel- agement skills. As they considered the
ors agreed the group unit was an effective skills they needed to move along on their
brief counseling strategy, easy to use, and imaginary journey, group members also
fun and they would recommend it tooth- thought about how these were related to
er counselors. The counselors also agreed the academic, personal, social, and career
the unit increased their own under- goals shared by students their age. Here is
standing of ADHD students. Further, the a description of the unit.
study and delivery of the unit increased
counselor confidence (93%) with regard Session 1: Preparing for the Jour-
to teacher consultation. A large majority ney. The counselor begins the unit by
(93%) of the counselors also believed the telling students they have been selected
participating students felt more positive for the group because they are different
about themselves as a result of the unit kind of learners. They have ADHD. "What
(Webb 1999). do you know about ADHD?"
The unit consisted of six small group Discussion and clarification help iden-
sessions designed for about six students tify symptoms and how they are mani-
per group. Each session had a specific fested in school, often making them learn
objective related to thoughts, behaviors, in different ways than others. "You are, in
and skills that focused on school and one sense, different travelers in the world
personal achievement and began with a of education and schools." The counselor
review of the previous session and a check explains sometimes they take the same
on application of skills. Sessions ended road as others while learning something,
with tasks for practice and an encouraging but at other times they will go another
summary statement. The unit culminated way, perhaps taking some detours, even
with snacks, juice, and talking about the though everyone is trying to get to the
group experience, as well as reviewing the same place.
members plans for using the information
and skills they had discussed in the group.

The counselor leads the group brief summary statement, "Knowing you
through a series of structured learning have ADHD helps you to understand why
activities, focusing on what the members keeping things organized takes some extra
experience (their feelings) and how those effort and practice. Making that effort can
feelings are related to behaviors (their help you on your journey to school suc-
actions). There is some discussion about cess."
what people believe to be true about Session Three: Stop Lights and
themselves and others and how we can Traffic Police. Students embark on an
manage our thoughts, feelings, and be- imaginary "car ride" to heighten their
haviors. Once the introductory activities awareness of the need to pay attention to
are completed, the journey begins. the signs around them. In this activity,
In an activity called "Map Quest," members take turns in the driver's seat
participants begin their imaginary jour- while traffic signs are flashed before them.
ney as they explore a variety of paths to Students acting as traffic officers direct
reach a single destination. A map is used others who are acting as cars (sometimes
to emphasize geographical locations, des- blindfolded) around various obstacles in
tinations, and connecting roads and high- the room. Students must pay attention to
ways. As they discover the link between a signs and directions.
destination and school achievement, the They also play a "pay attention"
students realize not everyone takes the game where the counselor times group
same journey through school; but, they members in terms of how long they can
can each achieve success. keep their eyes on a person who is mov-
Summary statements include, "Having ing about the room, as in a vehicle. Or,
ADHD doesn't mean you can't be suc- perhaps time is recorded for how long
cessful as a student. But, the ways you get members are able to keep their eyes on a
your goal and reach success will be a little book (reading) while others are making
different from the routes some students noises (traffic congestion).
take. You are a different kind of traveler. The counselor summarizes by say-
You can help yourself learn to have more ing, "Having ADHD doesn't mean you
control over where you are going and can't listen or pay attention. It does mean
how you will get there." you may want to take a road with fewer
Session Two: Pack It Up. Stu- distractions so you can give attention to
dents first watch the counselor rummage important details like road signs. The pay
through a messy bag or backpack. It is attention skills we practiced today are
chaotic and children laugh at the antics. valuable in our journey to school suc-
Discussion follows regarding what they cess."
saw and students then are facilitated to Session Four: Using Road Signs as
think about their bags. The activity helps Guides. Students identify familiar road
them appreciate organization. It will prob- signs (cards) that cue behavior on the
ably remain a difficult task, but the stu- road and then identify signs they might
dents may now have a better understand- see in their classroom that help to cue
ing of why others nag and try to organize classroom learning behaviors. Students
them. Organizational skills that apply develop their own cue cards for various
to school are introduced, demonstrated, behaviors, such as slowing down or being
and practiced. The session closes with a sensitive to others.

Summarizing remarks include: "You Students are empowered as they

can learn to read and follow the road experience the feeling of being in control
signs that are around school and home. and they learn some mechanics may not
Are the signs always visible everywhere know how to help, even though they try.
you go? No, so you must remember to Through group activities facilitated by the
keep them in mind as you travel along. counselor, group members think about
Cue cards, just like road signs, can be re- taking responsibility for themselves. The
minders to help you sta.rt and finish tasks counselor might say, "While others may
that must be done. What are some signs think they know you better than you
you especially want to look for? Would know yourself, it's probably not true. You
it help you slow down or speed up if you know yourself best and you are the best
had your own road signs or cue cards? mechanic when things go wrong."
Following road signs moves you toward The final session summary includes,
your goal, whether you are on the high- "We know everyone needs to work hard
way or in school." to be successful. We also know ADHD
Session Five: Road Holes and makes each of you a different traveler
Detours. Students imagine things that in your journey for school success. Dur-
could go wrong on a road trip. They think ing our sessions, we learned about being
of obstacles such as new construction, organized, using cues as reminders to do
detours, holes in the road, and so forth. or avoid things, paying attention, and
Students then think of school situations thinking before we act. When you learn
(often generated by their own behaviors) to drive a car, you will want to know and
that are obstacles to school success. The practice driving skills. There are tools that
counselor teaches and demonstrates se- can help you become your own mechanic
lected cognitive behavioral strategies and along the way." An outline of the unit,
group members practice. sessions, and objectives (Webb, 1999) can
The counselor closes with, "You know be seen in Figure 7.3.
there will be holes in the road to success.
There are road problems for all students,
but your map is marked and you can
expect them. You can learn ways to get
around obstacles and difficult situations
at school, just as in any journey you
choose."
Session Six: Roadside Help and
Being Your Own Mechanic. Students
explore the idea of breaking down on the
road and becoming their own mechanics.
With the counselor's help, they review
previously learned skills and attitudes as
tools they will need to get back on the
road. The counselor brings up the need
for timely assistance and how to rec-
ognize when necessary tools are not in
their toolbox. The topic of medication is
introduced, acknowledging doctors and
parents can help determine if medication
is an appropriate tool.

Figure 7.3
Objectives for The Journey:
Group Counseling for ADHD/ADD
Session# Title of Session Objectives
Session #1 Our Journey 1 . Students will gain increased knowledge of

Activity: Map Quest ADHD/ADD.
2. Students will identify behaviors associated
with ADHD/ ADD and how those behaviors
affect school success.
3. Students will be given an opportunity to
discuss their own diagnosis and express
associated feelings.
Session #2 Pack It Up Students will learn and practice strategies

Activity: Messy Bag to support the need for better organiza-
tion as related to school success.
Session #3 Stop Lights 1 . Students will identify school situations in

& Traffic Cops which attending is important.
Activity: The Signs 2. Students will identify school situations in
Around Us which attending is difficult.
3. Students will learn and practice behaviors
associated with attending.
Session #4 Using Road Signs 1. Students will learn to recognize, create

As a Gulde and use external cues in the classroom.
Activity: Reading 2. Students will gain increased awareness of
Classroom Cues the need for strategies to support school
success.
Session #5 Road Holes 1 . Students will identify school situations that

and Detours are particularly difficult.
Activity: When Things 2. Students will identify ways to improve
Don't Go Right school situations that are difficult.
Session #6 Roadside Assistance 1. Students will identify sources of support at

& Being Your Own school.
Mechanic 2. Students will be given the opportunity to
Activity: Increasing experience the feelings of "being in control."
Control Of Our Success 3. Students will associate increased practice
of a skill with improvement of that skill.
4. Students will gain increased knowledge
of the use of medication in treating some
cases.

Helpful Hints All the girls thought it was flattering

to have the attention of the boys. At the
There are many things you might same time, they recognized dating them
do to help make your group counsel- also created some problems. They wanted
ing efforts successful. You can find more to keep meeting as a group and to con-
detailed ideas in texts that are specifically tinue their discussions. Two other girls
written about small group counseling or who were friends asked to join the group
group work. However, the following hints because they had similar concerns. The
may be helpful: ·
counselor met with the six girls for four
more sessions.
Open and Closed Groups
In this case, the challenge for the
Open groups are those that allow counselor and the group was to form a
new members to be added from time to "new group," building on the previous
time, perhaps as some members leave the one to create a new sense of group cohe-
group. These are usually on-going groups siveness and trust. To begin, the purpose
and are not commonly used in schools, of the group was clarified. The coun-
except as support groups. selor thought it was similar to taking a
Support groups are unique because step backward, while the other two girls
they are composed of members who have caught up, before taking the next step
a common problem or concern and who forward. This is always the problem of
need a base to touch either occasionally open groups.
or on a regular basis. One school had a Most school counselors prefer to have
support group for students who were new closed groups. There is more continuity
to the school. The "newcomers" group when the membership remains constant.
met each Friday. It was an open meeting Given the limited number of sessions
where students worked through feelings available for group counseling in most
of awkwardness, confusion, and loneli- schools, a closed group can move toward
ness. They shared ideas and met new its goal faster and with greater purpose
friends. New students were added each than one that is repeatedly starting and
week as they registered for school and stopping to accommodate new members.
were free to leave the group as they felt
less like newcomers. When a member drops out of a closed
group, the group continues after discuss-
In one middle school, four eighth ing the impact of the absent member.
grade girls who were dating high school Because the dynamics of the group are
boys came to the attention of their coun- changed, the group is realigned and a new
selor. The boys had come to the school group emerges. However, the group mem-
and were asked by the administration to bers have a shared experiential base from
leave the campus. The girls were upset which to build. Sometimes an outside per-
and expressed their unhappiness in the son might be invited to attend a session,
initial session of a problem-centered perhaps a teacher or another student. This
group. Then, the focus shifted to the change or intrusion is always discussed
impact the dating was having on their with the group in advance and the per-
self-concepts, schoolwork, and personal son's attendance is a mutual decision.
values.

"Which one of our guidelines is not being

Group Guidelines followed right now?" It is then reviewed.
Every group needs guidelines for New guidelines might be added as they
making it a special learning experience. are needed.
These guidelines or procedures are general
There are three ways to form guide-
suggestions that help the group function
lines for a group. First, you can decide
more smoothly. For example, here are the
upon and list the behaviors you want and
three most common guidelines:
go over them with the group in the first
1. Only one person speaks at a time. session. The group discusses and clarifies
2. You can pass if you don't want to speak. them. Or, during the first session, you
3. What is said in the group is private. could ask the group for suggestions, per-
haps listing them on a large piece of paper
In an elementary school, the follow- as the group discusses and clarifies them.
ing proved to be useful with some prima- Finally, you can begin a group without
ry grade children: any guidelines and then create them only
4. Wait for your turn or raise your hand as situations or problems develop. For
when you want to speak. instance, if several people are talking at
5. Listen carefully so you can remember the same time, you might say: "We have a
what people say. problem here. What is happening in our
group? Okay, perhaps we need a ground
6. Keep your hands to yourself and stay rule that will help us."
in your seat.
All these guidelines give direction to Indirect and Direct Approaches
group members. Most important, they are Some students are sensitive about
all stated in terms of what to do rather
their problems and would prefer not to
than what not to do.
discuss them with anyone, especially their
Generally, it seems best to avoid peers. They may feel pressured, on the
negative statements, such as, "There will spot, or fear others would not understand
be no putdowns or name-calling in the or accept them. Some students believe
group," "Don't interrupt when someone having a problem is a sign of weakness
else is speaking," "No gossiping," "No and they are embarrassed at the idea of
killer statements," "Don't give advice," others knowing about their situation. This
and "Don't tell others what happens in does not mean individual counseling is
our group." Each of these guidelines em- the only or best option for them. These
phasizes obedience and fosters a negative students can benefit from group experi-
feeling. All the concerns behind them can ences that focus indirectly on a problem
be stated or addressed in a positive way to while also helping members develop help-
suggest how a person might behave in a ful relationships within the group.
group. In group counseling, members are en-
It also is advisable to avoid long lists couraged to think for themselves, to share
of guidelines. Keep them short and to the perceptions, to seek understanding of self
point. You might find it helpful to post and others, and to accept responsibil-
the guidelines on a list or a set of cards ity for their own behavior. This does not
for easy reference. When students have require a problem must be dealt with di-
trouble all talking at once, for example, rectly or members must examine specific
the counselor may look at the list and ask: problems they are having in their lives at
the moment.

An indirect approach to group coun- The indirect approach is primarily

seling is one in which students learn used in growth groups. It has been effec-
about themselves and others through a tive in pulling resistant students into the
discussion of ideas and events not based counseling process because it is generally
on specific problems they are having. less threatening, especially at first. Such
That is, a student who is having trouble an approach depends on each individual
with a sibling might gain some ideas by to apply what is being learned in the
participating in a group where members group.
talk generally about conflict resolution, One indirect approach that works
perhaps as part of a growth group. If the well with both individuals and groups is
student chooses to bring up the sib- "biblio-counseling." Working in conjunc-
ling problem as a point of reference or tion with librarians, counselors select
example, it is usually done briefly. Group pieces of literature to be read (or assigned)
members are left to draw their own to students and then discussed. Reading
conclusions and implications from the and discussing a story about overcoming
group's activities and discussion. a problem or working through a dilemma
When a direct approach is used, the is only the first part. Moving the approach
counselor or the group may be more from indirect to direct by changing the
confronting. One counselor opened a focus from third person to first person is
group meeting that was counselor-initi- next. Perhaps, the most growth and in-
ated by saying, "Look around our group. sight comes when students are given op-
What are some possible reasons for our portunities to share their reactions, pose
being here together?" As the counselor questions, examine the events in terms of
anticipated, most of the students had no their own lives, and find personal mean-
problem figuring this out. She continued, ing (Gladding 2003).
"That's right, all of you are have been
late to school a lot this year. Perhaps, Working with Target Students
it would be helpful to think about this As suggested earlier, one practical ap-
problem together which is the reason I proach to working with a target student
asked you to meet with me. How do you is in a growth group situation where the
feel about being here and talking about focus is more indirect. The idea, of course,
the problem of school attendance?" is to help the target student become
When a group is composed of more involved, to experience facilitative
students who referred themselves, the conditions from you and the group, and
counselor might assume a direct ap- to make some personal gains by being a
proach will expedite matters, getting to participating member in the group.
the heart of the problem faster. However, For the most part, you lead the group
this is not always true because direct apas you usually would while also giving
proaches sometimes generate defensive- some special attention to target students
ness and resistance, even when members by doing such things as:
are committed to pursuing solutions to
the problem. 1. Ask them open-ended questions about
something to which you think they
can respond.
2. Use their names frequently, as you
comment to them and the group. This
helps personalize the process.

3. Acknowledge their contributions. "How are you feeling right now about
If what they share is not quite re- what you're hearing?" Or, "How did
lated to the task, find some ways to you feel when you heard ... ?" "What
bring them back. For example, you did you want to do?" The person
might say, "I really like what you said making the putdown will get some
about ... , but I'm wondering if you feedback on the undesirable behavior.
could think of something else that While there are many ways counselors
goes with our topic." Or, "Tell us how can use these situations to generate
that relates to our topic." Or, you feedback, it is important to be mind-
might say, "Let's see now, you seem to ful of the purpose and dynamics of
be saying .... " then tie the contribution the group.
to the topic or theme being discussed. 9. Give tasks to target students ahead of
4. Comment on and use nonverbal time so they have an opportunity to
behavior, especially if it is something think about a response and are not
you want to reinforce (e.g., eye con- caught off-guard.
tact, alertness, body posture). Do this 10. Use go-around procedures to get some
in a way that avoids being intrusive or initial involvement from everyone in
putting the student on the spot. the group. Avoid putting target stu-
5. Pair or link the feelings and the con- dents on the spot for too long a time.
tent of their contributions to others in Let them become comfortable with
the group. the group before extending their ideas
6. Encourage group members to speak or asking them to probe deeper.
directly to one another (e.g., "Could Finally, it is your own professional
you please say that to .... ") judgment that will tell you when a target
7. Be positive and acknowledge contri- student has become a regular participating
butions with "Thank you." member of a group and how much risk
you can take in focusing on that student.
8. Use feedback responses. If a target Sometimes the extra attention is not even
student makes or receives a nega- necessary, as the group membership and
tive comment, you might guide the activities will have the desired influence
student in turning it into a feedback and impact in the natural progression of
response by saying, "You said you dis- the group.
like .... Tell us what it is you dislike (be-
haviors and examples)." And, "How
does that (behavior) make you feel?"
And then, perhaps, "What would you
like (the person) to do?" And, "Then
how would you feel?" You might see
an opening to change the focus and
ask, "Can you tell (the person) some-
thing you do like?" You also can turn
to the other group members and elicit
their reactions, using the feedback
model. "How do the rest of you feel
right now?" "What's happened to give
you that feeling?" You might turn to
a person who was put down and ask,

Contracting with Teachers Parent Permission

Common complaints from teachers There are some small groups that
about counselors are they interrupt sched- might require parent permission before
uled classes and they pull students out of members can participate. Those almost
class after a period has started. It irritates always involve sensitive topics, such as
teachers to be disrupted without notice helping students deal with divorce, death,
and some become uncooperative, refusing or some other difficult family situation.
to release students or penalizing them if Even for these groups, the primary pur-
they are in the guidance office instead of pose is to help members discuss and learn
class. something that will help them gain the
One way to avoid such problems is to most from school. The sessions are not to
contract with the teachers who are sup- be viewed as psychotherapy.
portive of your efforts and who will make Counselors must use their own judg-
students available to you. This is particu- ment about parental permission. The
larly helpful when working with groups. process can be time consuming and many
A contract, whether written or verbal, parents are not readily available to speak
begins with your request of a teacher to with the counselor. It can delay organiz-
release one or more student for counseling a group and may communicate what
ing. Once that request is granted, the is planned is not related to school. Con-
specific times and days for counseling are sequently, most counselors don't ask for
negotiated. The meeting times and any parent permission when first organizing
conditions are written down as a contract. and starting their small group counseling
Copies are given to the teacher, the stu- sessions. However, no student is required
dents, and the counseling office. to participate and may be excused from
When contracts are made in advance the group, when appropriate.
of group counseling, teachers can identify In general, when group activities are
times when it is best to release students. linked to school success and coping skills
For example, one high school teacher al- related to helping students learn effective-
lowed students to report to the counseling ly and efficiently, then parent permission
office on Thursday during independent is not needed. Counseling, whether indi-
study time. Monday and Tuesday, when vidual or small group, is an accepted part
new information was introduced, were of what the school offers to help students
off limits, as was Friday when tests were succeed.
given.
This concept is a courtesy that encour- Structure and Flow
ages teachers and others to work with After a group has started, the primary
counselors. Calling students out of class objective is to elicit self-disclosure. As the
without consulting with teachers should group moves along, feedback can take
be reserved for crisis counseling. If coun- place. All this, eventually, leads to more
seling is to be extended beyond a critical openness and specific consideration of a
first meeting, then contract with teachers. situation or problem about which pos-
sible decisions are examined. As a rule,
responsibility for implementation of an
idea rests with each individual group
member, although, on occasion, a group
may decide to act together on something
(Shechtman, 2007).

The facilitative model is basic to group When completed, these unfinished

process, with the counselor both giving sentences and others like them become
the six high facilitative responses and elic- statements about the group members.
iting them from the members. As a group You might ask each member to select one
leader, you might listen to a group mem- or two to share with the group. "Which
ber tell about an event and then clarify one was the most difficult?" "The easi-
what you heard. You could ask the oth- est?" "The most stimulating?" "The most
ers in the group to clarify or summarize surprising to you?" In the process, self-
what they heard. "Who can put into fresh disclosure is happening and the group
words what you heard?" Or, you also can forms a closer bond, as members come to
elicit a feeling-focused response. "Eddie know more about each other in a positive
has shared a lot in that statement. Let me learning climate.
ask our group, were you hearing primar- Other group activities are used to
ily pleasant, unpleasant, or both kinds elicit feedback. For example, members
of feelings when he was talking? Okay, might take turns pretending they have
what kinds of feelings did you hear from amnesia and do not remember things
Eddie?" Likewise, you also can elicit open- about themselves. Other members, per-
ended questions, "Who can ask Eddie a haps with your help, describe behaviors
question that will help us understand his they have noticed around school, in class,
situation better?" or in other situations. Then they tell what
Structure and flow also can be affected they feel when in the presence of some
by group activities. Group activities are of those behaviors and how they tend to
described in many books about group respond.
counseling and group guidance. A group An unstructured group does not fea-
activity should not be seen as an end to it- ture any formal group activities. You and
self, but rather as a means to an end. It is the members spontaneously provide any
a vehicle that can provide group members structure or organization beyond a general
a structured learning experience. introduction. Yet, the flow of the group
Some group activities lend themselves in terms of self-disclosure to feedback and
to eliciting self-disclosure. For instance, through the different group counseling
members might be asked to complete a stages seldom varies.
series of unfinished sentences such as:
• If I were a ... , I'd ....
• One thing I did for a friend was ....
• If I had more money, I'd ....
• A famous person I'd like to meet is .. ..
• One thing that's hard for me to do is .. ..
• I'm proud of.. ..

Connecting Sessions Another option is to begin by asking

Some counselors worry about conti- group members to tell what they remem-
nuity among group sessions. One coun- bered from the last meeting or, "How
selor who was meeting with his counsel- would you describe our last meeting?"
ing groups once a week said, "So much To get more of a overall impression, you
happens in these kids lives before I get a might ask, "If you could say something
chance to see them again. There is such about our meeting together, what would
a lack of continuity I feel I'm starting all it be?"
over again each time." Another counselor Asking such questions also is a con-
complained about the number of times venient way to obtain some feedback
she found it necessary to reschedule a about the group, especially as it relates
group due to a fire drill, pop quiz, and the to the counselor intervention and your
like. "Last week, I wondered if my group own goals for the group. After some com-
knew why they were there, although we ments, you then can clarify the purpose
were meeting for the fourth time." Ad- of the group, reinforce those behaviors
mittedly, keeping a group focused on its that seem to be facilitative, and direct the
goals may not be easy when meetings are group to the goals and activities of the
spaced far apart or frequently interrupted. current session.
The desire for some continuity and
some connecting of sessions might be
addressed by taking a few minutes at the
beginning of a session to get focused, per-
haps to hear what members are thinking
about the group and its impact on them.
Using a quick go-around, here are a few
"connecting stems" you might use to get
the group started:
1. What I liked best about last time
was ....
2. One thing I learned from the last
meeting was ....
3. After the last session, I.. ..
4. One feeling I had the last time we met
was ....
5. I hope today that ....

Small Group Counseling & • Mentoring. In this partnership with

high-achieving local high school stu-
Counselor Schedule dents, high school and elementary stu-
External factors aside, there are three dents were paired to discuss academic
primary reasons counselors do not of- and social goals. They talked about
fer small group counseling: (1) they lack how to survive middle school and ef-
confidence as a group leader; (2) they are ficient ways to prepare for and take a
unsure of how to access students for a test (10 sessions).
group; and (3) they do not manage their • Grief support. Members included
time well and plan for it. students who had experienced death
An online survey about the use in their immediate families. They
of small groups by school counselors discussed the grief process and also
was completed by 802 members of the celebrated each other's growth (6-8
American School Counseling Association. sessions).
The vast majority of respondents offered • Social skills. Group members explored
groups in their schools, but were most what characteristics and talents they
influenced in that decision by time could offer in a friendship. They
constraints (Steen, et al., 2007). learned how to introduce themselves
Every school is unique and counselor- to potential new friends and the steps
teacher relationships can influence a to managing conflict in existing rela-
counselor's activities and schedule. One tionships. Group members practiced
well-managed program is available to their social skills with each other (6-8
students atJ.W. Alvey Elementary (2009), sessions).
which is part of the Prince William • Divorce support. Members were stu-
County Public Schools, Manassas, VA. The dents who had experienced divorce in
school's website and links are impressive. their families. Group topics included
It is an excellent model for schools want- common feelings associated with
ing to use the internet to help communi- divorce, factors that can contribute
cate information about school guidance to divorce, and accepting change (6-8
and counseling. sessions).
During the 2008-2009 school year, the • Good citizenship. This mini-group for
two counselors at the school conducted kindergartners focused on social skills
small group counseling units around the and responsibility. Group members
following topics. learned about polite greetings, hallway
• Chronic illness. Group members and classroom behavior, and played
included both students experienc- games to practice skills (3 sessions).
ing chronic illnesses and those who • Girls in grades 4-5. During lunch-
had immediate family members with time, group members discussed ag-
chronic illness. Students discussed the gression and skills for dealing with
challenges of living with a chronic aggressive peers. Brief activities helped
illness and celebrated each other's suc- them practice skills and think about
cesses (6-8 sessions). situations.
• Fifth grade boys. Group members dis-
cussed peer relationships and respon-
sibility, with brief teamwork activities.

• RACE to Success. This study skills • Anger Management (Getting the

program emphasized responsibility, Grrr's out). Feeling angry or mad at
effective communication, social skills, times is a natural, normal part of life.
academic management, decision- However, to be successful in life, we
making, and problem-solving skills. need to learn how to manage and deal
This unit was designed for students with our angry feelings in appropriate
who could benefit from positive peer ways. Activities focus on exploring
interactions and additional support anger and learning skills for self-con-
to reinforce learning at home and in trol and frustration reduction.
school (6-8 sessions for grades 3-5). • Children with Choices. Living in a
• Focus Finders. Group members dis- family where drinking or drug use is
cussed ways to improve attention to a problem often can be painful and
tasks and practiced these methods confusing and can distract students
with short games (6 sessions for grades from learning. But pain, when it is
1-2). recognized, understood, and dealt
• Confidence Building. Activities were with directly, can motivate children to
designed to help students gain aca- learn better ways of living and loving.
demic and social confidence (6 ses- • Family Change Groups (Banana
sions for grades 1-2). Splits). This group is for students
• Stress Busters. Stress management whose parents are divorced or separat-
skills were discussed and practiced ed. Members find comfort in meeting
(6-8 sessions). other children going through a similar
experience. Students also develop a
• The Youngest Soldiers. This deploy- greater comfort discussing divorce and
ment support group was for students the varying feelings they might have
who had immediate family mem- about it.
bers serving in the military overseas.
Students discussed the challenges of • Friendship Groups/Social Skills (Circle
having a deployed family member of Friends). In this group, students in
and celebrated each other's successes the same grade can make new friends
(6-8 sessions). and practice their social skills in a
safe, small group setting. It is designed
In order for the counselors to create for children who are shy or often play
an effective smail group environment, alone during free choice time or re-
each group consisted of six to eight mem- cess; who unknowingly exhibit behav-
bers. Teacher recommended potential iors that "turn off" others; or who re-
group members who were then selected peatedly complain of not having any
with emphasis on balanced group dynam- friends, have a hard time initiating
ics. friendships, lack self-confidence, and
More examples of small group coun- need a confidence boost. Children
seling units offered by school counsel- who are accepting and easily befriend
ors can be found in New Albany, Ohio. other children are always beneficial
"Small group guidance" units for students additions to this type of group. Role
in grades 2-3 include the following: models welcome!

• New Student Groups (Smooth Moves). What are the issues? Do students need
This group assists children with the more mentoring, perhaps in more aca-
adjustment of attending a new school. demic and coping skills? Some educators
Students talk about feelings they have advocate group counseling to empower
leaving an old school and coming to students (Bemak, 2005). Addressing the
a new one and meeting other new realities of the world in which at-risk
students who might share similar feel- students live is not easy, as it involves
ings. New Student Groups usually run questions related to multiculturalism,
for four weeks with reunions through- social justice, prejudices, and racial con-
out the academic year. flicts (Steen & Bemak, 2008). Innovative
• Self-Esteem Groups ("Great To Be counseling approaches are needed.
ME!"). The purpose of this group Empowerment Groups for Academic
is to help children identify ways in Success (EGAS) is a relatively unstructured
which they are likeable and capable. group counseling approach that report-
Children are given opportunities to edly helped at-risk urban-area African
discover their individual talents and American girls (Bemak, et al., 2005, John-
strengths and how they are special. son & Johnson, 2005).
Candidates for this group include chil- Using an indirect approach, the goal
dren who lack confidence and make was to improve academic performance.
negative remarks about themselves, The primary objective of this approach
their abilities, or their work; or give was to empower the group members by
up easily. giving them more control and responsibil-
• School Success Groups. Essential skills ity and the freedom to explore personal
members learn and practice in this issues related to success. The group met
group include: listening, focusing, be- once a week for 45 minutes.
ing organized, using time efficiently, Structured approaches that focused
how to study, completing homework, directly on studying, attendance, and
how to take tests, and maintaining a disruptive behavior were avoided; rather,
good attitude. the girls were given full responsibility for
These same types of small groups can choosing discussion topics. The topics
take place at other grade levels too. The dealt with issues facing the girls in their
topics may be the same, although activi- daily lives, such as family matters, peer
ties might be different and the discussions relationships, teen-age pregnancies, first
at a different level. Middle school stu- sexual encounters, teacher confrontations,
dents, for example, enjoy participating in smoking, and academic concerns. They
groups and learning more about them- examined the relevance of the discussions
selves and others (Kirby, 2005). to their education and future. Teachers
The academic achievement gap for and school administration were highly
low-income and ethnic youth is a concern supportive of the group intervention and
that faces school counselors. These stu- its results.
dents most often are targeted for interven-
tion in terms of this academic disparity.
At the same time, there is a need to be
culturally responsive when working with
diverse and low-income students.

Advantages, Limitations, 10. Instead of the counselor being the

only personal resource to a coun-
and Conclusion selee at the moment, group members
provide additional resources to draw
Advantages of upon. For example, various alterna-
Small Group Counseling tives might come from the group be-
1. It is more efficient than individual fore the counselor offers a suggestion.
counseling because a counselor can 11. Some students find it too intense to
meet with more counselees at a time. meet with an adult alone. The pres-
2. Students can learn from each other ence of peers helps reduce the tension
by listening carefully and giving and and the feeling of being singled out
receiving feedback. for counseling.
3. Many problems students experience
are related to social interaction and a
Limitations of
counseling group can be a place for Small Group Counseling
learning how behaviors and feelings 1. It can take more time to establish trust
are related and for practicing conflict and a close working relationship than
resolution. in individual counseling because there
4. Group members can offer support are more relationships that come into
and encouragement and help provide play.
the facilitative conditions to a greater 2. The counselor may feel less in control
extent than can one person. because there are persons who need
5. The sense of belonging and together- special attention and there are more
ness in group counseling creates a interactions to observe and manage.
unique learning climate. 3. Confidentiality is more difficult to
6. Group members can practice behav- safeguard, as more people share in the
iors, receiving feedback and sugges- communication.
tions from others. Peer feelings and 4. Some issues may be too sensitive, too
ideas often have more credibility than emotional, or too complex to work
those of adults. with in a group.
7. Most of what young people learn is 5. Although everyone usually gets a
learned in a group context. Therefore, turn, there may not be enough time
learning and relearning might occur for some people who need special
with more results in a group. help and attention.
8. The counselor may not have to work 6. The counselor must be prepared to
as hard at facilitating the group counter some less than facilitative
because group members can learn to behaviors by group members.
facilitate one another. 7. The counseling process is more com-
9. As group members facilitate one plex because there are more variables
another, the counselor has more time to which the counselor needs to at-
to reflect on what a person is saying, tend.
how the person is responding, and 8. It is more difficult to organize a group
some possible alternatives. than to call in one student and conti-
nuity of topic and content is dependent
upon more people to be present. Sched-
uling a group can be a difficult task.

9. Sometimes school systems require par- Conclusion

ent permission for small group coun- Within the past decade, we have
seling in contrast to individual work.
learned more about counseling people in
However, this is not a recommended
small groups. School counseling groups
procedure because the counselor is a
are short in duration, organized to take
school official and small group coun-
advantage of time, and structured to
seling is a part of guidance services.
expedite the facilitative conditions and
On occasion, because of the sensitivity
processes.
of the topic or content, parent permis-
sion may be advisable, especially if it As a group leader, you will find the
is difficult to see how the group's work six high facilitative responses useful. In
is tied to learning. In other situations, addition to your making the responses,
parents are informed whenever stu- elicit facilitative responses from group
dents participate in on-going activities members. Teach them communication
that take them from the classroom. skills that can be used in the group. This
cooperative effort by participants makes
the group more productive and your work
less difficult.
Individual counseling in schools is
now a luxury. Because of high counselor-
student ratios, more small group counsel-
ing is needed. Students like to work in
groups and peer relationships play such
an important part in the development of
young people. These factors make small
group counseling a valuable counseling
intervention.

Large Group Guidance
In times past, when there were no Large Group

school counselors, students were de-
pendent upon classroom teachers and Guidance Defined
classroom guidance for any personal When a counselor works with more
help they might receive. Students who than ten students in a group, the inter-
needed personal counseling were referred vention is referred to as "large group
to counselors and therapists outside the guidance." The number ten is an arbitrary
school. After counselors were employed in dividing point, as some counselors claim
the schools, teachers continued to think they can do small group counseling with
of their personal work with students as as many as twelve students. But, the vast
guidance or advisement instead of coun- majority of counselors prefer five or six.
seling. They continued to see large group If a group goes beyond ten members, the
guidance as a way to work with the gen- counseling process is diffused and the
eral developmental needs of all students. dynamics of multiple relationships and
Counseling was a term reserved for more interactions change the group's charac-
intense and private assistance. ter. There seems to be a point where the
process becomes something other than
counseling.
Beyond the size of the group, the
differences between small group counsel-
ing and large group guidance rest primar-
ily with the focus of the group and the
way in which it functions. They include
purpose and objectives, leadership behav-
iors, and the interpersonal relationships
that can be formed. These factors, in turn,
affect the cohesiveness, trust level, and
intensity of group interaction.
Large group guidance sessions in sec-
ondary schools were first used to dissemi-
nate information for educational or career
planning. It was more expedient than
repeating the same thing over and over
with individuals. Too often, in large group

guidance sessions, adults did the talking Factors to Consider

as students sat passively and tried to ab-
sorb what was being presented. There was How do you organize large
little or no group interaction.
group guidance sessions?
Teachers in elementary schools were
among the first to demonstrate that Large group guidance can be viewed
meaningful personal discussions can hap- as a helping process in which ten or more
pen with a large group of students and students meet together to work with a
such discussions may be as beneficial as counselor, a teacher, or both. It also can
individual or small group meetings with be pictured as a series of lessons that are
students. They also showed a structured part of an organized guidance curriculum.
learning experience was an effective way A guidance curriculum is divided
to integrate guidance into the curriculum. into several units, with each unit having
In school systems that moved from junior a central focus or theme. There are gen-
high schools to middle schools, large eral and specific goals. Units are further
group or classroom guidance delivered by divided into sessions, each with its own
teachers and counselors is an important specific objectives and activities. The units
aspect in comprehensive guidance and and sessions are placed in some type of
counseling programs (K-12). sequential order, focusing on the develop-
You can communicate general and mental needs and interests of students.
specific information to students in large Although students meeting in large
groups. But, it does not have to be an groups can discuss the same topics they
occasion in which you deliver speeches do in individual or small group counsel-
to an audience. You might use panels of ing, large group guidance is seen as more
students to help clarify or illustrate some structured, exploratory, and directed to
of the points you are trying to make. the general needs and interests of the
You also can organize a large group into students.
smaller working units so more student Most high school counselors find it
interaction can take place. Whatever your feasible to work with large groups, per-
school's organization or grade level, you haps classroom groups, to speed up the
will find large group guidance a valuable yearly registration process. Some counsel-
intervention. ors also have found it easier to meet with
Classroom guidance is an important all students who plan to enter the military
element in the delivery system of the after graduation to talk with them about
ASCA National Model (American School the general procedures for entering the
Counselor Association, 2005). It is sug- service. Recruiters from the different mili-
gested school counselors spend from 45 tary services can make large group presen-
percent (elementary school) to 25 percent tations to interested students and answer
(high school) of their time delivering large questions. Similarly, students going to
group or classroom guidance. a particular college or university might
meet as a large group for special guidance.

Chapter 8 Large Group Guidance as a Counselor Intervention
Purpose and objectives. The first In another middle school, a group of

thing to consider when organizing a potential school dropouts were targeted
large group unit is: What is it supposed for early intervention. They participated in
to accomplish? In other words, what is a large group "success in school" program.
the purpose and what are the objectives? Self-reports from students indicated more
Guidance units focus on the develop- positive self-images, present and future.
mental needs and interests of students at The group was part of a larger interven-
different grade levels. A guidance unit on tion strategy to reduce dropout rates.
"How to Get and Hold a Job" might be Elementary school counselors and
particularly interesting and well attended counselors in middle schools where TAP is
in the secondary schools; whereas, "Bully routinely scheduled have found meeting
Blockers" might be a more appropriate with large groups an effective way to tell
one for elementary schools where teasing students about guidance and counseling
and name calling are emerging concerns services that are available in the school. In
developmentally. many instances, it is a matter of inform-
Some other examples of topics for ing students how they can take part in
large group guidance units are: other large group activities that focus on
Human growth and development developmental concerns and issues.
Choosing a career Inclusion is the word for main-stream-
ing students with disabilities. Until
Study habits and time management recently, the primary services available
Resolving conflicts with people for these students included self-contained
How to be more assertive classrooms, pull-out programs, and re-
source rooms, with a limited amount of
School orientation
inclusion in regular classes. Unfortunate-
How to pick a college ly, these programs isolated students from
Making new friends others and created social and education
Prevention is a common goal for large inequities that affected both academic
achievement and self-esteem.
group guidance interventions. One rural
school system credited the implementa- One way of promoting inclusion and
tion of a large group human sexuality addressing related student concerns is
curriculum delivered to middle school through classroom guidance activities
students for a reduction in teenage preg- (Bruce, Shade, & Cossairt, 1996; Young,
nancies (Ulbrich, 2010). Another program 2005). The counselor, as a student ad-
used classroom guidance lessons to reduce vocate, facilitates positive interactions
test anxiety among students. The sessions among students, introducing ways to pre-
focused on sources of text anxiety, self- vent discrimination and build a positive
assessment, test preparation, and listening learning climate.
to self-talk, among other things (Cheek, et Some guidance units are considered
al., 2002). standard fare and modified versions ap-
Students with behavior problems in pear regularly each year because they are
a middle school met in a large group to appropriate for all age groups. Others
experience counselor-led activities related result from particular needs or events that
to social skills. As compared to a control arise in a school or community. For in-
group, teachers, parents, and students stance, a counselor decided to meet with
reported greater improvements in school a large group of students to discuss some
behaviors and self-esteem (Wittmer & problems that were happening on their
Thompson, 2006). school bus.

One counselor called in 40 high CCI is, perhaps, best employed with
school students who were failing an Eng- naturally occurring classroom group-
lish class that was needed for graduation. ings. The personal connections that exist
As a large group, they talked about what among classmates can help facilitate
was needed to pass the English course and group sharing and support. Separate large
some possible next steps they could take or small group sessions can be provided
to improve their grades. About half of for students from different classrooms
them signed up to participate in a follow- who were most directly involved with
up session. the trauma. Also, it may be necessary to
An elementary school was located exclude from large groups any students
in an area where some attempted child who are displaying severe stress reactions.
abductions had taken place. School of- These students, whose crisis reactions may
ficials wanted to caution children and interfere with group activities, will likely
teach them more about how to respond require one-to-one crisis intervention.
to strangers. Counselors were asked to The CCI Model consists of six steps:
develop a special guidance unit that could (1) Introduction; (2) Providing facts and
be delivered in classrooms to all students dispelling rumors; (3) Sharing stories; (4)
in the school. Sharing reactions; (5) Empowerment; and
In another school, teachers and (6) Closure. It is during the empowerment
counselors were alerted to an increase in step students participate in activities to
the sale of illegal street drugs nearby and help them regain a sense of control. No
they were concerned older brothers and matter how impossible circumstances
sisters would bring it into the homes. A may appear, there are things they can do
large group guidance unit was developed to improve their situation. An important
so counselors and teachers could talk with goal of this step is the identification of
students about the potential dangers. coping strategies (Brock, 1998).
Classroom Crisis Intervention (CCI) Faust (1968) was among the first
is one strategy for helping a large group counselor educators to describe how guid-
of students through a shared traumatic ance lessons might be introduced into
event. The suicide of a student, a lethal as- elementary school classrooms. He empha-
sault on the school grounds, an accident sized the value of "timely teaching," in
in which students are killed, or a hor- which a particular event might stimulate
rific national tragedy, such as the terror- thinking and stir the imaginations and
ist bombings of the World Trade Center, feelings of students. He encouraged teach-
are events that often create a need for ers and counselors to seize upon such
students to talk about their feelings and opportunities to engage students in guid-
ideas. When tragedy hits the school, it ance lessons in which ideas, feelings, and
cannot be ignored (Dudley, 1995). behaviors could be explored.
Counselors can take the lead in orga- It seems timely teaching and large
nizing CCI large group sessions. Health group guidance are especially appropri-
professionals from the school district or ate when local, national, or international
community also might play an important events loom in the eyes of students and
role. It is not crisis therapy and might best they are ready to talk about the personal
be thought of as psychological first aid. impact of the events. While tragic events
As such, it is appropriate for almost any capture our attention and stimulate us to
school professional to be a CCI facilitator. help students process them, there also are
times to celebrate a momentous occasion.

When someone sets a world record, when not necessarily mean they have to act it
a former student is honored for a career out and respected social behaviors help
achievement, or when the school achieves people live together cooperatively and
a charity drive goals, these also are times productively.
to notice and reflect. Timely teaching The word "feeling" is used here rather
(and counseling) can help students learn than emotions or emotive-thoughts
and relearn. because students can relate to the term,
For instance, a poem was presented as view a list of feeling words, and then try
part of a language arts curriculum in high to identify behaviors that often are related
school and used to explore counseling to particular feelings. The word may still
solutions to some current problems that be too vague for some, but knowing about
existed in the school. Sometimes selected feelings is part of the personalization and
readings and writing assignments in an communication process.
academic class can integrate guidance In addition to these more personal-
themes into the curriculum and provide ized goals, guidance units also can focus
students an opportunity to explore such on the learning of specific information
topics as child abuse, alcoholism, foster (e.g., graduation requirements or ways
care and adoption, divorce and step-fami- to organize a study schedule). They can
lies, or learning disabilities. Students read feature exploratory activities in which stu-
and discuss, explore ideas and feelings, dents have an opportunity to talk about
and learn about self and others. Students citizenship, friendship, or responsibility.
also may be encouraged to write their They can be organized around activities
own journals, poems, or books on selected such as a career fair, music and art festival,
developmental guidance topics. or, perhaps, an educational objective that
The purpose of a large group guidance is difficult to work into an already full
unit may be to impart information, to help academic curriculum.
students explore the consequences of some Accessibility. Another consider-
action, or to learn some procedures for set- ation for organizing large group guidance
ting and achieving personal goals. You will interventions is how accessible are the
want to think of ways in which you can participants? When there is a regularly
personalize the experience for students. scheduled time during the school day
Some objectives for personalizing or school week for classroom guidance
most classroom guidance sessions, re- activities, you also can use this time to
gardless of topic, might be: (1) to help present a guidance unit. Otherwise, you
students become aware human feelings will have to coax teachers into giving up
exist; (2) to help students develop a work- some academic class time.
ing vocabulary in which they can see The Teacher-Advisor Program (TAP)
how feelings, thoughts, and behaviors are for middle and high schools, discussed in
related; (3) to help students become aware Chapter 3, is based on the assumptions
all people experience all kinds of pleasant teachers will provide some large group
and unpleasant feelings and these feel- guidance to students and try to work indi-
ings are part of life; (4) to help students be vidually with advisees. Otherwise, coun-
aware there is nothing wrong with having selors must study the school schedule and
feelings, as they are part of being human; find both times and places when students
and (5) to help students learn about so- can be pulled together for large group
cially acceptable ways to express feelings. guidance activities.
Students learn that to have a feeling does

Guidance units form a guidance cur- The question is not whether character
riculum and TAP provides the best struc- education should be taught. Rather, the
ture through which they are delivered. question is how openly and systematically
TAP periods in secondary schools also pro- should it be taught? For most of history,
vide a time when counselors have access education was first about character and
to large groups, including the possibility only secondarily about academic com-
of combining some groups and working petence (Williams, 2000). Proponents of
with 50 or more students. Schools with- character education argue teachers should
out TAP must find alternative ways of teach good character traits explicitly, rather
providing large group guidance. than leaving such instruction to the "hid-
Counselors at one middle school den curriculum." Further, the development
worked with administrators and teachers of a character curriculum is based on a list
to develop a 12-session classroom guid- of core values (DeRoche, 2000; Hayes &
ance program that was presented in lan- Hagedorn, 2000; Milson, 2000).
guage arts classes. Targeting low-achieving Contemporary leaders are demand-
students who lacked motivation and had ing educators improve education in our
poor study habits, the program combined schools to prepare better skilled workers
elements of large group guidance and so the country is more competitive in the
small group counseling, moving in stages world and our citizens can maintain a
from one to the other. good standard of living. That goal, how-
Peer facilitators also can be involved. ever, does not preclude giving attention
This "multiple intervention" is effective to good character and values. In address-
and produces several favorable results, ing this very issue during his presidency,
including increased involvement of staff, George W. Bush said, "Education is not
integration of the intervention into the complete unless we are willing to teach
curriculum, and accessibility to students. our children, not only how to read and
write, but the difference between right
Elementary and middle schools and wrong. We ought not to fear to teach
typically build their guidance programs our children good, old-fashioned values
around the concepts inherent in TAP. that have stood the test of time: Don't lie,
Classroom or large group guidance is a cheat or steal; respect others; respect their
part of the weekly schedule. For example, opinions." (Robinson, 2001).
some elementary school teachers have 20
minutes a day for a classroom guidance Large group guidance units can ad-
activity (Leber, 2002). dress character issues through a variety of
methods. Experiential activities such as
Character Education. Character short skits about various value conflicts
education is a concept that has received are popular with students. Issues often are
support among boards of education and drawn from student experiences and the
professional organizations. There is no dramatizations portray hypothetical or
universal agreement about the nature of actual experiences and incidents. Students
character education, despite the fact it has can develop scenarios for discussion and,
been discussed for many decades. Al- perhaps, present them in other classes or
though there are plenty of critics, schools to children in lower grade levels.
unavoidably and inevitably influence
student character. No form of schooling One innovative elementary school
is values-free (Schaps & Williams, 1999). program about character education is
This includes counseling and guidance as tied to career awareness. It is called "The
well as classroom teaching. Counselor's Corner" and originated
in Lake City, Florida. This school-wide

program is broadcast via a closed circuit and citizenship. These traits affirm basic
television network to all classrooms. It human worth and dignity and support
emphasizes nine career and "personal healthy communities. Character educa-
qualities" that are desired by teachers in tion emphasizes key social values and en-
their classrooms and by employers in the courages students to become responsible,
world of work. They are: respect, respon- contributing members of society.
sibility, motivation, cooperation, decision A guidance unit can address children's
making, honesty, wel1ness, communica- common fears and concerns. Some fears
tion, and positive attitude. are related to fairly naturally occurring
Throughout the school year, the coun- events or factors in their lives, while others
selor hosts the 72 shows featuring large come from more remote yet real sources.
mouth puppets and teachers rotating in Continual media coverage of the war on
as hidden puppeteers. The puppets talk terrorism, for example, and other discon-
with the counselor about personal traits certing events heighten fears among chil-
and career qualities. They play guess- dren. "Bibliotherapy" techniques adapted
ing games, sing songs, and ask questions to classroom guidance can be quite useful
about stories that are read. There are mys- for addressing fears. Children can learn
tery guests from the community who talk coping skills and strategies through books
about their work and essential personal and storytelling (Nicholson & Pearson,
traits. For some shows, student reporters, 2003).
using a television camera, move about Guidance units can be used at any
the school filming students in vignettes grade level and with almost any topic. Ac-
about certain character traits. As with any tivities may draw upon literature, art, dra-
guidance topic with a creative approach, matization, pantomiming, puppetry, role
character education can be interesting playing, and written responses. Reading
and fun. aloud, constructing collages, and compos-
The comprehensive program has a ing a letter to a book character are other
manual for the counselor and booklets for useful activities for engaging children and
the various shows. There are dialog scripts teens on a more personal level with the
and teacher guides for classroom follow- topics of large group guidance.
up to the televised shows. The program is Peer relationships and common
easy to adapt for classroom guidance les- interests. In large group guidance, you
sons where closed circuit television is not can work with students who represent the
available (Dicks & Myrick, 1999). student body or a particular grade level.
Character education is most effective For many group guidance sessions, a ran-
when all adults in the school community dom sampling of students might do. Class-
model the behaviors of good character room groups that are already scheduled
they want students to learn and practice. to meet regularly with a particular teacher
Ultimately, the daily operations of the would be convenient. In other cases, a
schools children attend have significant large group guidance experience could
impact on what they will learn to value. be organized for a targeted population
ASCA's position on character educa- (e.g., those students interested in medical
tion (2005) is professional school coun- careers). Selection of participants is, then,
selors should lead, initiate, manage, and based on common interests and needs.
support such programs in their schools. Some students may find a sense of
ASCA highlights universal values that in- security in large groups, perhaps hiding
clude honesty, integrity, trustworthiness, behind the participation of others. They
respect, responsibility, fairness, caring, listen but do not speak up. They count

on others to take the lead and to keep the group guidance. As an expert in school
pressure of participating off them. Some- guidance and counseling, you can be a
times students dislike talking in front of resource to teachers. You can lead a group
large groups for fear what they say will and present some units or sessions your-
not be accepted. The larger the number self. On occasion, you might co-lead with
of members, the more uncertain they are teachers or other counselors.
about the facilitative conditions. What if your experience is limited or
Self-conscious and inhibited students you have never been a classroom teacher?
prefer small groups before they feel se- Research suggests although teaching
cure enough to share their ideas in large experience is significantly related to
groups. This tends to be the general rule competence in conducting developmental
for most students. Therefore, the larger classroom lessons, this effect decreased
the group the more difficult it is to engage dramatically and became nonsignificant
members in a discussion. This dynamic when school counseling experience was
often pushes counselors into talking too considered (Bringman & Lee, 2008; Gelt-
much at students or letting the group de- ner, 2007).
velop into a simple question and answer Therefore, if you lack experience, it
period, with the counselor answering the is time to get some. Begin by observing
questions. outstanding teachers. Take note of how
There is nothing wrong with this they manage the classroom and what they
type of controlled interaction if it serves say and do in certain situations. Don't
a purpose. You will want to think of ways be afraid to ask teachers for some helpful
in which students can get to know each hints. As you improve your skills, your
other better and to experience the facilita- confidence will grow. In addition, teach-
tive conditions. Then they will want to ers will learn from you as you implement
participate more. For instance, by using the facilitative model and use some the
cooperative learning and group manage- methods outlined in this book.
ment procedures, you can subdivide large A developmental guidance program
groups into smaller groups within the that reaches only a few selected students is
same room. By using structured learning not adequate. Therefore, teachers have to
activities, you can increase involvement take an active part in large group guidance
and participation. activities. To fulfill this important role,
teachers need to understand the philoso-
Who is the group leader? phy behind developmental guidance,
In schools where comprehensive how guidance units can be organized and
developmental guidance and counseling presented, ways to manage large groups
programs have been established, teachers so all students can participate, and how to
and counselors work together to develop facilitate group discussion.
guidance units. The units are tailored to As a counselor, you can "coach"
the school's population and students' gen- teachers who need help. Teachers have
eral developmental needs and interests. many classroom skills they can apply in
As a counselor, you can work in at large group guidance, but they may need
least two roles in terms of large group to develop others for the role of group
guidance. As a coordinator of guidance, facilitator. For guidance activities, teach-
you can consult and collaborate with ers and counselors should think more
teachers in developing a guidance cur- about creating the facilitative conditions
riculum that involves classroom or large through the increased use of high facilita-

tive responses. The intent is to encourage roles and the topics for discussion may
more student participation and discus- be very personal. As effective large group
sion, with less lecturing, advising, and leaders, counselors and teachers find ways
delivering information. to personalize the experience and give at-
You can meet with teachers to discuss tention to participants as individuals. It is
the guidance units that already have been not uncommon to hear favorable reports
developed and organized into a curricu- that large group guidance sessions had an
lum. They may need lielp in deciding influential impact on student lives.
when it would be best to present the units There is probably no limit to size in
if they are not already organized into large group guidance, as you could work
some sequence. They also might want to with 100 or more. Size is not a problem
review some of the activities, discuss some if you have assistance from helpers. Most
of the procedures, or consider alterna- counselors, however, think in terms of 25
tive activities and methods. In addition, to 30 students. The group can be conve-
when you co-lead a session or a unit with niently subdivided into five or six small
teachers, model the use of the facilitative working teams with about five or six
responses and reinforce teachers for their students each. These teams can then be
efforts and skills. further divided into dyads and triads for
Counselor-led, developmental guid- some activities.
ance units presented in ninth grade
classrooms have shown the potential to Where should the group meet?
improve students' expressed behavior and The size of a group may be deter-
general school attitudes, while addressing mined by the facilities or space that is
their developmental needs. In one study, available. The most common place to
the effectiveness of this intervention was meet students in large group guidance is a
consistent across the different levels of classroom. Other meeting places might be
student achievement and attitudes about the library, cafeteria, media center, gym-
school (Schlossberg, et al., 2001). nasium, or auditorium.
There will be times when you will You will want to avoid wall-to-wall
have your own "dog and pony" show. people and places where they must work
That is, you will develop a special guid- elbow to elbow. To increase student inter-
ance unit to use with classes or other large ventions, you want enough space to break
groups of students you have organized. the group into at least five small circles,
Teachers might be invited to assist or take perhaps arranging them in the four cor-
a part in the procedures. There are many ners and the center of a room. The num-
teachers who welcome the idea of work- ber of movable chairs or desks in a room
ing with students in guidance activities. also can determine the size of a group,
although, occasionally, it is possible for
What size should the group be? students to sit on a carpeted floor.
Certainly, the size of a group can When large group guidance is aimed
make a difference and affect the amount primarily at information-giving and when
and type of interaction that happens. time is limited, an auditorium might
Using a large group approach often limits work. In this situation, representative
the nature of the topics introduced, the groups of students ask questions, take part
degree of personal involvement, and in panel discussions, or in some other way
confidentiality. Yet, depending upon provide the dialogue that is needed in the
activities and procedures, participants in group.
large group guidance can be given active

One large group of 80 high school The value of a regularly scheduled TAP
students met in an auditorium to review period has already been discussed. Large
college application and enrollment proce- group guidance units and sessions can be
dures, including how to complete forms planned for that time frame. Generally, 25
for financial assistance, housing, and so to 30 minutes is the amount of time set
on. After the counselors made some intro- for such meetings. Any less time makes it
ductory remarks and provided general in- difficult or impossible to use some group
formation with an overhead projector on activities and procedures.
a large screen, students asked questions. One school for grades 5-6 offered a
In most cases, an auditorium is too program similar to TAP called "Connec-
restrictive. More flexible facilities are tions Through Clubs." The program was
preferred to obtain more student involve- designed to provide students the oppor-
ment and participation. For example, with tunity to participate in a group extracur-
the same group of high school students ricular activity and mentoring experience.
as described above, the counselors could School faculty, staff, and community
make their presentations and then divide members met with their groups through-
the group of 80 into 10 teams of eight stu- out the academic year. The program was
dents, positioning them around the room a means to build a strengths-enhancing
(media center, cafeteria, etc.). The smaller school environment and to promote the
groups could then be given the task of developmental competencies of all stu-
discussing the ideas that were presented, dents, both of which had been linked to
seeking clarification and, as a group, list- academic and personal success.
ing four or five questions they would like Clubs routinely met on Wednesdays
to hear answered. The groups might then for about 45 minutes. Club leaders were
rank order their questions. Next, counsel- encouraged to think of their time in the
ors could interrupt, after some time had clubs as mentoring opportunities. They
passed, and have the small groups reposi- were further encouraged to give as much
tion themselves for a large group question or more focus to the process aspect of
and answer period. This procedure builds working with students (e.g., facilitating
more student interaction and involve- conversations, fostering relationships
ment into large group guidance and can between peers) as given to the club's con-
be used with almost any topic. tent or the completion of a project. At the
beginning of the school year, the leaders
How often and for how long? received several team-building activities to
Most large group guidance units are assist them with building student connec-
organized into sessions of about 20 to tions (Logan & Scarborough, 2008).
30 minutes, although some may be 45 In elementary schools where students
minutes or longer. Sessions quite often are remain in self-contained classrooms and
structured around a school's class sched- there is more flexibility of time, large
ule. In the secondary schools, large group group guidance can be scheduled for
guidance is typically a regular class period, whatever time is convenient for teach-
but it can be scheduled for less time. For ers. This is usually in the afternoon of a
example, in schools that use block sched- school day and sessions frequently are be-
uling, it may take one half of the block or tween 20 and 30 minutes, although some
less. Because of guest speakers or the avail- counselors prefer more time for discussion
ability of special demonstration materials, and student participation. A practical ap-
group guidance may last longer, but that proach is to think in terms of 30-minute
is an exception. sessions, which can be stretched to more

minutes for discussion or more activities Effective group activities generally

when time is available. consist of a set of procedures in which
When you are organizing guidance participants take part in a task and then
units, it is practical to think in terms of talk about their experiences. The activities
six sessions per unit. The sixth session is are related to the four facilitative process-
used primarily for evaluation and wrap- es of self-disclosure, feedback, increased
up. Some units, however, may include awareness and decision making, and
as few as one or two, while others might responsible action. But, activities alone
have as many as ten sessions. It seems are hardly effective in helping students
practical to have several brief guidance and merely having students take part in
units that can be implemented and evalu- them cannot be considered a meaningful
ated rather than one long continuous outcome of large group guidance.
effort. Take your gains where you can, An activity should be reviewed in
relying on student feedback to determine terms of its relevance to the desired objec-
the next most appropriate unit. tives of a unit or session. In addition, it
should be considered in light of what is
Which activities appropriate for a particular age group and
should be used? the school setting. For instance, "values
clarification" was part of the humanis-
Some counselors organize their guid- tic education movement and there were
ance units around favorite group activi- many books that were written describing
ties. They have a list of those that they activities teachers and counselors could
know get students involved and have an use with their students. These activities,
idea of how students will interact during in many cases, came from group work
these activities. with adults. In some communities,
Although it is possible to have a large parents challenged their use, worried
group discussion without using a stimu- students were disclosing too much about
lating or fun activity as a lead-in, most themselves or there was an unwarranted
counselors look for purposeful activities invasion of privacy.
that engage students. The activities are When guidance activities are not
structured, focused, and can keep the carefully selected, they are more likely to
session moving along at a fast or reason- be ineffective or inappropriate. They may
able pace (Bordessa, 2006; Quaglia, 2003; not align well with guidance objectives.
Roehlkepartain, 2008; Wittmer & Thomp- Activities that put people in the position
son, 2006). of making negative choices (e.g., who
Several years ago, there was a push will be thrown out of a boat in order for
in educational circles to "humanize" the rest to survive) have sparked a lot of
education. While the philosophy behind controversy. It takes a skilled leader to use
the movement was aimed at creating a this type of activity and, even then, using
friendly and personal school climate, one them in school settings is questionable.
in which students felt free to examine You can modify activities to suit your
the personal meaning of learning, it was purposes. Eliminate ones that make you
too often translated into simply taking uncomfortable or could be difficult for you
students through some human relations to publicly defend. Even with activities
group activities. Some of the activities that have been published or recommend-
were not appropriate for schools or they ed by others, you may feel awkward or
needed more advanced leadership train- uneasy. Use your best judgment. The activ-
ing than was typically available to school ity is only a vehicle, a means to an end.
personnel.

A nation-wide study (Rowley, et al., "Okay, that's interesting, but how

2005) showed counselors pick and choose does that relate to ... ?"
various items when developing guidance "Let's see, you seem to be saying .... "
curricula for their schools. In addition, (Reframed idea)
only a few school districts require all their
counselors to use the same grade level cur- "Okay, so you're thinking about...
ricula, which further suggests each coun- right now. But let's see if we can give
selor must be responsible for choosing the attention to .... "
approach and activities. "All right, you seem to be saying
that.. .. Okay, and that suggests .... "
How do you facilitate Use eye contact. Eye contact is part
a large group? of communication. It shows you are atten-
Many of the same skills you use in tive or you are interested. Your eyes can tell
small group counseling will be appropri- students you notice them. Eyes can give
ate with large groups. You will want to use simple acknowledgments and elicit and re-
the high facilitative responses and elicit inforce contributions. They also can show
them from group participants. disapproval or signal concern. They express
your feelings and may communicate more
You probably will want to set more than your words.
limits, provide more structure, and stay
more on task in large groups than in Use your eyes when working with
smaller ones. This is not incompatible to teams stationed around the room to focus
being a facilitator or helper and need not on different sections or individuals. When
threaten your role as an understanding, you ask an open-ended question of the
accepting, and trustworthy counselor. total group, you might use your eyes to
But, the larger the group, the more people elicit a response from one of the sections.
you will have demanding your attention. You might even gesture with your hand
Some will stray off course for lack of in- and say, "Let me hear from some of you
volvement or your attention. in this section." Give the students time to
respond. Have patience and let your eyes
The facilitative model can be applied do some talking for you, especially during
easily to large groups. Think in terms a pause after you ask a question. Eyes can
of what you can do to show you want be soft, encouraging, and inviting or they
to listen to students' ideas and feelings. can be intense, intimidating, and threat-
Do something to show you value their ening. Be aware of how you communi-
participation and respect their efforts. You cate with your eyes so they say what you
can be understanding and accepting and intend them to say.
also let students know you expect them to
work cooperatively within some limits. Participants often are uncertain of
when it is their turn to talk. Some may
Consider the following ideas for leading wonder if they are talking too much. Your
groups through activities and discussions. eyes and your words will communicate
Accept all contributions. Ac- when it is time to talk. Some students
knowledge students for their efforts, even who are unsure will avoid eye contact
if it is a little off target. You might look with you. They will turn away when you
for the major idea of something expressed look at them, almost pleading for you to
and tie it to the topic, avoiding rejection. move on to someone else. You might say,
You might have to reframe or redirect the "That's okay, take your time and think
focus of the comment, if necessary. about it for a moment." Then, pose the
question again.

Naturally, other nonverbal behaviors If you have a student in your group

play a part in facilitating groups (e.g., who is inattentive or disruptive, you
gestures, facial expression, tone of voice, might use your physical presence to gain
posture, and physical proximity in the the person's attention. Move closer to the
group). Be aware of what affect they have student. As you get into someone's terri-
on your group and note those you can tory or space, there is a tendency for the
positively use to the group's advantage. person to be more alert. Anxiety increases
Reinforce participation. Just as and attention to your movement and
your eyes can be used to reject or reinforce words will likely increase. This can work
participation, so can your choice of words. when you have divided the large group
Be careful not to use too many evaluative into smaller groups as well.
terms such as "Good," "Great," "Excellent," When students are tired or fatigued
"Wonderful," and "Outstanding." You or it is hot and at the end of a day, keep
also might be cautious about using popu- on the move. Do not station yourself in
lar slang, although your personality may front of the room or in one place. Your
allow you to use it without putting down movement breaks monotony and is
students or making you seem condescend- stimulating. It forces people to shift their
ing. While these words are intended to tell attention and to be attentive, especially as
a person or a group their participation or you move closer to them. For example, if
contribution is appreciated, they sometimes you want a particular section of the large
communicate their's was the best or correct group to participate more, then move
response. In addition, evaluation, either closer to that section and use your eyes
positive or negative, runs counter to creat- and physical presence to invite them to
ing the facilitative conditions you want in a participate.
group. Evaluations are needed and inevita- In a similar fashion, if one student or
ble, but they also are low facilitative. There- section of students is dominating discus-
fore, the responses of "Okay," "All right," sion, then move away. Move to another
"Thanks for sharing that," and "Thank you" area, saying, "We've already heard from
are favored because they tend to seem less some members in our group, let's hear
evaluative and more acknowledging. what the rest of you are thinking. How
Feedback in the form of a compli- about from some of you in this section?"
ment can be a powerful way to reinforce Set limits. You may have some
an individual or a group. Most counselors students in your groups who are disrup-
and teachers do not give enough compli- tive or whose behavior is unacceptable.
ments. Think of ways you can let indi- Set some limits with the students by first
viduals or a group know you value their responding to their feelings and then
responses. Students like to be reassured telling them what they can or cannot
the group is going well and their contri- do. In principle, it is always best to focus
butions are important. on what you expect of people instead of
Move to and away from stu- asking them to refrain from doing some-
dents. If you are not getting the type of thing. The first requests something you
behavior you think is helpful or you are want someone to do, while the latter asks
meeting with resistance, you may want to for obedience and fails to give direction.
use the feedback model to gently tell in- For example, suppose two students are
dividuals or groups about the effect their laughing to themselves as others partici-
behaviors are having on you. This is after pate. It has become annoying to you and
you have tried other means of getting others. You might say something like
them to work with you.

this, "You two are having a difficult time Or, "Our group discussion brought
listening today and it's clear something is back some strong feelings in yousome sad
striking you as funny or amusing. How- ones-and you're remembering an event
ever, you're making it hard for us to keep that had a big impact on you." Depending
focused and to share ideas. So, please, give on your skill and professional judgment,
us your attention." you might continue with, "But, what
If you have built up some "chips in you've told us is very personal. Do you
the bank" from earlier experiences, you want to continue? Or, is this something
may want to go straight to the point and you might want to talk about later?"
say, "You're having fun and finding some- You might remind the group people
thing amusing, but we need your atten- do not have to share anything they do
tion." There are fewer words. You also can not want to talk about and that, in this
say, "Please stop your side remarks and case, the person has trusted the group
give us your attention." It is not a time to be respectful of the situation. Or, you
to argue and it is not a time to discuss might shift the focus by finding a point
behavior if you want to stay on task. where you can interrupt the person and
On the other hand, some counselors then ask the group, "We've just heard a
deliberately let such behavior continue very personal statement by one of our
for a short time before saying, "We have group members. What do you think
a problem in our group. What's happen- that person is feeling right now?" Then,
ing?" Then, the situation and the behav- "What is that person saying about us as a
ior of the students are processed. This is group?" Then, a discussion of the facili-
more confronting, but it also can prove tative conditions of caring, trust, and so
educational if it is timely and you use forth might take place. This creates an
your facilitative skills. opportunity for you to return the session
to its intended focus and to reach out to
Setting limits is an important con- the student later.
sideration when a student is stimulated
to talk too personally or self-disclose too Give tasks. You can increase student
much. Students under stress or full of anx- involvement during a large group session
iety may not be particularly concerned by giving group members specific tasks.
about where they are or what group they One such task might be: "All right, let's
are in when they see an opportunity to have this section (or team) listen to what
get something off their minds. Sometimes this section (pointing to another team)
they simply seize upon the opportunity to has to say. See what you would add." This
ease the burden by venting their feelings encourages the members to focus their
in what seems at the moment to be a safe attention on the topic and discussion. You
place. might continue with, "Now, as you listen,
think of a question you can ask to help us
In this kind of situation, you might learn more about their ideas."
interrupt the student and say, "This is
really important to you and you're want- Another task might be to have every-
ing to talk about it right now." Or, "I can one write down the key words or phrases
see by what you've told us you're feeling as others talk or take note of key ideas.
anxious ... and, it's not easy to think about Still other tasks might be for everyone in
something else. However, this may be a group to respond to a particular ques-
something you and I could talk about as tion, write a one-word reaction, or draw a
soon as our group is over." picture in response to a question or unfin-

ished sentence. This alerts group mem- more discussion and more group partici-
bers, directs their attention, and enhances pation. Counselors feel less rushed and
their involvement. more like facilitators when they have the
If a group is not going well, change extra time, but it may not be available.
the task. For example, instead of plunging Have a plan. There are some ex-
ahead with the outlined procedures of an perienced counselors and teachers who
activity, you might stop and say, "What's can take a few leads and spontaneously
happening in our group? What are some conduct a guidance lesson, drawing upon
of you feeling right now?" "What do you their knowledge of activities and their
think is going on to cause some of those ability to facilitate a group. They know
feelings?" "What are some things we how to personalize discussion topics
could do to make it more interesting?" and are familiar with typical questions
Sometimes a "here and now" task will and concerns. They recognize potential
create enough excitement to motivate the problems before they occur. They are
group and personalize the experience. A master educators who, with little prepara-
"there and then" task, such as "What do tion, can quickly involve a large group
you think the student was feeling in that or a class in a guidance lesson. But, few
situation?" may be too hypothetical or counselors or teachers rely exclusively on
too far removed from the group's experi- their experience and abilities to work on
ence to keep them involved. "automatic pilot" in unstructured situa-
tions. It is stimulating, challenging, but
If the group continues to struggle with harder work.
attention or motivation to discuss an is-
sue or situation, you might reexamine the It is more practical to have planned
topic or the tasks they are being given. guidance units, each with a specific num-
Students generally like to talk about their ber of sessions that have been outlined for
ideas and feelings in large and small a given amount of time. There can always
groups when the topics have meaning. be adjustments. Sometimes activities must
be modified or procedures changed to
Counselors often are limited by time accommodate the time and setting. On
and must stay on task to complete the some occasions, a discussion may take a
"guidance lesson." When it is important turn and thereby create an opportunity
to lead students through a lesson or com- for timely teaching. Then the remainder
plete an agenda, you will be more time- of the guidance lesson plan may be elimi-
conscious. You make decisions to keep the nated. But, when you have a plan and the
group on task, moving through the activi- option of changing it when you choose,
ties and procedures. Missed opportunities instead of always depending upon your
happen, not for lack of skill, but because personal resources and faith things will
professional judgments must be made ac- work out, your work is easier.
cording to the clock.
Some people like to sketch out a gen-
There is nothing wrong with staying eral plan with a few notes and then follow
on task. However, the trade-off is usu- their intuition and experience. Others
ally in terms of depth of discussion and prefer more detailed plans. Regardless, the
number of high facilitative responses. In most effective counselors have a clear idea
elementary schools, 20 minutes is becom- of the unit and session objectives, have
ing a common time for many large group the materials that are needed, and know
guidance experiences. When an extra 10- how they will start the group. They may
15 minutes is available, there is generally have written down a few opening remarks
for easy reference. They know which ac-

tivities they plan to use and have thought The Florida Classroom
through the specific procedures of the
activities, especially as they are suited to Guidance Project
the particular space in which group is Attitudes about school, self, and oth-
meeting. They have in mind a summary ers affect student learning. When students
statement or a way to conclude the group do not like school, they are ineffective
discussion with particular attention given learners. When they feel accepted, suc-
to closure. cessful, and important in school, they
If leading a large group guidance ses- tend to participate and achieve more.
sion is new to you, then you probably will Helping young people to develop positive
need a more detailed and structured plan. attitudes and achieve academically is an
Try to visualize how the time might be objective of all school guidance programs.
spent, identifying an approximate num- The Orange County Florida School
ber of minutes for each part of your plan. District (Orlando, Florida) has one or
You will have to be flexible and recognize more full-time counselors in every school.
facilitating a longer discussion in one All elementary school counselors were
part of the plan means reducing the time invited to participate in this district-wide
for an activity or discussion in another project featuring a guidance unit for
part. Your own personal interests, skills, fourth grade students that focuses on at-
and professional judgment eventually titudes about school.
determine your decisions when leading a More specifically, the unit includes six
group. 30- to 45-minute classroom guidance ses-
The Florida Classroom Guidance Proj- sions entitled: (1) Understanding Feelings
ect is a good example of an effective large and Behaviors; (2) Attitude Glasses; (3)
group guidance unit. It was developed in Helping Someone New to School; (4) Mak-
Orange County, Florida, and has stood ing Positive Changes; (5) I Am Lovable
the test of time with many successful and Capable; and (6) Looking for Personal
replications in other school districts. The Strengths. Two more sessions were used
unit can be modified to fit the needs and to administer pre and post measurements
interests of other counselors and student and to prepare students to work in group
populations. The general outline works discussion teams. The unit is described in
well as a "roadmap" or guide for develop- Appendix B.
ing other units. This unit is an example of modify-
ing some universal group activities to fit
the situation. Each session is divided into
four parts: (1) Introduction, including the
opening counselor remarks; (2) Activity
I, which involves a counselor-led discus-
sion with the total class; (3) Activity II, in
which the counselor breaks the class into
five small groups and, using go-around
procedures, each small group member
has an opportunity to respond to a group
topic; and (4) Closure, which features
both a summary of the session and an as-
signment for students.

A key feature in this kind of unit is Large group guidance is the most
organizing the class into five small discus- parsimonious approach to students who
sion teams. Management and arrange- have negative attitudes. Those students
ment are important. The teams are first who appear to need more help or who
positioned in five semicircles around the do not respond well to large group guid-
room during the introduction of a ses- ance could then be seen in small group
sion. For Activity I, the counselor leads a counseling, perhaps experiencing the
discussion with the entire class via their series of structured group experiences
teams. During Activity II, the teams close described in Chapter 7. Finally, those who
into small circle groups for specific tasks are unresponsive to large or small group
and discussions. The teams then quickly work might then receive some individual
reposition themselves into their semi- counseling.
circles for the closure activities and final Each session in the unit was orga-
discussion. nized on the assumption only a minimal
The Florida project was replicated by amount of materials would be available
30 counselors in Indiana and favorable and the unit should be able to be imple-
results also were reported. Target students mented without additional expense
identified by teachers as having negative beyond the typical resources of most
attitudes about school, as well as students counselors. This limited the selection of
who were seen as academically successful, structured learning activities for this unit.
benefited from the guidance unit, ac- The unit was designed for fourth grad-
cording to teacher reports. This was true ers; however, with a few modifications,
in both the Florida and Indiana studies, a number of middle school counselors
which together involved more than 1,700 have found it to be valuable in their work.
students, either in control or experimen- Some high school counselors also have
tal groups. The 20 items both Florida and used it. You may find other activities
Indiana teachers used for comparing the would better suit your students or choose
students who participated in the unit and to modify the unit for your own interests
those who did not (control) are shown in and needs.
Figure 8.2. The x's indicate the items and
groups for which a statistically significant
difference was achieved.
This was a significant project because
of its scope, research design, replication,
and positive findings for both target
and top students. It demonstrated stu-
dents who have negative attitudes about
school, as well as students who are do-
ing well academically (top students), can
gain from the same large group guidance
experience. The unit, of course, is directed
to all students and, in this case, is a first
counselor intervention focused on the is-
sue of negative school attitudes.

Figure 8.1
Teacher Inventory Results:
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups
Florida Indiana
Target Top Target Top

N= 623 403 350 381
Behavior in school:
1. Starts school work as soon as assigned.
2. Works hard on school assignments. x x
3. Finishes assignments on time. x
4. Has materials ready to do work. x
5. Participates in class discussions.
6. Follows directions and school rules. x x
7. Accepts helpful corrections and suggestions. x x
8. Says kind things about and to others.
9. Gets along well with others. x x x
10. Likes teachers. x x
11 . Is liked by teachers. x x x
12. Others are interested in what student says. x x x
1 3. Believes oneself to be an important and special person. x x x
14. Likes coming to school. x x x
15. Likes oneself as a person. x x x
1 6. Is a good worker at school. x
17. Sees school as a friendly place to be.
18. Sees school as contributing to feeling happy and successful. x x
19. Tries harder when things don't go right the first time. x
20. Knows how to make friends. x
x .05 level of significance

Figure 8.2
Student Inventory Results:
Comparison of Experimental and Control Groups
Florida Indiana
Target Top Target Top

N= 623 403 350 381
How I am in school:
1. I start my school work as soon as assigned.
2. I work hard on school assignments.
3.1 finish assignments on time. x
4. I have materials ready to do work. x
5.1 participate in class discussions.
6.1 follow directions and school rules. x
7.1 accept helpful corrections and suggestions. x
8.1 say kind things about and to others. x x
How I think about some things:

9. I get along well with others.
10. I like teachers. x x
11. My teachers like me. x x
12. Others are interested in what I say. x x
1 3. I am an important and special person. x
14. I like coming to school.
15.1 like who I am.
16. I am a good worker at school. x
1 7. School is a friendly place to be. x
18. School makes me feel happy and successful. x x
19. I try harder when things don't go right the first time.
20. I know how to make friends .
x .05 level of significance

One group of counselors asked if the Helpful Hints

activities could be used in small group
counseling sessions, doing away with Some of the same helpful hints that
the need for large group management were suggested for small group counsel-
arrangements. Of course, the activities ing also apply when working with large
could be used in small group counseling. groups. In addition, you will find the fol-
But, in doing so, some strong elements lowing of value.
will be lost. First, using the unit with large
groups enables counselors and teach- Grouping Students
ers to include more students in a timely Room and space arrangements can
manner. Just as important, perhaps, is influence the interpersonal dynamics of a
using the procedure of moving the groups group and the kinds of interactions that
into semicircles and circles. The different happen between you and the students
groupings allow for different information, and among the students themselves. Gen-
tasks, and levels of disclosure. Hearing erally, there are five basic arrangements in
from the other small groups increases which students can be seated (see Figure
students' interest and exposure to other 8.3). Each has some advantages and limi-
perspectives. tations.
The school counselors in the original
studies reported all students who received
the unit participated in class discussions.
They could not think of a single student
who refused to take part in the go-around
activities. None withdrew or continually
passed when it was time to speak to the
group topic. This is an impressive finding
and it surprised both teachers and coun-
selors. Students who seldom took part in
class discussions shared their ideas in each
session.
Large group guidance is a unique and
valuable experience for students. As a type
of counselor intervention, it has a special
place in the services counselors provide.

Figure 8.3
Managing Large Groups:
Seating Arrangements
• • •• • •
• • • • • +
+
.
.,. • " ++
.,.
• • • • • ••
T/C
•
••
•
•
•
•
•• •
• •" T/C
•.,.
(1) Rows
•
•
•
•
• •
• •
• +
(2) Circles
+"
.• .,. +
+"
• • • • "+ +
• • • + .,. .,.•
T/C
• •
_.,. +"
+
••
•••
(3) Semi-Circles
.,...
+
( 4) In and Out Circles
+•+
•+ • +• T/C •+ • +• T/C =Teacher/Counselor
X =Student
(5) Discussion Teams

Rows. The first arrangement features Semicircle. In a semicircle arrange-

students in lines or rows. It is the most ment, eyes are still to the front, although
commonly used classroom arrangement students can now see each other better
in all schools. Chairs or desks are typically and discussions are likely to involve more
set in five or six rows with six or seven of them. However, as the group increases
chairs to a row. Sometimes tables will be in size, maybe 20 or more, the semicircle
used in horizontal lines, with the teacher's gets larger and there is less a feeling of be-
podium or desk in front. Even in the most ing a group. Recognizing this limitation,
progressive schools where efforts have some counselors and teachers arrange stu-
been made to eliminate such traditions, dents in two or three semicircles, keeping
one can see simple modifications of stu- the group closer while avoiding crowding.
dents seated in rows. This, too, might be considered a varia-
This is the ideal setup for delivering tion of rows or lines because their eyes are
a speech. The eyes of students are to the toward the front of the room.
front of the room and it is difficult to In and Out Circles. Sometimes
focus attention elsewhere. Because eye two concentric circles or ovals can bear-
contact among participants is so limited, ranged. The inner circle is smaller in num-
there is a tendency to have a minimal ber and size than the outer circle. This
amount of discussion and a few students "fishbowl" arrangement is a popular one
usually dominate. The lack of eye con- for demonstrations and when tasks spe-
tact also hinders the feedback process cifically call for a group within a group.
and some students become hesitant to If you, as the group leader, seat your-
participate when they cannot tell how self in the inner circle, you will have a
their contributions are being received by sense of closeness with that group, al-
others. Therefore, if your only intent is to most shutting out the participants in the
address the students and have them listen outer circle. This also is true for the inner
to a presentation, then such an arrange- circle students who, after a few moments,
ment would be most appropriate. become less self-conscious of being in the
Circle. In an attempt to gain more eye spotlight and may forget about the outer
contact and to stimulate more participation, group. The volume of their voices may
students are sometimes seated in a large cir- drop and people seated in the outer circle
cle. This enables everyone to see each other. may have difficulty hearing what is being
It tends to invite everyone to participate said in the inner circle.
more, as the circle appears to make everyone Members in the outer circle are usually
equal and positioned in such a way as to feel asked to observe and not interrupt as they
a part of the total group. listen to the comments made by mem-
Sometimes the size of a group (e.g., 30 bers of the inner circle. This can become
students) makes the circle so large eye con- tedious and boring unless you give them
tact is still limited. Students must look a a task, something for which to watch or
long way across the room to see others and listen. Or, you may momentarily stop the
the desired sense of being part of a group work you are doing with the inner circle
can be lost. In addition, some rooms do not group and speak to those in the outer
lend themselves to a circle and students circle, eliciting their brief comments.
end up sitting in an oblong or rectangular
set or in two long lines facing one another.
With 15 to 20 students, a large circle works
well; otherwise, different group arrange-
ments may be more advantageous.

Sometimes an empty chair can be You can identify each semi-circled

used with an inner circle group and any- small group with a team designation. For
one from the outer circle can move into example, "Okay, Team One, where can
the inner circle to participate by sitting in you find information about the jobs that
the chair. After a few comments, the chair are available in our state?" Then, "All
is vacated and open to someone else. right, Team Two, what would you add?"
On occasion, you can rotate small Next, "Team Three, what is a question you
groups through the inner circle. For might ask of Team Four about any of the
instance, suppose you are working with a information it shared?"
group of 30 students. You might have six When leading a large group discussion
inside chairs. You could divide the stu- by referring to teams, you increase student
dents into five small groups or teams with involvement and raise the excitement level.
one group starting as the inside circle. The term "Team One" alerts five or six stu-
After working with the first small dents instead of singling out one member
group in the inside circle, you can call on of a team. A sense of belonging and togeth-
another small group to trade places with erness among the teams is created quickly
the first group. This can keep everyone in- and, although a few side remarks or com-
volved, especially if listening and observ- ments are inevitable, they are usually task
ing tasks are used with those seated in the related. The noise level in the room may be
outside circle. Then, on occasion, you can a little higher, but so is participation and
stop, stand up, and speak to the outside involvement with the task.
circle members. Discussion teams arranged in semi-
Discussion teams. Another useful circles can, at times, close their semicircles
approach is putting students into teams to form circles. A few go-around tasks,
of about five or six each and then mov- while the teacher or counselor moves
ing these discussion teams into different around the room as supervisor, increases
arrangements, depending upon tasks and student interaction and participation.
activities. This concept was used with Working with discussion teams reduces
the fourth grade classroom guidance unit isolation, increases eye contact, and
described earlier. heightens cooperation among students. It
is the most feasible approach to helping
Generally, you will first assign stu- everyone to take an active part in a group
dents to four or five teams. These teams guidance lesson.
are positioned around the room, usu-
ally in semicircles facing the front of the There are some other arrangements
room. You have the advantage of working that can be useful. For example, one small
with the large group, as though they were group of students might be positioned
seated in rows, or working with them in in front of the other students to make
teams. In a sense, you can change your a presentation or serve as a panel. Also,
perspective by treating each of the teams when you work with groups of six stu-
as a person or a unit. dents (e.g., five groups of six in a class of
30 students), you can further divide these
groups into triads or dyads for special
tasks. This would increase student in-
volvement and participation even more.
It is possible then to reconvene the larger
group by asking triads to get back into
their teams or by having teams move back
to a large circle.

The different group arrangements cre- Target populations can receive group
ate different group dynamics. You can use guidance and, within large groups, there
all these arrangements in your repertoire can be some target students to whom
for managing large groups of students. As you want to give particular attention.
you work with various groupings, you will You might use certain opportunities to
learn how each can best serve you as a increase the use of high facilitative re-
facilitator and how they can be used with sponses with them or steer the discussion
different guidance units and activities. As in their direction when it is appropriate.
a class or large group participates in the If you have small discussion groups
different groupings, the students learn to working within a large group and the
move smoothly from one to another. noise level is getting too high or distract-
ing, you may need to interrupt the groups
Maximizing and caution them. Generally, however,
Student Participation the increased noise level does not take
While the group arrangements can away from the group members' ability to
make a difference in whether students feel listen and participate.
stimulated and encouraged to participate, Participants in these small groups
increased use of the facilitative responses usually pull in quickly and focus their
when leading group discussions is still es- attention on the proceedings in their
sential. In addition, you will want to elicit groups. If one group is becoming disrup-
those facilitative responses from students. tive or appears to be going off task, you
For example, you might say, "Let's can intervene discreetly. Simply move to
stop for a moment. What are you hear- that group, pull up a chair, and join it for
ing from Andrew, pleasant or unpleasant a short time. Help the group get back on
feelings?" In this way you need not be the task and then leave quietly, moving to
only one to respond to a student's feel- another group.
ings. Likewise, you also could say, "Okay, Giving time signals such as, "You have
would someone in Team 3 please summa- three minutes left," also can help groups
rize briefly what you've heard Team 1 say stay on task and increase their participa-
so far?" tion. Students can learn to manage their
Naturally, it is much easier to make time and work together in various group
high facilitative responses if you know arrangements. In situations where stu-
them and have had some practice in using dents have had little or no experience
them. It seems practical, then, to teach working in cooperative learning tasks and
group members how to work together and various group arrangements, you may
how to listen and respond. This also was need to teach them how to move into dif-
suggested for small group counseling. It ferent arrangements and how to work in
simply makes good sense to teach people small groups.
more about group dynamics and interac-
tions.

A general "rule of thumb" to keep in Group guidance activities and units

mind is about 80 percent of a large group are like folk songs, passed on from one
can hear and follow directions the first generation of counselors to another and
time they are given. They stay on task from one school system to another, usu-
without assistance. The other 20 percent ally through printed handouts. More
of the group will need directions clarified often than not, the names of the original
and will need more help in following the authors are lost along the way. Many of
task. They may need to. be re-motivated. these activities and units, or some version
Even when you have five small groups or of them, appear in published collections
teams of students working in a large group or are described in textbooks.
setting, one of the teams is likely to need Guidance units are organized around
assistance in getting started or staying a common core of goals and objectives.
focused and on task. Be watchful and move These large group units lend themselves
to that group as soon as possible. Even if it to being the center of a school's guidance
appears all groups are on task, move quietly curriculum. Like activities, many of these
from one group to another, pulling up a are passed from one counselor to another
chair or kneeling beside the small groups to at professional meetings and presenta-
listen as members participate in a task. You tions.
might say, "You've got the idea," or some
similar reinforcing comment, as you stand Credit for authorship often is ignored
up and move on to the next group. or omitted. Some school systems form
writing teams of counselors who take two
or three weeks in the summer to develop
Guidance Activities and Units and outline new units. These teams typi-
There are a lot of published books cally draw upon whatever published or
with various kinds of group activities to unpublished materials might be available.
use with large groups. Authors identify Sometimes materials can be purchased
activities they think might work well or picked up at professional conference
with particular target populations, such as "swap shops."
counseling for diversity (Packer-Williams,
The Grow With Guidance System
et al., 2010; Roaten & Schmidt, 2009),
(Radd, 2006) is an example of a develop-
developmental guidance for children
mental, results-driven guidance system
(Geltner & Clark, 2005), academic sur-
for use in elementary school classrooms.
vival skills (Miranda, et al., 2007), and
Its primary focus is on the development
career development (Peyser & McLaugh-
of self-concept and the improvement of
lin, 2000; Trusty, et al., 2005). In addition,
multi-cultural understanding. Particular
there are published kits and materials that
attention is given to integrating behavior,
have organized units with different ses-
self-talk/self-pictures, and school curricu-
sions and recommended activities. Some
lum. There are activity sheets available in
of these kits have discussion questions
both English and Spanish.
and accompanying compact disks.

Sabella & Myrick (1995) described a Bowman (2011) developed a guid-

guidance unit for teens focused on un- ance unit and kit entitled The Test Buster
derstanding and preventing sexual ha- Pep Rally. It generally requires about 20 to
rassment. The unit is divided into eight 30 minutes and is performed with large
basic sessions, each with recommended groups of elementary school students. The
and supplemental learning activities. For basic components include an introduc-
instance, in one session, a large group of tory pep talk, four skits, a review of the
students is divided into small groups and skit cheers, and a concluding pep talk.
given various scenarios to discuss and Students participate in the rally as ac-
then vote upon: "Is this sexual harass- tors, cheerleaders, and backstage helpers.
ment or not?" Other sessions have partici- Studies have shown the program reduces
pants reflect on the use and meaning of test anxiety and motivates students to do
words in relationships or focus on helping their best.
a friend who has been sexually harassed. Do not let published materials or
The Peace Builders Universal School- printed outlines dictate your use of them.
Based Violence Prevention Program Be flexible, be selective, be creative, and
(http://www.peacebuilders.com) is a large use your best professional judgment in
group guidance program that seeks to putting together large group guidance ses-
improve social competence, reduce ag- sions you enjoy using with your students.
gressive behavior, and improve overall You may find a guidance unit as
school climate. It is a structured curricu- outlined or described by someone else has
lum created for children, pre-teens, and many outstanding features, but it may
teenagers. Published books and compact not be suited for your situation. The most
discs help address risk factors that predict practical approach is to use what best fits
violence, bullying, and drug and tobacco your style and objectives. If you would
use. A teacher or counselor can lead the be uneasy using a recommended activ-
classroom or large group guidance lessons ity, then don't use it. Find a substitute or
(Flannery, et al., 2003). perhaps modify it.
Counselors typically pick-and-choose
and mix-and-match activities to meet Guidance Curriculum
their own needs and interests. In one pub- The guidance curriculum for a school
lished resource (Perlstein & Thrall, 1998), is based on professional standards and
there were more than 90 ready-to-use les- guidelines. State departments of education
sons for teaching peaceful and successful typically outline goals and objectives that
ways of resolving conflict. They included must be incorporated. It is then up to each
activities with typical adolescent scenarios district, and ultimately to counselors and
and nearly 150 reproducible role-plays. teachers, to implement the curriculum.
Counselors working individually or in
teams often design their own variations of Some of the best examples of guid-
activities and guidance units described in ance curricula can be found in the various
the professional literature. state departments of education and at the
district level in school systems. However,
few specify the manner in which the goals
must be attained. It doesn't take much
imagination to see it will take classroom
and large group guidance interventions to
realize the goals.

The value of large group guidance and Evaluation should not be seen as a
its connection with a school's guidance passing or failing grade for the counselor
curriculum are acknowledged by almost all or teacher. It is a form of feedback in
counselors. However, there is a lack of con- which you gather information needed to
sistency across schools and districts in terms make decisions. Will you make changes?
of implementing a comprehensive program What worked well and should be repeat-
and the use of large group activities and ed? What was most time consuming for
units (Rowley, Stroh, & Sink, 2005). the least amount of return? How could
Factors such as administrate support the procedures and process be improved?
and how the school is organized can The answers to these and other questions
influence the extent to which a coun- can help give you some direction.
selor or teacher participates in providing Try to avoid taking criticisms as a per-
large group guidance. In addition, one's sonal rebuke or censure. In large groups, it
personal inclinations or uneasiness in is difficult to please everyone, as there are
leading guidance activities can add to more generalizations and fewer opportu-
the challenge of large group guidance. nities to meet all participants' needs. The
Co-leadership, inservice training, and 80 percent/20 percent rule is appropriate
practical feedback all can make a positive one when considering final outcomes. If
difference. Large group guidance has to you are accomplishing your objectives
be fun and rewarding for the leaders as with 8 out of 10 students, then you are
well as the students or it will sink to a low being highly successful.
priority. In one study, 10 middle school coun-
selors agreed to work with two groups
Measuring Outcomes of 20 students each on communication
Surprisingly, many school counselors skills. Approximately 400 students took
who work with large groups do not take part in the four-session, large group
the time to evaluate outcomes or to assess guidance unit. Post-test only results were
the process. In one study, 98 percent of obtained, with special attention to how
the counselors reported they believed a students experienced the group and if it
career guidance unit was effective. How- affected them in any way.
ever, they did not take the time to ask stu- About four percent of the students
dents what they thought about the unit, said they really disliked being in the
if they would recommend it for other group and would not want to be in one
students their age, or if the basic objec- again. Another four percent believed the
tives were accomplished. A few favorable group had little or no affect on them,
testimonials are not enough. while six percent were uncertain. The
As you put together a large group other 88 percent indicated they gained
guidance unit, think of ways you can get something from the group and almost
some feedback from students. You might 92 percent would recommend it to other
ask teachers or parents for their observa- students.
tions regarding how students have re-
sponded to experiencing the unit. Evalua-
tions may come at the end of a session or
at the end of a unit. You also might delay
evaluation for one or two weeks and then
ask students what they learned or valued
from a large group guidance unit.

Ironically, when the participating

counselors met to review the evaluation
results, they quickly became concerned
about the 16 students who were most
critical and outspoken about not liking
the group. "What do you think we could
do to improve the group in order to reach
them?" said one counselor. "Why do you
think they were so negative?" said an-
other.
Finally, someone said, "Hey, it's time
to take our gains. It was a very successful
unit. Those few students who were unsure
or who did not find it valuable may have
some valid reasons. We simply missed
them with this unit. Maybe we can reach
them another time around or through
some other approach." Be practical and
keep in mind large group experiences will
not always be 100 percent successful.

Advantages, Limitations, 6. Large group guidance can help create

a positive and caring atmosphere in
and Conclusion a school faster than other counselor
interventions. Moreover, exploration
Advantages of of ideas, feelings, and behaviors is
Large Group Guidance done in a context that is familiar to
1. Large group is the most parsimonious most students. Guidance lessons have
approach to the counselor's work, as a greater chance of being generalized
there are many students who can ben- to the day-to-day events in school.
efit from a large group experience and 7. The delivery of a school's guidance
need not be seen through other kinds curriculum relies on large group and
of counselor interventions. classroom guidance.
2. More students can receive the direct
services of a counselor when large Limitations of
group guidance is used as a counselor Large Group Guidance
intervention. 1. Some students need more attention
3. Because large group guidance is usu- than they can receive in large groups
ally less intense and less confiden- or their needs or topics are too per-
tial than individual or small group sonal for a large group setting. There
counseling, other adults also can help is a tendency to generalize more in
deliver guidance units and participate group guidance.
in the large group sessions. It also is 2. There is a greater chance for miscom-
possible to bring in outside resource munication because the size of the
persons who can make contributions group makes it difficult to read every-
(e.g., senior citizens, military per- one's reactions.
sonnel, law officers, specialists and
experts in a particular area). 3. Counselor behaviors in large group
can communicate a different role than
4. Some students feel more secure in some counselors want to have with
large groups and prefer to avoid being students. For example, large group ex-
singled out for individual or small periences usually require the counselor
group counseling. They may feel less to be more structured and to give more
self-conscious and participate more. directions. Later, perhaps in individual
5. Large group management and ar- or small group counseling, this same
rangements provide a unique expe- perception of active leadership may be
rience to students (e.g., discussion limiting to a counselor who wants to
teams) in which adult supervision is have a free-flowing spontaneous dis-
present but not necessarily directly cussion. Students may expect a "lesson
involved in topic discussion. plan" or want to depend upon some
structured group activities to help
them communicate.

Conclusion
In elementary schools, large group
guidance often is referred to as classroom
guidance. In the middle and high schools,
it is sometimes seen as part of advisor-
advisee meetings or TAP. Counselors also
can pull together target groups of students
for particular group experiences or units.
Large group guidance need not be a
question and answer session. Students do
not have to be an audience, listening to a
presenter. Sometimes it is appropriate to
divide the large group into smaller units or
discussion teams so student participation
and involvement can be increased.
Large group guidance is a practical
intervention. It is the most efficient use
of counselors' time, especially for address-
ing general developmental issues and for
delivering a guidance curriculum.

Peer Facilitator Projects
An exciting turn of events in educa- Very few students can learn to counsel
tion has been the systematic training and other students. Counseling is a special
use of students as peer facilitators. Young skill that takes extensive preparation and
people are being trained to be the help- practice. It has a graduate education base
ing hands of counselors and teachers and, for certification and requires a specific
consequently, many more students can re- course of study in which training is su-
ceive and participate in guidance services. pervised. In addition, it is a term that has
The concept of students helping stu- been used synonymously with therapy or
dents is not new. The idea began years ago intensive personal assistance. Therefore,
in one-room schools, when older students many parents and educators are resistant
were given the responsibility of tutor- when it is used to name or describe peer
ing younger students in basic skills. The helper programs.
process was not as refined as it is today. Some peer counselor programs en-
The value of having students help other courage young people to "counsel" peers
students was learned early in the history who are truant, disruptive in school, have
of education and has never been forgot- family problems, or abuse drugs. While
ten. In more recent times, the helping this is an admirable objective, some early
roles of students have been expanded and programs faltered and were abandoned
so has the preparation for those roles. because students were asked to do too
Subsequently, various titles have emerged much and with too little training. Never-
to describe different student helper func- theless, "peer counseling" is a term that
tions and programs. continues to be used and accepted in
During the 1970s, "peer counseling" some areas of the country.
programs were started in several schools
and universities (e.g., Gray & Tindall,
1978; Hamburg & Varenhorst, 1972; Sam-
uels & Samuels, 1975). Students helped
their peers talk about personal problems.
However, the term has met with skepti-
cism from parents, teachers, administra-
tors, and counselors who reserve its use
for crisis interventions or intense situa-
tions when a person is in trouble. Some
see counseling as synonymous with
therapy and, therefore, inappropriate for
unlicensed helpers.

Peer Facilitator Defined The National Association of Peer

Program Professionals (NAPPP) was estab-
What is a "peer facilitator?" This term lished after the dissolution of The Nation-
refers to a student who uses helping skills al Association of Peer Programs, which
and concepts to assist other students- was originally founded in 1984 as the
and sometimes adults-to think about National Peer Helpers Association. NAPPP
ideas and feelings, to explore alternatives is a nonprofit corporation whose mission
to situations, and to make responsible is to help adults establish, train, supervise,
choices or decisions. Other terms used maintain, and evaluate peer programs. It
similarly include peer helper, student fa- publishes The Peer Facilitator Quarterly, as
cilitator, peer tutor, Big Brother/Big Sister, well as a Code of Ethics and Standards for
student counselor, peer group leader, and Peer Programs.
peer counselor.
One of the best networking orga-
The term "peer facilitator" was intro- nizations with an impressive history of
duced by Myrick and Erney in 1985 be- specializing in training and supporting
cause it seemed more accurate in describ- peer help is the Peer Resources Network
ing the limited role and function of young (PRN). Based in Canada, the network has
people as helpers. It communicates best associates across Canada, Japan, Austra-
what students are asked to do when help- lia, the United Kingdom, and the United
ing others. At the same time, it provides States. PRN (2009) coordinates conferenc-
enough flexibility to incorporate several es and leadership workshops and provides
helping roles and functions. In addition, resource manuals for a school-based peer
the term is easier to explain to parents and helping curriculum.
educators.
The term peer mediator also is popu-
The first ASCA position statement on lar; however, it tends to focus on only one
peer counseling was published in 1978, aspect of what peer facilitators or helpers
when that term was commonly used to can do. Mediation roles are part of con-
emphasize how peer helpers could aug- flict resolution projects and only one part
ment a guidance program. The statement of a comprehensive peer helper program.
was changed in 1984, using the new term Therefore, the terms peer facilitators or
"peer facilitator," and emphasized peer fa- peer helpers continue to be the preferred
cilitator roles, training, counselor respon- generic terms used to describe young stu-
sibilities, and how peer facilitators could dents who are prepared to help others.
help professional counselors in their
work. The position statement (2008) now Almost all students can learn to be
emphasizes the concept of peer helping facilitators. They can learn basic skills and
and recognizes the influence peer helpers concepts that can then be used to assist
can have on the learning environment. others in their academic and personal
development. Some peer facilitators will
When the position statement was be more effective or able to assist in more
revised in 1999 and again in 2008, peer projects than others, particularly those
helper programs were viewed as a means who are part of an organized and compre-
by which school counselors could en- hensive program.
hance the effectiveness of their work. A
peer helper was described as someone
who assumes the role of a helping person
and works with people of approximately
the same age who share related values,
experiences, and lifestyles (ASCA, 2008).

Chapter 9 Peer Facilitator Projects as a Counselor Intervention
Peer facilitator programs are not The Power of Peer

to be confused with student assistance
programs. The latter are modeled after Relationships
employee assistance programs in business Beginning about the age of three and
and are usually adult led or sponsored four, children begin to interact in pur-
projects that focus on family problems, poseful ways with other children, form-
especially as related to the prevention of ing friendships in the neighborhood, the
alcohol and other drug use. Peer facilita- park, or wherever children congregate.
tor interventions, however, may be part of From this point on, a young person's
student assistance programs but, for the destiny seems to be determined in part by
most part, interventions are delivered by the power of peer relationships.
mental health agencies. Although parents have a substan-
The CARE program (Chemical Aware- tial influence on the development of
ness/Responsive Education) typically their children, other children ultimately
involves early identification of student contribute as much or more than adults.
problems, referrals to designated in-school It is in the presence of other children a
helpers, referrals to outside agencies, child most often is discovering, explor-
and community follow-up services. The ing, remembering, and coping with the
services offered in various school districts real world. No matter how many efforts a
may differ, but they most often feature conscientious parent might make, inter-
support groups of 8 to 12 students meet- actions with other children frequently
ing with two adult facilitators. determine a child's sense of self-worth
The term "peervention" was coined by and well-being. These same interactions
Myrick and Folk in 1991 to emphasize in- also influence the enduring behaviors,
terventions peer facilitators might initiate personal style, and social skills one uses to
in prevention education projects. Peers cope with school, society, and a changing
can make a positive difference in prevent- world.
ing interpersonal and social problems and Some adults fear peers can lead oth-
helping other students to gain the most ers astray, especially deviant peer groups
out of school. Rather than wait to address who delight in defying established norms.
problems, prevention education focuses Parents worry their children might be in-
on developmental concerns and issues fluenced by their classmates to enter into
before they become difficult problems or drugs, sexual promiscuity, delinquency,
crises. or other unwholesome activities. Those
who enjoy growing up in a family with
solid bonds and who experience a car-
ing, sensitive family structure can usually
resist being manipulated into antisocial
or self-destructive behaviors. Yet, the need
for peer acceptance is so strong with some
young people it can become a consuming
interest to the point of being a detriment
to self-development and academic learn-
ing.

Peer relationships are powerful and Four Basic Helping Roles

they should be supervised to the ex-
tent young people learn how to inter- There are many things peer facilitators
act positively with one another. School might do. It can be helpful to think in
programs must recognize students need terms of four distinct helping roles.
to be actively engaged in building help-
ing relationships and positive learning Special Assistant
environments. They need opportunities Peer facilitators who work as stu-
to learn social skills, as well as those in dent assistants provide timely assistance
math, science, English, and history. They to teachers and counselors, especially
need to learn life management skills and through such activities as working in an
how to encourage and support each other office, distributing and collecting materi-
in the learning process. als, monitoring projects, constructing
Ideally, all students should learn how bulletin boards, and participating in the
to be peer facilitators. They would be planning of educational activities. Safety
better listeners and facilitate better discus- patrols, for example, assist other students
sions among their peers. They also would to adjust to school rules and follow proce-
know the value of helping relationships dures.
and how to foster them. They could take In general, this role tends to focus on
more responsibility for their situations indirect assistance to peers and interac-
and feel more support. Their efforts to tion is usually limited. It is included here
develop their unique selves would be because it is a traditional helping role
enhanced. frequently given students. In the past, this
It is generally recognized as students role has not emphasized personal interac-
pass from elementary grades to high tions among students as much as routine
school, they rely more on their peers for tasks. Yet, it appears with peer facilitator
help with their concerns, interests, and training, all student assistant roles could
problems. When asked who they would be improved.
turn to first to talk about a personal For instance, safety patrol members
problem, elementary school students list might be more sensitive in giving direc-
parents first. Most teenagers indicate they tions and be more responsive when stu-
would turn to a peer-a close friend their dents have problems. Office helpers might
age-before turning to adults. Therefore, be able to greet the public more cordially
it makes sense to prepare students to fa- and answer telephone calls with more ef-
cilitate their peers, younger students, and ficiency. If student assistants are engaged
adults. in a project that does not require contact
or communication with other students,
training may not be necessary. But, if they
are asked to talk and work closely with
others, then peer facilitator training can
make a qualitative difference.

Tutor guilty, and become defensive when help is

offered. Some may decline any assistance
Peer tutors are used in almost every
because they worry other students would
subject area. Over three decades ago, an
think less of them and maybe tease them.
analysis of more than 100 studies and
articles concluded tutoring programs can It is not enough to rely on natural
effectively improve academic performance instincts when tutoring other students.
of both tutors and students being tutored Without special preparation as peer facili-
(Devin-Sheehan, et al.; 1976). Yet, an ex- tators, even the best academic students
amination of these studies also suggested are frequently unable to help motivate
the tutor often was not systematically their peers. They are unsure of what to
prepared or trained to work with students. do, experience frustration, and become
The primary criterion for selection as a discouraged.
tutor was academic achievement. On the other hand, participation in a
Research regarding peer tutors dem- training program where they learn how
onstrates their value. Not only effective to build helping relationships and how
in helping students learn, but it is cost to encourage those they are helping can
effective. Studies about peer assisted learn- make a difference. It is a new type of tutor
ing almost always show gains made by that results from peer facilitator train-
the tutors as well as the tutees. Same age ing, one who is responsive to the tutee's
tutoring proved to be as effective as cross- feelings and who can help the individual
age tutoring (Topping & Ehly, 1998). explore problems associated with studying
or getting along better in class.
Education is not just about knowl-
edge (what I need to know) and skill
(what I need to be able to do). It also is Special Friend
about motivation (how much I want to be As special friends, peer facilitators
able to know and do) and confidence (I develop close helping relationships with
believe I am able to know and do). selected peers. This enables the peer facili-
Even if assistance and support by a tators to provide timely encouragement
peer helper is not of the same quality and support regarding personal matters
as that of a professional teacher, what it that detract from learning in school.
lacks in depth and quality might be made Students feel left-out when they
up in terms of encouragement and imme- do not have friends in school. Do you
diacy. remember the friends you had in school?
Yet, not all those being tutored will- How important were they to you? Did
ingly participate in the tutoring process, you ever wish you could have more
especially when it is being done in a friends? Or, did you ever need a special
manner similar to a drill sergeant or lion friend you could trust, someone with
tamer. Too many students who are asked whom you could talk about your interests
to help others with their studies are unfa- and concerns?
miliar with basic helping skills.
It is usually the students who have per-
sistent problems in their studies who need
extra assistance. They often are resistant
to help and find studying an unpleasant
experience. They might be embarrassed, feel

When high school students are asked with a few peer facilitators on Friday after-
the most common problem facing stu- noons to ask questions, discuss common
dents their age, the problem of loneli- problems, and meet other new students.
ness is singled out above all others. Many As students become more familiar with a
students feel isolated or even alienated. school and feel a part of it, they leave the
It is not easy to grow up in today's world. group on their own accord. Besides creat-
Positive peer relationships are sometimes ing a friendly atmosphere for new stu-
difficult to form, especially when one dents, it also frees counselors and teachers
lacks skill and experience in developing to give more time to others who need
them. their help.
To become a fully functioning adult, a In Westminster High School, West-
young person needs to experience friend- minster, Maryland (2010), students may
ships. It is through one friendship a per- request appointments with peer facilita-
son learns to develop others. Experiences tors by completing a request form found
are shared, ideas are explored, feelings are in the guidance office. Passes are then is-
heard, and there is a special trust or bond sued by a school counselor and approved
that is developed out of mutual respect by a teacher before the student leaves
and acceptance. Without this base, school class for an appointment. Arrangements
is viewed as an unfriendly place where to meet at times that are the least disrup-
people are tested, rejected, and ignored. tive to classroom teachers are especially
Consequently, some students never learn considered.
well. The concepts associated with Big
There are many students who need Brothers and Big Sisters programs are
the help of a special friend who can listen especially pertinent in the special friend
to them on occasion and show interest role. Younger students tend to admire
in their ideas and feelings. These special and imitate older students. Older students
friends need not be people with whom to working as peer facilitators or special
party or "hang out" in a social sense. They friends can serve as positive models and
are people who are available at certain be powerful influences on student behav-
times to talk about personal feelings and ior in school.
ideas. A fourth grader was assigned a "big
When peer facilitators work as special brother" who was a member of a middle
friends, they take time to initiate a con- school peer facilitator group. The peer
versation with others. Students may even facilitator made appointments to see his
be paired as "friends." Some counselors "buddy" and talk with him about school.
identify target students from their case- They sometimes played catch with a foot-
loads who need a special friend to talk ball or kicked a soccer ball, while talking
with on occasion. Although the assign- about different matters. The facilitator en-
ment may be contrived, the process of couraged the boy to talk about his behav-
building a positive relationship has a way ior in class and they explored alternative
of bringing people closer together. The ways to make school better for him.
conversations are friendly and can benefit In one high school, some peer facili-
both parties. tators became special friends to young
New students to a school, for ex- people who were hospitalized for an
ample, might be assigned to peer facilita- extended time, taking time to visit and
tors who orient them to the building and talk with them at the hospital. Other
introduce them to other students. All new peer facilitators became special friends to
students for a grading period might meet elderly people in retirement homes. Still

other peer facilitators befriended young Small Group Leader

students who were identified by teachers
Peer facilitators can be trained to be
as being shy or withdrawn in their classes,
effective small group leaders. This can
perhaps preoccupied with specific con-
give both counselors and teachers a valu-
cerns or interests.
able source of helpers who can help make
Peer facilitators learn to recognize learning experiences more personal and
their limits and are taught to refer stu- exciting. With the assistance of peer facili-
dents to counselors or teachers when it tators as small group leaders, more stu-
is appropriate. The facilitators also are dents can participate in learning activities,
supervised by their program coordina- be more involved in the learning process,
tors and obtain guidance from them. One and experience the facilitative conditions
young boy talked with his peer facilitator of a relationship (understanding, accep-
about a lack of interest in school. After tance, etc.).
some discussion, it was clear the boy had
One common teacher complaint is
a conflict with two of his teachers. He was
there are too many students and too few
becoming increasingly defiant despite ef-
teachers. The average class has about 30
forts by the facilitator to help him explore
students and, in some schools, it can
the consequences of his behavior. The
reach as high as 40. Most teachers would
peer facilitator was unsure how to help
prefer to have about 20 to 25 students.
and suggested the boy talk with one of
Even then, they find it difficult to engage
the school counselors about his situation.
all students in a classroom discussion.
Together, they went to see a counselor
The group dynamics associated with large
and a referral was initiated.
groups often mean more people are listen-
Secret pals, pen pals, playground ing than talking. The listening that takes
buddies, and other experiences can be place is not as personal or focused as that
arranged so peer facilitators can form spe- which happens in small groups.
cial friendships with students. The reason
Similarly, counselors also experience
for the first meeting together is not as im-
the frustration of trying to personalize
portant as what happens when they meet,
the discussion of a topic when they do
when the basis for friendship is formed in
classroom guidance activities. Sometimes
the interaction that happens.
counselors meet with large groups of
Young people especially like using the 50 students or more, usually to pass out
Internet and sending each other instant information and answer questions. But,
or e-mail messages. They Twitter. They this format can lead to little involvement
write and post pictures on Facebook. They and low energy from students. With the
interact with one another through various help of peer facilitators, large groups can
blogs. Smart phones allow them to stay be divided into smaller groups and more
in touch day and night. The electronic students can participate.
industry provides modern marvels that
Peer facilitators can lead small groups
have changed the reach and meaning of
(perhaps from four to six members). The
social networking.
groups are usually assembled as a team
The use of computer technology in in a circle. For example, in a class of 30
the helping services is growing and will students with five peer facilitators as
continue to be a phenomenon of the helpers, there might be five teams sta-
twenty-first century that inspires and tioned around the room in circles, each
encourages special friendships. It offers with a peer facilitator as a leader. The peer
many opportunities for peer helping. facilitator introduces a topic or task. Go-

around procedures might be used so each Teachers were excited about the
group member in turn shares ideas. The project because it gave each second grade
leader facilitates the group by making or child an opportunity to say something in
eliciting high facilitative responses. a structured group experience which fos-
Myrick and Bowman (1991) described tered acceptance, understanding, caring,
a classroom guidance project entitled "My and other facilitative conditions. It also
Friends and Me," in which peer facilita- gave the peer facilitators an opportunity
tors from the fourth and fifth grades were to practice group leadership skills and to
small group leaders. Second grade classes be recognized for their contributions.
were divided into teams of five, with a In another project, third grade stu-
peer facilitator assigned to each team. dents who were viewed as disruptive were
Teams met at their assigned stations and paired with peer facilitators who served
simultaneously experienced a small group as special friends and small group lead-
activity, as the teacher and the counselor ers. They participated in small group
moved around the room supervising the sessions similar to the project discussed
different groups. above. Afterward, they showed significant
The unit focused on friendship. Its differences in terms of positive classroom
objectives for students were to listen to behaviors and attitudes about school, as
others and to practice listening skills, compared to students who did not receive
to have an opportunity to speak and be such help.
heard, and to talk about the qualities of Aside from small group discussions
friendship. The topics for the four sessions that involve guidance topics, peer facili-
included: (1) Tell about when you did tators also can be used to help students
something with a friend; (2) Tell some- study various academic topics. Problem-
thing about yourself you think would solving groups, for example, can be facili-
make you a good friend; (3) Tell about tated in social studies and science classes.
something that would make you happier; Learning centers, study circles, and
and (4) Tell one way a person can make demonstration groups might have peer fa-
new friends; and, then what did you learn cilitators as leaders, making it possible to
about the others in your group? Each ses- have more working groups in a classroom
sion took about 15 minutes. and, consequently, more student partici-
The facilitators were prepared to ask pation and involvement.
members a question after they responded Some high school peer facilitators ex-
to the topic and then to clarify the answer perienced a set of structured small group
or respond to a feeling. They also were in- activities as part of their training. They
structed to give simple acknowledgments analyzed the activities and group leader's
and to look for opportunities to link ideas behavior. Next, they practiced leading the
or feelings. They had experienced these activities among themselves before going
responses themselves and had practiced to a junior high school where they used
them as part of their training. the same activities with small groups of
eighth grade students. In this case, all the
activities focused on the general objective
of setting goals and making decisions.
Some of the peer facilitators were paired
as co-leaders for some of the groups.

Peer facilitators also can play an im- "The lesson to be learned here, " he
portant part in a counselor-led large group continued, "is no matter what I did to the
guidance intervention. One high school money, you still wanted it because it did
counselor decided to disseminate test and not decrease in value. It was still worth
career information in groups of 60 stu- $20." The conclusion: "Many times in our
dents. Peer facilitators were available to lives we are crushed, dropped, crumpled,
assist as small group leaders. The coun- and seemingly ground into the dirt by
selor first presented ge.neral information decisions we make and circumstances that
via overhead projectors to a large group. come our way. We feel as if we are worth-
About 10 to 12 small groups were then less. But, no matter what has happened
formed, each with a peer facilitator as the or what will happen, you never lose your
group leader. The groups discussed various value. You are special... and don't forget
topics and did different tasks, as the coun- it." By the way, this is a LEAP (see Chapter
selor moved from one group to another 5).
answering questions and supervising. Peer facilitators can construct this
At the end of the time period, the large same story and present it as a drama or
group was reassembled and a final ques- role-play before other students. They
tion-answer session took place based on might facilitate a classroom discussion of
questions that arose in the small groups. the things that are said and done around
Student involvement was increased and school that make people feel less valued.
the general session was more personal- They also can talk about ways to bounce
ized. More needs were addressed and the back from insults and derisive conduct.
evaluation proved it was an efficient way
to use both student and counselor time. Although peer facilitators can work
in many places and do many functions,
One of the stories making its rounds most of the things they do can be catego-
on the Internet describes an unknown rized into one or more of the four basic
speaker who started off his seminar of roles. These roles provide a focus for train-
several hundred people by holding up a ing and for developing helping projects in
$20 bill. He asked how many would like which they can participate.
to have the bill. Of course, hands from all
over the room started going up. Then he
said, "Suppose I do this!" He proceeded
to crumple the bill and tore off a corner.
"Who still wants it?" Still there were
hands waving in the air. "Well, what if
I do this?" He threw it to the floor and
started grinding it with his shoe and then
he kicked it. He picked up the crushed
and disheveled bill and asked, "Now, who
wants it?" Still hands were raised.

Peer Facilitator Training Peer facilitator programs and projects

might be considered as (a) beginning;
There are many types of peer facilita-
(b) intermediate; or (c) advanced. Each
tor training programs. Some have devel-
of these levels is commensurate with the
oped with little planning, but have been
skills, self-confidence, and experience
successful because of the caring, commit-
students have obtained in their train-
ment, and energy that characterizes the
ing. Some beginning projects might be
trainers or people involved.
planned to give peer facilitators an initial
Still other programs have been even experience in helping others. Beginning
more successful because they used well- projects tend to be more limited in scope
organized and systematic procedures for and more structured. There is closer super-
teaching interpersonal skills and prepar- vision and the skills are simple, usually
ing facilitators for different roles. In addi- focusing on listening and responding to
tion, they have identified helping projects feelings, clarifying ideas, and asking open-
in which the peer facilitators can put ended questions.
their skills to use while being supervised.
Intermediate and advanced projects
Training programs have been described in
require more flexibility and spontaneity.
detail elsewhere (e.g., Myrick & Bowman,
They involve a combination of helping
2004; Myrick & Erney, 2000; Kehayan,
skills and the use of some less structured
1992; Myrick & Folk, 2004a, 2004b;
problem-solving models. In advanced
Myrick & Sorenson, 2003, 1992a, 1992b;
projects, peer facilitators work with a min-
Painter, 2003a, 2003b; Tindall, 2009).
imum of supervision and direction, using
Most of these training programs are a their past experiences and more practiced
minimum of 20 to 30 hours in duration, skills to do various tasks.
especially for secondary school students.
In elementary schools, training tends
However, these are comprehensive pro-
to consist of about 10 to 20 half-hour
grams, ones in which students are pre-
sessions, although the training could be
pared for all four roles.
less depending on the nature of a project.
Helping projects are those in which Most projects are specific and structured.
peer facilitators, under the supervision Middle and high school training programs
of teachers and/or counselors, work with are usually longer, perhaps a minimum
other students. A project has general of 30 hours. Some high school students
and specific objectives and helping roles receive even more hours of preparation
for the facilitators are identified. Skills and supervision if enrolled in a course for
and strategies learned in training are peer facilitators. Otherwise, students can
applied. The peer facilitators meet with be trained briefly for a project that is lim-
their trainer or project coordinator to talk ited in scope and duration and is closely
about their work. supervised.
Many high schools throughout the
nation are moving toward offering courses
for credit in which peer facilitators can be
trained. The courses are part of the social
studies department, feature an organized
curriculum, are an elective for students
who qualify, and are viewed as leadership
classes.

For example, one high school course The state of Florida has approved
is based on two semesters of work, with high school social studies courses entitled
four nine-week grading periods. During Peer Counseling I, II (1st year), III, and
the first nine weeks, the students, usually IV (2nd year), each with a half credit for
about 20 to 25, study the helping rela- each semester (18 weeks) of work com-
tionship, the facilitative model, and some pleted. There is a curriculum framework
basic problem-solving and decision-mak- that consists of the purpose of the course,
ing approaches. The class meets five days the content to be emphasized, the special
a week. During the second nine weeks, learning conditions required, the teacher
the peer facilitators work on different be- certification required, and the intended
ginning projects three days a week during outcomes. Performance standards for each
their facilitator class period. They receive class are designed to measure the out-
supervision and more training the other comes. A list of intended outcomes for the
two days for projects in an elementary courses is provided in Appendix D.
school, where they are special friends or Other states also have approved cours-
small group leaders. es for credit. While credit is desirable for
In addition, special projects are imple- students, and while it can give more cred-
mented within the high school. Training ibility to the program, credit itself never
and supervision continue into the third seems to be a critical issue. When such
nine weeks, where more group skills and courses are offered, teachers and coun-
activities are given attention. Related selors have a regularly scheduled time
projects usually involve group experi- when they can meet with peer facilitators
ences for middle or junior high school for training and projects. Accessibility to
students. Some additional high school students is probably the most important
projects include orientation, working with consideration for developing a program.
new students, tutoring, and working with There are, of course, other factors you
teachers in classes. will want to consider. As you will recall,
it is recommended a school counselor
budget about one hour a day for peer
facilitator work, either training students
or working with them on projects. Some-
times, especially in the secondary schools,
a teacher might do the training. Neverthe-
less, as a counselor, you will want a peer
facilitator program to be part of the total
guidance program and part of the services
you provide.

Factors to Consider The peer facilitator course often has

become an elective for juniors and seniors
There are several factors to consider who have recommendations from their
before developing a peer facilitator pro- teachers and parents. Counselors fre-
gram with training sessions and helping quently select students who have person-
projects. Here are a few. alities suited to form helping relationships
and those who are available for train-
Who should be ing and projects. No one should ever be
a peer facilitator? forced to be a peer facilitator.
Your first consideration is to work The selection and number of students
with students who are potential school also depends upon your own commit-
leaders. They are easy to get along with ment and involvement. An elementary
and capable of helping others. They school counselor had three small groups
have a positive attitude and they tend of peer facilitators (six in each group)
to be characterized as caring, sensitive, for a total of 18 "Helping Hands" who
and friendly persons. Verbal skills are were available for different projects in
valued because most of the peer facilita- the school. Each group was given a basic
tor work involves talking with others. set of communication skills based on the
And, practically speaking, these students facilitative model. Then each group was
have enough "clout" or influence with given specific training for a particular
their teachers to be released from class, project.
on occasion, and to be trusted in various A high school course is best suited
projects.
for about 18 to 24 students. Because so
Some trainers consider selection to much supervised practice is required, a
be the most important decision they will larger number usually means more ex-
make about a program. A high school tended training time before projects can
trainer interviewed all those who applied be developed. In addition, it also means
the first year (about 35) and then used the more time is needed to coordinate help-
first year's peer facilitators to help inter- ing projects.
view the next group who applied (about However, if you are wondering where
185). Depending upon the visibility of to begin and there is no organized pro-
your program, you too may have the gram in your school, you might start with
luxury of choosing from a large number about five or six of your favorite students.
of interested students (Bowman, 1986). Ask for their help in working with you on
Personality measures have been used some projects. After you have some expe-
to help identify potential peer helpers. rience, you can add other students.
One study used The Myers Briggs Type
Indicator, a psychometric questionnaire
designed to measure psychological prefer-
ences, showing successful peer facilitators
to have the same personality character-
istics as adults engaged in the helping
professions (e.g., teachers, counselors,
social workers). Students who tend to be
accepting and non-judgmental of people
are drawn to peer helping programs. Their
personalities enable them to be sensitive
and caring (Summers, 1994).

Who should be the "outsiders" provided the training, the

trainer or coordinator? program may have been seen as alien to
students and not part of the school's regu-
Many school counselors, especially lar guidance program. Student impres-
at the secondary level, have been asked sions were not typical of what is found in
to train peer facilitators. Some resisted most schools.
the idea of committing time to such a
program although it could save time It's risky to have trainers and super-
and energy in other ways. Consequently, visors who are not school employees or
teachers from various subject areas have working through the school board. There
taken the lead. For example, in Texas, tends to be less continuity and coordina-
some home economics teachers train peer tion with faculty and the projects typi-
facilitators. In Florida and Indiana, there cally are more prevention focused, such as
are many social studies teachers who are on drug and alcohol abuse.
responsible for the program.
Peer facilitator programs are recom-
What type of training
mended as part of a school counselor's should be given?
workload. Both the training program and The training program is usually de-
organizing projects can be considered pendent upon the time available to work
counselor interventions. You might teach with students and projects. Almost all
a training course or have a peer facilita- authors and experts in the field, however,
tor club. If someone else in the school agree training should not be a replica
is assigned to do the training, perhaps of a counselor education program nor
a teacher, then you will want to work should it focus on advanced theories and
closely with that person. You may help strategies associated with counseling and
coordinate some projects or design a guid- therapy. There are a few basic facilitative
ance project in which peer facilitators are concepts and skills that might need at-
used. tention (e.g., see Chapter 5). An examina-
Lewis and Lewis (1996) surveyed tion of Appendix D also will give you an
schools in the state of Washington and idea of the skills that could be intended
learned many schools used peer counselor outcomes.
programs. However, non-counseling pro- More specifically, it appears peer
fessionals supervised a significant number facilitators need to learn about the charac-
of these programs. Furthermore, they teristics of a helping relationship and how
found these supervisors were less effective they might become better listeners when
than those who were certified counselors, someone is talking to them. Next, they
particularly as related to the prevention of need to learn how to facilitate individuals
violence and suicide. to talk more about their ideas and feel-
Theberge & Kaaran (2004) described ings. A simple problem-solving model can
a rather unsuccessful program that was be useful, along with a few ground rules
in a junior high school. A community- and procedures for leading small group
based agency provided mediation train- discussions. After that, training is usually
ing. Results showed peer mediation was related to specific projects or problem
perceived as "not being cool." Students moments that result from helping people
feared ridicule or a loss of reputation (Myrick & Erney, 2000).
and it did not occur to them to use peer
mediation to resolve a conflict. Because

If you can arrange for about ten to What do peer facilitators do?
twelve hours of training, you can have a After peer facilitators have received
program. You can add skills later as they
some basic training, they are ready to
are required for different projects and
participate in some helping projects. The
experiences. These minimum hours of
four different roles might suggest differ-
training might be started or completed in
ent projects that could be done around a
marathon-type sessions (e.g., one day). school. In addition, it also is possible to
A few middle schools have trained their
combine the roles when working with a
peer facilitators on teacher-work days
target population.
when school is out for most students. This
avoids taking students from their aca- Some examples of things peer facilita-
demic classes. Other schools have formed tors have done include:
clubs and have used weekend retreats to Group leader with elementary
provide the initial training. school children: leading small
Detailed curriculum guides are avail- group discussions related to class-
able for training middle and high school room guidance activities typically
students (e.g., Goldsmith & Reynolds, presented by teachers or counselors.
1997; Myrick & Erney, 2000; Myrick & Group leader with high school
Folk, 2003a; 2003b; Tindall, 2009). In students: helping students talk
addition, manuals and guides have been about their test results (DAT, SAT) in
developed by school districts, such as a series of meetings arranged and
Broward and Orange counties in Florida. supervised by counselors.
These particular programs were designed Group leader with high school
to meet the performance standards rec- students: exploring vocational inter-
ommended by the state department of ests, skills, and goals and developing
education and adopted by school boards. a four-year plan around a tentative
The purpose of programs and courses, the job goal in a series of structured
content to be emphasized in training, and small group experiences.
possible activities are carefully outlined.
Special friend with high school
Written programs also can be ob- students: working with students
tained for elementary schools. Myrick assigned to in-school suspension in
& Bowman (2004) outlined a 20-session the school's "time-out" room and
training program. Co-Piloting (Bowman & talking with them about problems
Bowman, 1997) is a leader's manual that they were having with teachers and
describes a six-hour training schedule for other students.
children and early adolescents. In this
case, the pilots are students who are be- Special friend and tutor: talk-
ing mentored by older co-pilots who are ing with students who had been
trained mentors. retained in a juvenile shelter home
and who disliked school. Counselors
Three stages of helping and mentor- matched peer facilitators with stu-
ing are depicted as takeoff and landing dents who needed extra attention in
procedures. Handling turbulence deals friendship and tutoring.
with a co-pilot managing resistance and
meeting some of the challenges related
to building a mentoring and peer helping
relationship.

Tutor: meeting with a middle Once training is complete, peer fa-

school student who had missed cilitators themselves can identify projects
three weeks of school because of an around the school. They would then
extended illness. know more about their skills and roles
Tutor: studying with a cooperative, and have a better idea of the purpose of
willing middle school student who the program. Their enthusiasm for help-
wanted to pass Algebra I, but was ing others often leads to some exciting
confused and worried about failing. and rewarding projects.
Special friend: visiting with an Teachers also are an excellent source
elderly retired person in a retirement of projects, once they understand the
center who appreciated the extra purpose of the program and the roles in
time and attention from a high which peer facilitators can function. In
school peer facilitator. addition, teacher support has proven to
be essential to successful programs. Help
Tutor: leading students through
the teachers of your school to know more
a learning center in a classroom. about your program and how it can assist
Students came to the center in small them in their work.
groups to watch a peer facilitator
demonstrate a skill and concept and
then received some coaching as
they tried it.
Special friend: working with Teen
Line, a telephone listening service
students can access after school or
at night; talking with elementary
school students who were afraid to
go home after school and reassuring
them about their fears, concerns,
and safety. Note: 28 million school-
age children have their only or both
parents in the workforce. At least
5 million children, and possibly as
many as 15 million, are left alone at
home each week (U.S. Department
of Education, 1 999).
Student assistant: developing a
project for promoting student mo-
rale and school spirit, which led to a
pep assembly with fun and thought-
provoking skits.

Peer Facilitator confused with an in-house suspension

program. The l.V. Center is located next
Programs and Projects to the school cafeteria and is available to
There is considerable interest in in- students upon self-referral or referral by
volving a greater number of students in teachers. A faculty member supervises it.
community service. It is seen as beneficial In addition, peer facilitators at Warren
for both society and the individual. This Central provide: before and after school
service provides staffing for community tutoring; assistance with English as a
projects, prepares students for future second language; extended illness home-
roles in the community, and may provide work assistance; new student orientation
students with experience they can use in programs; a lost and found area; a bus and
their future careers. school information center; a school visi-
Youth service programs can be school- tors' center; and opportunities to experi-
based or offered through non-school ence someone who will listen to problems
groups. Some groups function only in the and concerns.
summer. Programs also can operate for In Hillsborough County (Tampa),
out-of-school youth, such as the youth Florida, peer facilitators have assisted stu-
corps, and can be residential. The pro- dents in many ways, as the program there
grams go by several names, among them is one of the oldest and best established
experiential learning, service learning, in the nation. Peer facilitator programs
and voluntary youth service. exist in all the elementary, middle, and
For example, Youth Community high schools and training programs are
Service (YCS) is a community program aimed at all four helping roles. One of the
that was founded in 1990 in California. many projects that drew attention is one
Since that time, it has engaged more than in which peer facilitators provided special
15,000 young people in service oppor- assistance in the area of careers by leading
tunities that allow them to learn more students through structured small group
about themselves and their communities. experiences. Group members explored
They have provided over 100,000 hours of their job interests, skills, satisfiers, and
service to more than 40 local community tentative plans. The group members, no
organizations (YCS, 2009). more than six at a time, were led through
Students trained as peer facilitators various procedures and tasks according
can have a more positive impact in com- to a leader's book. Peer facilitators helped
munity service projects than those who all tenth grade students participate in the
are simply willing to help. The training small group career exploration activities.
prepares them to facilitate interpersonal In addition, peer facilitators also learn
relationships and provide valuable lead- about materials in the Career Resource
ership in developing and carrying-out Centers of their schools and assist stu-
service-learning projects. dents in using these materials. In one
At Warren Central High School, India- activity, copies of the Occupational Outlook
napolis, Indiana, peer facilitators are part Handbook were used with a class of stu-
of an Educational Intervention (I.V.) Pro- dents that was divided into five groups of
gram. The l.V. program provides help for six students each. Peer facilitators, work-
students who are troubled with academic ing as co-leaders, led discussions based on
failures or personal setbacks and who are questions and tasks related to the books.
seeking companionship. It is not to be Sessions concluded with group members

responding to such open-ended state- Eighteen seventh graders were se-

ments as: "I learned ... ," "I noticed ... ," "I lected each year by teacher recommenda-
was surprised that...," and "I now realize tion and parental permission in Newton-
that.. .. " Conover Middle School, Newton, North
In one Texas elementary school, an Carolina. They met twice each week in
administrator asked for help in solving 45-minute sessions for five weeks and
problems occurring on school buses. Old- then periodically throughout the school
er students teased, hit,· and pushed young- year. As co-leaders, the facilitators present-
er ones. Money was stolen and bus drivers ed 20-minute group guidance activities to
were harassed to the point of quitting sixth grade homerooms. They also helped
their jobs. In response, a school counselor orient new students to the school, includ-
organized a peer helper and large group ing visitations to elementary schools in
guidance program with a career develop- the spring of the year.
ment focus. It included opportunities to In 1980, the counselors in Selden Ju-
learn about the transportation business nior High School, Centereach, New York,
and, in particular, about school bus safety. organized a Peer Leadership Program.
This developmental approach, using large Since its beginning, the training of peer
group guidance and peer helpers as assis- facilitators usually has taken place before
tants, proved successful, as children of all school starts each morning. Peer facili-
ages grew to respect the bus drivers and tators in the program go to elementary
riders (Carns, 1996). schools and talk with fourth, fifth, and
At Westside Elementary School, River sixth grade students, leading them in vari-
Falls, Wisconsin, a comprehensive de- ous group activities and exercises.
velopmental guidance and counseling In addition, the facilitators volunteer
program included a "students assisting for Special Olympics and Walk America
students" program. Peer facilitators par- for the March of Dimes. Each year there
ticipated in various helping projects, such is an annual Alumni Peer Leaders Party,
as a student companionship program for which is a family affair for peer leaders
students with low self-concepts. Peer fa- and their parents. Counselor and parent
cilitators have lead group discussions and enthusiasm runs high in such successful
assisted counselors and teachers in such programs.
projects as "Black History Awareness," Peer facilitators in Buchholz High
"My Buddy and Me" (the value of friend- School, Gainesville, Florida, helped create
ship), "Test Buster Pep Rally" (test anxiety their own helping projects, including one
and achievement), and "Just Talk" (a pro- in which they developed a puppet show
gram for preteens and their parents). for elementary school children. The topic
"Friends for Friends"was a special peer was child abuse and teams of peer facilita-
facilitator program at Dawkins Middle tors visited all 18 elementary schools in
School, Spartanburg, South Carolina. the county. Children and teachers praised
Twelve students were trained each year in the project. At the end of the show, chil-
two groups. After four one-hour training dren were encouraged to speak with their
sessions, peer facilitators began working counselor, teacher, or other safe adult if
in helping projects that involved tutoring they had similar concerns or questions.
and being special friends for students who In several schools, some of the children
have school or home problems. who did so were, indeed, in need of child
protective services.

Huey and Rank (1984) investigated Goldsmith and Reynolds (1997) ad-
the effects of group assertiveness training vocated a comprehensive health program
on 48 black adolescent boys who were built around peer educators. They out-
selected because of their aggressive class- lined ten content areas for health projects,
room behavior. Using pre- and post-test provided training activities, and described
measures and comparisons with control how students could be used to promote
groups, their results suggested profession- wellness in a school.
al counselors and peer facilitators were Peer mediation is a conflict resolution
equally effective in teaching skills and in project where students are involved in a
reducing aggressive classroom behavior. structured problem-solving process. The
In addition, the subjects in the study were most important elements of the me-
equally satisfied with peers and profes- diation process are communication and
sionals as group leaders. mutual agreement to resolve the conflict.
Upper grade elementary students Mediators are not judges; rather, they are
trained as peer facilitators can play an neutral third parties who help negotiate
important role in a counselor interven- resolution of a problem. Students with
tion called Play Times. It is a project based disputes talk to each other face-to-face in
on the natural play of children. Objectives a safe and supportive discussion, which is
are to increase self-awareness, improve led by one or two trained peer facilitators.
interpersonal relationships, build social They might be called peer mediators.
skills, experience feelings of self-worth, The process is organized, systematic,
increase language development, and en- and very effective. It provides a means
hance learning. of problem solving that is suited to the
Play Times follows a format based on nature of young people's problems. As
about 30 minutes of interaction in which students grow older, they want to be more
primary grade children work with fourth responsible for their lives and less depen-
and fifth grade peer facilitators trained dent on their parents. When students
to be special friends. Each session opens have problems, they frequently turn to
with all participants in a beginning circle their peers for assistance, rather than to
(about 5 to 10 minutes), as students get parents or other adults, especially at first.
reacquainted. The paired "friends" then One four-year study in north Florida
have individual time in which they play focused on reducing disruptive and ag-
together and share ideas in various play gressive behavior in three middle schools
activities (about 10 to 15 minutes). Peer (grades 6 through 8) through increased
facilitators meet after each session with knowledge of conflict resolution skills, in-
the counselor to talk about their experi- cluding peer mediation (Conflict Resolu-
ences and to plan for the next session. tion/Peer Mediation Project, University of
High school peer helpers who were Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 2001).
trained in a one-semester course were ef-
fective with middle school students who
came from unsettled families. Students
participated in peer-led groups of eight
members in discussions focused on dis-
ruptions that get in the way of school per-
formance. Gains in feelings of self-aware-
ness and self-control were reported from
both middle and high school students
who were in the experimental group.

Researchers found sixth graders con- 3. Parents of peer mediators reported

stituted the majority (64%) of disputants mediation as a positive experience
seen, perhaps in part because they had for their children and indicated skills
been exposed to peer mediation in the were generalized to the home envi-
elementary school and were more open to ronment.
seeking help. Most of the conflicts were 4. Discipline referrals dropped and
related to verbal harassment, gossip, and suggested peer mediation and estab-
physical aggression. In·over 95 percent of lishing mediation within the school
referred conflicts, disputants reached an culture is a viable alternative to tradi-
agreement, which was usually to avoid tional discipline.
each other (44%) or stop the offending
behavior (39%). One important part of It also was noted in this study peer
the process was providing an environment mediators' ratings of teacher communi-
where the disputants could actually hear cation with students dropped following
each other's side of the story without dis- training. Apparently, the training raised
traction and interference. In many cases, their awareness of optimal interper-
they found misinformation or miscommu- sonal skills and expectations for teachers
nication had created a conflict where none (Daunic et al., 2000).
existed. In another component of the In another study, sixth through
program, the school staff and student as- eighth graders were trained to serve as
sistants delivered a five-lesson curriculum mediators for peers in conflict (Bell, Cole-
to all students in the schools, covering man, Anderson, Whelan, & Wilder, 2000).
the topics of conflict, anger management, Disputants were given the option to go to
communication, and mediation. mediation or to the principal for resolu-
Every year, approximately 25 to 30 tions. In an evaluation, the responses
students in each school were trained to from the thirty mediators showed their
serve as peer mediators. The training con- increased knowledge of mediation skills
sisted of two-day workshops that focused after training was maintained at a 6-week
on communication skills and mediation follow-up. During the six weeks following
techniques. Based on research data, some training, 32 of 34 mediations resulted in
of the conclusions drawn were: satisfactory conflict resolution. School-
wide suspensions decreased during the
1. Disputants reported high levels of (a) intervention year and when compared to
satisfaction with the mediation pro- three years of baseline data.
cess and (b) adherence to the agree-
ments reached for at least one week Peer facilitators can help resolve
following mediation. conflicts among disputants on the play-
grounds and lunchrooms in elementary
2. Mediators reported generalization of and middle schools. One training pro-
skills to "informal" conflict situations gram consisted of five half days, where
and expressed high levels of satisfac- facilitators learned communication skills
tion with the mediation process. and a step-by-step mediation sequence:
introduction, listening, wants, and solu-
tions.

Thirty-four third and fourth grade Some trainers believe that if peer
students in a pre-kindergarten to fourth mediators have a suggestion for the dis-
grade elementary school were trained as putants to consider, it may be offered as
peer mediators to help resolve school- an alternative after the disputants finish
mates' conflicts. They mediated 206 con- brainstorming possible solutions. Most
flicts during the academic year, 91 percent trainers teach mediators to rely on feeling-
of which were relationship problems in- focused responses, clarifying and summa-
volving physical (41 %) and verbal (50%) rizing statements, and open-end questions
aggression. Before mediation, the primary during the mediation process. Conflict
conflict strategies students used were mediation is not peer counseling, nor is
physical force (44%) and verbal intimida- it intended to be sensitivity training. The
tion (56%) to coerce the other person to mediators need to remain neutral in order
yield. Mediation most commonly resulted to aid in the resolution process.
in an agreement to avoid each other in During one elementary school's train-
the future (74 %), followed by apologizing ing program, peer facilitators practiced
and forgiving each other (16%) Qohnson their mediation skills by participating in
& Johnson, 2001). several role-play simulations. At the end
How does the peer mediation process of the final session, the students were
work? There are variations, but mediation given a written test of their ability to re-
tends to be characterized by these compo- member the mediation process and their
nents or steps: understanding of their role and they are
1. The mediators make introductions not judges or disciplinarians.
and set the ground rules. Playground observations indicated
2. The mediators ask each disputant to 64 percent of the children were able to
define the conflict and to express their correctly remember and carry out all the
feelings in a non-aggressive manner. steps of the mediation procedure when
they handled disputes. The remaining
3. Disputants state the problem in their children each missed one step of the me-
own words. diation process. The mediation steps most
4. The mediators restate and summarize often missed were: (1) asking the dispu-
the information provided and ask tant how they felt and why, and (2) restat-
questions to clarify issues. They con- ing the disputants' problem description.
tinue to respond to feelings and ask Observations revealed mediators were able
what has been done to this point to to assist disputants in reaching a mutu-
resolve the problem. ally satisfying resolution to their problems
5. The mediators encourage the dispu- most of the time (71 %).
tants to propose possible solutions.
They keep the focus on the students'
ideas and avoid making suggestions.
6. A proposal or next step is agreed
upon.
7. The disputants and mediators sign a
written contract confirming the agree-
ment.

The Peace Train is another elementary The effectiveness of peer mediation

school conflict resolution program. The program in a diverse, suburban elemen-
concept of a train was used to outline the tary school was examined (Schellenberg,
steps of the program: laying the tracks et al., 2007). Peer mediation was available
or foundation; teaching communication to all students (N = 825). A three-year
skills; giving the peace train power; train- study showed significant reductions in the
ing the conductors (peer helpers); and school's out-of-school suspensions after
getting teachers, staff,. and students on the peer mediation program was imple-
board the conflict resolution train. Other mented. Significant mediator knowledge
metaphors such as cooling your engines, was gained pertaining to conflict, conflict
on the other side of the tracks, "I think I resolution, and mediation. All mediation
can," and getting off track helped make sessions (N = 34) were successful in resolv-
the program interesting to children and ing conflict. Mediators, as well as partici-
keep them focused (Wittmer, Thompson, pants who received assistance, viewed the
& Sheperis, 1999). peer mediation program as valuable.
Adults have been slow to recognize A developmental guidance unit en-
young people are able to take an active titled "Confronting Sexual Harassment"
role in resolving disputes and reducing was implemented in two middle schools
conflicts. Peer mediation in the schools with the help of high school peer fa-
shifts more responsibility for solving con- cilitators as group leaders. It consisted of
flicts to young people. While it involves eight sessions, each with age-appropriate
supervision, there is more time for faculty activities, where students learned about
and staff to concentrate on other matters how to cope with and prevent harass-
in the learning environment. It frees them ment. A manual outlined objectives and
to focus more on teaching, consulting, step-by-step procedures, including leads
and building friendly working relation- for discussion. It was well-received by
ships, rather than administering disci- students, particularly those where the unit
pline. Even though supervising the media- was peer-led (Sabella, 1995).
tion sessions, especially in the beginning, Erhard (1999) compared the effective-
require an investment of counselor time, ness of peer-led and adult-led drug preven-
the payoffs go beyond the disputes in- tion programs for eighth through eleventh
volved. Teachers often commented on the grade students. Results showed content,
settling effects of the trained mediators openness to discussion, and facilitators'
using their skills in their own interactions competence were perceived as more posi-
throughout the day. tive in the peer-led model. In addition,
Peer facilitators also can be involved students who participated in peer-led
in guidance programs that address the groups demonstrated a more favorable
prevention of conflicts. They might view of the desired outcomes of increased
present role playing scenarios in which knowledge, avoidance of drugs, and im-
conflict management skills are illustrated. proved interpersonal relationships.
Prevention education is one of the areas
in which peer facilitators can make a sig-
nificant difference.

A meta-analysis by Tobler (1986) of For example, in the Big Brothers/Big

143 adolescent drug prevention programs Sisters program, the number of high
clearly found "peer programs are dramati- school mentors surpassed 50,000 in 2007,
cally more effective than all other inter- exceeding the number of adults in its
ventions." Results are equally effective school-based programs by nearly 10,000.
in both rural and inner city areas (Diver- Herrera (2007) found improvements
Stamnes, 1991). These early studies led among elementary and middle school-
some people to wonder if other support aged mentees as a result of a Big Brothers/
personnel were needed when peers were Big Sisters school-based mentoring pro-
so effective. gram. Teachers said academic attitudes
Fall-to-spring changes in terms of con- and performances increased.
nectedness, attachment, and self-esteem Peer facilitators are not going to
between 46 high school mentors and 45 replace school counselors, but they can
comparison classmates were analyzed in provide some valuable assistance as the
one research study (Karcher, 2009). All helping hands of counselors. In projects
mentors participated in eight hours of where peers are as effective as profes-
training and most of them participated in sional teachers or counselors, it would be
two hours of monthly supervision. Results practical for counselors to invest some of
revealed an association between serving their time training peer facilitators and
as a cross-age peer mentor and improve- coordinating peer projects to reach more
ments in academic self-esteem and con- students. A peer facilitator project can be
nectedness. Another study reported "a a powerful counselor intervention.
positive experience with the peer men-
toring program was predictive of a more
favorable connection to school" (Stoltz,
2005).
Indeed, in an evaluation of the Big
Brothers/Big Sisters' High School Bigs pro-
gram, the high school mentors reported
improvements in their own communica-
tion skills and felt a stronger "connection
to their community and school" (Hansen,
2006). The numbers of youth who serve
in this role nationwide each year are
growing.

Helpful Hints Another counselor worked with a

small group of students in a counseling
When starting your peer facilitator pro- situation. After the group sessions ended,
gram, examine some recognized references
the counselor asked the group members if
and articles to give you some direction. they would be interested in helping in a
You also might consult with other coun- similar project with other students. Every-
selors who have started programs in their one said yes and they were trained how to
schools. Here are a few. more helpful hints. lead students through some of the same
activities they had experienced. With the
Start Small and assistance of the trained facilitators, more
Learn with Students students were able to participate in the
Almost all successful peer facilitator guidance activities while the counselor
trainers started with groups with whom supervised.
they thought they could be successful. As you work with your peer facilita-
There is no use making your work any tors, you will learn a lot about helping
harder than it already is. Therefore, iden- others. The program forces you to review
tify a few students with whom you would the basics of the helping process and
like to work, perhaps some you have facilitative responses. It helps you iden-
already met with in small group counsel- tify brief interventions that can make a
ing or group guidance. Ask them if they positive difference with students. If you
would like to help you work with other begin with a small group, you can learn
students on some projects and find some from your experiences and note things
times when you can work together. to repeat or do differently as you expand
Finding time for training is a critical the program. In addition, your first group
factor in training peer facilitators, espe- also may be the nucleus for a second and
cially in elementary and middle schools larger group of peer facilitators.
where courses may not be offered. It may
be easier to identify times when students Train for Special Projects
are most available and then look for ones If your time is limited and you are un-
during those times with whom you would able to put a comprehensive peer training
most like to work. As your program de- program in place, it might be best to train
velops, other students will want to know the facilitators for a particular project.
how they can become peer facilitators and Give the facilitators a few concepts and
you can establish more formal guidelines then focus specifically on skills as needed
for selection. for the project.
One high school counselor noticed a One counselor trained students to
large group of students was scheduled for meet and greet new students at school.
a study hall during the fourth period of Procedures were carefully reviewed and
the day. Looking over the group, it was rehearsed, including how a to use a slide
obvious some would make excellent peer presentation and conduct a tour of the
facilitators because of their personalities, school. Peer facilitators were prepared to
their academic success, and their willing- ask a few open-ended questions at differ-
ness to be involved. The counselor worked ent points and to lead a student through a
with a few students and trained them set of materials and activities.
three days a week for three weeks. There-
after, they worked on their own time and
during the fourth period as tutors and
special friends.

One popular way to use peer facilita- Training Can Be Treatment

tors is in peer mediation roles, where they When you first get started, you will
help resolve problems and conflicts. Peer probably work with students who are
facilitators are the peacemakers (Fine, among the top 25 percent academically.
1995). They work closely with a school They have the support of teachers to miss,
counselor or administrator to organize on occasion, some class time while par-
and implement a set of procedures de- ticipating in helping projects. In addition,
signed to manage conflict. For example, they tend to be easy to work with and
two middle school boys disagreed over help the training go faster.
who would occupy a particular cafeteria
chair. They suddenly began a shoving Yet, some less academically able stu-
match that escalated into a fist-fight. They dents who need special attention can ben-
were sent to a conference room where efit from being peer facilitators. They may
they met with two peer facilitators. The not be among the top students. Some may
mediation process was explained to the even have been referred to you for coun-
combatants and, after agreeing to partici- seling or for special help because they
pate, each was given an opportunity to are having adjustment problems. In this
tell his side of the story. The peer media- case, some may be candidates for the peer
tors clarified events, asked questions, and facilitator group because training could be
helped identify feelings. School rules and the treatment they need. Training might
the consequences for disruptive behav- be more appealing to them than counsel-
ior were discussed and then the students ing or some other form of help.
talked about how they might resolve the Roger, a fifth grade boy, was having
situation and avoid any future alterca- trouble adjusting in school and following
tions. school rules. The counselor talked with a
Tobias & Myrick (1999) examined the group of students, including Roger, about
affects of an eighth grade peer facilita- being peer facilitators. The group talked
tor intervention with sixth grade prob- about the causes of misbehavior in school,
lem behavior students. A comparison of the problems students have in adjusting
experimental and control groups from to situations in school, and the conse-
three middle schools (N=150) indicated quences of inappropriate behavior. They
a significant difference between groups. talked about ways in which they could
Results favored the peer intervention in help students who had such problems and
terms of school attendance, school grades, they learned how to facilitate problem
discipline referrals, and attitude toward solving. Then, they were matched with
school. The intervention consisted of a younger students as part of a helping proj-
peer-led small group guidance unit com- ect.
bined with peer-led individuals sessions Roger willingly took part in the short
over a six-week grading period. In this training program (10 half-hour sessions).
case, the peers also proved to be as equally He worked with his special friend for
successful as adults in helping reduce about three weeks. His classroom teacher
discipline referrals and increase positive soon became aware of how Roger was
attitudes about school. behaving better in class, although he still
had moments when he regressed to his
old ways. Training was treatment for Rog-
er. He benefited as much, or more, than
the boy whom he was assigned to help.

In another instance, a trainer worked one thing, but actually being a helper is
with adolescent boys who had been where students experience the reward and
placed in a social adjustment center in validation that helps them grow.
Orlando, Florida. Authorities labeled the In one study, high school students
boy as "misfits" and none lived with their who were struggling with reading im-
families. All were suspended from school. proved their skills significantly by becom-
The administrator decided to try peer ing tutors to younger students. Over a
facilitator training as treatment for them, seven-month span, tutors' reading com-
since nothing else seemed to be working. prehension grew as much as it would have
The boys participated in 12 one-hour in two years without the program. Other
training sessions. They were generally reading skills grew as much as they would
negative and uncooperative during train- have in a year and four months. Their
ing, enough to make the trainer wonder vocabulary skills and attitudes toward
if the planned project should be under- reading also improved. Learning to tutor
taken. The project consisted of taking younger children can help students with
the boys to an elementary school where their own reading skills by allowing them
they were to lead fourth grade students to learn strategies in nonthreatening ways
through structured group activities for (Dean & Schiffbauer, (2001).
four sessions.
On the first day the boys were picked Link the Program to Learning
up to go to the school, some dramatic All guidance programs need to be
changes had taken place. They had cut linked to helping students learn more
their hair, put on their best clothes, and effectively and efficiently. Peer facilitator
were asking pointed questions about how programs are no exception. There seems
they could help. They wanted to know to be ample evidence tutors gain as much
more about what they might do if the or more than the students whom they are
children acted as they had done during tutoring. Therefore, both the peer facilita-
training. They obviously wanted to do a tor and the student receiving the facilita-
good job. tor's help benefit from the experience. In
The result was an unqualified success. addition, peer facilitator programs also
The young students enjoyed working with may be viewed as a study in social skills
the boys from the center and the boys felt or perhaps an application of leadership
appreciated, special, and needed. "When training.
are you coming back, Frank?" asked one All programs need to be evaluated.
little girl. Upon Frank's return to the When learning outcomes (e.g., Appen-
center, he talked about his group, his kids, dix D) are identified and performance
and how special they were to him. Super- standards are outlined, there can be little
visors at the center reported the boys were doubt peer facilitator programs have
positively changed because of the experi- their place in schools. Most important,
ence, which reached its full effect only as teachers and administrators see how
when the project was implemented. learning is enhanced, more support for
It appears training can be more palat- the program will be gained.
able to some students who need help
because it says, "We need your help"
instead of "You need my help." Training
alone may not be enough; rather, it is the
implementation of training that apparent-
ly fosters change. Learning how to help is

Participate in Networking talked about their training and helping

projects. Other states that have reported
Networking is a popular term used to
conferences supporting peer facilitator
describe a means by which people com-
programs and peer leadership include
municate with one another about special
Maine, which published the Peer Prior-
interests. They do this through newslet-
ity newsletter and Pennsylvania, which
ters, professional seminars and confer-
published The Peer Education News for
ences, internet groups and blogs, personal
peer educators. Statewide networking
letters, and telephone conversations. You
efforts have been made in such states as
can do some informal networking at the
Missouri, Colorado, Massachusetts Iowa
local level with other counselors who
South Dakota, South Carolina, and Texa~.
share similar interests in peer facilita-
A strong and expanding network of peer
tor programs. Encourage them to share
programs also has developed in Canada.
their ideas and explore some of your own
thoughts and experiences. An effective state organization for peer
The Hillsborough County Schools, helping is Pan-Texas, the Peer Assistance
Network of Texas. With headquarters in
Tampa, Florida, has a newsletter which de-
Austin, Texas, this association sponsored
scribes various programs, projects, activi-
annual conferences for both adult trainers
ties, and experiences of peer facilitators,
and peer leaders. Panorama is the orga-
trainers, and counselors in the district. It
nization's newsletter, a model for other
also includes comments by students and
states, which helps people learn more
peer facilitators themselves. The newslet-
about peer helper training programs, peer
ter links school programs together, giving
projects throughout the state and nation,
them more visibility and opportunities to
and general information about related
learn from and be inspired by one another.
issues.
The school district also was among
"Peer Day" has become a popular title
the first to sponsor local conferences
for district or regional conferences where
where peer facilitators and their trainers
peer facilitators from different schools
meet to participate in workshops, listen to
meet to talk about their experiences, pres-
featured speakers, and share experiences.
For instance, about 400 peer facilitators ent programs, and attend special presen-
from all three school levels meet for a tations made by peers and adult leaders.
two-day conference each year. The annual For instance, Middle School Peer Day
event is covered by local television and in Manatee County, Bradenton, Florida,
provided a full day of activities for ap-
newspapers and provides positive visibil-
proximately 800 peers who were bused to
ity for the programs and participants. It
a local convention center.
has enhanced the reputation of guidance
services in the area. The peer facilitators talked about
projects related to such issues as the
School systems in Hillsborough,
prevention of AIDS, school dropouts,
Orange, and Broward counties, Florida,
school violence, cigarette smoking, and
formed the nucleus of a statewide conven-
sexual assaults. Programs also focused on
tion that was open to peer facilitators and
what students do in order to be popular,
their trainers. Other states also have had
peer pressures, rumors and jealousy, and
state conventions related to peer facilita-
tor programs and peer leadership. boy-girl relationships. Favorable public
relations, inspiration, networking, and
California, for example, hosted state- general support were among the positive
wide peer facilitator conferences where outcomes of the conference.
young people presented programs and

Evaluate Programs and Projects Advantages, Limitations,

One of the biggest regrets of coun- and Conclusion
selors at the end of their first year of a
There are many advantages to having
peer program is they did not take time to
a peer facilitator program in your school.
plan an evaluation of their projects. They
They far outnumber the disadvantages.
underestimated the impact the program
would have on young people, even a pro-
gram that is just beginning or one where Advantages of Peer Facilitator
training did not meet expectations. Programs and Projects
A project may be new and untried, 1. The program is for all students and it
but, given the power of peer facilitators, helps students learn leadership skills
some gains are likely to occur. Look for that can be used throughout life.
them. Measure them. You can use the 2. It encourages more students to be-
results to obtain more support for your ef- come actively involved in helping
forts, to reinforce some things you found their schools to have better learning
which worked well, and to chart some environments. Students communicate
new directions (Gilhooley & Scheuch, more effectively and are more posi-
2000). tive with each other. They learn more
about how to be sensitive to others
Student Community Service and how to stand up for their own
In 1992, Maryland became the first rights.
state to require community service (75 3. More students receive guidance ser-
hours) by students as a condition to high vices because there are more helpers
school graduation. A number of other in the school. Peer facilitators are the
states (e.g., Connecticut, District of Co- helping hands of teachers and coun-
lumbia, Indiana, Florida, Rhode Island, selors. They help deliver guidance ser-
Wisconsin) either require some amount vices and, consequently, many more
of volunteer service or leave it up to students are involved.
individual districts to do so. In general, 4. It is a highly visible program that
the intent is to create a society that is brings positive public relations to a
more caring and responsive to commu- school's guidance program.
nity needs and interests. Students in New
Orleans, Louisiana, were involved in this 5. It mobilizes more resources in the
kind of program for several years. school-the power of peer relation-
ships.
Peer facilitator training would be ap-
propriate for many of the service projects 6. Training can be treatment for some
in which middle and high school students students who are less likely to be resis-
might engage. They might receive project- tant to learning relationship or study
specific preparation as part of peer helper skills in order to help others.
training programs. In some cases, trained 7. It is a positive experience for the
peer facilitators also might be peer train- program coordinator and trainer. It
ers under the supervision of a teacher or often is reported as the highlight of a
coordinator. counselor's week.

8. It is one of the best staff development Limitations of Peer Facilitator

programs counselors can experience. Programs and Projects
As they teach students how to be
helpers, they become more effective Being a peer facilitator trainer or co-
school counselors. In their review and ordinator of peer facilitator projects takes
teaching of basic facilitative skills, time away from direct services a counselor
they learn and relearn techniques and may give to students who need counsel-
strategies which make them more ef- ing.
fective in other areas of their jobs.
Conclusion
9. The program is developmental in
nature, going beyond crisis interven- Students at all school levels can be
tions. Peer facilitator programs do not trained to be peer facilitators. They work
replace counselors. To the contrary, in four helping roles: special assistant,
they tend to increase student referrals special friend, tutor, and small group
to counselors. Most important, many leader. Guidance projects can be orga-
of these referrals come before matters nized so peer facilitators can be used in
reach a crisis stage. these roles to help deliver more services to
all students.
10. Peer facilitators, acting as models for
other students and implementing ef- Systematic training programs make a
fective interpersonal skills as part of positive difference. Such programs center
a school day, can help build positive on leadership training and students learn
environments which make schools about themselves and others. The pro-
better places to be for everyone, in- grams benefit the peer facilitators them-
cluding teachers and counselors. selves, perhaps as much or more than the
students with whom they work in helping
projects. Peer facilitator programs and
projects are professionally and personally
rewarding interventions for counselors.

Consultation
Young people are influenced by their The Need for Consultation

environment, which includes many
Dale was a high school science teacher
adults. Counseling a student, therefore,
who was concerned about his classes.
may be only partly effective unless atten-
Although the students appeared to like
tion is given to the adults who are integral
him at the beginning of the school year,
parts of a student's life. In this case, con-
they became less cooperative and more
sultation is a valuable counselor interven-
disruptive as the weeks passed. The crude
tion.
remarks of some students, while barely
The role of consultation as a primary audible, and the distracting side conversa-
counselor function was first established tions of others were becoming problem-
at the elementary school level. Although atic, whether he was trying to present a
some critics worried consultation would lesson or lead a class discussion. Sensing
take time away from counseling, school he was losing control, he made repeated
counselors at all levels could see the com- threats and sent some students to the
patibility of these two services and the school office for discipline. He tried penal-
need to include both in a developmen- izing the unruly classes with lower grades
tal guidance and counseling program. and longer assignments, but nothing
Consultation with parents, teachers, and seemed to work. At midpoint, he began
administrators is an intervention that can wondering if he would be able to finish
enhance changes in learning environ- the year. Discouraged and disillusioned,
ments, benefiting both students and those he was not sure what to do next.
who are part of their lives (Brigman, et al.,
Trish was a fourth grade teacher who
2005).
had attended a workshop about learn-
ing styles. She wanted to try some ideas,
but she was unsure about using grouping
procedures and concerned some activities
might not work. She thought it would be
helpful if she could talk with someone to
clarify her thoughts and plans.

Aaron was having problems in school. Sometimes the process of helping

His grades were below average, although students to modify their behaviors begins
his school records indicated he had the po- with changes in how significant adults
tential to do better. He complained about in their lives respond to or interact with
headaches and frequently stayed home them. Some proponents have gone so
instead of attending school. The more far as to claim such strategies are more
school he missed, the farther he got behind likely to succeed than direct services to
his classmates in learning the coursework students. Most counselors, however, see
and completing the assignments. His per- consultation and counseling as compat-
formance in class was dropping rapidly. ible services and often use them together
His parents decided it was time to find out in an integrated helping approach (Lam-
more about what was going on at school bert, Hylander, & Sandoval, 2004; Parsons
and what part issues there played in Aar- & Wallace, 2005).
on's attitude and behavior. Consultation with teachers and par-
In all three cases, school counselors ents is based on the assumption they see
became involved in consultation. In each their children or students more often than
situation, the counselor as consultant does a counselor. Direct interventions
guided the helping process so the indi- such as individual and small group coun-
viduals could address their concerns and seling can be used to help students regard-
develop a plan of action or next step. ing interpersonal issues and skills and
Every counselor intervention, to some to assist the counselor in assessing their
extent, has had its critics and naysayers, situations. For improving specific teacher-
especially when first introduced, and con- student or parent-child relationships,
sultation was no exception. It was debated however, consultation with adults often
as a role and, at one point, it was suggest- is the key to success. Teachers and parents
ed counselors not be trapped into losing are in the best position to implement and
valuable time with students by working support helping techniques and strategies
with adults. Some critics made the as- (Sullivan & Wright, 2002). Because of the
sumption consultation was less difficult complex challenges faced by educators,
than counseling and expressed concern especially teachers, the counselor's con-
school counselors would be content to sulting role is going to continue to grow
work with adults and ignore the counsel- (Erchul, & Marten, 2002).
ing needs of students.
Consultation, however, quickly be-
came an accepted role in elementary
schools where developmental guidance
was first emphasized. Typically, there was
only one counselor per school, no matter
how large the school and, in some cases,
counselors served two or more schools.
Because counselor time was limited, it was
not possible for elementary counselors
to see all the students who could ben-
efit from their services. Therefore, they
consulted with teachers regarding their
classroom and student concerns, with the
goal of helping them to look at what they
might do to assist particular students.

Chapter 10 Consultation as a Counselor Intervention
Consultation Defined Gerald Caplan and his classic writings

are considered a major reference for defin-
The counselor's consultant role, then, ing consultation, especially in terms of
includes working with teachers, parents, mental health counselors. His definition
administrators, and other educational also is appropriate for community-indus-
specialists on matters that involve student trial type settings and models. He said:
understanding and management. Consul-
tation is something that happens when Consultation is a process of inter-
significant adults in a student's life get to- action between two professional
gether and talk about ways of helping the persons-the consultant, who is a
student. However, it not always has been specialist, and the consultee, who
clear what happens in those meetings or invokes the consultant's help regard-
how to approach them systematically. ing a current work problem with
which he is having some difficulty
The American School Counselor Asso- and which he has decided is within
ciation first described consultation as: the other's area of specialized com-
.. .a process of sharing with another petence. The work problem involves
person or group of persons informa- the management or treatment of one
tion and ideas, of combining knowl- or more clients of the consultee or the
edge into patterns, and making mu- planning or implementation of a pro-
tually agreed upon decisions about gram to cater to such clients (p. 9).
the next step needed (ACES-ASCA, Caplan emphasized the problem is a
1966).
work-related one and used the term "cli-
Dinkmeyer (1968) attempted to pro- ent" to denote the external unit or third
vide a more comprehensive definition: party who is the primary concern of the
Consultation involves sharing infor- "consultee." His definition is further re-
mation, ideas, coordinating, compar- stricted to those professional interactions
ing observations, providing a sound- in which the consultant had no responsi-
ing board, and developing tentative bility for the client. The responsibility for
hypotheses for action. In contrast implementing a plan developed through
to the superior-inferior relationship the course of consultation remains with
involved in some consultation, em- the consultee.
phasis is placed on joint planning This approach not only is aimed at
and collaboration. The purpose is to helping a consultee with the particular
develop tentative recommendations problem that has been presented, but also
which influence the uniqueness of the at increasing competence so the consultee
children, the teacher, and the setting may be more effective later when similar
(p. 187). problems arise.
There are still some unanswered ques-
tions in these definitions. Who is the
"client?" Who is the "consultee?" What
is the focus of consultation? And, how is
consultation different from other helping
approaches and interventions? In addi-
tion, how has the meaning of consulta-
tion changed over the years?

Figure 10.1
The Consultation Process
The Consultation Process Using Figure 10.1, the process can be

illustrated. Let us assume a student has be-
Generally speaking, the external unit come increasingly disruptive in a teacher's
or third party causes some uneasiness or
classroom and causes the teacher some
discomfort in the consultee, enough to
concern (Arrow No. 1). Eventually, the
cause the person to seek a consultant for
teacher experiences enough discomfort to
help. The consultant and consultee talk
seek some help from a school counselor
about matters and, through the process of
(No. 2). The counselor-consultant and
consultation, a plan of action is identified
teacher share information, explore ideas,
which is then implemented by the con-
and arrive at a plan of action (No. 3). The
sultee.
teacher then puts the plan into action
with the student (No. 4).

Figure 10.2
Counseling and Consultation Relationships
Counselor Consultant
(1) (2)
Primary Focus (1)

Secondary Focus (2)
Although counseling and consultation The differences between counseling

relationships both involve self-disclosure and consultation in terms of focus are
and the other facilitative processes, the shown in Figure 10.2. In the counseling
nature and focus of the relationship are relationship, the counselor focuses pri-
different. marily on the counselee (Arrow No. 1)
who is the client. The third party or out-
side unit (students) receives only second-
ary emphasis (Arrow No. 2). In counsel-
ing, the students are viewed only in terms
of how they come into the life space of
the teacher, their impact, their meaning,
and their influence on the teacher.

In the consultation relationship, how- Three Types of

ever, the external unit receives the prima-
ry focus. The counselor-consultant assists Consultation
the teacher (No. 2) to talk about feelings, Consultation may be viewed as crisis,
self-perceptions, and personal problems, remedial, or developmental. During crisis con-
but only secondarily and as related to the sultation, the counselor-consultant works
external unit-the students (No. 1). with a consultee who is experiencing an
For example, Dale, the high school urgent problem. For instance, two girls were
teacher described earlier, spoke with the teasing each other in class and, suddenly,
school counselor about the problems that a fight between them erupted. The teacher
were occurring in his classes. As he began asked the counselor for help in how to work
to talk, he interjected he still was living with the girls. This type of case usually
at home with his parents and this com- involves emergency approaches and there
plicated his life. He wondered aloud if he is a "hurry up and fix it" attitude during
should find different living arrangements consultation. When people allow matters to
and, perhaps, then he would feel better reach a critical stage before taking action,
about himself. His unhappiness made the counselor can expect more psychologi-
it difficult for him to prepare his lesson cal stress and defensiveness.
plans. In remedial consultation, the consultee
In a counseling situation, the coun- may not be experiencing a crisis, but senses
selor might think, "What are the underly- one could develop unless some action is
ing sources of conflict between Dale (the taken. Particular behaviors or events may
client) and his parents and what has pre- signal a teacher a student is headed toward
vented him from doing something about a problem and some intervention is needed.
this conflict and his unhappiness?" Dale This emphasizes helping a student to make
might be asked to talk more about his up some deficiencies or to obtain some
relationship with his parents. In consulta- extra help. For instance, students whose
tion, however, this information only is performance suggests possible learning dis-
useful as it relates to the external unit and abilities are often the subject of meetings in
the counselor might be thinking, "How which academic or developmental interven-
is what is happening at home related tions are planned.
to Dale's classroom effectiveness? What The third type is developmental consulta-
are some things Dale can do to resolve tion, which also might be seen as preven-
some of the problems confronting him at tive. The emphasis, however, is less on
school?" preventing problems and more on creating
Sometimes a troubled teacher will facilitative conditions and improving the
request consultation, then try, either con- learning environment as part of the growth
sciously or at an unconscious level, to re- process. Developmental consultation is
direct the relationship with the counselor- concerned with learning climates and edu-
consultant toward counseling. If success- cational processes. It focuses on the needs
ful, then the primary focus and greatest and interests of all children, not just those
amount of their meeting time would be who have problems. The counselor-consul-
given to discussing and resolving personal tant works as a behavior and relationship
insecurities or problems, rather than talk- specialist, helping consultees (teachers and
ing about how those experiences are relat- parents) to explore their attitudes, behav-
ed to the teacher's work and what might iors, and interactions and how to positively
be done in the school situation. influence student growth.

Trish, the fourth grade teacher intro- The term "peer consultation" has been
duced earlier, wanted to help children applied to the experience of one colleague
learn by engaging them in more group helping another. It is not meant to replace
activities. She wanted to give them more supervision, but professional peers can
opportunities to express and share their give each other feedback about their skills
ideas and feelings, but she was not sure and talk about their counseling cases (Ben-
her planned activities would work. She shoff & Paisley, 1996). Still another way of
worried they might turp out to be no classifying consultation is by methods or
more than "fun and games." Consulta- theories, such as solution-focused (Kahn,
tion with the school counselor helped her 2000), behavior consultation (Bernard,
think about the activities in relation to 2000), REBT consultation (Bernard, 2000),
the lessons she was trying to teach. She cognitive modalities (Clemens, 2007),
had an opportunity to talk about how she or, perhaps, systemic (Keys & Lockhart,
might organize the activities and the pro- 2000). All of these, however, likely can be
cedures she needed to keep the children related to the three types of consultation
on task. In this instance, the counselor described as crisis, remedial, and develop-
chose to take some responsibility in sub- mental and to the four different approach-
sequent plans and arranged a "teacher es that follow.
group seminar" where Trish and other
teachers talked about using group activi-
ties to enhance classroom lessons.
Parent effectiveness training and child
study groups provide other examples of
developmental approaches to consulta-
tion. Meetings feature discussions about
typical concerns and general ways to
improve family relationships and living
conditions. When parents approach a
counselor for help because they fear their
child is abusing drugs, the problem is
more specific and calls for another type of
consultation.
Consultation may be classified as
individual or group. It may be viewed in
terms of who is present when it happens.
For example, one might use such terms as
parent consultation, teacher consultation,
in-service teacher training, case confer-
ence, staffing, child study groups, teacher
seminars, and so forth.

Four Approaches Staff Development

to Consultation and Training Approach
There are four basic approaches to Sometimes a lack of certain work skills
consultation. These might be described as prevent people from being successful or
general modes or perspectives. They each doing more. On occasion, they need to
have a special focus and give direction to review their skills and attitudes or be en-
the consultation process. couraged to think about new ideas and
techniques they can use. This might be
Diagnostic-prescriptive done through staff development and
training approaches to consultation.
Approach
Periodically, consultants from outside
This approach is the oldest and most a school are brought in to lead teachers
established of all approaches to consulta- through skill development activities. Typi-
tion, regardless of field or setting. The cally, this is done as part of the school's
counselor-consultant is asked to help ana- staff development plan and takes place as
lyze a situation or problem and then to ar- part of the preparation for a school year.
rive at a recommendation or prescription. In addition, special days during the year
The diagnostic-prescriptive approach are set aside for staff development. How-
is used most often during child study ever, the training approach need not be
meetings or staffings. Teachers, counsel- limited to these occasions.
ors, school psychologists, social workers, One counselor-consultant listened to
and administrators may be present to dis- a teacher describe his frustration in work-
cuss a case. Information is presented and ing with a child who continued to be
analyzed; alternatives are considered; and, unresponsive and refused to participate
finally, a recommendation is made regard- in class. After some discussion, the con-
ing educational strategies or placement sultant concluded this teacher lacked the
for the child. skills and strategies for motivating and
Let's return to the case of Aaron, the engaging students and might benefit from
boy who was having problems with both talking with other teachers. Three meet-
school work and attendance. Could these ings with four interested teachers were
have been related to learning disabilities? arranged for Wednesday afternoons after
Was he lacking in some basic skills that school was dismissed. The informal ses-
needed attention? Were there physical sions lasted only about 30 minutes, with
problems? What was his academic ap- the counselor-consultant keeping them
titude and was he in the best class for focused on the initial concerns. Later, the
him? These and other questions could group decided to add two more meetings
be addressed in a staffing or child study to which the counselor invited a district
meeting where the group members would specialist who helped the teachers devel-
share information, insights, and recom- op a plan for target students. The teachers
mendations and make decisions. then applied the plan and talked about
their results.
Gerald Caplan, considered the origi-
nator of mental health consultation (Er-
chul, 2009), said there are typically four
questions to consider when a consultee
presents a problem: (1) Is there a lack of
knowledge? (2) Is there a lack of skill?

(3) Is there a lack of self-confidence? (4) Is velop a plan around these behaviors and
there a lack of objectivity? events; (6) Try out the plan; and (7) Ob-
Caplan described in detail some strat- serve the results and compare what hap-
egies for working with consultees who pened with what was desired.
lacked objectivity, including a recommen- There are, of course, other ways to de-
dation the consultant not use counseling scribe these basic steps and different terms
or therapy to help that person become can be used. Perhaps the most important
more objective about a case. Others be- factor is: Can the consultee be facilitated
lieve sometimes brief counseling may be to talk about the case in a systematic way,
appropriate for consultees whose personal to develop a plan of action, and to imple-
styles or problems prevent them from ment the plan?
working well.
Staff development and training can Process Approach
directly address a lack of knowledge or Sometimes the problem rests not in
skill. It also can help people gain self- the outside unit, but in the system where
confidence and, occasionally, a different the outside unit resides. More specifically,
perspective so they can be more objective. the problem may not be the student as
For example, a staff development proj- much as the environment in which the
ect helped increase a teacher's knowledge student lives or works.
and skill in assisting children in the pro- When the system or environment is a
cess of coming to terms with death. Some dysfunctioning one, attempts at resolving
topics are particularly sensitive and teach- problems can be frustrating and unpro-
ers are unsure of what they might do to ductive. If the problem, for example, is
help children. In this case, bereavement the classroom environment or teaching
was seen as a natural life experience that style of a teacher, then attention to a
could detract from the learning process in student's disruptive behavior alone may
school if not addressed. A counselor-led prove futile. The student may be behaving
consultation seminar proved valuable, in ways that are consistent with a set of
especially as teachers were facilitated to events or conditions that evoke disruptive
share their ideas and suggestions. behavior.
Given most teachers and parents do
Case Management Approach not see themselves as part of the problem
The case management approach to and prefer to keep the focus on the out-
consultation focuses on a particular case side unit or third party, this can be a dif-
of concern to a teacher (consultee). The ficult approach to use.
third party, usually a student or group of
This approach gives consideration to
students, has a problem that is affecting
decision-making processes, values, inter-
the consultee in some way.
personal relationships, traditions, rules,
When the consultant talks with the and regulations that often influence the
consultee about a case, there are some way in which people solve their problems
typical steps that are part of the process: with a third party. More specifically, a
(1) Identify the problem; (2) Identify a teacher may feel constrained by school
desirable outcome in operational terms, rules and procedures that prevent some
so one will know if the outcome has been creative solutions to a problem. Or, the
achieved; (3) Observe the situation for rel- same teacher might have a conflict of
evant information; (4) Identify the events values with a student or, perhaps, use
or behaviors that affect students; (5) De-

classroom procedures that are arbitrary, Collaboration and

one-sided, and lack objectivity.
Consultation
In this approach, the consultant at-
tempts to help consultees increase their Some authors early in the profession
awareness of the system in which they suggested collaboration and consultation
are working and the personal system they are essentially the same (e.g., Dinkmeyer
tend to use when making decisions, solv- & Carlson, 1973; Brown & Pate, 1983;
ing problems, and setting goals. A per- Keys, Bemak, Carpenter, & King-Sears,
son's strengths and weaknesses in the sys- 1998; Harrison, 2000; Lusky & Hayes,
tem are considered and particular atten- 2001) and collaboration may even be a
tion is given to the way in which the con- preferred term.
sultee communicates with others within Some view collaboration and consul-
that system. This is preferably a joint tation as a mixture of functions in a com-
effort when it comes to analyzing the situ- plex process that is based on a position of
ation. On occasion, these cases stimulate student advocacy and views counselors as
consultees to examine the system more leaders (Baker, et al., 2009). In the ASCA
carefully and serve as catalysts for effect- National Model (2005), consultation is
ing changes in ineffective systems. presented as a responsive service within
System is different from structure. the delivery system component of the
Structure refers to such things as school framework: "Counselors consult with par-
buildings, number of faculty and staff, ents or guardians, teachers, other educa-
classroom space, school curricula, books, tors, and community agencies regarding
materials, and time schedules. System re- strategies to help students and families.
fers to the interpersonal relationships that School counselors serve as student advo-
exist within that structure and the pro- cates."
cess by which decisions are made. If part Leadership, advocacy, collaboration,
of the problem is the system itself, then and systemic change are integral themes
some efforts can be made to help change within the framework of the model. They
the system. Most consultants do not focus are linked to one another and collabora-
on structure unless they are experts in tion, in particular, to consultation. In
that area and have been requested to help practice, consultation is a special skill that
address specific structural issues. has a particular focus and differs from col-
A combination of all four consultation laboration as a counselor intervention. As
approaches is possible, but such a compre- part of a practical approach, it is impor-
hensive approach takes careful planning tant to know the meaning of the terms
and experience. It demands skill in the and implications for implementing an
facilitative model and a thorough under- intervention.
standing of the objectives of everyone For school counselors, collaboration
involved. and consultation differ in terms of the
degree of responsibility. It is important to
acknowledge this difference, particularly
as it relates to the counselor's role, func-
tion, responsibility, and accountability.
In consultation, consultants assume
no responsibility for implementing a plan
of action, although they will have played
an important role in helping arrive at

such plans. That is what the consultation Factors to Consider

process is about. It is the consultee who
must initiate the plan, make decisions Consultation is a helping process that
about its direction and progress, and eval- has been ignored for study and research
for many years. While the process goes on
uate the outcomes. Helping the consultee
in work settings almost every day, the lev-
think through a plan is not collaboration.
el of awareness at which it is happening
Collaboration happens when consul- is usually very low. Subsequently, people
tants agree to be part of.a plan. In doing do not always follow the best procedures
so, they lose some objectivity and increase when consulting with others. Here are
their ego investment in seeing their plans some factors to consider when consulta-
succeed. In the collaboration process, tion is a possible intervention.
planning and implementing are a joint
effort (de Barona & Barona, 2006; Hobbs Who is the client?
& Collison, 1995; Schmidt, 2008).
As already suggested, the client in
Suppose a teacher talks with a coun- consultation is the outside unit or third
selor-consultant about a particular class party. In schools, the client is usually a
that is not going well. As they discuss student or group of students. It is only
a possible action plan, the consultant during process consultation that the cli-
agrees to lead the class through a few ent question becomes an issue, because
self-appraisal activities as part of prepar- it is then a consultee's self-confidence,
ing the students for a new set of rules and objectivity, or personal style comes into
procedures the teacher wants to use. Now, play and may need attention. Thus, that
the consultant has become part of the personal aspect of the cousultee becomes
solution to the problem and must share the client.
the success or failure of the plan. If, at any
point during consultation, the con~ultant Similarly, the client issue may come up
assumes responsibility for intervening when you consult with parents. Occasion-
with the outside unit or third party, then ally, you may be aware in talking wit~ p~r
the consultation becomes collaboration. ents that their child's problem rests w1thm
the family structure and system. The pro-
When you are making a professional cess approach assumes if the family could
judgment about whether to provide br~ef resolve some issues at home and become
counseling, consultation, or collaborat10n more fully functioning, then some of the
to an adult who seeks your assistance, problems the student is having at school
keep in mind the distinctions between might lessen or disappear.
these roles. Each one gives you a differ-
ent perspective and suggests different Family counseling might be appropri-
directions you might take, perhaps even ate and recommended. In other consul-
different strategies and techniques. Each tation situations, you will be limited to
role has consequences, including how it helping the parents think of what can be
affects the kind of relationship you have done for their child. The focus of consul-
with that person. lt is not enough to try tation continues to remain on the child.
to be a universal helper, assuming that Some family therapists dislike the idea
all your helping skills and interventions of working on only part of the problem,
will always apply, no matter the situation. especially one that is not even the source
The decision is yours, of course, one you of the problem. Even so, it is possible an
should not simply fall into, but make pur- action aimed at the child and arrived at
posefully. through the consultation process can ulti-
mately benefit all the family.

There may be times when you will be another. They often need only a facilita-
the bearer of unpleasant news about a stu- tive consultant to bring them together
dent. It is not uncommon for a counselor and to provide a little direction so they
to "consult" with parents regarding their might share their ideas and develop their
child's poor school performance or behav- skills.
ior. Sometimes an individual or a team of Beginning teachers, for instance, often
teachers requests a counselor be present are placed in difficult teaching settings
when they meet with parents, perhaps and may need timely support. It can be
fearing a problem in communication or especially daunting when a novice teacher
simply needing some support to deliver is isolated and has few opportunities to
some difficult news (Auger, 2006). communicate with more experienced
Attending or even leading a meeting teachers. A teacher mentoring program
or conference does not require that you might help. There is evidence a counselor-
collaborate and be part of the action plan. and teacher-led support group for new
You can do only so much in your job. teachers can be helpful (Reiman, Bostick,
There will be times when you want to do Lassiter, & Cooper, 1995).
more, especially when you recognize the Use your own professional judgment
severe conditions with which a young to determine which consultation ap-
person is coping while trying to learn in proach to use. Sometimes you will find a
school. Take your gains where you can combination of approaches works best.
and use those interventions that give the
most payoff for the time invested. Family lifestyle and interaction pat-
terns can affect children's adjustment and
success in school. For example, parental
Which consultation conflict and divorce have been associated
approach should be used? with children's impulsivity, distractibility,
Staffings or child study teams are aggression, and acting-out behavior. These
commonplace in most schools and you behaviors disrupt learning for the student
will want to perfect your skills in those in question and others. More and more,
areas. While the facilitative model will be school counselors are being asked to pro-
useful, most of the specific skills and rel- vide training, education, and support to
evant procedures are learned in the con- parents who are initiating a family separa-
text of your job, with each school system tion or divorce so they might effectively
providing its own unique structure and guide and support their children.
set of procedures. For example, when such Nicoll (1992) expressed disappoint-
meetings involve special education placement in school counselors because they
ment decisions, counselors may partici- failed to adequately address family dy-
pate in, rather than lead, them. namics factors: "Despite this body of em-
Consultation with groups of teachers pirical data documenting the significant
(Teacher Seminar) might be a regular part role played by family dynamic factors in
of your weekly schedule. In these sessions, students' academic and behavioral prob-
perhaps a series of four or five meetings of lems, schools typically pay insufficient
30 minutes each, a training and staff de- attention to this area when assessing and
velopment consultation approach would intervening in cases of student adjust-
be appropriate. While outside consultants ment difficulties" (p. 352). He then pre-
can be drawn upon for their expertise, sented a thoughtful consultation process
teachers can be excellent resources to one model in a step-by-step format. It in-
cluded both assessment and intervention.

Framed in a family systems perspective, Resources on the Web can be useful to

it was presented in a series of 45-minute parents who are trying to improve their
sessions. As desirable as the approach may skills and who want to know more about
be, it is not very practical for most school the developmental stages and challenges
counselors. of children. You might have at your dis-
Most school counselors would agree posal a list of recommended websites to
family counseling-consultation process share with interested parents. Parent edu-
models can make powerful differences cation on the Web might be the next best
in parenting styles and family commu- thing to participating in a parenting class.
nication and have a positive impact on a Helping parents to access credible Web
child's school performance. However, they resources might be considered a develop-
also would be quick to point out their mental approach to family consultation.
other commitments and time limitations.
There is not enough time for counselors Where and when does
to do all they would like to do or to or- consultation happen?
ganize as many multiple interventions You can consult with teachers in-
as they would like to implement, includ- dividually or in small groups in your
ing family counseling and consultation. office; however, many school counselor-
Moreover, dysfunctioning parents then consultants find it helpful to go to the
become part of the counselor's case load, areas where teachers work. Because their
an additional responsibility. responsibilities, duties, interests, and com-
Because most of the family counseling mitments often confine them to their
models proposed for school counselors work areas, teachers sometimes find it dif-
are drawn from therapy or mental health ficult to go to the guidance office.
counseling agencies and too many are Whether you are working with an
aimed at white, middle class parents, individual, team, or seminar group, an
they are a poor fit for many school situa- available classroom or the media center
tions. The time constraints of counselors, are possible alternatives. On some oc-
teachers, administrators, and others in casions, privacy will be essential, as the
the school who might take part in family information shared may be sensitive or
consultation must be considered when confidential and your office may be the
looking for an appropriate model. only appropriate option available.
Some counselors find it possible to The best time for a consultation meet-
teach parent education courses at their ing depends on the availability of the
schools or in their school districts. They participants and the goals or the agenda.
believe in parents helping parents, so Before and after school are typically prime
they build this into their weekly schedule times, as are scheduled teacher workdays
in order to manage their time. In a few and parent conference days. Evening or
school districts, counselors teach parent- weekend meetings might be arranged, but
ing courses at night as part of the adult this is rare.
continuing education program. In return,
they receive either released time from oth-
er duties during the day, compensation
time, or extra pay.

Who initiates consultation? together on the problem, you could get

even more resistance to change than nor-
Self-initiated consultation suggests the
mal. Perhaps it would be more effective to
con~ultee is highly motivated and willing
to give some time to an issue or problem. get a teacher to first talk generally about
some classroom experiences, with the in-
However, not all teachers, parents, and
tent of learning how the teacher views the
administrators are eager to talk about
situation. In most cases, you will find the
their problems. Sometimes the counselor-
teacher is aware of the principal's concern
consultant must present the problem.
and even shares it to some extent.
Other-initiated or invited consultation
Imagine you are that teacher and the
us~ally occurs because a person is per-
counselor says to you, "I was told you
ceived by someone else as in need of help.
In these cases, the consultation process are having problems with some of your
students and one of our assistant princi-
can be more difficult because consultants
pals asked me if I could help you. Where
must prepare consultees for it and intro-
would you like to start?" Such a statement
duce them to the idea. No matter how
might ruffle your feelings and you might
much you may want to help, the ultimate
say to yourself, if not aloud, "Who do
responsibility rests with the consultees
~ncluding whether or not they particip~te you think you are?" On the other hand
. you were asked to talk about your work
if '
m the consultation process.
and experienced a genuine interest, then
It is the consultee who must experi- you might be willing to share more about
ence a readiness to work on an issue or some of your concerns.
problem. It is the consultee who must
Contrast the former question with
want to change matters. For some people,
these: "At this time of the year, what
to admit a change is needed also is to ad-
would you say has been one of the most
mit defeat. To admit defeat is to acknowl-
edge oneself as a failure. This tarnished satisfying aspects of your work?" And
then, "What about one of the most dissat-
perception can be a painful one and can
make a consultee defensive and uncoop- isfying?" Or perhaps, "How do you think
erative. the students see the class at this point?"
These open-ended questions might help
Suppose you are asked by your princi- a teacher develop the right frame of mind
pal to initiate consultation with a teacher for entering into consultation.
or a parent. You will want to plan how to
If you need to call in parents for con-
introduce the consultation process and
sultation, you might begin the meeting by
how to extend an invitation to them to
encouraging the parents to talk first. This
work with you. The referral to you might
gives you a chance to be a facilitator and
be clearly justified, but your first task is to
to let them see how understanding, car-
help the consultee become a willing par-
ing, and accepting you can be. After they
ticipant in consultation.
have opened with some of their ideas
Sometimes confrontation can be ef- you might then share your concerns ~nd
fective. Preferably, you will already have thoughts.
had some "chips in the bank"-a positive
When consultees are referred, they
relationship built on high facilitative re-
might feel uncomfortable. There is an un-
sponses. A straight-forward and candid ap-
proach may have merit, but it also is risky. easiness about being singled out as some-
one in need of help, even when the per-
I~ yo~ tell teachers, for example, the prin-
opal is concerned about their classroom son senses need. There is an initial feeling
of being evaluated, judged, and labeled
management and suggested you work

as inadequate. This often happens when A consultee may have both knowledge
a teacher has been referred to a counselor and skills, but still lack the self-confidence
for assistance regarding classroom man- to follow through with an action plan.
agement. One teacher, for instance, thought it
Ironically, even when a person initi- would be valuable to pay a home visit and
ated the consultation and helped iden- meet with the student's parents. When
tify the problem, these same unpleasant she learned where the student lived, she
feelings can come rushing in and create kept postponing her visit for fear she
defensiveness. You may experience the would not be accepted or even safe in
person pulling away, perhaps saying, the neighborhood. Even though she was
"Well, I guess it really isn't that much of a familiar with the family's cultural back-
problem and I'm sorry if I bothered you. ground and had learned some conference
Your time is too important to talk about skills in a district workshop, she still felt
such matters." unsure about making the phone call to
arrange a home visit.
What is the primary problem? Finally, the primary problem may be a
When you are acting as a consultant lack of objectivity. This is one of the most
and talking with a consultee, you will difficult problems in consultation. More
hear a lot of words. There will be some often than not, the consultee is unaware
meandering as the case is told. It helps to of it. This problem often involves stereo-
identify the primary problem. typing or having a bias. The consultee
might, for example, automatically assume
Following Caplan's lead, there seem a student will never succeed due to the
to be four primary problems related to the family's background and seeming lack of
consultee that go beyond the dynamics of support. Even a consultant can show lack
the case. These involve knowledge, skills, of objectivity. For example, one who be-
self-confidence, and objectivity. lieves "all kids like that end up getting in
As consultation unfolds, you may de- trouble and failing" might dismiss valid
cide the primary problem is the consultee alternatives.
lacks knowledge. This might be about The timely introduction of new infor-
school or district policies. It also might be mation and knowledge, the attention to
lack of knowledge about the third party or details that characterize a skill and prac-
a useful theory and some related strategies ticing it, the courage to do something,
that could be used. In this case, you will and the adoption of an objective perspec-
want to help the consultee obtain the es- tive can become goals of consultation.
sential knowledge or information. Ask yourself as you listen to the consultee
Another consultee may lack skills. For talk about matters: "Am I hearing a lack
instance, a teacher had studied classroom of knowledge, a lack of skill, a lack of self-
management, but lacked communication confidence, or a lack of objectivity?" The
skills. Her choice of words tended to irri- answers can help guide you in choosing
tate students and make them defiant. She strategies during the process of consulta-
lacked the skills she needed to effectively tion.
set limits, confront students, and apply
reinforcement procedures when using be-
havior contacts.

Is consultation confidential? Teacher seminars, as well as grade

Generally, the same ethical standards level, team and department meetings, are
that apply to counseling also are true for favored approaches to consultation. One
consultation, including the right to pri- of the more successful approaches for col-
vacy or confidentiality. Likewise, it is your legial sharing and professional growth
duty to report to authorities those situ- among school faculty and staff has been
ations which are regulated by law (e.g., the use of study groups. The group might
child abuse, threat of suicide, or bodily examine new theories and skills or ad-
harm to others). dress a particular nagging issue, such as
students who act out in class. After study-
When you receive information you ing and talking about new strategies to
believe needs to be reported to other pro- try, the group might then act as a support
fessionals or authorities, you can encour- group, encouraging members to try new
age consultees to follow through on their ideas. Besides obtaining a joint effort, the
own or you can assist them in reporting consultation process is usually enhanced
the situation. You are legally bound by in a group because there are more people
professional ethics and have no choice in facilitating each other to think about the
some matters. problem and offering support, under-
A consultant must be perceived as a standing, and experience. The group has
trustworthy person before a consultee will more potential to be resourceful than one-
explore matters in detail and be open to to-one consultation provides.
looking at changes. Trust is a critical fac- Yet, some individuals may prefer to
tor in consultation relationships and it work alone with a consultant. Sometimes
should not be violated except in the most individual consultation expedites the
troublesome cases. helping process because there are fewer
people and fewer dynamics to address.
Individual or Often, it is a matter of personal preference
group consultation? for both the consultant and consultee;
The consultation process can be used but, more often than not, individual con-
with a group or an individual. The group sultation is easier to arrange and provides
approach tends to be the most effective a quicker response.
and efficient use of a counselor-consul-
tant's time and energy. What are some pitfalls?
The group might work toward a com- Eliciting excessive guilt or defen-
mon goal, with each member contribut- siveness. Although anxiety can motivate
ing some part to a joint effort. For in- a consultee, overwhelming guilt gets in
stance, a high school social studies depart- the way of working through problems.
ment may consult with a school counsel- For example, in desperation, one group of
or regarding the high number of students teachers was using some strict and rigid
who are failing. Or, maybe the teachers rules as a means of controlling students.
want to talk about what can be done with They were using corporal punishment
seniors whose graduations are in jeopardy and harsh talk. When they participated
because of poor classroom performance. in a workshop that focused on effective
Each teacher might devise a strategy to discipline, their methods were unknow-
help improve the situation or the group ingly ridiculed by the outside consultant,
might decide upon a more comprehensive who also labeled such teachers as insensi-
plan where teachers work together toward tive and incompetent. During the work-
a desired outcome. shop, some of the participants became

argumentative and later almost uncom- tion, and reassurance) that limit self-dis-
municative. The group was defensive and closure in counseling also hold true in
dismissed the consultant as not knowing consultation. Likewise, the high facilita-
much about the real world of education. tive responses seem to be the most effec-
If teachers or parents feel too much tive in helping consultees think through
guilt over what they have been doing in a problem and assume responsibility for
the classroom or at home, it may be dif- resolving it.
ficult for them to be open to new ideas. There will be times when you have
Guilt forces people to rationalize and to some expert advice to give, perhaps based
justify their behaviors. It can make them on something you have studied or expe-
less likely to consider or try new ideas. rienced. Timely advice or suggestions are
An elementary school faculty almost always appropriate, but knowing when to
unanimously agreed their school was dif- offer them is a mark of an effective con-
ferent from all the others in the school sultant.
system because of its student body. The Talking down to the consultee.
students were from low socio-economic Talking down to consultees often hap-
families and were disadvantaged in many pens when consultants theorize too much,
ways. "Nothing works with them," com- using jargon which is presumed to be
plained a group of teachers as they lis- known by the consultee. It also involves
tened to a consultant who was proposing talking too long and too intensely "at"
some new ideas. And, as part of their self- consultees. Do not get trapped into telling
fulfilling prophecy, all new strategies and stories about what you once did or what
procedures met with failure. To accept any you heard someone else did, as this can be
new ideas and make them work was the both boring and inappropriate. Consultees
same as admitting they had been wrong frequently see these stories as irrelevant
about the children and had failed them to their own situations and listen for little
because of ineffective methods. It was clues to help them show why their situa-
easier to blame the children for failing to tions are different or unique.
achieve than point to themselves and the Sometimes it is helpful to teach a con-
system in which they worked. sultee some new procedures, perhaps even
Being an expert. When teachers a new theory and vocabulary. But, this is
and parents have problems with students, best done within the context of the prob-
they tend to look for simple answers. lem or situation presented by a consultee.
They hope an expert will quickly analyze The more personal it can be to the con-
the situation and give them some easy sultee, the more likely it will be learned
solutions. They do not want to give too and put into practice.
much time or to suffer through too many This is one reason so many consul-
hassles. After all, an expert is supposed to tants who work as trainers in staff devel-
know immediately what to do. opment workshops fail to reach consult-
In reality, most counselor-consultants ees. Instead of personalizing and giving
feel uneasy giving quick advice. Being relevant examples, they too often use text-
viewed as a knowledgeable, resourceful, book cases or hypothetical incidents. It
experienced, and willing helper is differ- puts consultees in an inferior position and
ent from being the "resident expert." The one conclusion typically reached is: "This
latter perception tends to create distance consultant really doesn't understand us or
between counselor-consultants and teach- what's happening here."
ers or parents. The same low facilitative
responses (advice, evaluation, interpreta-

In a similar vein, consultants must de- What if a teacher prefers "in-seat

velop a multicultural perspective in their behavior" and "on-task behavior" at the
work and new consultation models or ap- expense of group discussion and spon-
proaches. Most of the models presented in taneous discovery methods? What if the
the professional literature and taught in teacher's lesson plans are dull and un-
graduate schools appear to have been de- imaginative and students find it difficult
veloped with white, middle-class partici- to sustain interest? A plan to reinforce
pants in mind. It is essential to integrate control or obedience might ignore the
multicultural concerns into consultation issue of creating a positive and effective
procedures, with particular attention to learning environment. As a consultant,
ethnic diversity, needs, goals, and the you should be wary of helping a consultee
consultation process (Behring et al., 2000; devise a plan that reduces the consultee's
Henning-Stout, 2000; Ingraham, 2000; anxiety to the detriment of student learn-
Sue & Sue, 2003). ing and well-being.
Results at any cost. Someday you Failing to follow-up. A common
will be asked to help with a misbehaving mistake is to end the consultation process
student, but it will appear the problem once the action plan is developed and
rests more with the consultee than with then not find out what actual steps the
the student. The consultee will ask for consultee took. Talking with a consultee is
your assistance in getting a student to only the first part; a plan still needs to be
adjust, to stay on task, to keep in line, to implemented.
shape up, to be cooperative, or to do what A consultant can, on occasion, pro-
they are told. The consultee may not have vide timely support and encouragement
talked with the student or even consid- by following up a consultation meeting,
ered the student's point of view. You, in especially when the consultee is trying
turn, may be in an untenable position out a new method or technique. Away
of helping develop a plan of action that from the eyes of others, including the
meets the needs of the teacher, but not consultant, the consultee may feel inad-
the student. equate or unable to put a plan into action.
Some consultants have relied on Self-doubt creeps in and commitment
behavior modification strategies, for in- dissipates. Too frequently, the lament of
stance, to help teachers manage their a teacher after consultation is, "I planned
classes. In behavior consultation, teachers to get started right way, but I just haven't
are encouraged to manipulate the con- had time to get around to it yet."
tingencies in their classes through rein- It also is important for those con-
forcers, discrimination procedures, and sultees who have been successful with a
behavior consequences. There is nothing plan of action to have an opportunity to
wrong with this, unless a teacher favors talk about their experiences. A follow-up
obedience more than achievement or, per- meeting in which consultees tell what was
haps, control more than participation in accomplished can be enjoyable and it can
the exploration of ideas. help reinforce those behaviors which con-
tributed to success.

Ignoring legal duties. School A Systematic Approach to

counselors and others who work with
school-age children increasingly are af- Case Consultation
fected by legalities. Neither students nor What follows is a seven-step model
teachers leave their constitutional rights for consultation. It provides a systematic
behind when they enter a school and approach to facilitating a case. A consul-
legal principles also apply when school tation case is a situation in which a con-
personnel work in a consultative role. In sultee is having a problem with a third
particular, counselors-consultants must be party or client (student). An outline of the
aware of legal considerations and respon- model is shown in Figure 10.3.
sibilities when advising school personnel
about appropriate actions in specific situ-
ations.
It makes common sense for counsel-
ors to follow professional ethics and also
be aware of federal and state laws that
affect the decisions they make while try-
ing to serve the best interests of students.
These might include issues of privacy and
confidentiality, especially as related to
handling student records, reporting child
abuse, testing and placing students in
classes or special programs, and research
projects.
The most efficient counselors will
likely have a handy reference book that
was provided by the school district or de-
veloped by a group of school counselors.
Beginning counselors who are unsure of
their actions are wise to seek out an expe-
rienced counselor as a mentor. A building
or district administrator is another good
resource regarding cases where individual
rights are in question and where statutory
law binds the counselor/consultant to
specific procedures.
While these pitfalls have been dis-
cussed in terms of teachers, they can ap-
ply to parents and others as well. Avoid-
ing the pitfalls means emphasizing the
positive aspects of consultation and being
systematic about the process.

Figure 10.3
The Systematic Facilitative Approach to Consultation
Step 1 : Identify the Problem

Be a listener. Help the consultee to tell about the situation.
Step 2: Clarify the Consultee's Situation

Be a selective listener, giving attention to the following:
(a) Feelings-consultee's and client's;
(b) Specific behaviors-consultee's and client's;
(c) Consultee expectations in the situation;
(d) What the consultee has done up to this point;
(e) Positive consultee attitudes and behaviors.
Step 3: Identify the Goal or Outcomes

Specify the outcome in observable behaviors.
Step 4: Observe and Record Behaviors

Obtain some baseline data on desirable or undesirable behaviors.
Step 5: Develop a Plan of Action-The Consultee's Intervention

This is usually something that can be done within the next two weeks.
(a) What are some possible interventions that the consultee might try?
Of these, which one is most appealing as a first step?
(b) How might the intervention work? (i.e., role-play, discuss
consequences, practice skills, and think about procedures).
(c) When will the first step be taken?
Step 6: Consultee Implements the Plan

Step 7: Follow-up
This provides an opportunity for evaluation and discussion of next steps.

The Case of the Janet's situation can be used to illus-

trate the systematic approach to case con-
Desperate Teacher Oanet) sultation. She was desperate and eager to
work with a counselor-consultant. A few
Step 1: excerpts are presented here.
Identify the problem Consultant:
Identifying the problem tends to be What can you tell me, Janet, about your situ-
the most difficult part of consultation and ation? Help me get some idea of what is hap-
requires the consultant to concentrate pening.
on being a listener and facilitator, espe- Janet:
cially at the beginning. Regardless of the The kids are driving me crazy. Nothing is going
problem presented, which may not be the right. I know I'm a good teacher, but they just
one that eventually receives special atten- won't behave. How can I teach them anything
tion, the consultee needs to talk out or if they won't listen. It's just awful.
"get out" the feelings, impressions, and
reactions about the situation or case. As Consultant:
the consultee vents feelings and focuses You're really frustrated ... at your wit's end.
on important issues, the consultant is Janet:
establishing the conditions of a helping Ooohh! ... It can be so terrible. (Janet gets
relationship. Generally, the more intense teary).
the crisis, the more important it is to lis- Consultant:
ten and establish that relationship. The It's so discouraging ... and you're feeling really
amount of time given to this step is often down right now.
in proportion to the nature of the prob-
lem and the intensity of emotions. Janet:
I really am. I just don't know what to do. I've
Janet was a former high school teach- tried, believe me, I've tried. But nothing works.
er who now was teaching middle school I know Mr. Helstrom (the vice principal) is
business technology courses. She was an getting tired of my sending kids to his office,
experienced teacher, but her reserved but they (the administration) don't help. They
personality made it difficult for her to es- just send them back and nothing is changed.
tablish order in her classes. One class, in The kids cause problems, but I'm the one
particular, included some students who who's getting in trouble. I know it doesn't look
were disrespectful and defied her direc- good on my record.
tions. Several students chose to get in
Consultant:
small groups and talk instead of working
It doesn't seem fair to you .... You're not feeling
on their assignments. A few left the class-
much support right now.
room and walked the hallways. Two girls
said such things as, "Oh, you don't know Janet:
what you're talking about" and "Why You just can't believe what goes on. Those kids
don't you just leave us alone?" It appeared are crazy and they don't care whom they hurt.
that less than half of the students in the Consultant:
class were doing their assignments and Which one of your classes concerns you the
trying to stay on task. Janet was discour- most?
aged. The central administration was con- Janet:
cerned. Some of the more cooperative stu- It's the third period class. Joanna and Valerie
dents were becoming irritated and angry. are there. And, Cynthia, too. They ore so aw-
ful ... and mean to me.

Consultant: Consultant:
What are some examples of the things these (After some more questions) All right, let me
girls do? see if I understand what you've said. The class
Janet: that upsets you the most is third period and,
Well, I'll ask Joanna to do something and more specifically, there are two girls who tend
she will just stare at me, not saying a word. to disrupt the class. They refuse to do their
She doesn't move and she doesn't do what I work, clown around in the room, and some-
say-just stares at me. Then Valerie will start times walk out. They talk back to you and em-
giggling. When I ask her to stop and get back barrass you when you give them instructions
to work, she says crude things like, "Oh, up and others stop work and laugh when you and
yours," or she might say, "Yes, ma'am," but in the girls get going at each other.
a sarcastic way. Then, others in the class get Janet:
to laughing and things fall apart. It happens Yeah, that's about it.
every day. They are the ringleaders ... and....
Consultant: Step 2:
So they start something and soon everybody is Clarify the consultee's situation
involved... and you feel out of control. Most people talk rapidly about a lot of
Janet: ideas. They have a tendency to jump from
Yes, that's it, exactly. I can't spend all my time one topic to another and several pieces
talking with those girls and at the same time of information may be introduced in a
try to teach the rest of the class. I'm not sure rambling way. It is common for people to
what to do. string several ideas together and to digress
Consultant: from one point to another, sometimes
Okay, what else do they do? presenting irrelevant information. A con-
sultant can become lost when a consultee
Janet: tries to explain a problem. For the same
The other day Joanna was working on her
reason, the consultee probably is experi-
nails and talking with Valerie. When I told
encing some confusion.
them to take their seats and get to work, they
said they had already done their work (a word In this second step, the consultant is
file lesson). I asked them where it was and a selective listener. Using high facilitative
they gave me the run-around. I knew they responses, the consultant encourages the
were lying and told them so. Then they said consultee to talk and to be more precise
I was unfair and the worst teacher they had. in thinking about the problem. More
They left, saying they were going down to Mr. specifically, the consultant listens for: (a)
Helstrom's office and file a complaint about the pleasant and unpleasant feelings of
me. Can you imagine that? the consultee; (b) specific behaviors of
the third party which have influenced
(The consultant was taking notes during this the consultee's conclusions and gener-
part, responding to the consultee's feelings, alizations; (c) what the consultee seems
asking questions, and clarifying matters. Ja- to expect of the third party; (d) what the
net needed an opportunity to tell her story. consultee has already tried to the current
She also needed someone who would help point in time; and (e) any positive atti-
her identify specific behaviors that contrib- tudes and behaviors that are in the situa-
uted to the problem, instead of just general- tion, especially those experienced by the
izations and labels that characterized it.) consultee.

Each of these considerations tends to Janet:

flow sequentially in Step 2. High facilita- I don't know. That's so hard to do. This is only
tive responses are the glue and catalytic part of what they do. For example, yesterday
action for each part. For example, facilita- the whole class was just sitting around talk-
tive feedback as a compliment seems ap- ing. When I asked them to get busy, Joanna
propriate because consultees need to hear said, "Hey, it's party-time. Wanna party?" and
something positive about themselves, started a little dance. I told her to sit down
after discussing at length the unpleasant- and she did. But, when I turned around, she
ness of the case. A compliment about went to talk with Julie. If I could just get her
something a consultant heard or noticed out of my class, things would be so much bet-
can provide extra incentives. It encour- ter.
ages consultees to go beyond venting The consultant realized Janet was defensive.
feelings and ideas or wondering if they She may have been worried about who
are talking too much or appearing inad- would see such a rating or what purpose it
equate. served. Or, upon seeing the items, her frus-
In the case of our business education tration may have been heightened, which
teacher, Janet, the counselor-consultant stimulated her to vent more of her feelings
noted a list of seven specific problem and wishful thinking. The consultant took
behaviors mentioned in the first session. time to respond to her feelings, clarify what
These behaviors provided a focus and, was said, and present the list again.
when placed on a five point Likert-type Consultant:
rating scale, they also made up a baseline So, it seems many things are happening and
from where the consultee was starting in this list has only a few things that concern
consultation (see Figure 10.4). you. What others would you add, then? (Ja-
1. Starts assignments when assigned. net looks over the list and, using the rating
2. Completes assignments. scale, rates each girl.)
3. Follows directions. Consultant (later):
All right, it seems from what you've said num-
4. Stays in seat or at work station. bers 4 and 5 concern you the most. I'm won-
5. Argues with teacher. dering if it might be best to pick one or two
6. Distracts other students through loud items from this list to work on, then, perhaps,
talk. some others also will start to improve. All of
them, of course, will get some attention.
7. Makes crude remarks.
Janet:
The following excerpts are taken from
Okay, let's say we pick the last one, number 7.
the second meeting between the counsel-
What are you going to do about that? What
or-consultant and Janet, as they attempt
should I do?
to identify some target behaviors.
Consultant:
These are some of the things we talked about
last time. (Shows Janet the list, repeated on
three sheets of paper). We can take a closer
look at them this time. Please rate each of
these girls, Joanna, Valerie, and Cynthia, and
then rate the class generally.

Step 3: In our illustration, Janet has requested

Identify the goal or outcomes the counselor to tell her what to do. The
consultant resists the urge to give advice
Goals can be general or specific. In at this point and helps her focus on what
consultation, specific goals usually focus she has already done. Why make sug-
on observable behaviors or outcomes. It gestions if the teacher already has tried
is more effective to state such goals in the them? And, if she has tried something, it
positive, suggesting what you want to ac- is important to know how she went about
complish, instead of what you do not want it and what resulted.
to have happen (e.g., "Don't interrupt" can
become "Each person gets a turn" or "Raise Consultant:
your hand when you want to participate." Well, let me ask you. What kinds of things
have you done so far?
In the case of]anet, it may seem as
though she now is looking for advice. Gen- Janet:
erally, it is best to avoid rushing in with Hmmmmmmmmmm! Let me see .... I've told
advice or a quick recipe for change. Con- Joanna she was going to fail the class if she
sultees are somewhat suspicious of special- didn't change her ways, but that didn't seem
ists and frequently report, "Their advice to make any difference. I've written up sev-
never works." Or, "They don't understand eral discipline reports and sent them to Mr.
~he situation." And, "They have great
Helstrom, who never does anything. And, I've
ideas, but they're not practical." tried to ignore her rude behavior, but that only
seems to encourage Valerie and the others to
Because most people tend to resist join in. I know I'm not supposed to reinforce
advice, it is not given hastily, even when Joanna by giving her attention when she does
a person asks for it. The consultant also those stupid things, but it's hard not to. Some-
wants to avoid early interpretations of times I get so mad I just walk away so I don't
behaviors, either of the consultee or the slap her face .... Well, (embarrassed), that's
third party (e.g., "Joanna defies you be- what I'd like to do.
cause she is striving for attention and
believes others in the class look up to her The consultant facilitated some dis-
when she talks back to you"). Interpreta- cussion about what Janet had tried, how
tions can be helpful when they are viewed it was done, and the results. Then, em-
as part of a rationale for a plan of action; phasizing events that contributed to the
but, like advice, they too often are seen as problem, the teacher's and students' feel-
easy textbook answers and insignificant to ings, and how these feelings were related
the problem. to teacher and student behaviors, the con-
sultant summarized the discussion.
Instead of premature advice or clas-
sic interpretations (e.g., "Joanna needs Consultant:
understanding because she comes from All right, what else could you do?
a broken family and she's angry with the Janet:
world for giving her a raw deal"), the I'm not sure; everything seems so impossible.
counselor-consultant might first respond
to feelings and clarify ideas so the con- Consultant
It's not easy to think about other possibilities.
sultee will share all aspects of the prob-
Things look a little bleak right now.
lem. This includes a focus on the feelings
and behaviors of both the consultee and
the third party.

Janet: Step 4:
Yes, but maybe I could call the girls' parents Observe and record behaviors
in and talk with them. That might work for
Valerie, but I understand Joanna isn't even liv-
Baseline data can be helpful in the
ing with her parents any more. That girl has consultation process, such as the general
problems and, you know, she's smart enough ratings Janet provided the consultant.
to do the work too. They were based on a list of behaviors
generated from their first meeting. If you
Consultant: do not know your starting point, progress
Although you're discouraged and wondering is difficult to assess.
what to do next, you can see how Joanna
has the potential for doing more work, even
The counselor-consultant listened to
though she's not getting much support at Janet and made a chart of behaviors as
home.
baseline data, which also helped her get a
picture of how often the behaviors were
Janet: happening. Perceived frequency is accept-
That's right. Sometimes she surprises me. able baseline data and it also heightens
She might come in and sit right down, do teacher awareness regarding the extent of
her work, and say nothing. The next day, a problem. A checklist usually takes little
whammo! ... and it starts all over. She goes time and can highlight target behaviors
berserk. that need attention.
Consultant: Janet rated all seven behaviors. They
So, there are some days when things go were then rated periodically after a plan
better and Joanna is not so disruptive. You of action was introduced. A pre-post rat-
appreciate those times. ing is shown in Figure 10.4 for the three
girls.
Janet:
Yeah, but they are too far apart. If Joanna
could be transferred out, most of my problems
would disappear. Then again, Valerie and
Cynthia also can be little devils. They can get
things going just as much as Joanna.

Step 5: Consultant:
Develop a plan of action All right, Janet, we've identified some of the
things you might try: (7) Compliment the class
Some writers recommend the consul- when they are on task; (2) Call Joanna aside
tant and the consultee analyze the situa- after class and compliment her when you no-
tion together and jointly develop a plan tice her being on task and starting assignments
of action. Although it is the responsibility on time; (3) Set up some assignments that
of the consultee to take the major role in are fun, short, and perhaps require coopera-
implementing a plan, it is possible the tion from class members to complete-so you
counselor-consultant could collaborate compliment the girls and the class for their
and play a part in it. behavior; (4) Change seat assignments so ev-
The consultant usually begins this eryone is at a new station, separating some of
step by asking, "What is something you those who prefer to talk instead of work; and
want to accomplish or see happen im- (5) Announce to the class some changes you
mediately (usually within a week)?" Then, plan for them, including some new computer
this is followed hy: "Okay what are some cL-illc: nnrnor
.Jl\.111-'-=1..,.llll,,...Jo
things you might do to bring this about?" Janet:

At this point, the consultant also might That's a lot. Did we talk about all that?
add to the list of possible things to do
(e.g., "One thing you might consider Consultant:
is .... " Or, "What about the possibility It seems like a lot to do now. Where can you
of... ?") start? Pick one you can work on first.
As a list of possible things to do is Janet:

studied, an appropriate question for each Will you be talking with the girls? I need some
one might be, "And, how would this be help in explaining some of the consequences to
done? Or, "How would that work?" them. I'll try to change, but they will have to
change too.
Finally, the consultee selects a next
step from the list and answers the last Consultant:
question from the consultant, "And, Would you like me to be present when you talk
when do you see yourself doing this?" Se- with them?
lecting an immediate next step and iden- Janet:
tifying a starting time are essential parts Yes, I'm not sure they'd listen to me. I know
of the consultation process. they'd listen to you.
Consultant: Consultant:
Janet, it hasn't been easy for you and you've All right (agreeing to collaborate), let's bring
been discouraged... enough to make you want Joanna, Cynthia, and Valerie into my office
to quit. But, you've hung in there and you've and talk about everyone's concerns. After lis-
been open to exploring some changes that might tening to them, you can share your feelings
be made by you and by some of your students. and talk about some of the changes you want
You're trying to see the positive side of things. to make. We can get their reactions and work
I'm proud of you for taking the time and having toward getting a commitment on everyone's
the courage to explore the situation with me. It part to change the class into something better.
makes me want to keep working with you until Janet:
things are better for you and your students. That sound's good. How about fifth period
next Monday? That would be the best time for
me.

Figure 10.4
Teacher Ratings:
Pre-Post Consultation
(Case example)
Joanna Valerie Cynthia
Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post
ned 1 3 1 3 2
3 3 3 3) 3
1 3 1 3 2
4. Sta sin seat or at work station 1 3 1 4 3
5 3 4 2) 3
6. Distracts students throuqh loud talk 5 (2) 5 3) 3
7. Makes crude remarks 5 2 4 1 1
5-point Rating Scale
Very Very
Step 6: Step 7:
Consultee implements the plan Follow-up
It is the consultee's responsibility to As it turned out, the teacher decided
initiate and implement the plan. This is she could meet with the students by her-
the essence of consultation. If the con- self. The counselor-consultant was free to
sultant agrees to take part in some part of work on other matters. Thus, the integrity
the plan as a partner in a multiple inter- of the consultation model was main-
vention, then the effort would be labeled tained. In a follow-up meeting with Janet,
collaboration. In this case, the offer to col- the counselor asked, "How did it go?" The
laborate was made when the consultant teacher described how she carried out her
said, "Would you like me to be present meeting with the girls. The consultant lis-
when you talk with them?" The teacher, tened attentively and made high facilita-
lacking self-confidence, quickly seized tive responses.
the invitation. Did the consultant make Further, the girls apparently were
a mistake at this point? That is debatable more cooperative andJanet was feeling
because it was a professional decision at more successful. She talked about the
the moment to move the consultation change in her relationship with Joanna,
process to one of collaboration. who was of particular concern to her. The
follow-up gave the teacher an opportunity

to talk about what she did and her feel- Consulting with Parents
ings of success. The counselor-consultant
used the opportunity to reinforce Janet Parents can be valuable allies in a
for her efforts and self-confidence. developmental guidance and counseling
program. It is generally accepted they are
Janet's plan directly involved only the most important influences in a child's
three students and used only one of the life. To begin, biological parents provide
many ideas she considered. The narrowed the genetics that help determine the
focus helped to make the plan doable. health of a child and certain dispositions
Janet was encouraged by her success and toward growth and development. Heredi-
motivated to try some of her other ideas. tary factors play a role in one's aptitudes
Janet needed support; but more than and ability to think, feel, and do things.
that, she needed understanding, caring, Parents are their children's earliest
acceptance, and a relationship with some- teachers and models, helping them learn
one she could trust while exploring a dif- basic survival and social skills and prepar-
ficult problem. She needed time to think ing them to interact ~vith the others and
through the problem and an opportunity their environment.
to identify some factors that contributed
to it. She also needed to be facilitated Some parents are so burdened with
toward a plan of action, something that issues in their own lives they fail their
could be implemented in a short time children. Rather than being raised by
and that could be evaluated. She needed biological parents, a child may be placed
a next step, not an elaborate scheme with in a foster home or, perhaps, with rela-
which to change everything and every- tives. The personal decisions and choices
body. The systematic approach to case parents make invariably impact the lives
consultation gave her what she needed. of their children. Children of divorced
or widowed parents may be blended in
with other families after a parent remar-
ries. More and more children are growing
up in families with a single parent, either
by a parent's choice or happenstance.
Regardless of the family structure, parent-
ing plays a significant role in a child's
development, especially during the for-
mative years. Subsequently, the quality
of parental support and involvement in a
child's formal education affect academic,
personal, and career success.
Open houses at schools tend to bring
out those parents whose children are do-
ing well. These parents are not afraid to
initiate and attend parent-teacher con-
ferences or volunteer their time to assist
with school activities and various tasks
around school. They typically take advan-
tage of parent education programs when
available. They lend a helping hand as
volunteers at their children's schools. For
some helping roles, having an opportuni-
ty to learn more about helping skills can

make a difference in their effectiveness. Some experienced counselor-consul-

Counselors often help train and consult tants constructed a list of ten hints that
with involved parents. help make parent conferences successful.
Some parents serve on school advisory 1. Before the meeting, rank order the
committees or councils, which can make concerns or complaints if there are
recommendations regarding a guidance several. Choose to emphasize the ones
curriculum and use of resources. They that might be addressed most imme-
advocate policies that support a safe and diately and successfully and, perhaps,
healthy school environment. Other par- create a ripple effect for change.
ents might work as school board members 2. Be able to state the problem in a few
or with school district task forces. Coun- words. Define it in objective ways. Use
selors consult with these parents regard- specific behaviors or incidents to ex-
ing the goals of a guidance program, en- press your concerns.
listing their understanding and support.
3. Avoid trigger words or those that
Parents who are highly involved in make parents defensive. Avoid threats
or concerned about their children's edu- (e.g., "If he doesn't..., then he's not
cation reach out to counselors in many going to graduate." Reframe conse-
ways. They telephone, send e-mails, and quences: "If he does ... , then he's go-
request conferences. In addition, coun- ing to graduate."
selors work with parents who are less in-
clined to be involved with their children's 4. Focus on the positive and be encour-
education and prefer to avoid meeting aging. Think of some behaviors that
with school personnel. Some of these are worth building upon.
parents may be harboring unpleasant 5. Be cognizant of the parent's personal
feelings and negative attitudes from their investment. To criticize the child is to
own school experiences. Others may feel criticize the parents. To compliment
insecure or intimated. Some do not want the child is to compliment the par-
to be bothered and place full responsibil- ents. To be hopeful and encouraging
ity on their children to get what they can is to encourage hopefulness and ac-
from school. Still others may feel they tion in the parents.
are no longer connected with their child 6. Have an action plan in mind you can
or the child is out of control and beyond present, even if you must modify it as
their influence. Some children are success- the meeting progresses. Keep it simple
ful in school despite their parent's lack of and focus on one-step at a time. What
interest, while other children flounder and are you asking of parents in this plan?
digress into failure. Be realistic in your expectations.
No matter the structure or stability of 7. It can sometimes be helpful to pro-
a family, parental involvement is advo- vide a written or printed copy of the
cated and desired. It is too closely related a plan or steps people have agreed to
to academic achievement and success in do. This can clarify everyone's role,
school to be ignored. School administra- reinforce commitment, and be a con-
tors know parents are important stake- venient reminder.
holders in the business of educating their
8. Acknowledge parents' feelings (e.g.,
children. Parental interests, concerns, and
worried concerned, irritated, frustrat-
support are foremost considerations in
ed, and disappointed, as well as hope-
building and maintaining a school sys-
ful, encouraged, proud).
tem.

9. End the meeting on a positive note. Brief Family Consultation

Thank all those present for their time
Experienced counselors know children
and interest. Talk about follow-up.
are part of a family system and many of
How might that best be done?
their problems, including those manifest-
10. Be caring, interested in parent per- ed at school, are related to family issues
spectives, sensitive to words, and and relationships.
friendly throughout the meeting. How
Brief family consultation is a short-
would you want to be treated if this
term strategy that enlists the home and
were your child?
school in an attempt to solve behavior
When children are present at the con- problems. It is suited to a school setting
ference, help to make it meaningful for where the counselor's role and time is lim-
them by involving them in the process. ited. It involves many of the same skills of
For example, "Okay, John, what have you brief counseling approaches; however, as
heard the teacher(s) say up to this point?" described earlier, the focus in consultation
Or, "How would you summarize what you is on the third party or outside unit.
just heard?" "Where do you agree or dis-
Brief family consultation may be
agree with what you just heard?" "What
based on systems theory, which assumes
do you see as something you can do right
the issues are related to relationship
away to get things back on track?" "What
problems within the family. Experienced
is your next step following this meeting?"
counselors are aware of the importance of
In some cases, a brief note or letter working closely with the family when a
of appreciation to the teachers and/or child exhibits behavior problems. There-
parents for their time and effort would be fore, a quick method of assessing a family
appropriate, perhaps copying others who is important to the success of a short-term
would be interested in the outcome (e.g., strategy.
principal or student services personnel). A
Assessing the way in which a fam-
simple e-mail message, if positive, can be
ily tends to function might begin with
effective.
family resources. Are the parents capable
of providing basic needs (food, shelter,
transportation, and health care)? Does the
extended family make positive contribu-
tions? Are family members gainfully em-
ployed? How mature and responsible are
the parents and what are their goals and
expectations? Families with a history of
poverty, alcoholism, or drug abuse often
are very limited in managing and super-
vising their children.

Sometimes a parent might say some- In schools where the involvement

thing like, "Of my three kids, she's the of parents, other family members, or the
only one I have trouble with. She's always community is high, children are more
been difficult." This suggests the parent- successful, individually and collectively.
child relationship is strained and may be Academic achievement is higher and
limited in terms of the parent's commit- the schools and their programs are well-
ment to nurturing school activities. regarded. Despite this correlation, family
"I lost my job last month and I know involvement is becoming more difficult to
his grades have gone down since then. generate and maintain.
We hardly have time to talk." This parent Limited time, limited interest, and,
is talking about family stress and a break- perhaps, a limited sense of being needed
down of communication. How much may account for some of the decline. In
energy and support can they give a child addition, language barriers and insuf-
when the family is struggling? ficient awareness and knowledge of dif-
An accurate assessment of family ferent cultures also can create roadblocks
functioning helps the school counselor to involving families. Families sometimes
decide which intervention to choose and, distrust school officials and may be wary
when appropriate, how to refer a troubled of some programs, especially those related
family to other professionals in the com- to potentially controversial issues such as
munity. sex education. These and other barriers
can be addressed through strong admin-
In general, parents must agree on istrative leadership and comprehensive
three issues if they are to manage their guidance and counseling programs that
child's behavior: (a) the specific desired involve all school personnel.
behaviors from the child; (b) the means
by which to know if their child has be-
haved in the desired way; and (c) the con-
sequences for behavior or misbehavior. If
serious marital discord surfaces, encourage
the parents to work toward the best in-
terests of their child and, if possible, refer
them to other community resources. Even
though some counselors might have the
experience and skills, there is no place
for marital or family therapy in a typical
school guidance and counseling program.
Family members may shut down
communication in response to stress, such
as that caused by a child's misbehavior.
Unfortunately, it is precisely during a
stressful episode open communication is
most important. A gentle and respectful
application of basic skills (e.g., listening
and responding to feelings, clarifying
events and ideas, and asking open ques-
tions) will usually encourage people to
talk.

A Training Approach Teachers want training that is relevant

to their concerns and interests. Therefore,
with Teachers school counselor-consultants can provide
Professional development for teachers a valuable service by organizing teacher
includes seminars offered by schools or seminars. Sometimes a small group will
school districts and courses affiliated with meet to examine some new methods or
institutions of higher education. The ex- materials.
tent to which teachers pursue professional In one case, some teachers were in-
development while continuing to teach spired by the counselor to examine a
varies considerably. Their participation teacher-effectiveness training program.
may be indicative of the commitment of The teachers agreed to meet twice a week
the individual teachers, the efforts of the for ten 30-minute sessions. The counsel-
teaching profession to improve teaching ors-consultant had the materials ready,
practice, or simply salary structures that started the group on time, and facilitated
reward participation in professional devel- the teachers in the structured activities.
opment.
Word spread the experience was an
Teachers regularly participate in pro- interesting one. The participants talked
fessional development workshops and about how they were benefiting from this
seminars. Topics include uses of educa- opportunity to share ideas and to prac-
tional technology for instruction, meth- tice some interpersonal skills they could
ods of teaching in their subject fields, use in the classroom and around school.
student assessment, cooperative learning Soon the counselor-consultant formed a
in the classroom, and more. Full time second group, meeting with one group in
public school teachers are more likely the morning before classes started and the
to participate in activities on all types of other at the end of the day after classes
professional development topics than are ended.
full time private school teachers. Full time
public elementary school teachers are An interpersonal and communication
more likely to participate than are their skills workshop can be designed for teach-
secondary school counterparts. ers to learn the facilitative model as out-
lined in this book. One advantage would
When teachers think of consultants be more people in the school would have
who provide training and staff develop- a common professional language in which
ment, they often think of external consul- to communicate about cases and to plan
tants who work out of the central office interventions. Support is not enough.
or who have been hired from outside the Support needs to be accompanied by
school district. Training might be part of knowledge and understanding.
pre-service or in-service agreements with
teachers, who dutifully sit through vari- After a few brief presentations about
ous seminars, workshops, and conferenc- the facilitative model and studying a few
es, hoping to learn something that might brief handouts, a school faculty could
apply to their work. Some workshops are practice the high facilitative responses
worth their time while others are ques- in groups of three (triads). In this pro-
tionable at best. cedure one teacher talks about a topic,
while ~ second teacher is the facilitator
and practices using the high facilitative
responses in different combinations. The

third teacher observes the process and When teachers participate in training
tells the facilitator what was heard and activities in which they can put theory
observed. After three rounds, the three into practice and get to know one another
teachers eventually will have experienced better through some fun and stimulating
each role. topics, there is an opportunity for more
The topics are personalized and based cohesiveness to develop among a faculty.
on things of general interest to teach- It is not unusual to see that, after partici-
ers. Teachers are asked·to tell something pating, faculty members are more cordial
about themselves using such topics as: (1) and friendly to one another. They are
When you felt successful as a teacher; (2) willing to take more risks and break away
When you felt unsuccessful; (3) A child from old ineffective habits, especially as
who is of concern to you right now; (4) they learn more about their colleagues
A child to whom you would like to give and see them trying new ideas and skills.
a special award; (5) Something you like The triad training experience was in-
to do when you are not at school or not corporated into faculty meetings at one
thinking about teaching; (6) A special va- school after the principal decided it would
cation you would like to take, if you had be an appropriate way to end some facul-
all the time and money you needed; (7) A ty meetings. The principal discovered that
favorite teacher who had a big influence having beginning and experienced teach-
on your own teaching style; (8) What or ers in triads together, sharing times when
who influenced you to become a teacher; they felt successful and unsuccessful, was
(9) A teacher whom you disliked when encouraging to new staff. The more ex-
you were a student or on the same fac- perienced faculty members learned more
ulty; and (10) A job outside education you about their new colleagues and this con-
would like to have if you did not have to tributed to a friendly working climate in
worry about training or other consider- the school. New friends and more support
ations. groups resulted.
These ten topics, and similar ones,
are thought-provoking and interesting
to teachers, especially when they have
some time (approximately four minutes
per topic) to share their ideas. They listen
to the others in their groups share their
thoughts and feelings in the same amount
of time. It takes about 15 or 20 minutes to
complete a round when triads are used.

Consulting in In most schools, the counselor-con-

sultant may be part of all such child study
Child Study Teams or staffing teams, even though the other
School districts may use different members will vary from one child to an-
terms for their teams, such as child study, other. Sometimes counselors are given full
staffing, or educational placement, but responsibility for coordinating a team's
most have group meetings in which stu- meetings and the follow-up procedures.
dents are presented for study and educa- These can take as much as 30 percent of
tional placement decisions. Teams meet- a counselor's time, depending upon the
ings may involve the school counselor, needs of the student body and the steps,
school psychologist, classroom teachers, documentation, and other paper work that
building principal, and social worker. Oth- must be completed to meet national, state,
ers who have special information about and local requirements. In some schools,
the child or who offer special expertise the school psychologist takes the lead. In
may be included. Parents are always in- others, it might be an assistant principal
formed and/or invited to meetings that or a member of the special education staff.
address their child's educational place- In almost every staffing related to
ment. IDEA, the diagnostic-prescriptive ap-
During a meeting, a "case" is studied, proach to consultation is used. Emphasis
relevant records are examined, test scores is given to assembling information, ana-
interpreted, and concerns are identified. lyzing it, and making recommendations.
After hearing from various specialists and Typically, such case conferences average
after some discussion, recommendations 20-30 minutes each and often are ar-
are made about the case. ranged on one day a week.
The 1975 Education for All Handi- It is not easy to assemble several teach-
capped Children Act (PL 94-142) had a ers, administrators, and specialists. The
profound impact on all education, includ- more organized the meetings, the more
ing the work of school counselors. This time that can be given to other duties. Be
landmark law was renamed and enacted cautioned this type of work can become
as the Individuals with Disabilities Educa- consuming, especially at certain times of
tion Act (IDEA), as amended in 2004. the year. Look for assistance. For example,
The national law requires any child an aide can assemble and organize certain
with a handicapping condition be identi- information, materials, and forms. Avoid
fied and given appropriate educational being a secretary for a group and making
placement, including an Individual Edu- appointments for others. If this becomes a
cational Plan (IEP) that outlines the goals problem, talk with the group about it and
and strategies for meeting the child's discuss how responsibilities can be shared
educational needs. Consequently, a large among group members.
number of meetings of educational spe- Unfortunately, there are far too many
cialists and school teams have taken place counselors who do not have a planned
within the past decade, all for making week and who have failed to develop a
placement decisions and developing edu- comprehensive guidance and counseling
cational plans. program. Their programs are frequently
out of balance, many times because staff-
ings and other meetings related to edu-
cational placement become the primary
justification for having a school counselor
on the faculty.

A Process Approach Next, the group examined each of

the highly ranked items in terms of what
to Rebuilding a was currently being accomplished at the
Guidance Program school. As a group, the counselors rated
A group of high school counselors de- each item on scale of 0 to 5 according to
cided they wanted to make some changes how well or to what extent it was being
in their program. They realized they had done at the school from their point of
become administrative assistants over view. Again, the consultant facilitated the
the years and that far too much time was discussion with an emphasis on feelings,
spent in scheduling and rescheduling stu- clarifications, and perspectives others
dents for classes, performing non-program might have (teachers, administrators, stu-
coordinating or supervisory duties, and dents, and parents).
completing paper work. After a study For this process, the consultant relied
of their weekly schedules, it was obvi- on the use of high facilitative responses,
ous they did not have a developmental although the tasks were simple enough.
guidance program and some counselor Counselors waxed and waned from be-
interventions (e.g., small group counsel- coming defensive and justifying what
ing, large group guidance, peer facilitator was happening to admitting that certain
projects) were seldom used. As their own things were not going well or were being
dissatisfaction and lack of support among ignored. They confronted themselves with
teachers increased, they met together to their own information.
discuss what might be done. The consultant asked the group to list
One of the givens of the situation was what they were doing to accomplish the
the number of counselors and staff (secre- top ranked items on the first list, looking
tarial, clerical) the school could employ. for the kinds of interventions that were
Such personnel had already been deter- being used. Discussion followed, with ad-
mined at the district level. ditional clarification of how interventions
An outside consultant was asked to were alike and different. At this point,
help. The consultant could easily have the consultant introduced the six basic
been from another school in the district, counselor interventions (see Figure 4.1
someone who would agree to facilitate the in Chapter 4) and helped the counselors
process, especially if the following plan categorize the items on their list accord-
was used to help the group members pro- ing to these interactions. This was done to
cess their situation. conceptualize their work into a manage-
able plan. Then, it was possible to con-
The consultant began by asking the sider what a typical counselor week might
group to list all the things an effective look like in a balanced comprehensive
guidance and counseling program might program.
accomplish if it were in place.
Having listed what they wanted to ac-
The list was posted so everyone could complish, the group evaluated themselves
see it and the consultant facilitated a dis- on how skilled they were in each of the
cussion to help clarify the items. Examples interventions. By this time, the group
were given. Other factors were added and was more open to looking at possibilities.
items were linked. The group was then Defensiveness became less and less of an
asked to identify and rank order the top obstacle because the facilitative responses
five or six items that would be given the avoided judging, labeling, or excusing the
highest priority in an effective program. counselors. Again, a rating (1 to 5) was
This ranking was done quickly by group used to determine perceived effectiveness.
consensus.

It followed the group wanted to get Helpful Hints

more skill training in each of the counsel-
or-intervention areas except coordination. What is the problem?
They reviewed the facilitative model and
concentrated on how the problem-solving The presenting problem may not be
model might be used with various stu- the real problem, but it is the best the
dents. In subsequent training sessions, consultee can do at the time. As much
they focused on identifying target groups as 90 percent of the time, the presenting
of students for small group counseling problem is only a surface problem, per-
and discussed how some large group pro- haps a symptom, and the source of the
cedures could be used to make scheduling consultee's frustration and discourage-
and class placement more effective and ment may be in another area.
efficient. The counselors also took some Identifying the problem is the most
time to list and examine the barriers in difficult part of consultation. Some con-
their work and ways to reduce or work sultants prefer to work with whatever is
around them. presented to them by the consultee, with
In this case, process consultation led the assumption that working with one
to training consultation. As training took problem at a time and achieving success
place and the counselors tried new tech- will enable a consultee to look at the next
niques with different students, there was problem with more confidence. Still oth-
a need for case consultation. As some stu- ers believe a consultant should take extra
dents received counselor attention, more time at the beginning, asking questions
information also was available for staff- and clarifying issues to pinpoint the criti-
ings, when educational placement was an cal problem.
issue and the diagnostic-prescriptive con- What you see from your outside
sultation process was being used. perspective as the major problem may
This same model, with some modi- not be what the consultee sees. Only
fications, might be used with teams of the consultee has full knowledge of the
teachers as they consider their teaching events, the people involved, working
methods and materials. It also might conditions, and a host of other factors. It
be modified for use with parents, who would take a lifetime for a consultant to
could examine the types of interactions fully understand or comprehend all the
that happen at home and the manner in circumstances and details of a problem. It
which the family makes decisions. is impossible for the consultant to enter
the life-space of the consultee. Therefore,
the consultee is in the best position to
identify the problem or the parts of the
problem that need attention. It may not
be productive to second guess consultees,
especially if you take time to coach them
through a thinking process and facilitate
them in exploring their situations. At the
same time, you can listen for cues and
clues in what consultees say and draw
their attention to a workable issue that
stands out.

Resistance to Change Consequently, if you are working

Although a consultee may be sincere from a developmental approach, you may
in wanting to find a solution to a problem want to look for ways to create a little dis-
with a third party, there may be some re- comfort, perhaps a gentle confrontation.
sistance to implementing a plan of action. Without some anxiety, there is no motiva-
Putting the plan into action constitutes a tion for change.
change for the consultee and change of-
ten comes with some resistance. Making Time for Consultation
Sometimes a consultee will feel better Finding time for consultation can be
having talked about a problem or issue a problem for counselors, especially if it
and, subsequently, may not feel the need is not built into their weekly schedules.
to develop a plan or to take a next step. The best times to consult with teachers
Consultation may provide a catharsis ex- are during planning periods and immedi-
perience in which anxiety is reduced and ately before and after school. Sometimes
some balance is restored. The problem teachers may suggest meeting during their
remains, perhaps to be encountered again. lunch period. Unfortunately, this time
often is prone to distractions and inter-
Of the three types of consultation ruptions.
mentioned earlier, crisis consultation is
likely to produce the most anxiety and to Setting aside time for teacher semi-
result in some action being taken. There nars also is important, although the time
is more discomfort and motivation to may not be used each week. The title of
change, although defensiveness and tun- a seminar can attract people. Expert con-
nel vision can happen when a person is sultants or materials need play a minor
overwhelmed with stress. role, as teachers can become their own
resources by sharing ideas and practicing
Likewise, a remedial approach to con- techniques together.
sultation usually has more energy behind
a desire for change than a developmental Parent conferences are always difficult
approach. Although developmental con- to schedule. Some schools have parent
sultation makes the most sense logically, nights. But, this is seldom satisfactory be-
there often is too little discomfort to gen- cause they aren't timely to the situation
erate a commitment to change. or there often are too many parents to be
seen in a short time. The parents school
For example, a workshop on interper- personnel hope to see often are not pres-
sonal skills could improve classes and cre- ent. When teacher advisors meet with
ate better learning environments. It is log- their advisees' parents on teacher work-
ical and sensible to work on relationships days and special occasions, they can en-
in advance of a crisis. Then, when a crisis courage more parent involvement in their
happens, positive relationships can be children's education.
used to hasten the resolution of any prob-
lems that have developed. But, that often
is too logical, too intellectual, and too far
removed from the immediate concerns of
teachers. They are concerned about sur-
vival, meeting day-to-day demands, and
resolving day-to-day problems. Those are
the problems that are on their minds and
the ones they want to talk about.

Key to Multiple Intervention Improving the Learning Climate

Consultation is only one intervention The counselor can play an influential
that might be used by a counselor to help role in enhancing a school's learning cli-
a student. A multiple intervention sug- mate. Some educators see the counselor as
gests a counselor is using several means to a specialist in learning behavior and the
help a student. Consultation is probably affective domain. A traditional curriculum
the key to any plan using more than one could benefit from the interface between
intervention because it involves helping the affective and cognitive dimensions of
people support and cooperate with each student learning. This is a noble goal, but
other. teachers must see counselors as consul-
For example, you might meet with tants more than curriculum experts.
a student individually for a few counsel- Consultation is an essential com-
ing sessions. Then, based upon what you ponent in creating a favorable learning
have learned, you might consult with a climate, which can make everyone's job
student's teachers to see what might be easier. Students enjoy coming to school
done to help in the classroom. Parents more, work better with teachers, and have
also might be consulted. Perhaps the stu- fewer crises that involve the counselor.
dent could participate in a related small Teachers see more student progress, have
group experience. Multiple interventions fewer discipline problems, and find it eas-
involve some form of consultation and ier to discuss topics in their classes. There
are most effective when they are system- is a cooperative atmosphere.
atically planned. Counselors also enjoy the benefits of
such an environment, as they experience
Share the Challenge being part of the school's team effort.
On occasion, teachers or parents They feel less isolated and know others
just want you to counsel a student. Such will support their work. Through consul-
students are causing problems for them tation, teachers and parents also learn
and they want you to make things right more about the counselor's role and func-
through some magical interpersonal tion.
process. They want you to find out what
is making the students do what they do
and then correct them. In far too many
referrals, teachers and parents do not see
themselves as being part of the helping
process.
Share the responsibility for helping
students change. Share the involvement
and the energy it takes to confront stu-
dents' problems and to help them become
more effective and efficient learners. Al-
though individual and small group coun-
seling might be effective, it is through
consultation you can get others involved
and sharing in the challenges and respon-
sibilities.

Advantages, Limitations, Limitations of Consultation

and Conclusion 1. Consultation often takes place when
people are experiencing a crisis and
Advantages of Consultation they may not be ready to examine
their own behaviors as part of the
1. Consultation mobilizes more resourc- cases they present.
es in the school to help students.
2. Consultation is an indirect service
2. Consultation can be' a learning ex- which takes time away from more di-
perience for a consultee that can be rect counseling interventions.
applied in similar situations at later
times. In this sense, consultation 3. Consultation often is too brief in the
might reduce the number or change schools.
the nature of problems that reach a
counselor, especially as teachers and Conclusion
parents learn how to be more effective Consultation is different from coun-
with students. seling and has its own unique place as
3. Helping one teacher to become more a counselor intervention. Effective con-
effective through consultation enables sultation can help more students receive
a counselor-consultant to affect the guidance services. Teachers, especially,
well-being and personal develop- can benefit from consulting with a school
ment of many students who would counselor about students and classroom
otherwise not be seen by a counselor. management. The school counselor as
Counseling for one hour with one counselor-consultant also can be of help
student, for example, enables the to other school personnel.
counselor to reach only one student. The four basic approaches to consulta-
Consulting with a teacher who has tion focus on diagnosis and prescribing
25 students in the classroom enables a treatment, discussing a case, providing
the counselor-consultant to reach 25 a training workshop, and examining the
students. At the secondary level, this process of a system (e.g., school or class-
number is even greater. room). These approaches may be used in-
4. Some teachers already have positive dividually or in groups with teachers, ad-
relationships with troubled students. ministrators, and parents. The facilitative
Through consultation they can be model and problem-solving techniques
assisted to provide help to these stu- are integral parts of the consultation pro-
dents, perhaps in a more planned cess.
and systematic way. Consultation is a
particularly appropriate intervention
with these teachers because they may
be the best persons in the school to
approach the troubled students.


The Counselor
as Guidance Coordinator
Because a developmental guidance Coordination Defined

and counseling program is an organized
effort to personalize education for all Coordination as a counselor interven-
students, it requires a cooperative endeav- tion is the process of managing different
or by all school personnel. Sometimes indirect guidance services to students I
resource programs and people outside including special events and general pro-
the school should be involved. Everyone cedures. It usually involves collecting data
works together to share information and information, allocating materials and
I
exchange ideas, set goals, and identify resources, arranging and organizing meet-
and implement interventions. The school ings, developing and operating special pro-
counselor often is the coordinator of such grams, supervising and monitoring others,
efforts. and providing leadership.
The counselor as guidance coordina- Coordination involves organizing and
tor is a common role in most schools. It participating in activities related to peer
is the sixth and final intervention around facilitator training and projects, teacher ad-
which our comprehensive developmen- visor programs, child study teams, student
tal guidance and counseling program appraisal, staffings, educational placement,
has been organized. While not always a paraprofessionals, and student records. It
highly visible function, it is a routine part involves organizing cooperative efforts to
of a counselor's work. assist students and being an advocate of
developmental guidance.
Like consultation, coordination is an
indirect service to students. It must be The coordinating function or interven-
approached cautiously, because, without tion is influenced by several factors. First,
some restraint, it can almost totally con- school organizations and grade levels can
sume a counselor's time. In those schools determine a counselor's coordinating activi-
where direct services to students by counties. In most elementary schools, for ex-
selors are valued and protected, many of ample, there is only one full-time counselor.
the guidance coordinating activities are This counselor must coordinate guidance
assumed by or shared with others. services to a greater degree than counsel-
ors at other school levels where, typically,
more school personnel share the respon-
sibility. There are usually more counselors
in a school building at other grade levels
and they can divide some of the coordinat-
ing duties. In addition, as students move
through different school levels, their needs
and interests change.

Tradition also has a way of influenc- When school counselors are mini-
ing the coordinating function. "It's always mally prepared to function in a compre-
been done that way," is a strong state- hensive guidance and counseling pro-
ment and a powerful source of resistance gram, the coordinating function typically
for change. New counselors are indoctri- becomes a preferred role for counselors.
nated quickly by experienced ones regard- Some counselors, for instance, are unsure
ing the way things work. The "old guard" of themselves in leading groups and rare-
counselors know what has worked in the ly, if ever, do they use small or large group
past and follow a set of working proce- procedures in working with students.
dures, which they understand and accept These counselors are shuffled off to some
as part of their routine. Any efforts to unrelated duties which are convenient for
change can be upsetting and threatening. administrators to pass along.
Therefore, some coordinating activities There are some counselors who are
and procedures have lingered far beyond hesitant or, perhaps, afraid to work with
their usefulness because "that's the way disruptive students because they are
it's always been done." uncertain of what to do. Others might be
Most administrators do not have a full convinced that nothing can be done with
understanding of developmental guidance such students except to give them warn-
and counseling programs. Very few have ings. Such lack of skill or self-confidence
had courses in guidance. Subsequently, is the breeding ground for counselors
building principals and administrative as- who spend almost all their time providing
sistants are most familiar with traditional indirect services to students (Burnham &
roles, ones that some of them helped cre- Jackson, 2000).
ate. Administrators who remember when Finally, new demands and trends can
counselors were first employed to help influence the coordinating activities of
primarily with career guidance, personal counselors. When a primary education
testing, and planning are still around and bill was passed in Florida, it was wel-
have influenced many others over the comed by many administrators and coun-
years. selors because it emphasized early identifi-
In far too many high schools, both cation of learning problems in grades K-3
tradition and a lack of leadership have re- and it helped fund more school counselor
sulted in counselors becoming administra- positions. While it added a degree of job
tive assistants. Counselors are frequently security for elementary school counselors,
asked to collect admission information, it also added considerably more coordi-
make schedule changes, and complete nating duties. Child study and placement
district forms. Some have assumed a host were typically part of a counselor's coor-
of responsibilities unrelated to guidance dinating function. However, the new leg-
and counseling, partly because they have islation required more information, more
been willing to perform such duties and data collection, and more meetings, all
because they seem to have the flexible of which took counselor time away from
time to take on an extra task or job. direct services to children.

Chapter 11 The Counselor as Guidance Coordinator
At all school levels, a common com- Coordinating the

plaint among school counselors has to do
with the flood of requests they receive for Guidance Program
information about students. These re- School guidance and counseling
quests often are given to them when time programs have evolved over time. Initially
is limited. Apparently, there are many based on a philosophy that focused on
people who perceive counselors as having career guidance, the scope of the origi-
the time and some spt?cial qualifications nal guidance programs has broadened.
for gathering school information. Although career guidance and school
In one case, an urgent request came achievement might still be considered
from the district superintendent, who the cornerstones, contemporary programs
suddenly thought it would be a good idea now reflect more global goals related to
to write a note of personal congratula- becoming adults and members of society.
tions to each graduating senior who had As the scope of school counseling
earned some type of award or recognition increased, the flavor of these programs
at school. Although graduation ceremo- also changed to reflect a multidisciplinary
nies were near, the task of collecting the constellation-of-services model (Herr,
special information was passed on to the 2001). This, in turn, impacted the expect-
counselors. Why? Because counselors ed roles of guidance specialists who were
"had always been" the ones to respond to called counselors.
such spur of the moment requests. MacDonald and Sink (1999) raised
an issue that had been talked about since
the 1960s: Is a comprehensive guidance
program part of a school's mission or is it
an ancillary service that simply supports
teachers and administrators in their work
with students and parents? Advocates of
comprehensive guidance programs have
long argued that such programs must
be valued as central components of the
school, offering both a curriculum and
a unique set of interventions to help all
students obtain the most benefits from
their educational experiences (Gysbers &
Henderson, 2000; Herr, 2001).
The American School Counselor As-
sociation (ASCA), the largest professional
organization of school counselors, has
become more assertive in advocating the
value and need for comprehensive guid-
ance programs in the schools. In 1997,
ASCA adopted The National Standards
for School Counseling Programs, which
emphasized the term "comprehensive
program" to describe the organization and
the purpose of counseling in schools.

In 2002, ASCA took additional steps The Missouri program organizes the
toward standardization by forming na- work of counselors (K-12) into direct and
tional committees and task forces that indirect activities and services. Direct
would help identify essential program services consist of implementing a guid-
components. In addition, ASCA empha- ance curriculum, individual planning,
sized the need to accent program more and responsive services, whereas indirect
than services and outcomes more than services focused on system support. More
functions. Everything was to be tied to specifically, the guidance curriculum
helping children learn and gain the most includes structured developmental experi-
from school. As mentioned previously, ences presented systematically through
ASCA's National Model (2005) is the latest classroom and large group activities.
professional effort to help define, clarify, There is an emphasis on decision mak-
and give counselors direction. ing, self-understanding, career exploration
Regardless of a particular model or and preparation, and the improvement of
approach to school counseling or favored study skills. Individual planning includes
ways of describing counselor interven- counseling activities to assist all students
tions and strategies, the national stan- to plan, monitor, and manage their own
dards provided a core of desired goals learning as well as their personal and
and student outcomes. Moreover, the career development. Individual plans are
standards can be tailored to different developed in middle school in collabora-
geographic areas, demographic groups, tion with parents/guardians. Individual
available resources, and needs of a partic- planning also includes test interpretation,
ular school. There is a core of knowledge, advisement, and the identification of
attitudes, and skills that characterize the short and long term goals.
basic outcomes of any program. These can Responsive services includes counsel-
be measured and they are central to the ing, consultation, and referral activities to
mission of the school and to what school meet the immediate needs and concerns
counselors do. of students. This could include personal
In Missouri, 30,000 high school counseling; crisis counseling; agency
students were involved in a classic study referral; consultation for parents, teachers
(Lapan et al., 1997) that compared high and other professionals; support groups;
school students who attended schools and problem solving. Finally, system
in which comprehensive developmental support includes guidance management
guidance programs were implemented to activities that maintain and enhance the
students who attended schools without total guidance program, such as staff and
such programs. Results showed students community relations, program evaluation,
in schools with comprehensive guidance research projects, and professional devel-
programs were more likely to report they opment (Gysbers & Henderson, 2000).
had earned higher grades in their classes
and felt better prepared for the future.
They believed more career and college
information was available to them and
their school environments were largely
positive.

In recent years, the comprehensive Moreover, the model is emphatic

guidance program has emerged as a driv- about outcome-driven programs rather
ing force for improving education in the than process programs, which tend to
state of Utah. Some common elements focus on the delivery system. The frame-
of successful school plans include co- work offers a common language for
ordinated guidance curriculum activi- planning, designing, and implementing a
ties-sequenced by grade level-in areas counseling and guidance curriculum.
of self-knowledge, education, occupation
exploration, and career planning. Indi-
vidual assessments, parental involvement,
educational plans, and counselor partici-
pation in the process are highlighted.
Florida's Framework for Counseling
and Guidance Programs (K-12) is a com-
prehensive student development model
that was first made public in 1995. The
model stressed a student curriculum
based on four content areas: academic,
personal/social, career, and community
involvement. The critical components of
a program are self-efficacy as a learner,
career and life goals, academic learning
skills, and classroom social skills. These
contribute to a student's readiness to learn
and student achievement. Student learn-
ing is the primary goal of all comprehen-
sive counseling and guidance programs
(Florida Department of Education, 2001).
The Florida model is organized around
ten program standards and nine student
standards (Figure 11.1). Each school dis-
trict must translate these standards into a
format and system that is consistent with
their local policies and practices.
In general, standards one through five
represent structural elements needed for a
student development program. The next
four standards define the counselor role
and the program delivery components.
The remaining standards outline account-
ability measures for personnel and pro-
gram. (See Figure 11. l.)

Figure 11.1
Florida Program Standards
Florida Department of Education (2001)
1. Mission Statement A mission statement for the student development pro-

gram has been developed.
2. Rationale/Philosophy A rational/philosophy for the student development

program has been developed.
3. Advisory Committee An advisory committee for the student development

program has been established and is active.
4. Program Resources Staff, financial resources and political resources appropri-

ate to carrying out the full intent for the student develop-
ment program are provided.
5. Program Management
and Support Management and support strategies are in place for
maintaining and enhancing the comprehensive student
development program.
6. Counseling All students and their parents/guardians have access to

counseling services to assist them with problems or
concerns relating to academic, personal/social, or career
development.
7. Consultation All students, along with their parents/guardians, are

provided opportunities to develop, monitor, and manage
their educational and career plans.
8. Coordination The counseling personnel coordinates student develop-

ment activities that contributed to the effective operation of
the school.
9. Curriculum A counseling and guidance curriculum that specifies the

competencies all students should master has been devel-
oped and implemented.
10. Accountability Procedures and processes have been established to evalu-

ate counseling and guidance personnel as well as a formal
review process for the student development program.
(Florida Department of Education, 2001 ).

The framework also is viewed as Coordination as a

a transitional document, one that at-
tempts to align itself with the standards Counselor Intervention
promulgated by ASCA and the National Coordination has not received much
Consortium of State Guidance Leader- attention as a counselor intervention
ship. Instead of "guidance counselor," the since it was identified some years ago
term "school counselor" is preferred and as one of three major counselor roles:
described as a certified professional who counseling, consultation, and coordina-
uses counseling, coordinating, consultation (ACES-ASCA, 1966). There are many
tion, curriculum development, and deliv- activities that might fall under the term
ery skills to implement a comprehensive "coordination."
student development program. The term In a survey of 193 elementary and
"guidance" is preserved as part of the pro- middle school counselors (Kameen,
gram to help identify the transition from Robinson, & Rotter, 1985), more than 20
a guidance model to a student develop- different functions were listed and ranked.
ment/school counseling program model. Some of the functions were not consid-
School counselors are the guardians of ered part of the guidance program or
guidance programs. They are the ones who were given a low ranking by counselors;
"tell and sell." Typically, the coordinator of still, counselors felt obligated to do them.
the program is a school counselor, even if Things have not changed enough in the
there only is one in a school. This assign- passing of the years.
ment often places counselors in a quasi- What follows are some representa-
administrative role, sometimes seen as an tive samples of activities that might be
intermediary between administration and included in the work of a counselor as a
classroom teachers. coordinator. It is not an all-inclusive list.
Student outcomes and the way in No doubt, some school districts use a dif-
which counselors manage their time can ferent nomenclature and have their own
determine whether they are seen as coun- variations when describing these activi-
selors in a comprehensive guidance and ties. Also, each school system adopts its
counseling program or as administrative own rules, regulations, and procedures
assistants caught up in non-guidance and related to coordination.
counseling tasks, duties, and responsibili-
ties. Regardless, a major counselor's role is
that of being a coordinator and managing a
guidance program.

Coordinating the Busy administrators and teachers val-

Total Guidance Program ue strong leadership. They want you to as-
sume control and direction of a program
Perhaps the most important coordi- that is closely identified with your posi-
nating function is assuming responsibility tion, preparation, and skill. They want
for the overall guidance and counseling you and your colleagues to take charge
program. Its success and continued im- of the guidance program. However, you
provement is dependent on professional must also be sensitive to the needs and
leadership and effective management that interests of those with whom you work.
typically rests with the school counselors. Teachers are not responsive to someone
Some writers have attempted to iden- who ramrods a program and who ignores
tify the characteristics of an effective pro- their own priorities and the demands on
gram leader. The conclusion is the person their time.
should have a record of past professional For example, teachers will are less
accomplishments which inspires confi- likely to buy into TAP when told by the
dence and support from others. A favor- administration that this is what they
able record usually demonstrates one has must do. Rather, teachers have to be ap-
the ability for getting things done. Natu- proached as professionals and helped to
rally, it helps if the person is a respected see the meaning and value of the pro-
member of the profession and has knowl- gram. The idea has to be sold to them
edge of the history and latest information first. When all is said and done, they are
about it. This would include an under- the ones who have to implement it.
standing and practice of professional and
ethical standards (see Appendix C). More While strong leadership may call
credibility is added if the person also has forth an image of a dynamic, forceful, and
proven to be an expert practitioner in commanding personality, one's objectives
both individual and group work. can be accomplished without playing
"General Patton." There may be occasions
Strong program leadership can be when such a role is needed and called for,
demonstrated through convincing presen- but a wise leader will avoid blustery or
tations and written statements. You could, flamboyant styles, no matter how brilliant
for example, outline a model program and the idea.
present it to the administration or faculty,
enlisting their cooperation and support. An effective leader is adept at articu-
Such a plan might detail goals and ex- lating the program. Being creative and
pected outcomes, various roles for school innovative is appreciated if the person
personnel, possible interventions, and also is open and receptive to the ideas of
guidance activities. others. "Telling and selling are two skills
you need if you are going to develop an
A leadership position relies on your effective guidance program," reported
ability to inspire and influence people. It one administrator. You don't need all the
also suggests you have carefully thought answers, but you have to be able to talk
out a plan, including your own position about a program that addresses the needs
and how your role complements the help- of faculty, parents, and students.
ing roles of others. Your comprehensive
program should have a rationale based
upon an accepted philosophy of develop-
mental guidance and this has to be com-
municated to others.

A "take charge" approach to leader- Coordinating the

ship is not the only avenue. To the con- Guidance Committee
trary, effective leadership can be subtle,
occurring within a system where others Regardless of grade level, an organized
are the directors or administrators. In this guidance committee or guidance council
sense, the facilitative model plays a signif- can be useful. It is usually composed of
icant part. Skilled professionals know how a small number of representatives from
to lead and accomplish. things, regardless the faculty. It also may include support
of their titles or positions. personnel, such as the school psycholo-
gist, media specialist, and administrators.
More specifically, leadership might It may even include students.
be asserted through committee meetings,
where you listen carefully to ideas that The primary purpose of such a group
are expressed, clarify and summarize key is to discuss the guidance and counseling
points, and then make timely suggestions. needs that exist in a school and various
It is not too different, at times, from some ways in which these needs can be met.
helping strategies that are used in coun- The group is a sounding board for coun-
seling and consultation. Being an effective selors, who can test their ideas and receive
facilitator has all the components of being some assistance before involving the en-
an effective leader. tire faculty. One counselor, for example,
needed assistance in planning for the
Leadership results from being familiar introduction of classroom guidance units
with the roles and interventions school in some classes and asked for suggestions
personnel can play in a guidance and about ways to present the idea to teachers
counseling program. It also means look- and to coordinate schedules.
ing for opportunities when you can com-
municate your role, reinforce the basic A common activity in many guid-
philosophy of developmental guid~n~~' ance committees is to develop or review a
introduce your ideas, and take the m1t1a- needs assessment instrument which can
tive to implement appropriate interven- be administered to students and teach-
tions. ers in the school. The survey can then be
used to increase faculty or public aware-
Effective leaders in developmental ness, gain more support, identify goals,
guidance and counseling, at this point in and set priorities. Specific target students
history, recognize most people have only or target populations can be identified
minimal knowledge and understanding of with more confidence and, subsequently,
a comprehensive program and what roles a counselor might receive more support
are encompassed. There are not enough for the use of an intervention. The com-
exemplary programs to make the con- mittee can discuss management problems
cept commonplace in today's education. that are related to guidance programs
Therefore, the coordinating and leader- and work on resolving them. Committee
ship function must consider the educa- members can talk with others outside the
tion and reeducation of school personnel, group in a networking scheme to aid com-
parents, and students. munication within the school regarding
guidance.
District-wide committees or councils
also can be organized. This networking
group might consist of representatives
from different school levels who review
guidance and counseling programs.

Coordinating administrator, a curriculum specialist, or a

Student Assessment resource teacher might assume the largest
share of the responsibility. But, usually
Standardized testing is still consid- counselors are involved to some degree
ered within the realm of guidance ser- in coordinating testing programs in their
vices. Consequently, school counselors schools.
frequently coordinate school testing
programs. This may consist of organiz- As part of the educational reform
ing test materials and school procedures; movement, standardized testing is at the
administering tests; and distributing and center of the discussion. State and nation-
interpreting test results to students, teach- al tests are lightening rods for the educa-
ers, and parents. This is a traditional role tional reform movement. In this assess-
for counselors, first emphasized in the ment revolution, the process of evaluating
1960s when high school counselors were students also is being challenged.
looking for ways to identify gifted and Test, test, and test again. This has be-
talented students. come the lament of counselors, teachers,
Many school systems now have and parents in the past several years. State
someone at the central administration and national legislators are attempting
office who is primarily responsible for to put an accountability system in place
the school district's testing program. This based on test performance. Student test
includes standardized intelligence and scores are considered a reflection of teach-
achievement tests. Testing programs have ers and their schools. Failing schools are
such high visibility in contemporary edu- sometimes punished rather than assisted.
cation that procedures must be systematic School voucher plans allow parents in
and well organized. School psychologists schools with a high proportion of low-
in many school districts work out of a performing students to transfer to other
central office and accept referrals for indi- schools in the district, or even a private
vidual assessments from schools to which school.
they are assigned. However, the contact While almost every state has imple-
or resource person for testing programs mented some sort of state testing pro-
within a school is typically the school gram, there are differences in what they
counselor. measure, how they measure it, and how
The actual administration of standard- they set achievement levels. This makes it
ized tests by counselors is limited to a virtually impossible to conduct meaning-
few intellectual or aptitude assessments. ful state-by-state comparisons of individu-
This kind of testing is usually done when al student performance.
a school psychologist or psychometrist is In addition, outcomes are usually
not available and the counselor is quali- judged on normative data, which com-
fied to administer the tests. pares students to how other test-takers
Even when all teachers are involved have fared. Criterion-referenced tests that
in administering county or district-wide measure achievement in terms of absolute
achievement tests, or when school psy- levels of mastery are preferred. One test
chometrists or school psychologists are cannot measure what teachers do during a
available to administer specialized tests, school year (Urban, 2001).
the counselor is usually the coordinator
of such events. In some cases, an assistant

Some experts have challenged the is required even if the school performs
validity of tests and argue against relying well overall. In other words, schools now
on test scores to be the final determinant are considered successful only if they
of student achievement (Popham, 2001). close all achievement gaps. Many schools
Most states use multiple-choice exams struggle to meet this benchmark.
that don't encourage students to think The lack of trust in teachers has
critically or apply what they have learned. created threatening environments and
Assessments of achievement must do teacher morale problems in many schools.
more than measure the recall of informa- The stress is compounded when groups
tion and rote application. complain tests often are biased and unre-
Test performance has been a part liable when measuring the achievement
of university entrance requirements for of minority and low socio-economic level
many years. Those who want to attend students. Students who speak and under-
the college of their choice have felt the stand standard English certainly have a
pressure of performing on national stan- test advantage.
dardized tests such as the SAT or the ACT. In addition, some teachers are aban-
Now, state tests are mandatory hurdles doning time-honored curriculum goals
for grade promotion and high school and assignments in order to give more
graduation. These high stakes tests put time to a narrower curriculum that focus-
additional pressure on test performance, es on academic test performance (Bracey,
making more students and their parents 2002). Since the passage of the NCLB
extremely anxious. legislation (2003), there has been a greater
Federal education policies spotlight emphasis on preparing students for stan-
the achievement gap chiefly by telling dardized achievement tests, especially
states to make it disappear. The NCLB re- those developed by state departments of
quires states to set the same performance education. In some cases, students must
targets for children from economically pass the state standardized test in order to
disadvantaged families, those with dis- receive a diploma.
abilities, and those with limited English It may be difficult to integrate the
proficiencies. The same targets also exist guidance curriculum in schools where
for all major ethnic and racial groups. Ac- teachers and administrators are fearful of
countability testing is a main focus of the tests that are used to evaluate their school.
federal legislation. In addition, some teachers are reluctant to
The "achievement gap" often is cor- release students to meet with counselors
related with race and socio-economic for fear it will steal valuable teaching time
status. In every state of the nation, a gap needed to prepare students for national
in academic achievement persists between and state achievement tests.
minority and socio-economically disad- One of the strongest features of the
vantaged students and most of their white American education system, which can
peers. Studies have shown test perfor- help account for our nation's greatness,
mance can be predicted based on socio- has been its willingness to give young
economic status and postal zip code. people second and third chances to suc-
Within a school, if any student ceed. Opportunities for success in life
subgroup persistently fails to meet per- don't depend on a single determining
formance targets, districts must provide episode, such as a high-stakes test. Indeed,
public school choice and supplemental the message to students has long been
services to those students-and eventually life is full of opportunities for those who
restructure the school's governance. This are prepared and willing to take on new

challenges. Developmental guidance and candidates for placement in classes for

counseling programs deliver this message students with emotionally handicapping
across all grade levels. conditions. Previous placements must be
While this message is reassuring, the periodically reviewed for current appropri-
current use of testing in the schools cre- ateness.
ates a more challenging dynamic. In this In general, a teacher first identifies a
climate, most students and parents will child who is having problems and who
appreciate skills and strategies that focus needs special attention. Alternative edu-
on test preparation, test-taking skills, cation may be a possibility. The teacher
management of test anxiety, and ways to refers the child to a school counselor by
cope with high expectations. filling out referral forms developed by the
Given the pressures of high-stake test- school district. The counselor consults
ing, school counselors often are given the with the referring teacher and follows a
assignment of coordinating the manda- screening process to determine some next
tory state exams. It includes signing for steps.
delivery, distribution, and supervision of Sometimes the case is taken before a
the exams, and it calls for a high level of child study team within the school (e.g.,
security. It could involve arranging times Educational Planning Team), as a prelimi-
and places for administration of the ex- nary step before educational and psycho-
ams, collection, and return. Protecting the logical evaluation. Some interventions
integrity of the process often is delegated and additional observations are planned.
to guidance. In one school district, at least two inter-
ventions of at least six weeks in length are
Coordinating Child Study Teams required before a "staffing" can happen.
Child study teams are used in most If a child, for example, does not respond
schools. They are organized differently to the interventions, the counselor refers
and may have .different names, but their the child for more testing by a school
general purpose is to assemble a group of psychologist or psychometrist. Then, after
professionals together to review the status all information is assembled, a commit-
of a student. Some child study teams tee meets to review the case in terms of
focus on helping teachers work with stu- educational placement and individual
dents in their classes. Others look specifi- educational plans (IEPs). Parental involve-
cally at learning disorders and educational ment is important during every phase of
placements. School counselors are mem- the process.
bers of these teams and help coordinate In 1975, Congress enacted Public Law
them. 94-142, also known as Education for All
There seems to be more child study Handicapped Children Act, to aid states
meetings and staffings at the elementary in protecting the rights and meeting the
level. When students reach the second- needs of children with disabilities. This
ary schools, most learning disorders have landmark law enabled the creation of
been identified and placements have been the special education teacher and class-
resolved. However, some students may room. By having specialized educators to
still need special attention. New students diagnose and address a variety of handi-
to a high school may need to be studied capping conditions, including learning,
by teams and then staffed for placement. mental, psychological, and physical,
Some students may begin to show more schools began to integrate students who
signs of emotional disturbance and be previously would have been considered
unteachable.

Public Law 105-17, the Individuals In most school systems, the counsel-
with Disabilities Education Act Amend- ors possess a general counseling certifica-
ments of 1997 (IDEA), is now considered tion and serve all students. The school
the federal special education law. This law counselor's role with special needs stu-
replaced all earlier versions of Public Law dents is similar to the role for all students:
94-142. being available for personal and social
Such public laws have increased the counseling; listening to the student's
number of staffings counselors coordi- point of view; dealing with any student
nate, especially at the elementary level. mental health issues that may arise; help-
In every school system, the law calls ing students deal with transitions; and
for school counselors, school psycholo- being a student advocate. The counselor is
gists, exceptional child education teach- likely to be involved in a student's indi-
ers, administrators, and parents to work vidualized education program (IEP) and
together. They form the nucleus of a team be present at IEP meetings. In addition to
responsible for making placement deci- providing coordination and consultation,
sions and developing individual educa- the counselor, especially at the elementa-
tion plans for students with handicapping ry school level, will provide direct servic-
conditions. es, such as one or more interventions.
School counselors might be the coor-
Coordinating
dinators of such staffings, although others
(e.g., a school psychologist or a resource Multiple Interventions
teacher) might just as easily serve as the Multiple interventions in guidance
chairperson. Counselors have to know involve several people who are working
and understand the law, district proce- with a student or a group of students.
dures, and appraisal measures in order to These may be certified personnel (e.g.,
be effective members of the group. teachers, social workers) or non-certified
They either may be consultants on helpers (e.g., aides, parent volunteers, and
the teams or work as coordinators for the auxiliary workers from community agen-
groups. They may follow-up with some cies).
students and include them as part of their Students may be referred to you be-
counseling case load, or they might coor- cause someone is concerned about their
dinate some guidance efforts to be imple- well-being. A student may or may not be
mented by others (e.g., teachers, parents, a candidate for staffing under the P.L. 94-
social services workers, school aides, or 142 provisions. Still, there is a problem.
volunteers). As a counselor, you might call together
The experience of being a member of a group of people who might be able to
a child study team and participating in help. As coordinator, you could encour-
staffings may be the only way in which age the group to explore the situation and
counselors can learn about this critical then to develop a plan that might involve
area. It is usually not a part of counselor multiple interventions.
education preparation in most colleges Counselors cannot ignore their role
and universities. as coordinator of multiple interventions.
Otherwise, a fragmented approach to
helping students results, which is not an
effective or efficient use of time. Initiating
and coordinating multiple interventions
is the responsibility of the counselor.

Coordinating Accurate and immediate implementa-

Crisis Interventions tion of a critical incident response plan
can significantly protect and ensure
Tragic events happen in communi- students' safety during a critical event
ties and schools that affect the lives of and mitigate long-term effects following
students and staff. A child may die unex- the event. School counselors can screen
pectedly. A tornado may destroy a family's students for unhealthy or unsafe coping
home. Racial or ethnic slurs may cause responses to current or past tragedies and
students to congregate and make threats. then intervene or make appropriate refer-
A student may have committed suicide rals.
or an angry parent may have stormed
into the school and threatened a teacher. When a critical incident takes place,
There is a crisis at hand and, more often most school administrators will count on
than not, administrators will want coun- their counselors to work directly with stu-
selors to help out in these difficult situa- dents in large and small groups, providing
tions (Dudley, 1995). individual counseling when appropriate.
Generally, 75 percent of a student body
When the counselor is asked to take will find a large group experience helpful
the lead in coordinating a crisis inter- and it will satisfy their needs, provided
vention, it does not mean the counselor they are given an opportunity to clarify
is solely responsible for any action that matters and express their feelings. An-
may be taken. To the contrary, the coun- other 25 percent will need more assistance
selor is only one part of a team effort. For and may need small group counseling. Of
instance, a crisis support plan in most these, about one to two percent will need
schools provides direction for a combina- individual attention. Counselors cannot
tion of helpers: counselors, psychologists, meet everyone's immediate counseling
social workers, administrators, commu- needs and will set priorities, based on
nity volunteers, and peer helpers. maintaining the welfare of the student
Every school should have a crisis body.
intervention plan that can be initiated at School counselors should know who
the building level. Some school districts the first responders are, such as law en-
also have crisis support teams and plans forcement officials, emergency medical
that involve personnel from outside a par- responders, and agency counseling service
ticular school (Knox & Roberts, 2005). providers in the community. In addition,
In many cases, an assistant principal, counselors assist by networking with com-
if available, will coordinate the crisis re- munity resources and referring victims
sponse efforts at a school, although roles or those affected by a critical incident for
and functions and specific guidance and more assistance.
counseling services are carefully planned
with the school counselors.

Coordinating Referrals Referring young people to outside

agencies requires some carefully planned
Sometimes students' problems exceed
procedures, such as recorded observations
the resources available in a school. The
of behaviors by responsible people who
situation may be too complex or beyond
are concerned about the student. The be-
the scope of the regular guidance and
havior usually is chronic and disruptive.
counseling services. Sometimes young
It interferes with the learning process of
people need more intensive help, perhaps
both the troubled individual and oth-
therapy or more extended remedial treat-
ers. Parents are contacted and consulted.
ment, to help them cope with problems
Sometimes they need to be encouraged to
in their lives. On occasion, mental health
work with an agency.
counselors will work with child and ado-
lescent clients on a school campus (Rones Typically, the referral process does not
& Hoagwood, 2000), especially in full- begin with a complete diagnostic work-
service schools. up by the school because most agencies
have their own diagnostic procedures.
The counselor works as a coordinator
However, accurate behavioral observa-
in referring students and their families to
tions, specific relevant data taken from
professionals in the community who have
existing school records, and a summary of
the time, experience, and resources to
the student's work habits and progress in
help. This requires knowledge of available
school can be useful. It is unnecessary to
referral resources and an open communi-
identify the underlying dynamics of the
cation system with them.
problem before a referral is made. Referral
Practical counselors have a referral procedures should be streamlined.
resource notebook nearby which includes
Referral does not mean the respon-
the names and addresses of agencies, con-
sibility for the case is ended. It implies
tact persons and their titles, and telephone
some follow-up procedures will result.
numbers. They have taken the time to
Many community agencies are so over-
learn how a receiving agency typically
whelmed with their own case loads they
works with referrals and they know what
may not provide progress reports, in
to expect when a case is referred. With
which case, the counselor might have to
frequently used agencies, they usually
make a periodic check on students who
have a first-name working relationship
have been referred. Recommendations
with someone with whom there can be a
for school-based supportive interventions
candid exchange of information and ideas.
should be sought from the agency, as well
If you find yourself working with a as any case information that is appropri-
particular agency several times, it would ate to share with teachers.
be valuable to visit that agency and talk
A classroom teacher suspected a child,
with its personnel at a time when a crisis
Tyrone, was being neglected at home and a
is not at hand. An informal gathering at
referral was made to the school counselor.
the school or the agency can help build
The teacher noticed Tyrone often wore the
positive working relationships and clarify
same clothes, complained of being hungry,
the practical procedures that are consid-
and stayed around the school building
ered most effective and efficient. For ex-
long after school hours. The counselor
ample, a breakfast meeting of agency and
suspected child neglect and was obligated
school personnel might provide an oppor-
by law to refer the case to professionals in
tunity to become better acquainted and to
community child welfare services. The co-
share information. Advanced preparation
ordination of the case was jointly assumed
is part of the developmental model and
by a social worker and the counselor.
can make referrals easier.

The social worker investigated the school system, or school to be presenters.

situation and learned the mother was On other occasions, the counselor will be
divorced, unemployed most of the time, the most appropriate (or available) choice.
and seldom home. Tyrone and his young- The most effective staff development
er siblings often were left on their own. programs are those that are continuous
The community agency made some provi- or are carried out over time. They usually
sions for assisting the mother, who was involve a presentation of ideas, demon-
eventually confronted by legal authorities. strations, practice, and an assignment in
Help from other adults who were related which the techniques are implemented.
to the mother and children also was elic- In addition, teachers like the opportu-
ited. Meanwhile, Tyrone attended school nity to meet and talk about successes and
regularly. His school was the cleanest and problems related to something that was
most positive environment in which he learned in an in-service workshop. Follow-
lived. The counselor further coordinated up meetings can reinforce the concepts
special efforts at the school, including that were discussed in a workshop and
some consultation with the referring they encourage more people to try them
teacher and providing some brief counsel- in their work.
ing to the child.
Systematic referral procedures coordi- Coordinating Paraprofessionals
nated by a counselor can ensure that sig- and Volunteers
nificant problems do not go unnoticed or
ignored. In addition, the referral process is Every school relies upon the assistance
improved when in-service or staff devel- of people who work as aides, special help-
opment workshops assist faculty members ers, or volunteer staff. The term parapro-
to become aware of potential problems fessional has been used to describe people
and to know how to make appropriate who are not certified as professionals in a
referrals. school. They need both training and su-
pervision to be most effective, regardless
of assignment or duties.
Coordinating Staff
Development and In-service Coordinating a training program for
paraprofessionals can fall to counselors.
A counselor is sometimes asked to The training is like an abbreviated peer
help assess the professional needs and in- facilitator training program, with special
terests of a school faculty and to help plan attention given to school rules and pro-
some appropriate staff development or in- cedures, facilitative skills in working with
service workshops. Sometimes a counselor students and teachers, and related skills
studies the situation, perhaps with the for a specific job function.
help of the guidance committee, and then
makes recommendations to the principal. The utilization of paraprofessionals
The principal may give the counselor the in a guidance and counseling program
task of coordinating a workshop, particu- allows certified counselors more time to
larly if it is closely associated with guid- provide services which require special-
ance and counseling. Administrators often ized skills and training. Paraprofessionals
see counselors as the in-house experts in or volunteer adult help, with appropriate
human relationships and group develop- training and supervision, can help with
ment and the best ones to organize and routine office tasks or work directly with
coordinate staff development programs people. Clerical workers, for example, can:
in their schools. Sometimes the counselor
may call upon others in the community,

• collect and maintain files are coordinated and supervised to ensure

• prepare and reproduce materials students are receiving services appropri-
ate to their needs. The supervision and
• assist with collection of student data coordination of these activities within the
and student record keeping context of the school counseling program
• assist in administration and monitor- must be assumed by credentialed profes-
ing of group tests or guidance activi- sional school counselors.
ties. Non-credentialed personnel should
Some paraprofessionals have special not replace professional school counsel-
skills and have proven they can accept ors. It is prudent for a counselor to take
additional duties. They might serve as an active role in the selection of parapro-
resources who could: fessionals who will work in the guidance
• Catalog and file materials in the career office and willingly assume responsibil-
resource center. ity for providing training, direction, and
supervision for them.
• Help disseminate information and
materials.
Coordinating Student Records
• Assist counselors in presenting various
units within the guidance curriculum. Formerly, most school counselors
were in charge of organizing and coordi-
• Assist students in the use of computer- nating school records. With the advent of
ized career programs. test scoring services, computers, and other
• Operate audio and video equipment. assistance, this responsibility has dimin-
• Help analyze data and prepare reports. ished considerably. Many schools now
have a registrar or a secretary who, with
• Help develop, under supervision, the help of clerical aides, is responsible for
developmental guidance units that maintaining school records, their storage,
might be presented to students. and retrieval. However, some schools still
Schools must be diligent in seeking assign school counselors to coordinate
the most highly trained personnel for the collection of information for students'
dealing with crisis intervention, emotion- cumulative files and the management of
al and personal development, and stu- those records.
dents' sensitive, confidential needs. These Parents have the right to inspect and
situations present themselves on a daily review their children's school records and
basis in school counseling offices across they may wish to consult with a school
the country. Individuals with inadequate counselor about them. The "Buckley
training may, even with the best of inten- Amendment" to the 1974 Family Educa-
tions, provide inappropriate responses. tional Rights and Privacy Act gives parents
Other non-credentialed people who want the opportunity to challenge the content
to help students may include mentors, of those records in terms of accuracy and
agency counselors, peer helpers, school misleading or inappropriate data. Conse-
volunteers, and other caring individuals. quently, record keeping in the schools is
Students' needs are met through the now under close scrutiny.
collaborative efforts of all personnel in School counselors are encouraged
the school setting. Ethical and profes- to work with parents who want to re-
sional responsibilities require an assurance view and discuss their children's records.
the efforts of non-credentialed personnel Sometimes a counselor will consult with
a teacher about something that has been

placed in a student's cumulative file. One It might be remembered rights guar-

teacher was very angry when she wrote a anteed by the U.S. Constitution (e.g., 1st,
blistering note reprimanding a student. 4th, 5th, and 14th Amendments) have
Later, upon reflection with the help of a been extended to students. Students have
school counselor, the teacher decided to the right to be heard, to due process,
retrieve the note and to use more profes- and to be safeguarded against unreason-
sional language to express her concerns. able search and seizure. Still, most courts
Instead of labeling the child as "obscene hold the privacy rights of public school
and mentally sick," the teacher reported students must give way to the overriding
what she actually observed and heard. governmental interest in investigating a
Inferences were withheld, but recommen- reasonable suspicion of illegal drug use by
dations were unchanged. students. Student lockers can be searched
This brings to mind the issue of con- and illegal contraband can be seized.
fidentiality, at one time the essence of the School administrators are well advised to
counselor's role and image. School coun- respect and avoid violations of the consti-
selors do not have privileged communica- tutional rights of students and personnel.
tion and their records can be reviewed by In addition, legally speaking, students
court order. The general rule is counselors have a right to counseling services within
will do whatever they can to safeguard the a school. Teachers or administrators can-
confidential relationships they have with not prevent a student from reasonably
their students before releasing any infor- seeking those services.
mation. If subpoenaed, counselors will try There will be times or situations when
to exhaust all arguments (short of being counselors are uncertain about the proper
held in contempt of court and jailed) response or course of action or when pro-
before testifying in court. A case often is fessional ethical standards, legal statutes,
made that a counselor's notes and verbal and individual and group rights don't
testimony are only hearsay, lack proof, seem to mesh. It is critical in these times
and are not legally valid. for counselors to stay current on laws,
When a counselor acts in "good faith" rules, and regulations that relate to their
and breaches a confidential relation- work.
ship, it should be in the best interests of It is essential counselors know their
the student. Apparently, there are some limitations, obligations, and potential li-
procedural differences among counselors abilities. Systematic procedures, based on
at different grade levels. Many elementary professional guidelines and careful record
school counselors feel obligated to share keeping, can strengthen a guidance and
information with parents about their counseling program and provide more
children. confidence to counselors in their work.
Counselors must recognize the limita-
tions of their skills and, when appropri-
ate, refer to others who are more compe-
tent or in a better position to provide the
specific assistance needed. Counselors are
obligated by law to report such cases as
child abuse, potential suicide, or instances
when a student expresses intent to do
bodily harm.

A valuable use of school records is a Coordinating the Teacher-

resource from which to identify mean- Advisor Program (TAP)
ingful trends, potential problems, and
students who might be targeted for as- A school counselor might be appoint-
sistance. A review of summary reports ed coordinator for TAP. Such programs
and certain data gleaned from records need a person who can help organize
might help identify patterns or trends in the curriculum, make arrangements for
a school. Such informatjon can be used to materials and resources, and be a trou-
build a case for developmental guidance ble-shooter when problems develop. In
or to emphasize a need that should be schools with more than one counselor,
addressed. it may be each is responsible for coordi-
nating a part of the program. Otherwise,
Regarding your own records, even one counselor coordinates TAP while the
handwritten notes can be subpoenaed by other counselors have other coordination
courts and are open for inspection as part responsibilities.
of school records. All notes or recorded
conversations are subject to being part of Some schools have elected to have a
court proceedings if found essential to a teacher serve as the full-time or part-time
case by legal authorities. Record keeping coordinator of TAP. However, counselors
among counselors varies considerably, work closely with the TAP coordinator
although counselors in the elementary and help coordinate the guidance services
schools tend to keep more notes and to delivered through TAP.
have more systematic procedures for keep-
ing records on their interventions and Coordinating Peer Facilitator
work with others than do counselors at Programs and Projects
other grade levels. As a counselor, you might be a peer
A few school systems require coun- facilitator trainer and project coordina-
selors to use code systems and to record tor. If someone else in the school is the
the number of individual or small group trainer, then you will want to work closely
counseling sessions they provided. Other with that person to identify, develop, and
activities also are coded. Then, a summary coordinate some helping projects for the
report might be written at the end of a facilitators.
grading period or at the end of the year. One group of high school peer fa-
However, such coding is not the same as cilitators wanted to be special friends to
writing details about a case. a group of elementary students identi-
fied by their teachers as needing extra
attention. The peer facilitator trainer (a
teacher) and a school counselor worked
together to coordinate the project. An
elementary school counselor also was
involved. Together, they explored the
project with several teachers who agreed
to refer some students to the peer facili-
tators and to provide some time during
the day for them to meet. The counselors
from both schools coordinated the project
procedures and they jointly coordinated
an evaluation of the project.

Coordinating A community group had raised

Special Guidance Events enough funds to purchase the services of a
group of professional actors who were do-
Each school has special guidance ing dramatic plays about alcohol and drug
activities or events which are coordinated abuse. A school counselor met with group
by school counselors. For example, in representatives and talked with them
most high schools throughout the nation, about their goals and presentations. After
there is a college night when parents can some consultation, it appeared the plays
talk with counselors and other resource were related to several objectives in the
people about their children's educational school's guidance program. The counselor
futures. They learn how to apply to dif- agreed to work as liaison and coordinator
ferent colleges and to meet the entrance so students could see the plays and share
requirements. They hear about financial reactions in their classes.
loans and scholarships. Although most
of the information is readily available
Participating on the
(college bulletins, handouts, websites, and
other sources), such an event is consid- Curriculum Committee
ered a traditional service in most high A school counselor often will be a
schools. If it is well planned and coordi- member of a school planning commit-
nated, it creates a favorable perception tee, such as the curriculum committee.
with the public. This committee examines the curricula
Career nights or career fairs are fre- of a school in terms of objectives and
quently organized and coordinated by desired outcomes. The counselor listens
school counselors. Students might visit attentively to discussions, offering sug-
different booths where business people gestions when appropriate, and takes the
have been stationed to talk with them position of advocate for developmental
about various job opportunities. Similarly, guidance. Therefore, the committee has at
recruiters from different branches of the least one member who is "listening with a
military might be scheduled to talk with third ear" for those things which involve
students who are especially interested in the guidance of young people within the
serving. regular school curricula.
A group of parents were concerned
about the sex education curriculum
which was going to be introduced to their
elementary school children as part of a
planned school program. The counselors
organized and coordinated meetings in
which parents and concerned citizens
were given a preview of the program and
an opportunity to ask questions. Counsel-
ors reported coordinating such a meeting
was important and so was the use of the
facilitative model in leading the discus-
sions with parents.

Participating on the Some counselors form a school guid-

School Advisory Committee ance committee made up of school per-
sonnel. This is not the same as the more
The primary purpose of a school ad- comprehensive school advisory commit-
visory committee is to set program goals, tee, which includes parents and com-
provide support, offer advice, review pres- munity members. The school guidance
ent activities, and encourage new ones. committee is composed of teachers who
Some schools have advisory committees represent the grade levels of the school,
in place that focuses ori the total school. perhaps an administrator, and any others
Others have a committee specifically for the counselor may identify as being help-
student development. The following are ful in making recommendations and deci-
considerations when establishing an advi- sions about the guidance program. The
sory committee: primary purpose of this committee is to
• Members are appointed and there is be a sounding board, where ideas can be
a published schedule of meetings and discussed before they are put into action.
agenda items. For instance, one elementary school
• Committee membership reflects the counselor selected three teachers repre-
diversity of the community to include senting primary, middle, and upper grades
staff, parents, school board members, to meet with her as a guidance commit-
and business and community leaders. tee. The principal was included as needed.
• The chair of the committee is held by The committee met when called upon
someone other than an administrator by the counselor, who used it to identify
or counselor. student needs and target groups, to talk
about school climate, and to help set
• There may already be an existing
counselor priorities for classroom guid-
group formed that could assume this
ance units. In one instance, the commit-
responsibility.
tee recommended the school counselor
• Subcommittees can be assigned spe- might develop a unit on stealing and
cific tasks such as program design, property rights and it be delivered in all of
implementation issues, developing a the third grade classes. On another occa-
calendar, identifying components in sion, the counselor asked the committee
a guidance unit, writing lesson plans, about the best time to conduct a school
and obtaining helpful resources. wide survey.
• Use the committee to gain informa- In most schools, committee assign-
tion and insights regarding parental ments are made during pre-planning for
and community expectations, em- a new school year. If there are particular
ployment opportunities, and public individuals you would like to have on the
relations. guidance committee, you may want to
recruit them before they sign up for other
committees.

Factors to Consider Some counselors, in their eagerness to

be helpers and to receive appreciation from
Time waster or saver? others, rush to assume unassigned coordi-
nation responsibilities. This may give them
Although as much as 50 percent of a a feeling of importance or a sense they are
counselor's time might be used for coor- needed. A few counselors see their posi-
dinating guidance events and activities, tions as a stepping-stone to administration
some counselors report this is still not and they welcome the opportunity to co-
enough time to do all that is expected of ordinate almost anything to demonstrate
them. They feel overwhelmed with what their administrative skills.
might be done and with what is assigned
to them as duties.
Who else can help?
As discussed in Chapter 4, one way to Perhaps the most important question
protect the other five counselor interven- for a counselor who wants to deliver a bal-
tions from being encroached upon by anced program with more direct guidance
the coordinating one is to have a weekly and counseling services to students is:
calendar which shows time blocks where Who else can do this job? Who else can
certain interventions are regularly sched-
help?
uled. Events that demand extra attention
at a particular time of year are scheduled You might, for example, be able to
on a counselor's yearly calendar, showing identify certain tasks that could be coor-
events by the different grading periods. dinated by one of the administrators in
Then, the coordinating function can be your school or an aide under that admin-
managed through the year, with some istrator's supervision. A teacher might be
activities or events being spread out over willing to chair or coordinate a school
more than one grading period and others activity, especially if it is of special interest
receiving concentrated effort for a particu- to the person.
lar time.
In one high school, counselors were
What is on the calendar?
asked to patrol the hallways between class- Taking note of the days when stan-
es and to coordinate a meeting between dardized tests are administered, when
the sheriff's office and school representa- progress report cards go home, or when
tives regarding student parking problems. special events are scheduled can help a
Another group of counselors spent con- counselor plan for certain interventions.
siderable time obtaining information for Counselors in one middle school worked
a community group that was thinking of closely with teachers in a TAP program to
sending a girl to the Miss Teenage America help all eighth graders to develop four-
Contest. None of these requests seem to year high school plans. This unit was
merit counselor time. They took away scheduled in the spring of the year before
time that could have been spent delivering registration for classes at the high school.
counseling services to students. Each academic department was asked
to review some of the terminology and
language which students needed to make
class selections.

Is this the only way? The same group of counselors as-

Some high school counselors continue sumed students preferred individual
to see students individually in order to counseling to small group counseling,
schedule classes, when this could just as believing confidentiality was the key to
productive counseling and confidential-
easily be done in small or large groups.
Schedules could be checked for accuracy ity was best protected through individual
meetings. Yet, the counselors had not
by peer facilitators who are working with
evaluated other counseling approaches
a counselor in a large grnup. Likewise,
or asked students about their ideas. They
"arena scheduling" might be appropri-
ate to reduce the amount of time spent continued to operate from a "therapy"
model which seemed inefficient, consider-
developing individual student schedules.
In this case, students move around in a ing the large number of counselees who
large area, signing up for classes. Comput- had been assigned to them.
ers and monitors also are helpful, particu- A coordinating effort may be an effec-
larly when a large student body is being tive trade-off for another intervention. For
scheduled. example, coordinating a child study team
Some counselors continue to call or staffing might enable you to work as a
individual students to their offices to talk consultant with the teachers involved and
about low grades or the possibility of their to build a working relationship which you
not graduating because of a lack of credits. could draw upon later when constructing
a multiple intervention for an individual.
This might just as easily be done in small
or large groups, or perhaps as part of TAP.
A group of high school counselors
assumed they were the best people to
schedule students for classes because they
had the students' records in their office
J
they were responsible for tallying credits,

and they "knew the students best." These
were erroneous assumptions. Classroom
teachers not only had more opportunity
to know students better, but they were
probably in the best position to deter-
mine their educational placements. For
instance, math teachers who were familiar
with the math curriculum and the way in
which the math department was orga-
nized were probably in a better position
to schedule students for math classes than
were the counselors. This also was true for
English, social studies, science, and physi-
cal education.

Case Studies of the caseworker's visit, she showed the

girl how to take a key they had hidden to-
The Case of Shellie gether and let herself into their home. She
was to watch television until her mother
Shellie was a second grade girl who arrived home. A neighbor woman agreed
drew the attention of her classroom to be watchful of Shellie, although she
teacher because she appeared tired and was not paid to tend to her.
withdrawn. She sometimes cried for no
apparent reason. On occasion, she com- Nothing could be proved about Fred.
plained of stomach aches. The teacher There was no evidence of physical or
wondered if there might be child abuse sexual abuse that could be taken to court.
when he heard Shellie say to another little However, the investigator warned the
girl, "I hate Uncle Fred, cuz he's always mother Shellie was being neglected and
putting his hands under my dress where not receiving proper supervision after
they shouldn't be." school. The mother agreed the girl should
not be with Fred without supervision.
The teacher was afraid to pursue the
matter for fear he might cause a problem The investigator did not continue
if there wasn't any. He consulted with a with the case beyond the initial visit with
school counselor who agreed to talk with people in the area and a conference with
Shellie. During an individual counseling the mother. Unfortunately, the deposi-
session, the girl told the counselor about tion of the case and its outcome were not
"Uncle Fred" and how he sexually abused reported to the counselor until she took
her. the initiative to call the agency and ask
to speak with the person to whom the
The counselor was obligated by law case was assigned. After some discussion,
to report the situation and explained that .
it was agreed Shellie needed more help
to Shellie who pleaded that the secret be learning how to take care of herself.
kept. If the secret wasn't kept, she said
she would surely be in "big trouble." The The counselor talked with the class-
counselor continued to work with Shellie room teacher, reporting some of the
talking about what she might do in the ' findings. The teacher was still worried
presence of Fred and about some matters and consulted more with the counselor.
related to the girl's school work. Together, they planned a few things that
might help Shellie: a classroom guidance
Meanwhile, the counselor also called unit on sexual abuse; a few more opportu-
the community child welfare services nities for Shellie to meet with the coun-
agency where suspected cases of child selor to talk more about her after school
abuse were reported. A case worker at hours; and a lesson in both small group
the agency went to the child's home and counseling and classroom guidance about
talked with her mother. It was revealed assertiveness and saying "No" to people
Fred was not a relative, but someone who who were "pushy."
lived in the same neighborhood. He often
talked and played with children who
were on their own during the interim
when school was out and parents arrived
home from work. There was nobody to
supervise Shellie. Her mother was trying
to save money on child care. As a result

The teacher later observed Shellie's In another example, a middle school

attitude about school seemed to improve. counselor worked as a coordinator and
It was difficult to assess her after-school consultant on behalf of David, a boy
care, but Shellie reported she no longer experiencing severe depression. His
spent time alone with "Uncle Fred." Shell- therapist had called the school counselor
ie said to her counselor, "He's real nice to and said David was not responding well
me now, but my Mommy said I can only to treatment. He had threatened suicide
talk with him when other children are and talked about life as being meaning-
there ... and only in the front yard." less. His mother had been committed to
the psychiatric ward of a local hospital for
Other Cases attempted suicide on three different occa-
In another case, a classroom teacher sions and continued to struggle.
noted a kindergarten boy had burns on The school counselor consulted with
his hands and arms. He complained about David's teachers and learned he once or
the "whippings" he received from his twice had said, "I can't do this, what's
grandmother with whom he and his sister the use? I should just die (or kill myself)."
lived. "She really hurts me bad when she They agreed similar statements in the
gets mad." The teacher wondered if the future could not be dismissed as idle talk
burns were from a cigarette and consulted or as histrionic gestures to gain attention,
with the school counselor. The counselor, especially given the boy's family history.
in turn, talked with the boy, looked at the The therapist and the counselor talked
burns, and suspected they were intention- about the kinds of guidance interven-
al rather than accidental. tions at the school that could be help-
The community child welfare services ful and how the counselor's work might
were called to help with the case. The supplement the work of the therapist. The
agency reported an investigator talked counselor and teachers were more alert to
with the grandmother and the boy's arms David's moods and tried to establish posi-
apparently had some natural skin discol- tive relationships with him. The counselor
oring. The case was dropped. A few weeks was able to include David in an explor-
later, however, the teacher and counselor atory small group for boys where he made
noticed the "discoloring" had disappeared some positive connections. Coordinating
and the boy no longer complained about a multiple intervention can be a valuable
being beaten at home. The counselor, guidance service.
working as a consultant and a coordina-
tor, may have started an intervention
which positively affected the boy's well-
being.

Coordinating a a psychological evaluation or program

change, require a parental signature.
Child Study Team When appropriate, students will be pres-
Child study meetings have been an ent, along with specialists in exceptional
important part of guidance for many child education. In addition, reading spe-
years. However, since 1975, with the pas- cialists, speech therapists, representatives
sage of Education for all Handicapped of community health or welfare agencies,
Children (P.L. 94-142), these meetings and and others who have a special expertise
staffings have taken a more prominent might attend. It is a challenge to organize
place in the work of school counselors. and lead team meetings.
P.L. 94-142 has several major pro- Team members, especially those who
visions which affect the work of most meet regularly and are the core of the
counselors. First, using the language of team, learn to work together as a cohesive
the law, it emphasizes free, appropriate unit. They become more sensitive to the
public education is to be made available needs of students and the people who are
for all children and handicapped children trying to assist them. They learn to share
are to be identified and mainstreamed in their feelings and ideas openly and to rec-
the least restrictive environment possible. ognize the contributions various people
Individual education plans (IEPs) are de- have to make as team members, working
veloped for each handicapped child and individually and collectively. It also is an
reviewed annually. In addition, parents excellent opportunity to learn more about
have the right to participate in the place- how team members' roles complement
ment process and to challenge decisions each other and how a comprehensive
made by school teams. developmental guidance and counseling
Most educators agree school coun- program can help all children.
selors should participate in the decision- If the best procedures are to be fol-
making process and meet with members lowed, time used wisely, and the most
of the staffing team. They also can help desirable outcomes achieved, effective
develop IEPs, consult with parents, pro- communication among team members is
vide some supportive counseling interven- essential. For the most part, much of the
tions, and help monitor student progress. work of a team can be accomplished be-
In addition, coordinating the team's meet- fore teams meet. Data about a student, for
ings often rests with counselors because example, are assembled and summarized
they are on-site and familiar with school in a familiar format and presented by vari-
records, procedures, and personnel. Many ous team members. Team members then
administrators assign their counselors to explore a case. They use all their skills
chair the meetings. and knowledge to facilitate each other in
Child study teams are generally com- considering the merits of the case, alter-
posed of participants representing several native solutions, placement, and IEPs.
aspects of education: principal; vice- No single prescribed outline or pattern
principal; administrative assistants; social can be ascribed to such meetings because
workers; visiting teachers; counselors, of the many different variables found in
school and public health nurses; school cases and school systems. However, a few
psychologists; and classroom teachers. suggested procedures, such as the ones
Parents are notified about all meetings demonstrated in the following case, may
regarding their children and encouraged be helpful as guidelines.
to participate. Certain actions, such as

The Case of Charles 1. Establishing a regular meeting time

Rhonda was an elementary school for the team and noting meeting
counselor whose building principal as- times on the guidance calendar. It
signed her to organize, coordinate, and often is easier to cancel a regularly
scheduled meeting than to assemble
chair child study teams and staffmgs, es-
the group each time a case is to be
pecially as related to P.L. 94-142 cases. She
reviewed. Therefore, Wednesday
recognized the importance of preparing
afternoons from 12:30 until 3:30 were
for team meetings, screening and select-
scheduled for team meetings. This
ing students for review, and facilitating
allowed Rhonda an opportunity to
the discussion of the cases.
notify people on Monday if no cases
Charles was a fourth grade boy whose or business needed attention.
teacher thought he may have an emo-
2. Coordinating the selection of students
tional handicap. She described Charles
to be discussed at each meeting and
as inattentive, disruptive in class, and lax
reviewing past cases when appropri-
in his school assignments. It appeared he
ate. It was Charles' first time before
had little interest in school. The teacher
the team and his records were care-
wondered if he had a learning disability
along with his emotional problems, recog- fully assembled.
nizing he had a slight speech defect. 3. Preparing an agenda, preferably a
written one, to be distributed in ad-
Charles came to the counselor's atten-
vance of the meetings.
tion because of her work with the child
study team. He was one of several cases 4. Arranging for teachers or parents who
that would receive the team's attention do not regularly attend the meetings
and, subsequently, benefit from her ef- to be present when their presence is
forts as a coordinator, which are described desired. For example, Rhonda decided
briefly below. it would be helpful to have the speech
therapist present when Charles' case
Preparation for the team meet-
was discussed because she had extra
ing. Rhonda encouraged each team
information that would be helpful to
member to be familiar with how the team
the team's deliberations.
would work together and some of the
general procedures that might be used 5. Reminding or requesting team mem-
at each meeting. A general philosophy, bers to bring certain information that
a statement of district policies related to might be useful in a particular case.
such meetings, and a summary statement Rhonda developed a form letter that
of related state and national laws were allowed her to check certain items
collected and placed in notebooks for to remind members of materials or
team members. information they were to bring to the
meeting.
Rhonda knew some of the things for
which the chair was responsible included: 6. Appointing a recorder who would
keep a brief record of the proceedings
and any specific recommendations.
Rhonda had the assistance of an aide
who was familiar with various district
forms that needed to be completed
and would confirm specific informa-
tion was obtained where appropriate.

Select the cases to be present- Discussion Regarding Procedures.

ed. Rhonda used a general checklist to • The purpose of the meeting is clearly
help her structure the meeting. Rhonda stated.
checked her faculty mail box each day,
looking for referrals made by teachers. • Goals for improving or evaluating
The general procedures were: (1) A teacher team functioning or productivity are
referral for a student was completed, in- stated as needed.
cluding name, observations, general aca- • The roles of the team members are
demic information, and reason for refer- defined and their full participation is
ral. (2) The referral form was attached to encouraged.
a checklist which Rhonda had developed • If parents are present, they are asked
regarding information that was needed about their expectations for the meet-
before a team meeting. More specifically, ing.
this included: standardized group and
• The decision(s) to be made during the
individual IQ score; standardized achieve-
meeting is (are) clearly identified.
ment test scores; pertinent health records;
school attendance records; and special • The reason for referral is stated.
notes from the student's cumulative file. Data Presentation and Use.
Rhonda studied the list of students • Data are explained in terms of how
who met the criteria for review. If there they are related to the case or problem
were more students than the team might (i.e., what they tell you, not just the
review in one day, she prioritized the scores).
list and made an agenda with students'
• The student's strengths and weakness-
names listed in the order they would be es are discussed. For example, Charles
discussed. Charles's case did not seem to was reportedly well-liked and respected
be a difficult one and Rhonda estimated it
among his peers, he was considered
would take the usual 30 minutes. well coordinated, and he took an active
Sometimes pre-screening procedures part in the athletic activities on the
eliminate cases that might otherwise be playground. However, he also resented
brought before the team. They might be being criticized, displayed a temper on
given attention by the team later or in occasion, and was self-conscious about
other study teams. P.L. 94-142 cases were stammering when he talked. Instead of
given highest priority to both comply talking during a conflict, Charles' style
with the law and to achieve the best edu- was to shove, grab, pull, hit, and bully.
cational placement when possible.
• Comparisons are made across differ-
Facilitating the meeting. Rhonda ent sources of data with implications.
used a general checklist to help her
• Everyday school behavior and aca-
structure the meeting. It was based on a
demic data about the student are
summary of items that had been used by presented.
Ysseldyke, Algozzine, and Mitchell (1982)
to analyze child study teams. • The provisions and changes which
have been made in the regular class-
room in an attempt to deal with the
problem are presented.
• Systematic behavioral observation
data, as well as formal testing data, are
presented.

Evaluating Alternatives. Implementing the Decision.

• The team states the criteria for evalu- • The method for evaluation is speci-
ating the alternatives, including the fied.
need to reach a placement decision of- • A timetable for the intervention plan
fering the least restrictive alternative. is specified.
• Each alternative is evaluated in terms • The role of each member in imple-
of the child's educational needs or the menting the decision is described.
selected criteria.
• The team evaluates its meeting as hav-
Making the Final Decision. ing attained or not attained its goals.
• Members attempt through discussion Following the meeting, Rhonda and
to reach a decision all are willing to her aide summarized the recommenda-
support. tions and action taken for each case,
• A decision(s) is (are) made and clearly including Charles'. All cases were cat-
stated. egorized by number and the date when re-
The team listened to members tell viewed by the team. This would allow for
about their knowledge of Charles' be- some follow-up discussions and progress
havior, with particular attention to what reports related to team decisions.
could be observed in his classroom and Maybe the most difficult part of Rhon-
playground behavior. Teacher's com- da's coordinating efforts was the time it
ments, test scores, and the school psy- took to implement placement actions
chologist's report about Charles' nega- recommended by the team. In Charles's
tive behavior and attitude in the testing case, it was necessary to consult with two
situation were considered. The psycholo- different teachers, give information to the
gist also reported on a series of tests that central office staff regarding class place-
attempted to appraise Charles' emotional ment changes, and to make appropri-
maturity and stability. It was difficult ate notes in his cumulative records. His
to conclude whether the boy's speech parents were notified of the changes in
disability had predisposed him toward a his class schedule. They agreed the change
negative attitude about school and people was in his best interest and signed the
in general or he had an emotional handi- parental approval form. It was returned to
cap. Therefore, a decision was made to Rhonda, who then made all final arrange-
first address his speech problem through ments.
participation in speech therapy. Charles' Even if you are not assigned to coor-
parent (mother) agreed with the decision dinate or chair a child study team or child
and signed the placement form. It also staffings, the guidelines presented above
was agreed the counselor would continue can still be useful as you participate in
to consult with teachers and to initiate team discussions. You can use them to
individual counseling. make suggestions or to draw attention to
productive procedures.

Helpful Hints Recruit Helpers and Delegate

Peer facilitators, volunteer workers,
Work Within a Schedule auxiliary aides, and other paraprofession-
The need for a weekly schedule built als might be trained and supervised to
around a guidance calendar and grad- do some guidance-related activities that
ing periods of the school year becomes take counselor time away from students.
increasingly clear as you try to manage Counselor aides can be trained to record
the coordinating function. When prepar- student information, make preparations
ing your weekly schedule, try to sched- for meetings, return calls to people who
ule some coordinating efforts at specific request general information, and provide
times, although flexible time periods will basic information to students.
likely be used for coordination activities.
For example, team meetings might be Prioritize Activities
scheduled one afternoon a week. Identify those activities you do well,
Scheduling a minimum number of you enjoy doing, and provide an im-
hours for each intervention, except co- portant service to students and faculty.
ordinating, can provide balance to your Concentrate on delivering those services
program. Except for regularly scheduled or activities. Decide which activities give
meetings or special events that occur you and the school the least pay-off for
during the year, coordinating functions the energy and time expended. Eliminate
are not usually recorded on the weekly or revise them.
schedule. If coordinating functions begin
to take too much time from direct services Tell Your Story
to students, then negotiate with those Let others know the kinds of things
who can help you protect time for other you are doing. If you have numerous
interventions. Once you have developed a cases that need attention from the child
schedule, try to work within it. study team, announce the number of
cases to teachers as part of keeping them
Keep a Record of informed. If you find there is not enough
Coordinating Activities time to meet with students individually
Develop a system by which you can or in groups for counseling, talk with
record the number of coordinating activi- the guidance committee about how you
ties in which you are involved. Preferably, might find more time. Then, talk with the
the amount of time also should be noted. faculty members.
This can provide you with information
that might be useful in building a case for
more counseling time.

Advantages, Limitations, Limitations of the

and Conclusion Coordinating Intervention
1. Some coordinating responsibilities
Advantages of the assigned to or assumed by school
Coordinating Intervention counselors are not related to guidance
and counseling, which can discredit
1. Some coordinating activities, al- counselors and create an unfavorable
though indirect, help many students image.
obtain the help they would not other-
wise receive. 2. Coordinating is time consuming. It
frequently takes more time than a
2. Because of their flexible schedules and counselor might use to counsel stu-
access to student information, coun- dents individually or in small groups.
selors might be in the best position to
coordinate some guidance activities 3. The coordinating intervention tends
and events in the most effective and to foster "burnout," especially for
efficient manner. counselors who value providing direct
services to students. Time-consum-
3. Many of the coordinating functions ing efforts with little reward become
involve opportunities to consult with fatiguing, boring, and depressing.
teachers, administrators, and parents
that might not otherwise be initiated. 4. Some counselors deceive themselves
Sometimes coordinating a guidance when they stay busy simply by co-
event or activity can foster positive ordinating various school activities.
working relationships with other pro- Because they work hard at coordinat-
fessionals. ing, they believe they are making a
significant contribution. This, how-
4. Coordinating some specific guidance ever, usually leads to an unbalanced
events can provide counselors vis- program. Eventually, they feel their
ibility among parents, teachers, and work is unappreciated, despite long
students. working hours and dedication.
5. Coordinating activities appear to
many teachers to be soft adminis-
trative jobs without much pressure
or reward. They think many of the
coordinating tasks could be done by
someone with less training and pay.

Conclusion In fact, there are some activities and

events that don't quite fit into anyone's
Coordinating guidance activities is
schedule or preferred role. Sometimes
one of the six counselor interventions
there are things that just "have to be
around which to build a comprehen-
done." At the same time, they should be
sive program. When used appropriately,
coordinating efforts can help students in scrutinized by asking the following ques-
many ways. Particularly, coordination of tions:
multiple interventions and child study Is it still related?
teams are productive ways to use a coun- Is there another way?
selor's time. Consultation and coordina-
Where does it fit programmatically?
tion often work well together.
What would happen if it did not get
The problem facing most counsel-
done?
ors is many activities and events around
a school are not necessarily related to What might be a better idea?
guidance or counseling. Sometimes they
become the responsibility of a counselor,
who then begins to have an image of an
administrative or clerical assistant. Be-
cause counselors have more flexible time
than most other personnel in a school,
they are often the first persons others turn
to when they need assistance in a project.
Gleaning out projects that are unrelated
to guidance and counseling, protecting
time for other counselor interventions,
and providing a balanced program are
challenges that face all school counsel-
ors. The coordinating function can be a
millstone around a counselor's neck, or it
can lead to some productive outcomes in
guidance. It depends upon the ability of a
counselor to use the intervention appro-
priately.

The Counselor
and Accountability
In recent years, there has been a de- Accountability Defined

mand for educators to be more account-
able. People want to know what services To be accountable means to be re-
they are getting for their tax dollars and sponsible for one's actions, particularly for
if those services are making positive dif-
the objectives, procedures, and outcomes
ferences. They are interested in cost ef- of one's work or program. It involves an
ficiency and good investments. Superin- explanation of what has been done in-
tendents, principals, teachers, counselors, cluding information and data to su~port
and other educational specialists can any claims that are made. The basic prin-
use accountability studies to boost their ciples of accountability suggest there is
school programs. some evidence on which to make a deci-
sion or judgment.
Guidance and counseling services
once had so much general appeal counsel- Accountability can be a matter of be-
ors were accepted on "faith" and "good- ing responsible to one's self or to someone
ness of intent." One person said, "I'm else. Both aspects are relevant to guidance
really not sure what you do, or if you're and counseling programs. Each counselor
successful, but I like the idea of it." But, needs to ask the basic questions: "What
times have changed and blind support are my objectives? Am I effective? Are
is no longer enough. More questions are there better ways of getting the same
being posed, "What do you do in your thing done?"
job?" "Whom do you help?" "Are you get- Responsible professionals want well-
ting any results?" More than ever before, designed accountability systems. They
counselors, like other educators, are being want feedback on their work and, sub-
challenged to be accountable (Brooks-Mc- sequently, to be able to make modifica-
Namara & Torres, 2008, Loesch & Martin, tions where necessary or maintain what is
2005). shown to be working.
Identifying student needs and ways
to meet them can cause discomfort. It can
arouse the fear one is not meeting expec-
tations and they will be judged a failure.
On the other hand, when objectives and
goals are reached, positive feedback is
very satisfying. Encouraging results can be
professionally rewarding and spark a sense
of pride in one's work.

The term "evaluation" is associated Some of the immunity counselors

with accountability. It often refers to judg- have had may be related to the "counselor
ing something's worth or significance. For mystique" which is cloaked in confiden-
many people, an accountability system tiality. A counselor's work, by its nature,
has a set of procedures for bringing to- has been safeguarded from being evaluat-
gether pieces of information to be evalu- ed by others because to share information
ated. There also is an attempt to look for with others would seem to violate a trust
some meaningful patterns. relationship.
Evaluation and research are not new It would certainly be inappropriate to
topics to counselors. They are included point to a young man and say, "He has
in most graduate training programs and abusive parents and I helped him learn
in certification requirements. Yet, far too how to cope so he would not run away
many counselors dislike the idea of re- from home and school, which is what
searching and evaluating their work. he was planning to do until he received
Part of this resistance may stem from counseling." Clearly, this type of report-
a lack of faith in the interventions they ing is unacceptable; yet, the issue of
use, a lack of planning so interventions counselor accountability can no longer be
can be evaluated systematically and ob- assumed to be too private for research and
jectively, a lack of knowledge about brief evaluation.
assessment instruments they can use, or a Resistance to accountability studies
lack of self-confidence. They also may lack also can be traced to some defensiveness,
a familiarity with or appreciation for the such as: (a) "Studies without positive re-
positive uses of evaluation. sults can cost counselors their jobs;" (b) "I
Dimmitt (2009) emphasized evalua- have a good relationship with my princi-
tion is not the same as research, although pal who knows what I'm doing;" (c) "My
both use a scientific method, put forward job isn't in jeopardy, so I don't have to do
hypotheses; collect and analyze data, and any studies;" and (d) "I don't have time to
draw conclusions. He further claimed re- do research."
search asks and tests broader questions, For some counselors, it is less a matter
some that can be generalized to popula- of defensiveness than of concern. They
tions (e.g., disruptive students); whereas, may worry, for example, that even their
evaluation focuses on a more specific as- best efforts will fall short or their most
sessment area (e.g., a counselor interven- valuable contributions cannot be mea-
tion applied to disruptive students). Both sured.
are part of being accountable. Some counselors point out the com-
In the past, counselors were not nec- plex research designs described in gradu-
essarily encouraged by administrators or ate school are too rigorous to be used in
their colleagues to be accountable. While school settings and too time-consuming
teachers have been judged by the scores for what they produce. Others add if they
their students receive on achievement did a thorough job and evaluated all their
tests and coaches by their win-loss re- interventions, there would not be enough
cords, counselors have withstood efforts time left to work with many students. It
to reveal what they are doing and accom- also has been argued most surveys and
plishing, except the most visible part of tests take too long to administer, are too
their work-coordinating. expensive, and are not related directly to
a counselor's work.

Chapter 12 The Counselor and Accountability
There may be some truth behind these Types of

objections. Yet, they all ignore the fact ac-
countability studies can make a counsel- Accountability Studies
or's work more effective and efficient and There are at least three basic ways for
counselors can personally benefit from school counselors to look at accountabil-
them. Why continue with something that ity studies, regardless of grade level. The
doesn't seem to be working? (Dimmitt, first focuses on identifying people's needs
Carey, & Hatch, 2007)..Actually, it is un- and interests that could receive attention
professional and irresponsible to dismiss from counselors. The second is concerned
accountability as unnecessary or undesir- with the guidance and counseling ser-
able. vices or interventions that addresses those
According to Schmidt (2008), despite needs. Finally, the outcomes of the servic-
a general increase in activities related to es or interventions must be examined.
accountability, individual school counsel- Sometimes one approach is used at
ors seldom design and implement evalu- the expense of the other two. Yet, all three
ation processes. In one study, 77 percent are useful in a comprehensive account-
of the counselors surveyed indicated they ability system, one in which counselors
had taken a research course as part of look at all aspects of their work. An unbal-
their initial counselor training. Yet, only anced effort tends to produce a distorted
42 percent indicated they had confidence picture or one in which something is
in their ability to conduct a research proj- missing. Let's take a closer look at these
ect. Although almost all respondents saw three approaches, particularly through the
some value in research, 82 percent indi- questions they attempt to answer.
cated that since beginning their careers
as school counselors, they had received What are the needs to be met?
no further training in research and the Who will receive guidance and coun-
majority were not interested in research seling and what are their situations or
activities. problems? What particular interests and
needs do they have? Such basic questions
might be directed to students, teachers,
parents, or administrators.
Student needs, for example, may ap-
pear obvious. "Walk-in traffic," plus refer-
rals, can easily dictate who receives coun-
selor services. In such cases, counselors
are very busy. Or, they may have nothing
to do. Regardless, it is not an efficient sys-
tem and counselors experience burnout
quickly.
After working in a school for a few
years, many counselors believe they know
what students are thinking and feeling at
certain stages in life and students' prob-
lems, issues, and needs can be anticipated.
However, times change and it can be a
serious mistake to assume all students at
a certain age are alike. There is a need to

know the guidance and counseling needs needs assessment, it was possible to pin-
of a student body. In addition, there is a point some of the teachers' high prior-
need to know the specific needs of certain ity items, such as helping students learn
target populations within a student body study habits, school rules and regulations,
(e.g., college prep, chronically absent, and communication skills.
test-anxious, potential dropouts, etc.). Another counselor also used teachers
To depend on "whatever comes as a resource to identify student needs,
through the door" may be acceptable to but chose to work more informally
some counselors, but it is too fragmented through the school's guidance commit-
and unsystematic. It also puts a counselor tee. The teachers on the committee talked
in a crisis and reactive position, instead with other teachers about some of their
of a developmental and proactive one. concerns and student needs. Through
Without understanding the needs and committee discussions, the counselor
interests of students, counselors may have identified a few priorities that needed at-
trouble developing an organized approach tention at the beginning of the school
to their work and time. year when students were settling into
Needs Assessment. Needs assess- routines.
ments come in many forms and, when It also is possible to survey parents,
well organized, they can provide valuable using newsletters, task forces, and parent-
information. When students are willing to teacher organizations. Community agen-
identify themselves, their survey respons- cies can provide some insights. A com-
es help determine students who need a munity crisis intervention center reported
counselor intervention or program and there had been a sudden increase in the
how great the needs might be. Anony- sale and use of "crack" among young
mous surveys also can help by identifying people in the school district. School coun-
some current issues for all students or for selors received more information and
different sub-populations (e.g., cultural training in a district workshop, based on
heritage, grade levels). Generally, a needs the assumption they needed to address
assessment is a formal or informal sur- the problem immediately.
vey in which respondents indicate their Perhaps the most important source
concerns, needs, and interests (Schmidt, for learning more about student needs
2008). and interests is the students themselves
One first year counselor was unsure (Thompson, Loesch, & Seraphine, 2003).
of what might be needed in her school, Surprisingly, students are seldom asked.
although graduate studies and talks with "It only confirms what we already know,"
experienced counselors gave her some said one experienced counselor who be-
ideas. In her first month on the job, she lieved that needs assessments were a waste
developed a brief job description for her- of time. Closer examination, however,
self and attached it to a checklist she sent suggests some needs are not identified
to teachers in the school. She asked them without systematic procedures.
to use the checklist to help identify stu- A brief needs assessment can give
dent and teacher interests and needs. counselors more reason for organizing
Teachers were encouraged to add and providing a particular intervention.
other items to the list and to make com- For instance, in one middle school, stu-
ments. The counselor then tallied the dents were surveyed during their advisor-
responses from the returned forms and advisee periods (TAP). It was learned
made a report to the faculty. From this many students wanted to talk more about

how to get along better with parents and Conducting an annual needs assess-
how to manage their time better. Others ment is not as common as it once was
felt the need to talk more about making among counselors. Part of the reason is
friends, avoiding bullies, and coping with the instruments used often were impracti-
teachers. Some issues and concerns were cal and the results took too long to tally.
related to objectives that already were Perhaps most important, they emphasized
built into the guidance curriculum for things that needed attention, but often
TAP, but the survey alerted teachers and were ignored.
counselors to the value of some particular One group of counselors at a middle
guidance units. school pointed to a tall stack of papers
Three counselors in a high school (a needs survey) and said, "Now what do
surveyed students in the sophomore class we do with them?" It was easier to put
and asked them to indicate their plans together the instrument and to administer
upon graduation: (1) Get a job; (2) Go it than it was to tally the results and to
into military service; (3) Go to a technical decide upon a next step. Consequently,
or community college; (4) Go to a four- the survey responses sat in a corner of the
year college or university; or (5) Undecid- guidance office and were never used ef-
ed. After reviewing the results of this brief fectively.
survey, the sophomore class was divided A practical approach suggests you
into five career guidance groups. Special should use simple procedures and brief
large and small group guidance units were instruments that can be tallied quickly.
designed particularly for the undecided Have an idea of how the results can be in-
group, assuming they needed to have terpreted and used.
tentative job goals to make school more
meaningful. Needs assessments are much easier to
compile when there is TAP. Teacher-advi-
An effective needs assessment can sors might administer different surveys
be put together quickly and is usually developed in the guidance office. They
no more than one page in length. The can then tally the results for their groups.
amount of time to administer a survey The reports from each group could be
and to tally the results are always consid- summed for a full school report. TAP also
ered. Instead of putting together a lengthy makes it easier to administer more than
instrument, it might be better to focus on one assessment, with each related to par-
a particular area and direct a few specific ticular areas (alcohol and drug abuse, per-
questions to students. This can provide a sonal safety, study habits, etc.). It seems
quick picture and some possible leads for more practical to do needs assessments in
counselor interventions. small pieces than in one extended survey.
Problem checklists, administered Finally, look for ways computer-based
anonymously in TAP homebase rooms programs can speed up data collection.
with the option of signing names and Ask the district offices about tailoring
checking a box to request a meeting with such programs to a needs assessment you
a counselor, have been effective. There are have in mind. Practical templates that
students who want to talk with a counsel- can be modified as needed are invaluable.
or, but who are unsure of the procedures. Computer programs make data easier to
They may be too shy to walk into the collect, procedures more manageable, and
guidance office to request help. results on spread-sheets easier to summa-
rize and interpret.

What is being done to meet student Computer programs are available or

needs? A brief and precise answer to this can be constructed that enable counselors
question eludes many counselors. They to see within seconds the sums of their
have trouble telling others what they do daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly inter-
in their jobs. A written job description of- ventions. This information can be used as
ten seems inadequate. part of a final report to a central adminis-
Suppose you were asked by a school tration.
board member to describe briefly what it At one time, record keeping of this
is you do. Could you do it? Without some kind was laborious, tedious, and question-
forethought and practice, most counsel- able. Counselors complained that such
ors could not, or they would fumble for recording and tallying by hand took too
words. They might leave out important much time and there were so many things
ideas or struggle for concepts. They could happening in their job that could not be
regret their choice of words or, perhaps, recorded accurately.
spend too long to describe one aspect of One school system listened to the
the job. concerns of counselors and decided to
It may be helpful to picture in your take a random sampling of the counselors'
mind the six basic counselor interven- work throughout the school year, but this
tions shown in Figure 4.1. Then, begin- also had its problems. Some counselors
ning with some typical student needs could not resist arranging their schedules
or problems, you can cite the six basic to accommodate the sampling procedures.
interventions counselors use in a develop- Some said the sample was skewed because
mental guidance and counseling program. of the dominance of some activities at the
Each of the interventions might then times when the samples were taken.
be described briefly, perhaps with an ex- A district director of guidance asked
ample. counselors to tally and report the kinds of
This organized presentation has prov- interventions they were using. First, it was
en to be effective with students, teachers, assumed all professionals need some type
parents, and administrators. A few people of record of the services they provide. This
want more specific information. They is especially true of people in business or
want facts and figures. professions where they charge for services
Counting Interventions. Some and time is money. It seemed logical to
school districts require counselors to keep expect the same from counselors. There-
a record of their interventions. Counsel- fore, counselors recorded their interven-
ors can note the type of intervention that tions weekly and this led to a summative
took place with a student, the amount of report for all counselors at different grade
time it took (perhaps recorded in 15-min- levels.
ute intervals), and the general focus of the The district director examined the
intervention. Other have counselors enter data and used it to make a general report
data into a computer and then calculate to the superintendent, highlighting the
the results to help present a picture of kinds of services students, teachers, and
their work. Scarborough (2005) developed parents received from school counselors.
a counselor activity rating scale to help Budget requests were based on some of
gather such data. the findings. At one point, it was sug-

gested more counselors were needed and Is the counselor intervention

the data supported the need. Staff devel- making a difference?
opment needs also were identified, such
as when it appeared junior high school As early as 1973, the Texas Education
counselors seldom used small group coun- Agency released a guide for the develop-
seling as an intervention. ment of a competency-based outcome-
stated guidance plan, which also included
It also was possible for the guidance some descriptive statements about the
director to consult with counselors re- process to be used by counselors. This
garding balanced programs and with ad- plan identified three major domains
ministrators in terms of counselor needs. (educational, vocational, and social) and
The data that was collected systematically specified objectives in observable and
had more power than a few general state- behavioral terms. It was among the first
ments. Some counselors who had prob- management-by-objectives plans and has
lems organizing a comprehensive pro- since been expanded as the state moved
gram were targeted for assistance. in the direction of having a statewide
Previously, administrators might have guidance curriculum.
questioned their counselors' contributions Because it specified and outlined five
or value to the school, but they could not sequential phases, many counselors found
pinpoint specific problems without sup- it helpful in developing and planning
portive information. Some marginally per- their guidance programs (assessing needs,
forming counselors began to take a more setting priorities, developing objectives,
active interest in their work when they developing activities to achieve objectives,
knew their efforts were being monitored. and evaluating the program). It was a
The results of one study with 20 high guide for a complete study of a program.
school counselors showed counselors Currently, most school districts in
spent significant amounts of time in non- the United States are content to build
professional and non-relevant activities. accountability systems for guidance pro-
The average was over three hours per day grams around answers to the first two
per counselor for every day of the school questions: What are the student needs
year. It also was obvious from the data and what is being done to meet them?
major fluctuations in the misuse of coun- These questions, of course, can just as eas-
selor time correlated with various events ily be asked of teacher or parent needs.
in the school. There was a clear need to However, the answers to these questions
help counselors manage their time. are still not adequate for those who want
A time-analysis, although seen as to know if counselors are making a posi-
a valuable tool by some, appears to be tive difference in their work.
limited by contemporary concerns and The very idea of applying scientific
demands for accountability. Even though inquiry to the work of counselors makes
it might be seen as an easy way of collect- sense for the professional. But, it is an
ing descriptive data about a counseling alien thought for some educators who
program, more than 60 percent of school do not embrace the scientific method as
counselors did not use such an approach a part of their work. It may be they were
(Fairchild & Seeley, 1994) when it was a never exposed to its practical applications
popular approach to being accountable. when they were going through school
and learning to be educators. For some,

the scientific method is something that is An elementary school counselor, us-

learned and applied in science classes or ing a small group counseling interven-
laboratories. Yet, systematic inquiry is a tion, worked with a total of forty-nine
practical approach to the work of a coun- third-grade students who were identified
selor. It is the essence of accountability. as having a social skills deficit. The small
Scientific inquiry can be done in groups met over a period of 10 weeks. Re-
many ways. It is acceptable to use a case sults indicated children who participated
study approach, as is done in such areas in the intervention experienced reduced
as sociology, anthropology, and history. loneliness and social anxiety as well as
Or, inquiry may be done through a careful improved academic achievement (Bostick
manipulation of different variables and & Anderson, 2009). Of special note is the
specific observations. A research design personal well being of students and their
that attempts to control for sources of in- interaction with others was tied to aca-
validity might be used so results of a study demic progress and achievement.
could be statistically analyzed and more Achievement outcomes for students
confidence given to inferences. You may participating in a school counselor-led
already recognize this language as that of student success skills intervention were
an experimental researcher. investigated. Students in grades 4 and 5 in
The counselor, as a researcher-prac- a single school participated in the action
titioner, looks at problems and wants to research. Achievement outcomes were
know how they can be solved effectively measured using the Florida Comprehen-
and efficiently. It involves careful obser- sive Assessment Test. Students who partic-
vations, a collection of reliable data, a ipated in the intervention showed greater
means for analyzing the data and, finally, mean improvement in reading and math
a report of the results, conclusions, im- scores than students at the district or state
plications, limitations, and recommenda- levels.
tions. The researchers (Brigman, Webb, &
Elementary school counselors often Campbell, 2007) described how shar-
are expected to intervene when students ing improved student outcomes led to a
are disruptive. Four evidence-based pro- decrease in duties assigned to the school
grams were shown to be highly effec- counselor unrelated to facilitating the
tive in changing children's disruptive school counseling program and a greater
behavior. The researchers concluded the appreciation and respect for the contribu-
success of these programs rested on the tions of the school counselor.
involvement of both parents and teachers When it comes to accountability, it is
in a collaborative approach to managing always advisable to ask the consumers of
children's behavior. The programs were guidance and counseling services-stu-
evaluated in terms of their feasibility of dents, parents, and teachers-what they
implementation by school counselors and think. How do they see the process? The
other school personnel and their effective- outcomes? The program? The data col-
ness with diverse populations (Cholewa, lected from them will have its limitations
Smith-Adcock & Amatea, 2010). too. Nevertheless, if the recipients of the
services are not satisfied, then the rest of
the conclusions may be meaningless. Let's
look at some factors you will want to con-
sider in planning accountability studies.

Factors to Consider If the goal is to improve eighth grade

students' achievement scores, a score on
What are the basic steps? a standardized test may suggest some im -
provement, but there are a lot of people
The basic steps should include defin- who may have contributed to any success
ing the goals or objectives to be studied, that might have been obtained. Perhaps,
identifying the intervention to be used, if it would be more helpful to identify spe-
any, and then using a measuring device to cific learning behaviors, work on those,
collect data for evaluation. There also are and then measure the students' gains.
practical procedures you might consider.
Selecting a target group of students
First, it is important to identify the can narrow the focus of an accountabil-
goals and objectives of an accountability ity study and make it easier to manage.
study in observable behaviors, although Studying the effects of group counseling
some internal variables (e.g., self-esteem, on students who are not completing their
attitude, or values) may be of particular homework assignments might be one ex-
interest. The question to ask is: How can ample. In addition, two or three different
you tell if a person has a positive self-con- approaches to group counseling might be
cept? examined in an effort to identify methods
It is easier to find or develop some val- that are effective and efficient. Studying
id measurements when goals are stated in both the process and the outcome is desir-
behavioral terminology. In addition, goals able in accountability systems.
stated in behavioral terms can clarify the It makes practical sense to carefully
intervention process. What does a person plan and organize accountability studies.
do to give you the impression they have a All the services a counselor delivers do not
positive self-concept? necessarily have to be evaluated. Every
Selecting one goal or objective for student a counselor meets does not have
study is another practical consideration to complete a set of evaluation instru-
for accountability studies. But most coun- ments for an accountability study.
selors assume, if they are going to the Select something of value and interest
trouble of organizing a study, they should to study, one that represents the things
look at several variables. Therefore, a com- you do in your work. If a study can be ar-
promise is to identify primary and sec- ranged so the effects of a structured small
ondary objectives. group counseling approach can be inves-
Select practical and valid assessment tigated, the results might be considered a
instruments that are directly related to sample of times when you have used the
desired outcomes. Some instruments used same group procedures or approach. If
to measure a goal may be time-consuming your study is planned and organized, you
to administer, difficult to score or inter- can generalize from the sample you have
pret, expensive to purchase, or may be taken.
only indirectly related to goals. If a goal Finally, there needs to be a brief re-
for eighth grade students is they all have port of any findings that result from an
four-year high school plans before enter- accountability study. The report can high-
ing high school, then the desired outcome light the effort and outcomes. It can be
is clear. It is easy enough for counselors to used to make decisions about a counselee,
count the number of students who have a an intervention, or the program.
plan on file.

How do you design The "before and after" design is one of

an accountability study? the most practical research designs a coun-
selor can use and is favored over an "after
You might first think about answer- only" design where baseline data were not
ing the questions: "From where are we collected. It is preferred, though it has lim-
starting?" "What's the baseline?" Next, itations, when it is not possible to have an
ask yourself, "What do I want to do in equivalent or matched control group.
this situation?" "What intervention can
be used?" "How long will it last and how In addition to experimental type de-
often will it occur?" Keep some records to signs that look for effects, it also is possi-
show what was done, perhaps a descrip- ble to collect data to describe a population
tion of the intervention by activities or or a situation. A group of students might
techniques used. be described in terms of test scores or by
a survey they completed. In this case, the
If the intervention you planned to accountability study focuses on providing
use at the beginning gets changed along a composite picture of a group.
the way, make note of it. This is a practi-
cal consideration for a counselor so the It also is possible to collect data as you
intervention can be modified or repeated move through the process of counseling,
in the future and described in a report. perhaps following the procedures of single
Although most final reports require only case research design. Single case designs
a general explanation of the intervention, provide insightful information and are not
the trend among counselors is to outline difficult to incorporate into the everyday
it in detail so it might be used easily again work of a counselor. Single case designs
or replicated by other counselors. emphasize measuring variables repeatedly
over time.
After the intervention has been com-
pleted, you ask: "Where are we now and Recognizing the need for counselors
how can we tell?" This involves an ex- to have more training in research, evalu-
amination of any information that has ation, and accountability, one district
been collected along the way or another coordinator arranged a training program
administration of the instrument that was for counselors in the form of a 3-hour
used to obtain some baseline data. The workshop. It included a presentation by
data are then compared, looking for any the leader, followed by activities to help
gains that might have been made. counselors start planning for program
evaluations.
This simple "before and after" design
can be improved by comparing results More specifically, the training was de-
with a classical control group, one that signed to help participants (a) understand
did not receive the intervention at the the role of accountability; (b) understand
time of the study. Some refer to it as the the emphasis on accountability and pro-
"delayed treatment group," assuming, if gram evaluation in the ASCA National
the intervention is proven effective, it will Model; (c) define program evaluation; (d)
be given to participants in the control understand the evaluation process includ-
group at a later time. If the experimental ing the role of needs assessment, program
or treatment group and the control group planning, program implementation,
are similar in nature before the interven- and assessing outcomes; and (e) plan to
tion and different afterwards, it might be implement their own school counseling
concluded the intervention had an effect. program evaluation. (Astramovich, Coker,
Was it a favorable one? Kelly, & Wendy, 2005).

Participants answered questions How do you measure

about their concerns over implement- the outcomes?
ing program evaluations. A few themes
emerged from their comments. First, some Although testimonials and subjective
expressed a need for practical and simple reports have their place, objective data is
evaluation methods. Another concern in- preferred in accountability studies. Any
volved the way that results would be used instrument that helps you collect objec-
and who would have access to the find- tive data on which to make evaluations
ings. Some also indicated a concern evalu- deserves special consideration. Standard-
ation results would be used to label school ized instruments have credibility because
counseling programs as either successes or they have reported validity and reliability
failures. data that help determine their value and
use. Knowledge of the instrument itself
Participants also were asked to iden- plays an important part when examining
tify potential barriers to program evalu- results and interpreting them.
ation. The amount of time needed was
viewed as one. There also was some Standardized instruments are particu-
concern about the "cumbersomeness larly useful when you are trying to study
and overwhelming nature" of the evalu- some complex variables (e.g., personality,
ation process. Another perceived barrier abilities, aptitudes) and you do not have
involved minimal administrative support time or resources to build a valid measure
and staff to help. Finally, several partici- of your own. They also are valuable when
pants indicated lack of training and un- you are looking for a total score or a few
certainties about the tools and techniques categorical scores that result from several
of evaluation hampered their ability to items on the instrument. However, many
conduct program evaluations (Astramov- standardized instruments are not readily
ich, et al., 2005). available, are machine scored only by the
company that distributes them, are time
The National School Counseling Re- consuming to administer, and are difficult
search Center (NSCR) emerged from the to work into most accountability studies.
belief school counseling is integral to They also can be expensive and measure
academic achievement for all students. It some variables your study does not ad-
is aligned with ASCA and recognizes the dress.
connection between academic achieve-
ment and academic, career, and personal/ You can build a survey instrument
social development. NSCRC supports by asking open and closed questions of
school counselors in gathering and dis- teachers or students. The data can be sum-
seminating data that provide evidence to marized using descriptive statistics such as
support the critical role counselors have means, medians, modes, percentages, and
in the academic achievement of students. percentiles to report your findings. Know-
ing how to construct a useful instrument
The center is a relatively recent con- that has face validity is an important skill
sequence of the need for counselors to for counselors. Test-retest reliability can
be more accountable. At this point in its be obtained with your own students.
development, it might be considered a
clearinghouse. Its mission and goals cen- Again, an instrument that identifies
ter around networking and partnerships the specific behaviors you want to focus
that provide links for establishing the ef- on may be the most practical approach.
fectiveness of school counseling (Sabella, In one study, a group of counselors were
2006). asked what they wanted to accomplish
with students. After some discussion

Figure 12.1
Learning Behaviors Related to School Achievement
Student Teacher Date

Please check the frequency of each behavior listed.
Add other items or make addition comments, if you wish.
Very Some- Very
Often Often times Seldom Seldom
1 . Attends class
2. Is punctual to class
3. Brings study materials
4. Takes part in discussions
5. Pays attention in class
6. Follows directions
7. Starts assignments
8 Attends to a given task
9. Completes assignments
10. Talks at appropriate times
11 . Works independently
12. Follows school rules
13.
14.
15.
16.

Figure 12.2
Retrospective Measurement Example
Strongly Uncertain Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 . I listen carefully when others talk. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2. I know how to confront others. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3. I can explain brief counseling. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4. I can describe a collaborative study. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
about such terms as "classroom adjust- Teacher perceptions can be valuable

ment," "positive self-concepts," "better at- in terms of evaluating outcomes. Gener-
titudes," "cooperation with teachers," and ally, they are very reliable. In one study,
"stop fooling around," the group was asked: positive behavior ratings, as reported by
"What are the things students must do to teachers, increased for most of the stu-
be perceived as cooperative, having a posi- dents who took part in a group counsel-
tive attitude, and so forth?" "What do stu- ing intervention. Data showed 60 percent
dents need to do to achieve well?" of the students in the "support group"
Subsequently, a list of classroom be- also reduced their discipline referrals to
haviors related to achievement was de- zero (Sherrod, Getch, & Ziomek-Daigle,
veloped (see Figure 12.1). A Likert-type 2009).
scale (five points) was placed beside each Sometimes it is not convenient to col-
item so behaviors could be rated in terms lect pretest information or baseline data
of how often they occurred (Very Often before you begin a counselor interven-
to Very Seldom). The rating scale could tion. One way of collecting information
be changed, on occasion, to give respon- is to use a retrospective measurement
dents an opportunity to report the degree (Myrick, 1990).
to which they agreed with an item (i.e., A row of numbers representing a
Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree). It also Likert-type scale (e.g., Strongly Agree to
was possible to select out a few items for Strongly Disagree) is placed next to each
study, to add some others, perhaps those item to be measured. The instrument is
specific to a teacher's concern (e.g., "Turns most effective when it provides a wider
in current event from newspaper each Fri- range, perhaps from 1-10. These numbers
day"), or to include those behaviors to be can be given anchor words to help a re-
eliminated or reduced (e.g., "Pushes and spondent check the best placement along
hits in cafeteria line," "Spits on children"). the line or continuum. It might look like
When drawn from a general list, be- Figure 12.2.
havior-focused instruments are easy to Imagine you are reporting on your-
put together. They give attention to spe- self and a 1 on the scale means not very
cific outcomes related to school and can confident and a 10 indicates extremely
be administered to respondents in a brief confident. Now, read each item and circle
time. Items can be rated easily by students the number next to it that best indicates
or their teachers. The versatility and ease where you were before you read this book.
of interpretation of such instruments Next, read the items again and using the
make them a practical consideration for same line, put an "X" where you think
use by counselors. you are at this point after having read this

book. If there has been no change, then For example, an elementary school
the "X" will be on top of the circle. If counselor used large group guidance port-
there has been some improvement, then folios to illustrate, in a concrete fashion,
you will place the "X" more toward 10. how student competencies were obtained.
If you are more confused and uncertain, The students completed tasks in a personal-
then your "X" will move toward the 1. ly relevant manner for their portfolios, ap-
This enables the investigator to ex- plying the competencies they had learned
amine an item in terms of a respondent's or reviewed. This visual link made it easier
perspective regarding any gains that have to advocate for the benefits of the guidance
been made. You, for instance, may have program. Students and counselor could
rated yourself high on a pretest before show parents and others samples of what
reading this book, perhaps an 8 or 9. As they were doing and achieving in large
you read the book, however, an awareness group guidance (Curry & Lambie, 2007).
of your listening habits and a few hints To replicate this approach, a counselor
made you feel more confident than before. works with students to examine recom-
The retrospective measure has the mended competencies and determine
advantage of letting you take that into what needs to appear in a folder to dem-
account on your self-report. In contrast, onstrate certain skills are acquired and
a high score on a pretest almost certainly applied. A subjective evaluation might
prevents the investigator from finding follow. Otherwise, it is easy enough to
many positive outcomes, as there is so count skills that were demonstrated and
little room for improvement. Thus, there the tasks completed. Parents usually are
are two values to using this approach, impressed with portfolios because they
an accurate evaluation from the perspec- are more interested in seeing how their
tive of the respondent and the efficiency own children are doing than in a statisti-
of administering the instrument post- cal analysis of how a group of students
intervention only. Differences between performed.
reported scores can be computed statisti- This same portfolio concept can be
cally, although in most cases, a significant applied at middle and high school levels.
difference is typically about two points For example, students planning to attend
(e.g., 6 to 8). colleges or universities might develop a
On too many occasions, counselors portfolio that reflects the research they did
will wish they had administered a pretest regarding admissions, majors, and curricu-
or a pre-checklist. The retrospective mea- lum requirements. A comparison of uni-
surement device enables the counselor versities might be compiled in a personally
to create a relevant instrument, specific relevant chart or graph. The use of comput-
to the expected outcomes of an interven- ers and graphics can make the contents of a
tion, and collect data that can be used to portfolio dramatic and demonstrative.
evaluate any progress that has been made In another instance, the large group
with a counselee. guidance tasks could focus on career ex-
Finally, another approach that might be ploration. For example, high school career
considered is the use of "portfolios." This is portfolios might include (a) career interest
primarily a subjective method that allows inventories; (b) financial aid calculations;
individuals or groups to demonstrate their (c) research obtained on a particular ca-
competencies through various charts, re- reer along with projections about how it
cords and objects, that are placed in a file. fits with economic trends and business
climate; (d) essays for college entry; or (e)
scholarship essays.

How do you analyze data How do you evaluate programs?

and report results? An assessment of needs, the services
A student services director once gave delivered, and an evaluation of related
a presentation to a school board com- interventions would reflect the effects of
posed of some highly educated members, a comprehensive developmental guid-
including a university professor, two ance program. To achieve accountability,
medical doctors, and an accountant. The systematic evaluation procedures need to
other board members were college gradu- be outlined. An overall framework of the
ates as well. When the report focused on school program also is needed.
sophisticated testing of hypotheses, sig- The Missouri Comprehensive Guid-
nificance levels, and statistical procedures, ance Program Model (MCGP) is a plan
the board lost interest. When graphs were for developmental guidance (K-12 grades)
used to illustrate progress from baseline that involves about 200 school districts
data to when the study was completed, in the state. It is based on the assump-
their interest perked. When gains were tion that MCGP (a) reaches all students;
presented in percentages, the comparisons (b) provides a programmatic approach
were easy to see and board members were to guidance; (c) eliminates non-guid-
impressed. Keep reports simple and avoid ance activities for counselors; (d) identi-
including detailed statistical analyses. fies student competencies to be achieved
They might be kept as backup or supple- through the guidance program; and (e)
mental reports for those who are particu- provides and ensures accountability.
larly interested in pursuing the data. Most Evaluation is seen as an ongoing process,
people want to know the general results providing feedback to counselors and
and simple pictures are preferred over administrators to improve and enhance
complex ones. the program (Lapan, Gysbers, & Petroski,
Accountability studies are important 2001).
because they give you feedback on your Program evaluation might consist of
work. They help you evaluate the inter- four critical phases: (1) Planning; (2) De-
ventions you are using. They can provide signing; (3) Implementing; and (4) Evalu-
some hints regarding whether new direc- ating. It compares the guidance program
tions are needed or whether you want to to professional standards drawing upon
continue what you are doing. In addition, student outcomes. These outcomes might
some reports lend themselves to gaining be determined by matching data against
more support for your work, perhaps for a a predetermined set of expectations or,
new project you want to try. Your findings perhaps, through pretest/posttest compar-
that prove to be particularly satisfying in isons. It also is helpful to collect observa-
terms of achieving desired outcomes make tions from people and note the subjective
excellent news for the public. They can be impact of a program.
used to promote positive relations with Gysbers (1995) said guidance program
teachers, administrators, school boards, evaluation asks two questions. First, is
and the general public. there a written guidance program in the
school district? And second, is the writ-
ten guidance program the actual imple-
mented program in the buildings of the
district? This is the large picture. It as-
sumes discrepancies between the written
program and the implemented program,

if present, will come into sharp focus as around base outcomes to be achieved by
the program evaluation process unfolds. all students (Lapan (2001).
Moreover, program evaluation requires Johnson and Johnson (2003) have ad-
program standards are evident and there vocated over the years for school to build
are criterion measures by which com- results-based guidance and counseling
parisons can be made. Documentation programs. When the essential outcomes
might include the presence of a guidance to be achieved are clearly defined, the
curriculum, a yearly schedule that shows counseling and guidance processes are
a classroom guidance plan, curriculum likely to attain the identified goals.
guides and lesson plans, and related mate-
rials that might be used. This sensible approach can be helpful,
for example, when you are meeting with
This kind of program evaluation can students in a group. What is the purpose
provide a fair and efficient assessment of of the group? What results are expected
what the counselor actually does-not of and how will you know if you achieved
counselor skills, training, or experience, such results? As you answer these ques-
nor of student outcomes. Any attempts tions, you begin to get clues in terms of
to link student outcomes exclusively to what you want to make happen during
individual counselor performance seems the group counseling process. It can help
inappropriate because there are many fac- you select certain activities, offer particu-
tors other than counseling that influence lar words and phrases that help frame the
student learning and behavior. group experience, and set up situations
There was a time when counselors for a LEAP (see Chapter 5).
could rely on this type of program evalu- Lapan (2001) also argued the continu-
ation alone. They would provide written ing development of the school guidance
descriptions of district and school guid- and counseling profession depends upon
ance programs and reports, including the the ability to answer such questions as:
number of students seen by counselors
and the kind of interventions that took • How can counselor roles, duties,
place. Some counselors charted the way in functions, and interventions be trans-
which they spent their time as proof they formed to be of greater benefit and
were delivering guidance services. impact for all students?
However, times have changed and • How can counselor time on task be
there is much more pressure to go beyond redistributed to maximize benefits for
what counselors advocate and what they all students?
do. The most important questions being • How can a program be tailored to bet-
asked today are: Is the guidance program ter meet the needs of each school?
effective? Do counselors make a difference? • How can the program become cen-
One central theme connects the past tral to the overriding mission of each
to the present. There has been a long-term school?
commitment to define the essential work • How can better partnerships between
of the school counselor around interven- school personnel, parents, and busi-
tions and activities that can be shown to ness and community leaders be estab-
bring about desired student outcomes. lished?
Current comprehensive guidance and
• How can counselors better advocate
counseling programs are conceptualized
for their programs with local, state,
as data-driven or results-based systems.
and national policymakers?
Counselor roles and activities center

Sometimes the program evaluation Another approach to accountability

process is called a program audit. The is to use external reviewers to assess the
American School Counselor Association, scope and efficacy of school counseling
for example, uses the term "audit" in its programs. This can reduce the time de-
program evaluation materials. The associ- mands on school personnel and does not
ation developed guidelines for a program require them to be experts in program
audit for secondary schools (ASCA, 1986), evaluation. It makes the process more ob-
for middle/junior high schools (ASCA, jective and can reduce the threat of assess-
1990), and for elementary schools (ASCA, ment. Program components are identified
1990). across a range of services and interven-
Whiston and Sexton (1998) noted tions, evaluation procedures are agreed
that between 1988 and 1995, only 50 upon, and an outside group is contracted
school counseling outcome research stud- to complete the task.
ies were published. While noting many However, given the pressure to make
of these studies were individually strong, data-driven decisions, outside program
they argued this pointed to the need for a evaluators will want to see examples of
more programmatic approach to outcome efforts where hard and soft data were col-
research. The next decade saw an increase lected on counselor interventions. Look-
in the number of studies and projects that ing beyond the issue of what counselors
collected data to evaluate counseling ef- do, they also want to know if what coun-
fectiveness. Yet, even today, counselors selors do makes a difference.
lament they lack the training, tools, and In a sense, program evaluation is the
time to implement carefully designed re- sum of its parts and those parts are found
search studies. in small samples of counselor interven-
Results-based comprehensive guid- tions that have been systematically as-
ance and counseling programs provide sessed Gohnson & Johnson, 2003). It can
school counseling a framework within be difficult to tease out the parts and give
which the field can define itself as well as full credit to counselors for what they do,
react effectively in response to national especially since counselors so often work
and international trends. For example, with teachers and other personnel as part
gaps in academic achievement continue of a team effort. Nevertheless, counselor
to persist in the United States among in- interventions and guidance programs are
dividuals from different socioeconomic, faced with evaluation.
ethnic, and racial backgrounds. Likewise, the annual performance of
The impetus for program evaluation a school counselor must be evaluated. In
may come from legislative mandates and most school districts, this has continued
departments of education that are at- to be a rather informal process conducted
tempting to hold educational institutions by building principals and administra-
more accountable. Although recognizing tors. More often than not, it is based on
the importance of accountability, counsel- casual observations and a general impres-
ors and their administrators often believe sion assigned tasks and events have run
their efforts are hindered by a lack of smoothly.
time, the difficulty in measuring effects of
helping relationships, insufficient knowl-
edge about research and accountability,
and the fear evaluative results may show
them to be ineffective in their jobs.

ASCA's position statement (2009) on Two Types of

counselor annual performance evalua-
tions is clear. In their roles and activities, Program Evaluation
professional school counselors should Evaluators often talk about two dif-
reflect the training and practices related ferent types of evaluations: formative and
to a comprehensive school guidance and summative. A formative evaluation is usu-
counseling program. ally conducted in the early stages of a
Preferably, written evaluations should program and addresses questions about
use forms and tools specifically designed implementation and ongoing planning. It
for evaluating a professional school coun- typically examines the process rather than
selor's performance. In addition, counselor product.
evaluations should be based on the imple- In the case of counseling, a formative
mentation of the district's written compre- evaluation might ask if students met the
hensive school counseling program, the counselor for an individual session or in a
school counselor's job description, and the group and how many times did meetings
principles expressed in the ASCA National take place. It might focus on the amount
Model School Counselor Performance of time for each session or even student
Standards and the ASCA School Counselor responses regarding their impressions of
Competencies (Isaacs, 2003). the sessions. What are their thoughts and
Evaluation documents can be modi- impressions about the process? What do
fied annually to reflect the changing their teachers think? Students and teach-
needs of students and schools, as well as ers can provide valuable feedback that
the skills and interventions of the coun- gives you ideas for improving your pro-
selor. Additionally, Gysbers and Hender- cess as you are moving along, with the
son (2006) recommend three components goal of improving eventual outcomes.
of school counselor evaluation: self-eval- Formative evaluations are useful for
uation, administrative evaluation, and catching problems early on, while they
assessment of school counseling program can still be corrected. They may be useful
attainment. in understanding why different outcomes
emerged and help improve the delivery of
a counseling intervention. They also can
help identify appropriate outcomes and
collect data that might be used in a future
summative (or impact) evaluation.

In one school, for example, the ques- Summative evaluations are meant
tion was asked: Why didn't more teachers to provide evidence of cause and effect
taken part in a professional development relationships. They generally assess long-
program aimed at working with ADHD term effects and provide data on impacts.
students? Those who did attend the work- Piecing together data about components
shop were very satisfied and seemed to of a guidance program can, over time,
benefit from the training sessions. But, help evaluators arrive at a summative
the turnout was lower. than expected. evaluation. This, in turn, helps provide an
Upon further investigation, the coordina- answer to the ultimate question: Does a
tor learned it was neither the topic nor comprehensive guidance and counseling
the presenters. Rather, the workshop was program make a positive difference with
offered at a time when too many teachers students and how can you tell?
had other commitments. Subsequently, This chapter is limited. It is a brief
the teachers were surveyed about their discussion of research concepts and pro-
preferences and availability, which led to cedures that might be applied in an ac-
decisions about when to offer the next countability system for counselors. Other
program. books might be consulted regarding sta-
Summative evaluations assess program tistical procedures. You also might consult
outcomes or impact. Unlike formative with an educator who specializes in de-
evaluations, information is collected after signing studies and analyzing data.
the program has been completely imple- Let's look more specifically at two
mented and adequate time has passed methods that can be used to study the ef-
to expect outcomes to occur. In this in- fectiveness of your interventions: (1) Sys-
stance, a summative evaluation might tematic Case Studies and (2) Comparative
ask if the teachers attending a workshop Group Studies.
implemented any of the skills or activities
they learned and did they make a differ-
ence with their students.

Figure 12.3
Behavior Checklist-Kevin
(Teacher Ratings-Pre and Post)
Very Some- Very

Often Often times Seldom Seldom
1. Attends class 1/2
2. Is punctual to class 2 1
3. Brings study materials 2 1
4. Takes part in discussions 1/2
5. Pays attention in class 1 /2
6. Follows directions 2 1
7. Starts assignments 2 1
8. Attends to a given task 1/2
9. Completes assignments 2 1
10. Talks at appropriate times 1/2
11 . Works independently 2 1
12. Follows school rules 1/2
Pre-ratings =1
Post-ratings =2

Figure 12.4
Final Written Report on K.J.
K.J. (initials for Kevin) is a seventh grade student attending Brentwood Junior High
School. He has a Wechsler IQ of 105 (Full Scale) and was once referred for the emotion-
ally handicapped program in elementary school. However, special placement was not
recommended. In October he was referred for counseling by one of his teachers, who
rated him on a classroom behavior checklist (See Figure 12.3). K.J. also rated himself on
the same items during the first stage of counseling.
The counselor first consulted with the referring teacher regarding K.J.'s classroom
behavior and about some possible techniques the teacher might use in the classroom to
improve K.J.'s behavior. In addition, the school counselor intervened by providing four
individual counseling sessions (once a week for four weeks) and four sessions of small
group counseling during the 3rd and 4th weeks of assistance. K.J. was the target child in
a group of five students. The counselor also tried to talk with his parents via phone, but
their service had been recently disconnected.
At the end of the grading period, the referring teacher.rated K.J. again, as she had
done each Friday afternoon from the time the interventions started. Her final rating is
shown in the attached graph. On six of the ten items, K.J. showed some improvement.
Regarding a specific behavior, "Starts assignments," there was considerable positive
change, moving from "very seldom" to "often."
K.J.'s teacher reported that he is continuing to do much better in class and that their
working relationship has improved.
The Systematic Case Study The Case of Kevin

The following is an example of a Kevin was a seventh grade student
systematic case study. It is a practical ap- who was a problem to most of his teach-
proach, one that can be used with a group ers. He was referred to the counselor by a
of students or an individual. The general teacher, Mrs. Crowell, who really wanted
outline guides you through five basic Kevin removed from her class. She said,
steps. It can become more sophisticated if "He's rude and inconsiderate of others.
you add more steps or procedures. How- He hates school and wants to be kicked
ever, that is rarely necessary for most ac- out of class, probably so his tough guy im-
countability studies. age can be reinforced. I don't want to do
that, but that's what it may come to. In
The five steps include:
plain English, the kid's a real pain ... and,
1. Identify the target student or group I know, you're going to tell me he comes
for study. from a family that doesn't care about him.
2. Collect baseline data. But that doesn't change things. He's a
3. Provide the intervention. problem."
4. Collect post-baseline data. The counselor listened and facilitated
the teacher to talk about Kevin. The con-
5. Analyze the findings and write a re- sultation model (Chapter 11) was applied
port. as the teacher explored the situation.
The case of Kevin illustrates how the Then, it came time to focus specifically
study might be implemented. on what the teacher wanted to see from

Kevin if he were to remain in class. The Such a checklist helped the teacher
counselor encouraged Mrs. Crowell to identify the progress that was being made.
put her ideas into behavioral terms, ask- It reinforced her and the counselor for
ing such questions as, "What are some their efforts. It heightened the teacher's
specific ways in which he is disruptive?" awareness of specific classroom behaviors
and "Okay, what does he do that makes that were desired from Kevin. The study
you say he doesn't care?" The counselor and the interventions concluded after a
showed Mrs. Crowell the list of behaviors period of seven weeks, the end of a grad-
related to achievement (Figure 12.1) and ing period. The final ratings of Kevin by
said, "Let's see if we can get an idea of Mrs. Crowell are shown in Figure 12.3 and
some things we want him to do and figure the final report is shown in Figure 12.4.
out where we might be starting." This case focused only on the use of
The teacher rated Kevin on all of the a behavior checklist by the teacher, but
behaviors. The counselor proceeded to it could have included other data from
consult with Mrs. Crowell about what school records (attendance, etc.) and
she might do in class. The counselor, other teachers. More information could
as part of a collaboration and multiple have been included about the individual
intervention, counseled with Kevin indi- counseling approach (e.g., "During this
vidually for a few sessions. Later, Kevin time, Kevin was asked to talk about what
participated with five other students in he liked and disliked about school, what
small group counseling which focused on he hoped to get from school, and how
school issues and coping with teachers. At he might get along with his teachers bet-
the time, it seemed to be the ingredient ter.") Or, perhaps, an outline of the group
that helped Kevin's behavior improve. He objectives and titles of the group meetings
received recognition from the group and might have been included to suggest the
they were all trying to improve their im- kind of approach that was used.
age in school. Single case studies in counseling have
Every Friday afternoon, Mrs. Crow- an important place and may be the most
ell rated Kevin on his classroom behav- appropriate way to study the effects of
iors for that week. There was not much counseling with a student. This approach
change the first two weeks, but in the has received special attention, as more
third week, when Kevin started work- people recognize studying counseling ef-
ing with the group, there was a marked fects through group research designs can
change. She said, "Well, there may have be limiting. Single case studies are inter-
been some little changes earlier, enough esting and more valid than testimonials.
to give me a little hope, but nothing Several studies also can be pooled to help
much to report .... However, this week he make a point.
was much better, especially on items 4, 7,
and 8. 11

A group of counselors, representing The Collaborative Study

all grade levels, agreed to provide their
The collaborative study follows the
district guidance coordinator with at least
four systematic case studies. They agreed same basic outline as the systematic case
to follow the same outline when writing a study, except participating counselors
final report on each case, using the same identify a single target group and pool
appropriate headings. Reports were lim- their data before an analysis is done. The
ited to two or three P.ages in length. pooling of data, providing certain as-
sumptions are met, allows counselors to
The guidance coordinator took the analyze data based on a larger number
cases and sorted them according to type of subjects and to use different statistical
of problem, grade level, and kind of in- procedures.
terventions used. Approximately 72 cases
were included in an Accountability Book, A group of 16 elementary school
which was available to parents and the counselors met together for staff develop-
ment and expressed their concern about
general public for examination. The book
underachieving students. Because it was a
was divided into sections that provided
common problem in all the schools and
cases on disruptive behavior, shyness, ex-
of interest to the public, the group de-
cessive absences, and other problems. The
cided to work together in a collaborative
cases were considered to be representative
of things counselors were doing to help study.
students.
Defining and Identifying
Students with attention deficit prob-
lems struggle in school for many reasons. the Population
Those with hyperactivity (ADHD) often First, the counselors agreed upon com-
disrupt classroom learning activities. Four mon criteria for defining and identifying
elementary school students took part in underachieving children. All participants
child-centered play therapy. The coun- in the study were to have a minimum
selor also consulted with their teacher Slosson IQ of 90 and they were to have
(thus, a multiple intervention took place). been cited by their teachers as having
Behavioral observations of the students a marked discrepancy between IQ and
took place three times per week. Results of achievement scores on standardized tests
single-case studies on each child showed or school grades. It was further agreed to
a reduction in disruptive behaviors. The concentrate on students from grades 3, 4,
students seemed to be able to manage and 5.
their classroom behaviors better (Ray et
al., 2009).

Selecting the Implementing

Sample or Participants Counselor Interventions
Using the common criteria, the coun- The counselors, as a staff development
selors each identified 20 underachieving group, discussed possible methods and
students in their respective schools. Then, procedures for working with underachiev-
using a table of random numbers, 10 of ing students. One proposal called for
the students were assigned to an experi- everyone using the same approach and
mental group and the other 10 served as evaluating only one kind of intervention.
controls, receiving no counselor assistance It was finally decided, however, to investi-
until the study was completed. Thus, the gate the overall effectiveness of counselors
16 counselors identified 320 students for working with underachieving children,
assignment. At the end of the study, data rather than a particular method or ap-
were complete on 155 experimental and proach. Some counselors said they were
146 control students. more effective in using some approaches
than others and individual counselors
Collecting Data should use their best skills and resources
A teacher evaluation rating form and to bring about change.
a student self-rating form were devised The counselors brainstormed together
for the study. They were administered and developed a list of possible proce-
before and after counselor interventions dures or specific interventions that might
took place. The teacher form consisted be used with the experimental group. The
of nine behaviors associated with aca- list was distributed to all the counselors
demic performance in the classroom and who agreed to carefully record the spe-
included items similar to those in Figure cific interventions that were used with
12.1. Frequency of behavior was reported each student. Thus, the counselors were
using a five-point Likert-type scale. The free to do whatever they wanted to help
student self-rating consisted of the same their students as long as they recorded the
behavioral items as those that appeared number and nature of student contacts.
on the teacher form, but they were placed Although this approach lacked the preci-
on separate 3 x 5 cards. The cards were sion of generalization that might come
read aloud to students by their counselors when only one intervention is investigat-
in an individual session and sorted by stu- ed, it was practical and reduced the need
dents into the different ratings. The two to have more staff development meetings.
instruments provided a comparison of
teacher and student pre- and post-ratings Limiting the Duration
by both intervention and control groups. of the Study
The study was limited to a school
grading period of nine weeks. Baseline
data were collected in the first week.
Counselor interventions then took place
for seven weeks, with post-data collected
during the last week.

Figure 12.5
Collaborative Study:
The Counselor Interventions
Type of Intervention Number
1 . Consultation
a. Case Conferences ......................................................................................... 8
b. Teacher Consultation ................................................................................. 98
c. Parent Consultation .................................................................................... 39
d. Administrator Consultation ........................................................................ 11
TOTAL .........................................................................•........................... 156
2. Groups
a. Problem-centered (Students) ................................................................... 11 7
b. Growth-centered (Students) .......... ,........................................................... 65
c. Teacher Group (Seminar) ............................................................................ 6
d. Parent Group (Seminar) .............................................................................. 2
TOTAL ...................................................................................................... 190
3. Individual Counseling
a. With structured activities ........................................................................... 67
b. Unstructured ............................................................................................. 41
TOTAL ..................................................................................................... 108
4. Referral ............................................................................................................ 8
5. Other ............................................................................................................. 63

Figure 12.6
Percentage Gains for Counselor Intervention Group
(Pre and Post Comparison)
Percentage Difference
Behaviors Student Teacher
Ratings Ratings
1. Contributes to discussion +15 +6
2. Does not start assignments -6 -13
3. Completes assignments (homework) +13 +15
4. Does not work without individual teacher attention -16 -15
5. Attends to assigned task +2 +14
6. Does not follow directions -4 -18
7. Attempts new activities +2 +9
8. Does not do work correctly -5 -12
9. Demonstrates a readiness to work +11 +16
Analyzing the Findings tion with teachers and parents, as well as

The findings or results were analyzed referral to other professional personnel
in terms of: (1) Type and number of inter- were less preferred approaches, but were
ventions used by counselors; (2) Teacher used on occasion.
pre- and post-ratings; (3) Student pre- and Most students received more than one
post-ratings; and (4) Comparison of ex- kind of counselor help. Approximately
perimental and control groups. 64 percent of the children in the coun-
Five categories of counselor interven- selor intervention group received three
tions were used to record what counselors to five types of intervention. The general
did with students. A summary of all in- pattern consisted of teacher consulta-
terventions used with students in the in- tion, followed by one or two individual
tervention group is shown in Figure 12.5. counseling sessions and some form of
The data showed 95 percent of the inter- small group counseling. Only two per-
vention group were involved with group cent of the children received one type of
counseling and, in 93 percent of the cases, intervention. About 25 percent received
counselors consulted with teachers. The two types and nine percent received more
data showed case conferences, consulta- than five types of intervention.
tion with administrators, group consulta-

Percentage differences for pre- and demonstrated the effectiveness of class-

post-ratings on the nine items for the room guidance with student attitudes
intervention group are shown in Figure about school.
12.6. An examination of the data revealed A staff development project was
that after counselors intervened, teachers completed with elementary, middle, and
and students reported an increase in be- senior high school counselors in Burke
haviors related to achievement. County, North Carolina. Three collab-
Analysis of variance procedures were orative studies were outlined and imple-
used to statistically compare the two mented by the counselors, one at each of
groups of students on both student and the three school levels. All three studies
teacher ratings. Significant differences focused on low-performing students.
were found between the intervention and In the middle school, for example,
control groups for teacher ratings (.01 lev- low-performing students were defined as
el of confidence) and students (.OS level those who had received at least two fail-
of confidence). Analysis of pre-data also ing grades (F) for the previous grading
indicated that there were no significant period. They were not working up to their
differences between the intervention and ability. Using official grade reports, each
control groups at the beginning of the counselor identified students who needed
study. Thus, it was concluded counselors assistance. One half of these students were
had made a positive difference with un- randomly selected for immediate atten-
derachieving students. tion, while the other half was designated
as a comparison or control group and,
Making a Final Report subsequently, received delayed assistance.
Data were summarized and put into Again, the counselors were responsi-
tables and figures. A four-page report was ble for their own interventions with their
compiled and sent to the superintendent target students. No attempt was made
of schools and each building principal. A to have all counselors use the same ap-
brief report also was made to the school proach, however, all agreed to administer
board by the guidance coordinator for the the same pre- and post-inventories to stu-
district, with some representative coun- dents and teachers, including the control
selors present to discuss the study and group.
answer questions. The local newspaper
Because counselors used the same cri-
and television station also received cop-
teria to identify students and intervened
ies of the report and they, subsequently,
with these students during the same grad-
interviewed the guidance coordinator for
ing period, it was assumed the data could
news stories.
be pooled and the results could be exam-
Myrick, Merhill, and Swanson re- ined across all schools.
ported a collaborative study by counselors
Counselors were asked to record their
in two different states using the same in-
interventions with students. In general,
tervention. For part of the study, a Florida
the counselors focused primarily on some
school district involved 72 elementary
form of small group counseling. Class-
school counselors who followed the steps
room guidance, consultation with teach-
outlined above and pooled their data for
ers and parents, and individual counseling
analysis. In Indiana, 30 school counselors
sessions also took place, but to a lesser de-
from different schools and districts fol-
gree than small group work with students.
lowed similar guidelines and procedures
and pooled their data. The final report

Approximately 130 students from six • Participates in class discussions (15%

middle schools participated in the study. gain).
Of these, pre-and post-data from teachers • Talks at appropriate times (22% gain).
were complete on 80 students who re-
ceived counselor interventions. These stu- • Accepts helpful corrections and sug-
dents also provided pre-and post-data on gestions (12% gain).
themselves. It was, therefore, possible to A few of the items were particularly
examine any gains that may or may not significant in that there also was a signifi-
have been made following a counselor cant decrease in negative behavior (the
intervention. Another 50 students served opposite of desired learning behavior). In-
as a comparison group and received coun- cluded among these were a 31 percent de-
selor assistance at a later date. crease in avoiding starting school work; 29
Teachers were given the Myrick Learn- percent decrease in not applying oneself to
ing Behavior Inventory consisting of 22 school assignments; 27 percent decrease in
items. They indicated their degree of not finishing assignments; and 27 percent
agreement by marking Strongly Agree, decrease in not turning in assignments on
Agree, Not Sure, Disagree, or Strongly time.
Disagree. Percentages were reported for In addition, teachers were asked to
all schools based on the perceptions of 80 respond to items that focused on student
teachers. A gain of at least 12 percent was attitudes and their perceptions of self and
considered significant improvement. others. Again, teachers reported appre-
Counselor interventions had a posi- ciable gains in some areas:
tive effect on low-performing students. • I respect my teacher (13% gain).
In particular, teachers saw considerable • My teacher respects me (20% gain).
improvement in classroom behaviors that
• Others are interested in what I say
related to learning and being successful in
(12% gain).
school:
• I like coming to school (19% gain).
• Has materials ready to work (17%
gain). • I am a good worker at school (20%
gain).
• Follows directions and school rules
(16% gain). • School is a friendly place to be (14%
gain).
• Turns in homework assignments (35%
gain). • Tries harder when things don't go
right (13% gain).
• Works independently without super-
vision (22% gain). Interestingly, there seemed to be no
significant change in terms of getting
• Pays attention in class (26% gain).
along well with others (7% gain), know-
• Starts school work as soon as assigned ing how to make friends (2% decrease),
(31 % gain). or school made students feel happy and
• Works hard on school assignments successful (6% gain), as perceived and re-
(27% gain). ported by the teachers.
• Finishes assignments on time (29%
gain).

All of this suggests that, based on pre- Before the students in the control
and post-data from teachers, participating group received counselor assistance, they
students made significant progress in a were rated by the teachers. A comparison
number of classroom behaviors related to of the intervention group vs. the control
learning and achievement and these stu- group indicated significant differences in
dents also improved their attitudes about favor of the intervention group on several
self and school. items:
Self-report data were available from • Follows directions and school rules.
55 of these same students. They did not • Turns in homework assignments.
see themselves making as much progress
as did their teachers. Significant improve- • Starts school work as soon as assigned.
ment, in the eyes of students, was reached • Finishes assignments on time.
on two classroom behaviors. • Talks at appropriate times.
• I work hard on school assignments • My teacher respects me.
(14% gain).
• Others are interested in what I have to
• I finish assignments on time (13% say.
gain).
• I am an important and special person.
There were, however, significant de-
The findings of this study suggest
creases in three negative behaviors: not
that, based on pre- and post-data from
finishing assignments on time (decrease of
teachers and students, low-performing
17%); not having materials ready to work
students made significant progress in a
(decrease of 13%); and, not participating
number of classroom behaviors related to
in class discussions (decrease of 17%).
learning and achievement. These students
It appeared brief counselor interven- also improved their attitudes about self
tions, using individual and group pro- and school. These results were further
cedures, made a positive difference in substantiated by involving a comparison
student classroom and learning behaviors. group. It was concluded counselor inter-
In most cases, students saw the counselor ventions were effective with low-perform-
as encouraging. Some, however, experi- ing middle school students.
enced their counselor as challenging or
confronting. This may have been associ-
ated with some students, even ones who
improved their school work, not rating
themselves as good workers or school as a
friendly place to be.
In general, many students started (pre-
test data) by rating themselves high, even
though they were performing poorly.
Following counselor interventions, they
may have become more realistic and rated
themselves lower than on the first assess-
ment. When this occurs, gains are more
difficult to assess.

Helpful Hints amines the data and the conclusions that

were reached.
Work with Someone Else Living with limitations is part of do-
Accountability studies can bring ing accountability studies in school set-
professionals together as a team. They tings. Accepting limitations when noth-
provide a focus for everyone's work and ing can be done about them is the only
they stimulate thinking. People can pool practical thing to do. Telling others that
their ideas about interventions as well there are limitations to a study and cit-
as data collection. Because everyone is ing them is a professional and responsible
working on a project together, there is way to respond to critics. Almost any ef-
more support and enthusiasm. The esprit fort toward more research will encounter
d' corps that develops among counselors limitations. In fact, few researchers can
who work on an accountability study is a control for all the variables and sources of
prime benefit. invalidity. They all live with limitations.
Work with Models or Examples Develop Relevant Measures

Look for a few simple models you can Do not be afraid to develop your own
use as guidelines. They might be drawn measurement devices. With a little extra
from this book or from professional jour- effort, you can establish some validity
nal articles. For instance, using the steps and reliability for them. You might, for
of the systematic case study in this chap- instance, do a test-retest on an instru-
ter, insert the relevant information for ment with a group and use the data to
one of your own cases. Use the same com- determine the consistency of the instru-
mon language to provide a description of ment. Face validity might do for a start,
the study. This saves you time in planning although construct validity might be
and reporting. improved by asking other professionals to
review the items on the instruments and
to critique them. When a group of review-
Recognize Limitations
ers agree, you can probably proceed with
There are many reasons why research confidence.
is difficult to do in the schools and why
When items are stated in observable
people do not try. An accountability study
behaviors, it is usually easy to obtain both
may not be perfect. It may not control
validity and reliability for an instrument.
for all sources of invalidity or be rigorous
Items on an instrument can be analyzed
enough to be published in a professional
individually. When they are pooled for a
journal. Yet, it is better to recognize the
total score, some additional problems are
limitations and then do what you can,
introduced and you will need to recognize
rather than do nothing at all.
statistical limitations.
Some individuals, who have perhaps
studied with some excellent research- Invite Researchers to Help
ers, may be quick to point out flaws in a
study. They may say, "But, there are too Most school districts have someone
many problems with the research design. who is interested in accountability and
You can't control for some important fac- knows something about research meth-
tors." Listen carefully to what they say odology. This may be a teacher at a par-
and try to address the issues in some way. ticular school or there may be someone at
Then, do the study, citing the limitations the district's central office who is familiar
that need to be considered when one ex- with research procedures who could serve
as a consultant.

Counselor educators at colleges and Researchers examined the content

universities might be invited to help con- from 456 school counseling websites. Re-
struct an accountability study with you. sults showed the sites lacked information
Professors from other disciplines also pertaining to counselor roles, programs,
might be asked for help. Accountability or other current trends. This was surpris-
studies should not be boring, laborious ing since the web provides an efficient
tasks. While there are special issues to be means for counselor "self-advocacy."
resolved, the studies qm be stimulating (Millsom, et al., 2006). Students, parents,
and professionally rewarding. Sometimes and the public can gain a better of idea
all that is needed is a little extra encour- of what counselors do and their mission
agement and timely assistance. through the web.
E-mail is a universal means of com-
Understand and munication. It can be an expedient and
Use Computer Technology efficient means of posing questions, re-
New computer technology makes it questing information, and responding.
possible to collect and analyze data once Parents might e-mail counselors to express
too difficult to obtain. It is a matter of concern about their children's adjustment
knowing how to use software programs to school and ask if their behavior is typi-
that allow data to be moved around in cal of their age group. A counselor could
different forms and formulas. Technology respond with a few general comments
enables counselors to point and click their and describe a parent group where mutual
way through various computer programs. concerns and interests are shared.
District personnel may be helpful in con- There are numerous websites that
structing a format for use with a target can be helpful in career and educational
population or in program evaluation (Van planning. High school students can tour
Horn & Myrick, 2001). colleges or job sites. Elementary school
Another valuable way for counselors students might visit sites that coach them
to be accountable to the various publics in social skills. A list of links to those
they serve is by maintaining a page on sites that fit the school's mission can be a
the school's website. For instance, a guid- major resource for students and parents.
ance homepage can include links to a However, such links need to be monitored
school's mission statement, the goals for and check periodically to ensure their
the year, and counselor profiles. A site validity and value. Government and repu-
also can include descriptions of special table commercial sites are favored because
opportunities and activities for students they are monitored and sensitive to public
and parents offered through the guidance interests.
department, such as small group counsel-
ing sessions and peer facilitator programs.
In addition, a guidance department can
create and post a master calendar that lists
important dates and events, such as days
for standardized tests and college admis-
sion deadlines. Webpages promote public
awareness about the role and services of
a school counselor (Tyler & Sabella, 2004;
Sabella & Beverly, 2003).

Sabella (2003) claimed technology Any counselor can create a blog for
could help counselors in four areas: free. Blogs can be given a title and pur-
1. Information/Resource: In the form pose and attempt to draw participants
of words, graphics, video, and virtual with similar interests. Viewers can periodi-
environments, the web remains a dy- cally visit a counselor's blog on a given
namic and rapidly growing library of topic and see the latest information and
information and knowledge. participant responses.
2. Communication/Collaboration: Chat ASCA SCENE (Blog) is a professional
rooms, bulletin boards, virtual class- meeting place for school counseling pro-
room environments, video conferenc- fessionals to network, share ideas, and
ing, online conferences, electronic learn from each other. Asking and answer-
meeting services, e-mail-the web is a ing questions, sharing guidance program
place where people connect, exchange ideas, suggesting possible interventions,
information, and make shared deci- and describing best practices are among
sions. the options available there. Since blogs
are open and free to so many people,
3. Interactive/Productivity tools: Soft- counselors need to be thoughtful about
ware and web-based programming what they post and consider their choice
provide high-tech tools to help coun- of words. Once posted, a comment is
selors build and create anything rang- there for all to see. Moreover, it can be
ing from a personalized business card easily circulated to other sites.
to a set of personalized website links.
Interactive tools help process data and Twitter is a mixture of instant messag-
manipulate information such as calcu- ing and networking. It has been derided
lating GPAs, creating graphs, or show- as a "microblog" and as high tech updates
ing the interactive effects of popular of personal trivia. Still, the short mes-
prescription drugs. sages, called "tweets," link people and
provide personal connections. A lot of the
4. Delivery of services: More controver- posts are mundane and amount to short
sial, yet growing in popularity, is how bursts of "Here's what I'm doing right
counselors can use the web to meet now." Yet, more and more, professionals
with clients and deliver counseling in various fields are finding valid uses.
services in an online or "virtual" envi-
ronment. Facebook started as a social network for
college students as did MySpace. Through
Social networking via the internet these and other networks, a person can
is a phenomenon of the 21'1 century. In create a private community to share pho-
technical language, "blog" is short for tos, journals, e-mails, music, common
"web log." It is like a personal journal, interests, blog discussions, and issues to
but it is a public page that is accessible debate.
via the internet. Blogs reflect the interests
and personalities of those who post mes- Facebook's growth in the fall of 2007
sages to them. The site can be viewed as was stunning. Over 1 million new users
a collection of daily memos, links, and signed up every week, 200,000 daily. It is
an outlet for news. Because they are easy the world's largest social network, with
to set up and manage, millions of people over 400 million users. Facebook users'
blog and many do it daily. Entries appear passion, or addiction, to the site is unpar-
in a chronological listing, from the most alleled. More than half the members use
recent to the last entry. the product every day. In March, 2010,
Facebook surpassed Google as the most vis-
ited site on the web.

Facebook, MySpace, and Twitter, along The harmful impact of cyberbullying

with texting on smartphones, have estab- might be even greater than in-person bul-
lished themselves as part of the nation's lying because online communications can
social fabric, especially in the lives of be very intense and ongoing. Moreover,
teenagers and young adults. The websites the bully can be anonymous while us-
provide a place to share personal informa- ing inappropriate language or spreading
tion with friends, family, and the public- harmful material and rumors. Typically
an activity that has proyen to be hugely acting from their own discontent, they
compelling to internet users. In response are intent on heaping abuse on perceived
to the demand, technology is evolving to foes. Unfortunately, sometimes young
encourage the disclosure of information people also post threats or send distress-
that was formerly discreet and to enable ing material as a "joke"-a joke that can
sharing of information, even when not have serious consequences.
sitting in front of a traditional computer. Counselors can lead large group dis-
Because it is popular, free, and easy to cussions about the threats that exist on
navigate, some schools use Facebook as a the web and address the risks. "Being
means of communicating with students Savvy and Being Safe in Cyberspace" is
and the public. Pictures can be posted. a large group guidance unit that would
Blogs can be created. It is a territory to receive support from parents and help
which young people relate. young people make good choices.
However, there are countless privacy Counselors, too, need to be aware of
pitfalls in a world where a near-endless the power of the web and the impact their
stream of personal bits is indiscriminately messages can have on others. Who else
posted, indefinitely stored, and quietly is reading and reacting to what has been
collected and analyzed by marketers, posted or sent? In general, counselors
identity thieves, and professional snoops. should be cautious about sharing per-
Cyberspace can have the effect of cre- sonal information and trying to counsel
ating an illusion of distance or intimacy someone online. There are some distinct
that, in reality, could prove hurtful or advantages to working online, but privacy
even dangerous. For instance, the risk of issues present serious limitations.
exposure to pornography and adult sexual
predators is present. Perhaps even more
likely to come to the attention of school
counselors is "cyberbullying." It is a grow-
ing concern (Willard, 2007).
Cyberbullying is deliberately being
mean to others by posting or sending
hurtful messages or material. Cyberbul-
lies might repeatedly send offensive and
cruel messages. Or, they might distribute
demeaning materials or sensitive personal
information. They can impersonate some-
one with the purpose to cause harm.

Recognizing the technological gaps in Use Studies to Tell

knowledge and use of technology, Sabella About Your Work
and his colleagues have played an active
role in advancing understanding technol- A case has already been made for col-
ogy, training, networking and identifying lecting data to give you some feedback
resources. For example, SchoolCounselor. about your work. If something is work-
com (http://www.schoolcounselor.com/) ing, continue using it. If it is not working,
is an electronic publication designed to based on a study you have made, then
advance counselors' level of technological consider some modifications or a different
literacy, application, and integration. It approach altogether. At the same time,
provides practical solutions and answers when favorable results are found, they
to technology related problems, espe- also might be used to tell about your job
cially as they apply to a counselor's job. and the work you do (Herr, 2002).
In another instance, Data Boot Camp for You will not be breaking confidential-
School Counselors is a professional devel- ity by presenting a brief report that fo-
opment workshop designed to advance cuses primarily on the interventions used
technological literacy among counselors and statistical data. You need not reveal
in a useful and practical manner. Particu- names, cite particular events, or provide
lar attention is given to using Microsoft indiscreet details in a final report. The
Excel™ to make data-driven decision welfare of counselees is always honored.
making an important part of a compre- If in doubt, ask students and parents for
hensive guidance program. their permission to use data collected
One study, consisting of online re- from them in a study.
ports from counselors, reported how 49 There are many teachers who do not
school counselors used various technolo- understand the work of a counselor. It can
gies to accomplish their goals in a "more help when you show them how you have
effective, efficient, and professional man- organized your week and how you are try-
ner." (Hayden, Poynton, & Sabella, 2008). ing to achieve a comprehensive program
Particular attention was given to how the through the six different interventions.
technologies were associated with the But, it also is impressive when you pro-
delivery system components of the ASCA vide them with a few examples of how
National Model. The study showed each you have worked with particular students
component (curriculum, individual stu- or groups. It is even more impressive
dent planning, responsive services, and when you have some data to support your
system support) was positively affected. claims.
School board members want to know
more about what is happening in the
schools they serve. They want to hear suc-
cess stories. Superintendents and building
administrators need examples they can
use when speaking at various public meet-
ings or when answering questions from
the public media. District guidance coor-
dinators need accountability studies to
justify budget requests, including ones for
the addition of counselors, clerical sup-
port, and staff development training.

Figure 12.7
Questions for School Counselors
1. Goals and objectives-

What are you trying to accomplish as a counselor? What are your goals? Which
ones are for all students? For target populations? For selected students? Which
goals are given highest priority?
2. Roles and functions-

What are you doing to accomplish your goals? How is your contribution
unique? What is missing or needed in order to have a more comprehensive ap-
proach? How does your job description match the ASCA National Model?
3. Schedules and calendars-

How are you managing your time? What minimum number of counselor inter-
ventions can 'be scheduled for the week? How is the weekly calendar of events
related to a yearly one? What special topics are getting attention and when?
4. Skills and tasks-

What skills are needed to be successful in your roles and interventions? How
do you rate yourself on them? In which roles or interventions do you need ad-
ditional training or retraining?
5. Activities and procedures-

How have you organized and arranged activities? Have some been arranged in
a sequential series or as a set of structured experiences? What kind of guidance
or counseling units have you developed and implemented?
6. Evaluation and accountability-

What results are you getting? How are you accountable? Are you making a dif-
ference? What are you doing to let others know about your work?
7. Professionalism and personal growth-

What are you doing to keep alive professionally? What contributions are you
making to your profession and what are you getting in return? What does your
profession mean to you? What are you getting out of being a counselor?

In the past, counselors have not done Avoid Being on the Defensive
a good job of telling their story with ac- Some counselors assume that every
countability studies (Tymofievich & Le- service is valuable. This may not be the
roux, 2000). They have relied on a few
case. Only by systematically collecting
positive statements from students who
feedback from students and other reliable
have benefited from their services. But
sources can outcomes be evaluated ac-
now, more difficult questions (See Figure
curately. Still, there are many counselors
12.7) are being asked which demand more who are not inclined to take part in ac-
supportive information and data. countability studies for fear they might be
Borders and Drury (1992) completed discovered as being ineffective. To them,
a thorough review of the professional lit- studies might draw unwanted attention
erature regarding comprehensive school and create a problem that was not there
counseling programs. They synthesized before. When pushed for more explana-
the results of 30 years of empirical work tion, they reply that, unless requested by
and professional statements and reached a the district office or unless they are about
major conclusion: to lose their jobs, accountability studies
"School counseling interventions are a waste of time.
have a substantial impact on students' Counselors in a developmental guid-
educational and personal development. ance and counseling program usually
Individual and small group counseling, have a considerable amount of positive
classroom guidance, and consultation evidence at hand to help tell their story.
activities seem to contribute directly to Rather than waiting until they are some-
students' success in the classroom and day forced on the defensive, they want to
beyond, and school counselors should make their achievements known to oth-
spend the majority of their time performers. How can others speak favorably about
ing these interventions. Coordination counselors if they do not know how effec-
activities should be confined to those that tive they are in their work? Avoid waiting
improve the program's efficiency and ac- until you are challenged. Have some ac-
countability. It seems clear policymakers countability studies at hand to show what
and practitioners should ensure every you are doing to school board members,
student has an opportunity to participate parents, and the general public.
in a comprehensive school counseling There are some concerned citizen
program" (p. 495). groups, although few in number, who do
not accept the basic premises of devel-
opmental guidance and counseling pro-
grams. These same groups often challenge
independent thought and the freedom of
speech guaranteed under the First Amend-
ment. They seek confrontation and cen-
sorship.

The American School Counselor As- When a confrontation takes place, re-
sociation (ASCA) has recommended member to:
counselors take responsibility for assuring • Be positive.
that students have free access to guidance
and counseling information and provide • Listen carefully.
them commonly recognized guidance and • Use high facilitative responses and lis-
counseling services. Counselors are en- ten some more.
couraged to create opportunities for open • Ask for specific examples or illustra-
discussion and exploration of alternative tions.
views and to foster freedom of thought in
• Avoid arguing or simply agreeing;
accordance with our democratic society. A
rather, discuss the concerns.
student's basic rights cannot be denied.
• Be open to the truth in any criticism
Still, there will be challengers. As a
that may be offered.
counselor, you must first be able to de-
scribe your programs and activities in • Explain your position, relating your
everyday language, avoiding educational role, function, or procedures to learn-
jargon. What is the rationale for using a ing.
particular technique, method, or strategy? • Choose your words carefully, avoiding
What are the objectives and how do they those that trigger emotional reactions.
relate to the goals of the school? • Accept challengers have a right to pro-
A brochure explaining the goals of the test, and remember, they do not have
guidance and counseling program often the authority to change school policy
is helpful, although you may need to be or direct your activities.
prepared to give more specific examples. • Know the school district's formal
Sometimes it is helpful to identify the complaint procedure and be prepared
challengers and their concerns before a to refer if the confrontation intensi-
confrontation. Then, prepare a response fies.
that will address the primary concerns,
always showing how guidance and coun- • Make a record of the conference, not-
seling programs are designed to help stu- ing specific words and behaviors.
dents learn more effectively and efficient- • Consult privately with administrators
ly. Draw upon your state and national and professional colleagues and iden-
professional organizations for assistance. tify other resources who are available
Advisory boards and groups who are and willing to work with you.
strong proponents of your program also • Identify your responsibilities and next
can be helpful. You will need the backing steps.
of advocates. Providing them with ex-
amples and clarifying for them your goals
and approaches can strengthen their posi-
tion and support.

Be Selective lar experience when he attended a state

It is not practical to study all aspects
conference and listened to a program pre-
of your work at the same time. You can- senter and said, "That's nothing new. We
not conduct systematic case studies with did that years ago. They just made a few
all your students. There will be times changes to the words and procedures."
when you cannot collect baseline data or But, the presenter also was reporting data
reports from teachers. Therefore, select a that showed how the counseling experi-
few places where you want to concentrate ence, with a few modifications from what
your efforts. Set some priorities, just as had been done in the past, had a positive
you have done with other parts of your impact on students.
program. Experienced counselors sometimes
Sometimes it will be possible for you discard effective procedures that were
and your colleagues to agree to an ac- popular in years past because they grow
countability project in which you all will tired of them. As one elementary school
participate. When such teaming is not counselor said, "If I have to talk to that
possible, then identify one or two areas in little puppet one more time and read the
which you want to be especially account- story of how he learned to make friends
able in a given period of time. Select a few I'll go crazy." Yet, each year a new grou~
target students for study. This selection of children love to hear the story and
might be influenced by circumstances, watch her work with the puppet. Monot-
convenience, availability of data, or some ony, boredom, waning enthusiasm, and
special interest. The reason may not mat- fatigue have contributed to the disuse of
ter as much as the commitment to be ac- many effective techniques and strategies.
countable. In addition, some published pro-
grams and strategies are not read by a
Replicating and Revising lot of practitioners. Professional journals
in counseling are not commonplace in
Some approaches simply fit a teacher's
many school offices and there have been
or counselor's style and interests better
complaints that such publications are not
than others. Some need a few changes to
practical. Experimental studies may show
~ake them even better or more appeal-
a counselor intervention was effective, but
mg. For example, there are many useful
the final report or article often lacks spe-
ideas, techniques, strategies, and activities
cifics regarding how the intervention was
that have been published and described
implemented, the procedures that were
over the years. Many are supported by
used, and practical suggestions to help
research. Some need to be replicated or
counselors replicate the idea.
revised and studied again. Some tradi-
tional activities need to be recycled, per- Recycling some "oldie goldie" activi-
haps with a modern twist. You may have ties and procedures with a contemporary
heard the expression, "Everything goes in emphasis may be just what is needed to
cycles .... " The work of the counselor is no revitalize a once successful counselor ac-
exception. tivity or strategy. Some familiar ideas of-
ten are welcomed when repackaged, espe-
One counselor who had several years
cially if they are practical, interesting, and
of experience was reminded of a favorite
can be evaluated. The challenge is to find
group counseling activity she used quite
out what works and what doesn't work.
successfully. She remarked, "You know, I'd
That is being accountable.
forgotten about that activity. It was popu-
lar with the kids. I guess I just got tired of
using it." Another counselor had a simi-

Counselor Evaluation Advantages, Limitations,

Each school counselor should have and Conclusion
an annual evaluation. It should be based
upon criteria recognizing the differences Advantages of
between evaluating counselors and class- Accountable Studies
room personnel, while conforming to
local and state regulations. The typical 1. There is more feedback on which
teacher evaluation forins that are used counselors can make decisions about
each year have too many items that are their work or an intervention. They
not applicable to the work of a counselor. gain more confidence in making deci-
Therefore, counselors need to take the sions.
initiative to meet with administrators and 2. Studies can be used for more public
construct their own annual evaluation recognition for counselor accomplish-
form. ments.
ASCA's position is an annual evalua- 3. Accountability studies almost always
tion must reflect the implementation of improve a counselor's professional
the district's written counseling program standing. It demonstrates to a con-
and school counselor job description. The siderable degree how counselors see
form needs to contain specific goals along themselves as professionals.
with objectives emphasizing student out- 4. Through networking, it is possible to
comes. The written form is a document share studies, some of which are suit-
that is likely to be modified annually in able for publication in professional
order to reflect the changing needs of journals. Many can be discussed at
the students and the improved skills of a professional meetings, workshops,
counselor. and conferences.
Being prepared to submit representa- 5. There is much to be gained personally
tive work samples makes sense, such as from knowing what is being accom-
having on hand some case studies that plished or your work is improving.
might help describe how the counselor
works with students. In addition, a few 6. Accountability studies can help iden-
evaluation summaries from small and tify students who require special help,
large groups also can help communicate perhaps from outside resources.
the value of a counselor's work. 7. They also can be used to highlight
staff development needs. Staff devel-
opment training can precede an ac-
countability study or be the result of
one in which the need for more com-
petencies was demonstrated.

Limitations to The Changing of the Guard

Accountable Studies Some counselors find new programs
1. Accountability studies take time that and challenges to be stimulating and they
could be given to other services and welcome the change. They approach their
responsibilities. work with new enthusiasm and provide
valuable leadership, especially when given
2. Almost all data have limitations. Some
opportunities to be professionally renewed
counselors have to be cautioned,
or retrained. Other counselors, however,
when interpreting data and discuss-
feel the pressure of having more expecta-
ing conclusions, not to go beyond the
tions put on them and having to learn
data in their enthusiasm and to recog-
new approaches and skills. Some find new
nize the limitations of a study.
developments to be so stressful they ask to
3. Most accountability studies are little be reassigned or take early retirement, thus
pieces of the big picture of guidance creating more job openings.
and counseling. Rarely are there funds
As new people enter the field of coun-
or resources to do a comprehensive
seling and guidance, it is important they
accountability study of guidance and
not drift into old traditions and habits
counseling programs.
that are no longer relevant. Nor should
With the pursuit of excellence in edu- they be mentored by people who lack the
cation a primary concern of the nation, interest and energy to try new ideas. It is
proposed changes for schools are coming not easy to make changes and resistance
in flurries. The central issues are always can be high, but counselors who want to
the same: programs to help young people implement a comprehensive developmen-
learn more and to help secure the na- tal guidance and counseling program will
tion's future. School counselors play an generally find support among administra-
important part in shaping the nature of tors and teachers of all ages.
their work and the future of their profes-
As new leadership emerges, it is likely
sion. But, this requires a sound rationale
developmental guidance and counseling
for guidance and counseling programs, a
programs will become the accepted stan-
clear understanding of the job potential
dard for all schools (K-Adult). The "chang-
and roles, and a willingness to accept
ing of the guard" need not be a traumatic
challenges and changes and to be ac-
one, as there are many productive proce-
countable.
dures that have been developed over the
years that are still relevant and there are
many accomplishments of which counsel-
ors who pioneered early programs can be
proud. Now it is your time. Blend the best
of the old with the best of the new as you
are challenged to build your own program
and create your own role and image.

The ASCA National Model: A school counseling program:
A Framework for School • Reaches every student
• Is comprehensive in scope
Counseling· Programs
• Is preventative in design
In 2003, the American School Coun-
selor Association published a model for • Is developmental in nature
school counseling programs. The model • Is an integral part of the total educa-
represents a composite of three models tional program for student success
which have been researched and suc- • Selects measurable student competen-
cessfully implemented. It includes four cies based on local need in the areas
components and three levels. The four of academic, career, and personal/so-
components and levels are: Foundation cial domains
(level one), Delivery and Management
Systems (level two) and Accountability • Has a delivery system that includes
(level three). Within these components school guidance curriculum, individ-
and levels, one will find the elements and ual planning, responsive services and
domains described above. Information system support
learned through the accountability pro- • Is implemented by a credentialed
cess helps with continuous improvement school counselor
of the school counseling program. The • Is conducted in collaboration with all
knowledge, skills and dispositions which stakeholders
school counselors bring to their role in-
clude advocacy, leadership, collaboration, • Uses data to drive program decisions
and systemic change. • Monitors student progress
• Measures both process and outcome
Foundation results and analyzes critical data ele-
The Foundation portion of the school ments
counseling model includes the set of • Shares successes with stakeholders
beliefs and philosophy which guides
the program; the mission, or program Delivery System
purpose; and the three student outcome
The school counseling program's
domains of academic, personal/social and
delivery system includes the activities,
career development. Collectively, these
interactions and areas in which counsel-
create the what of the school counseling
ors work to deliver the program. Within
program. According to the ASCA National
the delivery system there are four com-
Model: A Framework for School Counseling
ponents: school counseling curriculum,
Programs (2003; American School Coun-
individual student planning, responsive
seling Association), the assumptions
services, and system support. The school
which form the foundation upon which
counseling curriculum provides a vehicle
school counseling programs rest include
for delivering information and connect-
the following:
ing with every student in a systematic
way. Individual student planning involves
working with students and their parents
or guardians in order to plan, monitor

and understand academic growth and and improvements are made, including
development. Responsive services address systemic school system changes. Essen-
student's direct, immediate concerns and tially, the accountability system measures
include counseling, consultation and re- the school counseling program's progress
ferral. Finally, the system support compo- toward and impact on such things as
nent enables the school counseling pro- academic achievement, graduation rates,
gram to be effective through a variety of post-secondary options, school climate,
support activities including professional attendance, etc.
development, consultation, collaboration, For more information on the ASCA
teaming, program management and op- National Model, and to read the Executive
erations. Summary, go to: http://www.schoolcoun-
selor.org/files/ExecSumm.pdf.
Management System
If you would like to order a copy of
The management of a school counsel- The ASCA National Model: A Framework
ing program is an organized effort: con- for School Counseling Programs (Copy-
crete, clearly delineated and reflective of right 2003; ISBN 1-929289-02-2), contact
the school site1s needs. It involves analysis the American School Counseling Associa-
of relevant data, development of action tion, (800) 306-4722, or www.schoolcoun-
plans to meet objectives, and provision selor.org
of organizational activities. It answers the
questions of when and why certain activi-
ties will take place, who will implement
them, and on what authority the school
counseling program is delivered. Clear
expectations and purposeful interaction
with all stakeholders results in a school
counseling program that is integrated into
the total educational program, and pro-
vides student growth and development.
Accountability System
Within the context of the account-
ability system, the question "How are
students different as a result of the school
counseling program?" is answered. School
counselors are being asked to demonstrate
the effectiveness of their programs in
measurable terms. This necessitates the
collection and use of data that support
and link the school counseling program
to student academic success.
Data collection provides the school
counseling program with the informa-
tion needed to evaluate the program as it
relates to students' progress. This informa-
tion ensures that the program was carried
out as planned, that every student was
served, program effectiveness is analyzed,

The Florida Classroom Each session will have a topic, an
idea or focus related to the purpose and
Guidance Project goals of the guidance unit. Activities are
(Fourth Grade-Six Sessions) structured procedures that are followed
in order to stimulate thinking and elicit
discussion. Tasks are specific questions or
The Guidance Unit assignments in the activities.
The guidance unit will consist of six
Counselors and teachers work together
30-minute sessions. Each session will be
to implement the guidance sessions. They
divided into four parts: Introduction (3 to
present general information, introduce top-
5 minutes); Activity I (8 to 10 minutes);
ics, use high facilitative responses to lead
Activity II (8 to 10 minutes); and Closure
discussions, structure the session through
(5 to 10 minutes).
the activities and related tasks, move about
In general, the introduction will be the room and supervise the small groups,
used to: (1) gain the class' attention; (2) elicit student ideas and feelings, and make
prepare the students for the session; (3) summary statements and outside assign-
provide transition from the previous ses- ments. They model behaviors and help
sion; and (4) introduce the session's topic make the sessions positive experiences.
or focus. Activity I will be counselor/teach-
Student and Teacher Inventories may
er led with the total class. Activity II will
be used as a pre and post assessment to
feature small group interaction with spe-
determine gains or outcomes.
cific tasks. Closure will be counselor/teach-
er led again with the total class and also
include both summary and assignment. Session One: "Understanding
Time management is important. Fol- Feelings and Behaviors"
low the time allocations listed above. If
additional time is available, not to exceed Purpose:
45 minutes, further discussion is possible. To help the class get organized for this
Room arrangements also need special and future sessions and to help students
attention. The following organization is recognize how feelings and behaviors are
recommended. In the first session, stu- related. Pleasant and unpleasant feelings
dents will be shown how to participate in are explored.
class and small group discussions through
five teams of about six students each. Materials:
These teams will be positioned around the Chalkboard or newsprint to record
room in semicircles during the Introduc- feeling word lists.
tion period. During Activity I, the coun-
selor speaks to the class via the semi-cir- Introduction:
cled groups. During Activity II, the teams Begin by saying, "Have you ever won-
close their small groups for discussion. dered why people do the things they do? Have
Groups can then reposition themselves you ever thought about what makes some
quickly in semicircles for closure. This or- people successful, while others have so many
ganization reduces disruptive movements problems? What do people do if they want to
and saves time while maximizing oppor- change something about themselves? What are
tunities for student participation. some things we can do to make our lives bet-

ter? Well, we are going to think about these and Activity I:

other questions during our time together. We Say, "Everyone has feelings. Some feel-
are going to meet six times and our sessions ings are pleasant and others are unpleasant.
will last about 30 minutes. That's not much time Let's think of some words that describe our
and we want to use it wisely. You are going to pleasant feelings and I'll list them here." De-
form some working teams so that we can have velop a list, making sure that each team
some interesting class discussions and every- has contributed some words to the list.
one will get an opportunity to participate." Add a few of your own, as a way of stimu-
Divide the class into five groups of lating their thinking. Then, make a sec-
about five or six students each. You may ond list-unpleasant feeling words. Now
want to assign target students to differ- say, "We have two lists-one for unpleasant
ent groups. Each group should have both and one for pleasant feelings. There are other
boys and girls. Groups are positioned words, too, and we can add them later."
around the room in semicircles for ease "How we feel can affect what we do.
of discussion. Take time to position the Let's look at one of our words (select one)
groups, identifying them by number, so and think of how people might behave if they
they will be familiar with this arrange- felt that way." Elicit some behaviors from
ment. It can be used each session. Encour- the class. Then, give a second illustration,
age students to move quickly and quietly. again eliciting behaviors from the class
Have them practice moving to and from and adding examples of your own.
their groups once or twice, or until they
have an understanding of the process and Activity II:
can move efficiently.
"We know that feelings and behaviors
As soon as the teams are positioned are closely related. When persons feel some-
in semicircles, say: "We will have our class thing, they might also act in certain ways.
discussions while you are seated with your Let's continue to think of how people behave
team. Sometimes we will also do some small when they feel pleasant or unpleasant feelings
group activities so that you can work together by working in our teams. I will give you two
and everyone will get a chance to share." Show tasks. First, I am going to give each team two
them how one person can move a chair to words, one from the pleasant feeling list and
form a closer group for discussion. While the other from the unpleasant feeling list."
the students are in this closed position, Give each team two words.
give the following task.
"Think of something that you might
"Now, introduce yourself to your team do if you felt the unpleasant feeling your
members by telling two things about yourself team was assigned. Take turns by going
Because you will be working closely together around. If you are having trouble think-
in the filture, it will help ifyou know each other ing of something, you can 'pass' and the
better. First, give your name and then tell what group will come back to you later."
you like to do when you are not in school. Then,
"Now, using any word from either of the
tellwhatyouwoulddowith $1,000ifyou had it
two lists, each person pick a feeling word and
to spend any way you wanted to spend it."
tell about a time when you saw someone who
In a go-around, students take turns might have felt that way. What was the per-
introducing themselves. Move about the son doing?" Again, have the students go-
groups, helping to clarify the task if need- around the circle.
ed. As soon as the team members have in-
troduced themselves, ask for the one per-
son to move back so that the semicircle is
again formed.

Closure: Session Two: "Attitude Glasses"
Move the teams into their semicircles
for class discussion. "Each team has been Purpose:
talking about feelings and behaviors. Let's hear To help students recognize how at-
about some of your ideas." Call on each team titudes affect their lives and that attitudes
to share one of their words and how people can be changed.
might behave. If time permits, repeat.
"People have all kinas of feelings. Every- Materials:
one has had, at different times, pleasant and Glasses can be imaginary, or inex-
unpleasant feelings. Do you think that is also pensive eye glass frames might be used
true for students who attend school? Do stu- to dramatize the session; chalkboard or
dents have both pleasant and unpleasant feel- newsprint.
ings about school? What are some examples?
How do feelings affect the way people behave Introduction:
at school? Is it possible for the way a person Begin by saying, "First, do you remember
behaves at school to also affect that person's how we formed teams the last time we met?
feelings?" Let me see the hands of the first team. Do you
remember where and how you sat for our class
Summary: discussion? Okay. Now, let me see the hands of
"There are lots of words to describe our the second team ... (and so on)." Assign the
pleasant and unpleasant feelings. Sometimes teams to their positions in semicircles.
people have more than just one feeling. They "Who remembers what we talked about
might even have mixed feelings about some- last time? That's right, we talked about pleasant
thing. But, feelings do affect our actions. and unpleasant feelings. And, we also talked
They do affect what we do at home, with our about how our feelings and the way we act are
friends, at school, and in class. How are you closely related. Let me see the hands of those
feeling right now? Pleasant or unpleasant?" who did the assignment-who took time to tell
"Well, I am feeling some pleasant feel- someone in the class about some feelings they
ings because of our class discussion today noticed. What feelings did you notice?"
and the way in which you all cooperated in
moving to your teams and working together. Activity I:
Those feelings make me want to thank you Say, "Today I have some special glasses.
for your contributions and to say that I am They are called attitude glasses." (Write the
looking forward to our next session which word 'attitude' on the board.) "When you
will be " wear attitude glasses, you also put on the same
attitude as the glasses. In other words, you see
Assignment: things in that particular way."
"In the meantime, I want you all to Hold up a pair of glasses or pretend
do one thing. Pay attention to your class- to take out a pair of glasses. "These at-
mates and see if you can tell how they titude glasses are called 'Suspicious Glasses.'
might be feeling by the way they behave. What do you suppose a suspicious attitude
And then, pick one person and tell that is?" After a few responses, put the glasses
person the kind of feelings that you think on and look over the class in a suspicious
that person is having. See how close you manner. Then say something like this:
can come to being accurate about feel- "Oh, just look at them sitting there. They are
ings." just waiting for me to make a mistake. They
"Until next time, have a nice day and don't want to do things with me. They prob-
have many pleasant feelings." ably don't even want me to be here. I'll bet

we don't have a very good discussion either. They say, Now, look over the list of at-
11
I wonder if they even like me? They probably titudes. Each team can pick one that they
say mean things about me afrer I leave, too!" would like to act out for that situation." Each
Have the teacher put on the same glass- team pantomimes (no talking) the situa-
es and then tell the teacher that the prin- tion. The rest try to guess the kind of atti-
cipal has asked for a meeting after school. tude glasses the team members have on.
The teacher might respond with, 0h, no.
11
Give each team about one minute to
Why does she want to see me? I haven't done pick an attitude and to talk about related
anything wrong. She's probably going to give behaviors. Give each team about 15 to
me some extra things to do. Or, maybe she's 20 seconds to pantomime the situation
going to tell me that I don't have a job here before guesses are taken from the other
any more. I wonder what the problem is?" teams.
Next, pull out another set of glasses
and call these "Gloomy Glasses." Ask the Closure:
class what gloomy means. Then, have two The remainder of the time might
volunteers respond in a gloomy way to all include the following questions: What 11
questions posed to them from the rest of kind of world would it be if everyone wore
the class and the teacher. the same kind of attitude? Okay, then it can
After a brief time, introduce a third set be helpfUl to have a lot of different attitudes.
of glasses, the "Rosy Glasses." The coun- But, what about attitudes that keep us from
selor and teacher go through the same doing our best? From even trying? Have there
situations-remarks about the class and been days when you thought you had a par-
about the meeting with the school prin- ticular set of attitude glasses on most of the
cipal-to illustrate the difference. Again, day? Situations? Do you know people who
two volunteers might be used for more seem to wear only one kind of glasses most of
examples, perhaps asking the same ques- the time? Is it possible to change attitudes-
tions, but this time giving rosy responses. like you would change glasses? 11
Now, ask the class to help you make a Summary:

list of other kinds of attitudes they know
How we go about our work and play is
11
about (e.g., scared, curious, nobody likes

ofren determined by the attitudes we have.
me, you can't make me, sneaky, I'm mad,
We can change our attitudes, if we want.
nothing ever works right, complainers,
Some attitudes are more helpfUl than others
I'm great, bored, woe is me, everything is
and they also influence the way others react
okay). Write them on the board or show
to us."
them a list to which they can add a few of
their own. Assignment:
Activity II: For the rest of the day, put on your
11
11
Rosy Attitude Glasses." Approach everything
Next, tell the class that here is a situ-
here at school and at home with your rosy
ation that could be affected by attitudes:
attitude. If your glasses start to slip a little,
You have been told that before you can
remind yourself that today you are going to
play with your friends this weekend or do
wear your rosy attitude. If you see others let-
what you want to do, you must first com-
ting their glasses slip, gently remind them
plete a list of household chores.
that today everyone is going to wear rosy
glasses."

Session Three: "Someone New" start work as soon as assigned
work hard and don't quit
Purpose:
finish assignments on time
To help students identify behaviors
turn in assignments
that contribute to success at school and
with friends. take part in class discussions
be open to suggestions and help
Materials:
Add whatever else seems appropri-
Newsprint or chalkboard, small slips ate, especially those routine behaviors
of paper that a particular teacher expects in class.
Summarize the learning behaviors at this
Introduction: point, perhaps in the order listed above
Using the same procedures as in the so that students see some continuity and
previous two sessions, position the class relationship.
into their teams and semicircles. Then Next, "All right, now what are some things
say something like this: "We have been new students can do to make friends at this
talking about feelings that people have and school?" Make another list of suggestions.
how people behave. And, we have also talked
about how attitudes can affect the way we do Activity II:
things. Today, I want you to put on your 'I
Begin with something like this: "How
Can Help' Attitude Glasses. I need your help,
many of you have heard of E.T.? Some of you
especially with new students who come to our
may have seen the movie about him. That's
school."
right, E.T. was the stumpy little extra-ter-
"Every year we have new students and restrial from another planet who came to
they are never quite sure if they are go- earth. He received some help from children.
ing to like it here, if they will have friends He needed help in order to survive on earth
here, or if they can be successful in class. and to phone home. It is a fUn story. Well,
So, I need your help in thinking about I have a surprise for you. E.T. 's little friend,
what it takes to be successful and to enjoy 'E. T.2' was lefr behind and he wants to go to
11
school here. our school. But, he has some problems. He
doesn't think positive thoughts about him-
Activity I: self"
Begin by saying, "Let's imagine that you "I am going to give each team a con-
were asked to talk with some new students cern or problem that he has. Working as
about our school and how they might get a team, you are to: 1) identify how he
along here. First, let's think of some things might be feeling when he talks that way;
that they might like about our school." After 2) think of how he might behave around
a few responses, and perhaps a few by the school, if he felt that way; and 3) give
the teacher and counselor, continue by him some suggestions. 11
saying, Okay, now let's talk about some

/1
things that students must do if they are go- Distribute the following problems,
ing to learn some things in class and get good written on slips of paper. Give each team
grades." Make a list of learning behaviors. a different problem. Then, move about
It should eventually include, in one form the room and encourage students to think
or another, the following: of feelings, behaviors, and one or two sug-
gestions. Tell them that they can share
have materials ready to work their ideas with the total class later.
follow directions

1. Things never go right for me. Introduction:

2. Nobody wants to hear what I have to Use the same procedure as before and
say. move the students into their teams and
3. Teachers don't like me. semicircles. Then say, "We are changing all
the time. Change is a part ofliving. Changes, of
4. I'm nobody special. course, can be for better or for worse. However,
5. I'm so different from everybody else. if we know the kind of changes that we want
to make, set some goals, and work hard toward
Closure: those goals, then changes can be for the best."
Teams take turns, first reading the
problem statement and then reporting Activity I:
related feelings, behaviors, and one or two "Think of some things you used to be or do
suggestions. but now are different." Point to this sentence
Later, Do you think that what we talked
11
stem on the board: ! used to be... , but now I
11
about today can also apply to students in our am .... " Elicit some examples from the class.
school right now? Can these ideas be used to Some possible ones include:
get a fresh start? You might ask yourself, how I used to be shorter, but now I am
are my problems like E. T.2, a new student? How taller.
are they different?" I used to be in the first grade, but now
I am in the fourth grade.
Summary:
I used to be scared of the water, but
In other words, if new students are to
11
now I can swim.

be successful at this school and enjoy it, they
should find things they like about the school, I used to be afraid of the dark, but
pay attention to what needs to be done in now I can sleep without a light.
class, and try to make new friends." I used to write sloppy letters, but now
my writing is neater.
Assignment:
After some responses, say, Who was
11
"Pick two things, one thing from each of Martin Luther King? Okay, he was famous for
our two lists (learning in class and making many things. But one thing we remember
friends), that you want to improve upon dur- him for is because he had a dream-a goal.
ing the rest of the week. Does everybody have He helped us think about the importance of
one in mind? Now, think about what you have having a dream or goal to achieve in life. Who
to do. Try it and see what happens." was Thomas Edison? All right, he was a famous
inventor who sometimes lived in Fort Meyers,
Session Four: "Making Changes" Florida. He once said, 'Genius is 1 percent inspi-
ration and 99 percent perspiration.' What did he
Purpose: mean? That's right, he believed that working
hard was the biggest part of being smart and
To help students identify some steps
developing ideas."
in the process of change and to set some
goals in school. "Using your pencil and paper, draw two
little pictures or symbols for two goals that you
Materials: hope to accomplish someday-your dreams of
Newsprint or chalkboard upon which what you would like to have happen to you."
to write sentence stems, pencils and paper Give the class about two minutes to draw
for each student. their pictures, with one minute time sig-
nals for each goal.

Activity II: (Negative) (Positive)
Encourage team members to share in- I can't vs. I won't
dividually one of their two pictures with I should vs. I want to
the other team members. If time permits,
they can share their second goal. Then, I might vs. I will
move them back to their semicircles for I could vs. I am
further class discussion. "Which ones show the most responsibility?
Say, "To obtain our goals, we also need The most power? The most control? The most
to have positive attitudes about ourselves. We positive? The greatest strength? The most likely
also need to say positive things. Have you ever to produce results? To obtain goals?"
heard anybody say, ! can't do that?' Almost
1
everyone has said it at one time or another."' Closure:

Point to the phrase written on the board "Everyone has goals. When you have clear
in large letters: ! can't.. .. " Ask the students
11
goals in mind, they are easier to obtain. When
to complete this sentence stem five times, you have clear goals, you can also find some
drawing upon their experiences at school little steps that lead to those goals. Remember,
and home. the journey of 1,000 miles begins with the first
Next, have the students in their teams step."
read aloud the statements that they have
written. There is no discussion or reaction Summary:
from the team members. After all of the "Setting goals and finding some first steps
students have read their statements, ask are important if we are to bring about positive
them to substitute the words, ! won't" in
11
changes in our lives. How we think and talk
place of ! can't." Have them read the same
11
about our first steps and the things we want to
sentences aloud again. Explain that the do can affect how things tum out. Being posi-
words may not feel right at first, but to tive is a valuable part of having a happier life."
say them anyway as an experiment.
Lead the class in a discussion of the Assignment:
differences they experienced. Take and give "What is one goal in school that you
examples. Some possible responses or ques- would like to achieve this year? Can you
tions might be: Which one made you feel: think of some first steps-not giant steps
more powerful? but little ones that lead to your goal? Use
the positive statements to think about
in control? your next step and take that step this
an attempt at making excuses? week."
a crybaby?
that you could do something? Session Five: "IALAC"
in charge?
Purpose:
that it was possible?
To help students understand how pos-
Then, say something like this: "How itive and negative actions can affect their
we talk about and to ourselves-our inner self-pictures and attitudes and to identify
talk-can influence the way we try things and ways in which they can be positive with
the direction in which we change. Is there a dif- others.
ference between these ideas?" Point to the
following phrases written on the board or
newsprint.)

Materials: Teams then tell of things they sug-

The IALAC story, a paper sign, five gested to build-up the imaginary student
drawn pictures of a person's figure or (picture).
head, pencils, and scotch tape.
Closure:
Introduction: Discussion continues on ways to build
Make a paper sign with the letters IAL- up individual IALAC signs and times
AC (pronounced I-ah-lack) in bold print. when students felt built-up or put down.
Hold or pin it to your chest so that it can
be easily seen by the class. Move the class Summary:
into their teams and semicircles. "Although we all start out in life being posi-
Then say, "All people carry an invisible tive about ourselves and others, sometimes
IALAC sign around with them, no matter people are negative to us and tear us down.
where they go. IALAC stands for 'I Am Lov- There are, however; some ways we can be built-
able And Capable.' It is how we feel about up."
ourselves. But, it is often affected by how oth-
Assignment:
ers interact with us. If somebody is nasty or
mean to us, teases or makes {Un of us, calls "Notice times in school when people's
us names or puts us down in some way, then IALAC signs are tom away and times when
a piece of our IALAC sign is tom away." (Il- they are built up. Do something with someone
lustrate this by tearing a corner piece off to help build up that person's IALAC sign. Do
the sign.) something for yourself to build up your own
sign."
Activity I: The IALAC Story
"I am going to tell you a story to illus- Danny was sleeping soundly when
trate how this can happen in everyday life." suddenly he was awakened by his brother
Tell the IALAC story. Following the story, pounding on his blanket and shaking
some discussion questions might be: "How him. "Danny, you lazy jerk, get out of
does an IALAC sign get destroyed? How do bed and get downstairs before Dad has to
you think people feel when their IALAC sign come up here." (Rip!) Danny gets out of
is tom up? What are some things that hap- bed, rubs his eyes, and gets dressed. His
pen in school to destroy IALAC signs? Is it mother sees him and tells him to go back
possible to rebuild or build-up an IALAC and get another shirt. It's all wrinkled and
sign?" has a tear. "You just don't care how you
Have the students think of times in look, do you?" (Rip!)
school when they felt put down or reject- When he goes to brush his teeth, his
ed and their IALAC signs were torn. older sister has locked the bathroom door.
He asks how much longer she is going to
Activity II: be and she yells back, "Drop dead, Danny,
Give each team a picture. It is torn who do you think you are, the King
into five places or one for each member around here?" (Rip!) He goes to breakfast,
of a team, thus making a puzzle. Members but there is no toast and very little milk
individually write at least two ideas to left to put on his cereal. Everyone else has
help build up a student in school. Mem- left the table. (Rip!)
bers read what they have written on their As Danny leaves for school, his moth-
own pieces of paper. After all have read er calls out to him, "Danny, you've forgot-
their statements, the picture is pieced to- ten your lunch again. I don't know what
gether with transparent tape.

I'm going to do with you. (Rip!) You'd for- Materials:
get your head if it weren't tied on!" (Rip!) Chalkboard or newsprint, pencils and
As he gets to the corner, he sees his bus paper for each student.
pull away. He has to walk to school and is
late. He has to get a pass from the office Introduction:
where he gets a lecture about not being
Move the class into teams and semi-
responsible enough (Rip!).
circles. Start by summarizing the previous
He walks into class late and remem- sessions. Say something like this: "We have
bers he forgot to do his homework. He been talking about attitudes, feelings, and be-
thinks, "Oh well, she doesn't expect me to haviors. What we say and do can make a lot of
hand it in anyway. (Rip!) She doesn't like difference in our lives at school and at home.
me and didn't want me to be in her class For example, the more positive we are about
in the first place." (Rip!) His teacher asks ourselves and others, the better things will go
him to stay in at recess to finish his work for us and those around us. Being positive also
while the others go outside to play base- helps us obtain our goals."
ball. (Rip!) He rushes through his lesson
"But, being positive is a problem for
and hurries outside, but they have already
some people. It is not always easy. It be-
chosen sides. He stands around for awhile
comes easier, however, if we are aware
and nobody seems to notice. (Rip!) Then,
of our strengths. Today, we are going to
the P.E. teacher tells him to join a team.
think about strengths that people have."
One of the boys yells, "Hey, Danny, join
the other team; we got stuck with you last Activity I:
time." (Rip!)
"There are many words that name
Later that day, Danny gets his home- strengths-good things about people that
work back and it has a low grade on it. you like or that you think help make
The teacher put a sad face on the paper them successful. Let's begin by making a
and wrote, "Danny, your work is sloppy list of words or ideas."
and careless." (Rip!)
Brainstorm words or phrases and
When he gets home, he learns that list them on the chalkboard or news-
he will not get the dog he wanted for print. (optional: Have some words and
his birthday. "You're just not responsible phrases already written out to expedite
enough to take care of a dog, Danny! the process.) If it helps, have the students
There is no way you can have a dog as think of personal strengths in terms of
long as you act the way you do around relationships (friendships, family), skills
here." (Rip!) Later that night, Danny (competencies that enable a person to do
goes to bed. He gets tears in his eyes and something), school (successful habits and
thinks, "Nobody likes me. I might as well behaviors), attitudes, and experiences.
give up!" (Rip!) Yet, he secretly hopes that
tomorrow will be better. Will it? Here are some examples:
listens to me
Session Six: "Looking for tries to understand
Strengths" accepts me as a person
is tolerant of others
Purpose:
can be trusted
To help students identify personal
strengths and relate these to achievement has a nice smile
and success. is friendly

has a sense of humor their owners. Two extra lines remain on

catches a ball well each paper.
is a good reader Now say, "You will notice that there are
two more lines from the sun. While it helps to
adds numbers fast have others tell you about your strengths as
says kind things to people they have noticed them, it is also important
respects the rights of others for you to be aware of your own strengths and
to tell yourself that you have some strengths.
shows interest in other's ideas
Therefore, use the other two lines and write in
works hard at things two more strengths about yourself of which
finishes what is started you are proud or happy. Do that now."
knows a lot about space travel
Closure:
is a powerful hitter in baseball
Lead a discussion about the value of
Help broaden their concepts and ideas knowing your own strengths, hearing
about strengths that people have. Then them from others, and assessing yourself.
say, "Sometimes we learn about andgain more 11
Can others sometimes see strengths in us that
strengths by observing others. Taking notes of we don't see? Do we have strengths that can't
other people's strengths and telling them what be seen by other people? Of all the strengths
you notice can be a compliment, and (Un, too." that are written on your paper, which one
pleases you the most? Surprises you? Is it possi-
Activity II: ble to develop new strengths? How would you
Distribute a piece of paper to each stu- go about gaining some new strengths? How do
dent. Instruct the students to draw a circle your strengths help you at school? With your
in the middle of the paper and to write friends? In planning for the (Uture? Does a per-
their names on it. Next, ask them to make son have to be strong in everything? Is it pos-
six or seven lines running out from the sible for people to lose sight of their strengths?
circle, as if spokes in a wheel or rays from To abuse or misuse a strength? How does one's
the sun. "These lines are our sunrays. They can attitude affect a strength?"
provide us with strength and energy, especially
if we use them to identify personal strengths." Summary:
Identify a recorder in each team (a "We have been studying about people and
student who can write well and fast). Re- ourselves. Ifthe principal were to ask you what
corders collect all the papers into one pile. you have been learning in our sessions, what
Then, a team recorder reads the name on would you say?" (Elicit a final summary
the first paper. Others, in turn and in a go- from the students and add what you need
around, tell one strength that they believe to conclude the unit.)
this person has. Encourage them to use
the list made earlier or tell whatever else Assignment:
comes to mind. As each person responds, "We can make our school a better place
the recorder writes, on the sunray lines, to be if all of us are kind to each other and try
a few words or phrases of the main idea to understand one another. Having a positive
that was said. Thus, each person receives attitude can be one of your most important
one comment from every person in the strengths. Your final assignment is: Say some-
group. After all names have been read, in- thing kind to someone in our school, in our
cluding the recorder's, and all have heard class ... , and don't forget... the teacher. Be posi-
their strengths as seen by other team tive and keep smiling!"
members, the papers are passed back to

Ethical Standards for • Each person has the right to under-
stand the full magnitude and mean-
School Counselors ing of his/her educational choices and
how those choices will affect future
Preamble
opportunities.
The American School Counselor Asso-
• Each person has the right to privacy
ciation (ASCA) is a professional organiza-
and thereby the right to expect the
tion whose members are certified/licensed
counselor-student relationship to
in school counseling with unique qualifi-
comply with all laws, policies and
cations and skills to address the academic,
ethical standards pertaining to confi-
personal/social and career development
dentiality in the school setting.
needs of all students. Professional school
counselors are advocates, leaders, collabo- In this document, ASCA specifies the
rators and consultants who create oppor- principles of ethical behavior necessary to
tunities for equity in access and success in maintain the high standards of integrity,
educational opportunities by connecting leadership and professionalism among
their programs to the mission of schools its members. The Ethical Standards for
and subscribing to the following tenets of School Counselors were developed to
professional responsibility: clarify the nature of ethical responsibili-
ties held in common by school counseling
• Each person has the right to be re-
professionals. The purposes of this docu-
spected, be treated with dignity and
ment are to:
have access to a comprehensive
school counseling program that ad- • Serve as a guide for the ethical practic-
vocates for and affirms all students es of all professional school counselors
from diverse populations regardless of regardless of level, area, population
ethnic/racial status, age, economic sta- served or membership in this profes-
tus, special needs, English as a second sional association;
language or other language group, im- • Provide self-appraisal and peer evalua-
migration status, sexual orientation, tions regarding counselor responsibili-
gender, gender identity/expression, ties to students, parents/guardians,
family type, religious/spiritual identity colleagues and professional associates,
and appearance. schools, communities and the coun-
• Each person has the right to receive seling profession; and
the information and support needed • Inform those served by the school
to move toward self-direction and self- counselor of acceptable counselor
development and affirmation within practices and expected professional
one's group identities, with special behavior.
care being given to students who have
historically not received adequate A. 1. Responsibilities to Students
educational services: students of color, The professional school counselor:
low socio-economic students, students
with disabilities and students with a. Has a primary obligation to the stu-
nondominant language backgrounds. dent, who is to be treated with respect
as a unique individual.

b. Is concerned with the educational, • Student identifies partner or the

academic, career, personal and social partner is highly identifiable
needs and encourages the maximum • Counselor recommends the stu-
development of every student. dent notify partner and refrain
c. Respects the student's values and be- from further high-risk behavior
liefs and does not impose the coun- • Student refuses
selor's personal values.
• Counselor informs the student of
d. Is knowledgeable of laws, regulations the intent to notify the partner
and policies relating to students and
strives to protect and inform students • Counselor seeks legal consultation
regarding their rights. as to the legalities of informing
the partner
A.2. Confidentiality d. Requests of the court that disclosure
The professional school counselor: not be required when the release of
confidential information may poten-
a. Informs students of the purposes, tially harm a student or the counsel-
goals, techniques and rules of proce- ing relationship.
dure under which they may receive
counseling at or before the time when e. Protects the confidentiality of stu-
the counseling relationship is entered. dents' records and releases personal
Disclosure notice includes the limits data in accordance with prescribed
of confidentiality such as the pos- laws and school policies. Student
sible necessity for consulting with information stored and transmitted
other professionals, privileged com- electronically is treated with the same
munication, and legal or authoritative care as traditional student records.
restraints. The meaning and limits of f. Protects the confidentiality of infor-
confidentiality are defined in devel- mation received in the counseling re-
opmentally appropriate terms to stu- lationship as specified by federal and
dents. state laws, written policies and appli-
b. Keeps information confidential unless cable ethical standards. Such informa-
disclosure is required to prevent clear tion is only to be revealed to others
and imminent danger to the student with the informed consent of the stu-
or others or when legal requirements dent, consistent with the counselor's
demand that confidential information ethical obligation.
be revealed. Counselors will consult g. Recognizes his/her primary obligation
with appropriate professionals when for confidentiality is to the student but
in doubt as to the validity of an ex- balances that obligation with an un-
ception. derstanding of the legal and inherent
c. In absence of state legislation express- rights of parents/guardians to be the
ly forbidding disclosure, considers the guiding voice in their children's lives.
ethical responsibility to provide in-
formation to an identified third party A.3.Counseling Plans
who, by his/her relationship with the The professional school counselor:
student, is at a high risk of contract- a. Provides students with a comprehen-
ing a disease that is commonly known sive school counseling program that
to be communicable and fatal. Disclo- includes a strong emphasis on work-
sure requires satisfaction of all of the ing jointly with all students to devel-
following conditions: op academic and career goals.

b. Advocates for counseling plans sup- psychological harm resulting from in-
porting students right to choose from teraction within the group.
the wide array of options when they b. Notifies parents/guardians and staff of
leave secondary education. Such plans group participation if the counselor
will be regularly reviewed to update deems it appropriate and if consistent
students regarding critical informa- with school board policy or practice.
tion they need to make informed deci-
sions. c. Establishes clear expectations in the
group setting and clearly states that
A.4. Dual Relationships confidentiality in group counseling
cannot be guaranteed. Given the de-
The professional school counselor: velopmental and chronological ages
a. Avoids dual relationships that might of minors in schools, the counselor
impair his/her objectivity and increase recognizes the tenuous nature of con-
the risk of harm to the student ( e. fidentiality for minors renders some
g., counseling one's family members, topics inappropriate for group work in
close friends or associates). If a dual a school setting.
relationship is unavoidable, the coun- d. Follows up with group members and
selor is responsible for taking action documents proceedings as appropriate.
to eliminate or reduce the potential
for harm. Such safeguards might in- A.7. Danger to Self or Others
clude informed consent, consultation,
supervision and documentation. The professional school counselor:
b. Avoids dual relationships with school a. Informs parents/guardians or appro-
personnel that might infringe on the priate authorities when the student's
integrity of the counselor/student re- condition indicates a clear and im-
lationship minent danger to the student or oth-
ers. This is to be done after careful
A.5. Appropriate Referrals deliberation and, where possible, after
The professional school counselor: consultation with other counseling
a. Makes referrals when necessary or professionals.
appropriate to outside resources. Ap- b. Will attempt to minimize threat to a
propriate referrals may necessitate student and may choose to 1) inform
informing both parents/guardians and the student of actions to be taken, 2)
students of applicable resources and involve the student in a three-way
making proper plans for transitions communication with parents/guard-
with minimal interruption of services. ians when breaching confidentiality
Students retain the right to discontin- or 3) allow the student to have input
ue the counseling relationship at any as to how and to whom the breach
time. will be made.
A.6. Group Work A.8. Student Records

The professional school counselor: The professional school counselor:
a. Screens prospective group members a. Maintains and secures records neces-
and maintains an awareness of par- sary for rendering professional servic-
ticipants' needs and goals in relation es to the student as required by laws,
to the goals of the group. The coun- regulations, institutional procedures
selor takes reasonable precautions to and confidentiality guidelines.
protect members from physical and

-
b. Keeps sole-possession records separate d. Provides interpretation of the nature,

from students' educational records in purposes, results and potential impact
keeping with state laws. of assessment/evaluation measures in
c. Recognizes the limits of sole-posses- language the student(s) can under-
sion records and understands these stand.
records are a memory aid for the e. Monitors the use of assessment results
creator and in absence of privilege and interpretations, and takes reason-
communication may be subpoenaed able steps to prevent others from mis-
and may become educational records using the information.
when they 1) are shared with others f. Uses caution when utilizing assess-
in verbal or written form, 2) include ment techniques, making evaluations
information other than professional and interpreting the performance of
opinion or personal observations and/ populations not represented in the
or 3) are made accessible to others. norm group on which an instrument
d. Establishes a reasonable timeline is standardized.
for purging sole-possession records g. Assesses the effectiveness of his/her
or case notes. Suggested guidelines program in having an impact on stu-
include shredding sole possession dents' academic, career and personal/
records when the student transitions social development through account-
to the next level, transfers to another ability measures especially examining
school or graduates. Careful discretion efforts to close achievement, opportu-
and deliberation should be applied be- nity and attainment gaps.
fore destroying sole-possession records
that may be needed by a court of law A.10. Technology
such as notes on child abuse, suicide,
The professional school counselor:
sexual harassment or violence.
a. Promotes the benefits of and clarifies
A.9. Evaluation, Assessment and Inter- the limitations of various appropriate
pretation technological applications. The coun-
The professional school counselor: selor promotes technological applica-
tions (1) that are appropriate for the
a. Adheres to all professional standards student's individual needs, (2) that the
regarding selecting, administering and student understands how to use and
interpreting assessment measures and (3) for which follow-up counseling as-
only utilizes assessment measures that sistance is provided.
are within the scope of practice for
school counselors. b. Advocates for equal access to technol-
ogy for all students, especially those
b. Seeks specialized training regarding historically underserved.
the use of electronically based testing
programs in administering, scoring c. Takes appropriate and reasonable mea-
and interpreting that may differ from sures for maintaining confidentiality
that required in more traditional as- of student information and education-
sessments. al records stored or transmitted over
electronic media including although
c. Considers confidentiality issues when not limited to fax, electronic mail and
utilizing evaluative or assessment instant messaging.
instruments and electronically based
programs. d. While working with students on a
computer or similar technology, takes
reasonable and appropriate measures

to protect students from objectionable 8.2. Parents/Guardians and Confiden-
and/or harmful online material. tiality
e. Who is engaged in the delivery of ser- The professional school counselor:
vices involving technologies such as a. Informs parents/guardians of the
the telephone, videoconferencing and counselor's role with emphasis on the
the Internet takes responsible steps confidential nature of the counseling
to protect students and others from relationship between the counselor
harm. and student.
A.11. Student Peer Support Program b. Recognizes that working with minors
in a school setting may require coun-
The professional school counselor: selors to collaborate with students'
Has unique responsibilities when work- parents/ guardians.
ing with student-assistance programs. The
school counselor is responsible for the c. Provides parents/guardians with ac-
welfare of students participating in peer- curate, comprehensive and relevant
to-peer programs under his/her direction. information in an objective and car-
ing manner, as is appropriate and con-
8. Responsibilities to Parents/Guard- sistent with ethical responsibilities to
ians the student.
d. Makes reasonable efforts to honor
8.1. Parent Rights and Responsibilities the wishes of parents/guardians con-
The professional school counselor: cerning information regarding the
a. Respects the rights and responsibilities student, and in cases of divorce or
of parents/guardians for their children separation exercises a good-faith effort
and endeavors to establish, as ap- to keep both parents informed with
propriate, a collaborative relationship regard to critical information with the
with parents/guardians to facilitate exception of a court order.
the student's maximum development.
C. Responsibilities to Colleagues and
b. Adheres to laws, local guidelines and Professional Associates
ethical standards of practice when as-
sisting parents/guardians experiencing C.1. Professional Relationships
family difficulties that interfere with The professional school counselor:
the student's effectiveness and wel-
fare. a. Establishes and maintains professional
relationships with faculty, staff and
c. Respects the confidentiality of par- administration to facilitate an opti-
ents/guardians. mum counseling program.
d. Is sensitive to diversity among fami- b. Treats colleagues with professional
lies and recognizes that all parents/ respect, courtesy and fairness. The
guardians, custodial and noncusto- qualifications, views and findings of
dial, are vested with certain rights and colleagues are represented to accu-
responsibilities for the welfare of their rately reflect the image of competent
children by virtue of their role and ac- professionals.
cording to law.
c. Is aware of and utilizes related profes-
sionals, organizations and other re-
sources to whom the student may be
referred.

C.2. Sharing Information with Other ditions that may limit or curtail their
Professionals effectiveness in providing programs
The professional school counselor: and services.
a. Promotes awareness and adherence to e. Accepts employment only for posi-
appropriate guidelines regarding con- tions for which he/she is qualified by
fidentiality, the distinction between education, training, supervised experi-
public and private information and ence, state and national professional
staff consultation. credentials and appropriate profes-
sional experience.
b. Provides professional personnel with ac-
curate, objective, concise and meaning- f. Advocates that administrators hire
ful data necessary to adequately evalu- only qualified and competent indi-
ate, counsel and assist the student. viduals for professional counseling
positions.
c. If a student is receiving services from
another counselor or other mental g. Assists in developing: (1) curricular
health professional, the counselor, and environmental conditions appro-
with student and/or parent/guardian priate for the school and community,
consent, will inform the other profes- (2) educational procedures and pro-
sional and develop clear agreements grams to meet students' developmen-
to avoid confusion and conflict for tal needs and (3) a systematic evalu-
the student. ation process for comprehensive, de-
velopmental, standards-based school
d. Is knowledgeable about release of in- counseling programs, services and
formation and parental rights in shar- personnel. The counselor is guided by
ing information. the findings of the evaluation data in
planning programs and services.
D. Responsibilities to the School and
Community D.2. Responsibility to the Community
D.1. Responsibilities to the School The professional school counselor:
The professional school counselor: a. Collaborates with agencies, organiza-
tions and individuals in the commu-
a. Supports and protects the educational
nity in the best interest of students
program against any infringement not
and without regard to personal reward
in students' best interest.
or remuneration.
b. Informs appropriate officials in ac-
b. Extends his/her influence and op-
cordance with school policy of con-
portunity to deliver a comprehensive
ditions that may be potentially dis-
school counseling program to all stu-
ruptive or damaging to the school's
dents by collaborating with commu-
mission, personnel and property while
nity resources for student success.
honoring the confidentiality between
the student and counselor. E. Responsibilities to Self
c. Is knowledgeable and supportive of
the school's mission and connects his/ E.1. Professional Competence
her program to the school's mission. The professional school counselor:
d. Delineates and promotes the coun- a. Functions within the boundaries of
selor's role and function in meeting individual professional competence
the needs of those served. Counselors and accepts responsibility for the con-
will notify appropriate officials of consequences of his/her actions.

b. Monitors personal well-being and ef- b. Conducts herself/himself in such a
fectiveness and does not participate manner as to advance individual ethi-
in any activity that may lead to inad- cal practice and the profession.
equate professional services or harm c. Conducts appropriate research and
to a student. report findings in a manner consis-
c. Strives through personal initiative to tent with acceptable educational and
maintain professional competence psychological research practices. The
including technological literacy and counselor advocates for the protection
to keep abreast of professional infor- of the individual student's identity
mation. Professional and personal when using data for research or pro-
growth are ongoing throughout the gram planning.
counselor's career. d. Adheres to ethical standards of the
profession, other official policy state-
E.2. Diversity ments, such as ASCA's position state-
The professional school counselor: ments, role statement and the ASCA
a. Affirms the diversity of students, staff National Model, and relevant statutes
and families. established by federal, state and local
governments, and when these are in
b. Expands and develops awareness of
conflict works responsibly for change.
his/her own attitudes and beliefs af-
fecting cultural values and biases and e. Clearly distinguishes between state-
strives to attain cultural competence. ments and actions made as a private
individual and those made as a rep-
c. Possesses knowledge and understand-
resentative of the school counseling
ing about how oppression, racism, dis-
profession.
crimination and stereotyping affects
her/him personally and professionally. f. Does not use his/her professional po-
sition to recruit or gain clients, con-
d. Acquires educational, consultation
sultees for his/her private practice or
and training experiences to improve
to seek and receive unjustified person-
awareness, knowledge, skills and ef-
al gains, unfair advantage, inappropri-
fectiveness in working with diverse
ate relationships or unearned goods or
populations: ethnic/racial status, age,
services.
economic status, special needs, ESL or
ELL, immigration status, sexual orien- F.2. Contribution to the Profession
tation, gender, gender identity/expres-
sion, family type, religious/spiritual The professional school counselor:
identity and appearance. a. Actively participates in local, state
and national associations fostering
F. Responsibilities to the Profession the development and improvement of
school counseling.
F.1. Professionalism
b. Contributes to the development of
The professional school counselor: the profession through the sharing
a. Accepts the policies and procedures of skills, ideas and expertise with col-
for handling ethical violations as a leagues.
result of maintaining membership in c. Provides support and mentoring to
the American School Counselor Asso- novice professionals.
ciation.

G. Maintenance of Standards • receiving and processing ques-

Ethical behavior among professional tions to clarify the application of
school counselors, association members such standards; Questions must be
and nonmembers, is expected at all times. submitted in writing to the ASCA
When there exists serious doubt as to the Ethics chair.
ethical behavior of colleagues or if coun- • handling complaints of alleged
selors are forced to work in situations violations of the ethical standards.
or abide by policies that do not reflect At the national level, complaints
the standards as outlined in these Ethi- should be submitted in writing to
cal Standards for School Counselors, the the ASCA Ethics Committee, c/o
counselor is obligated to take appropriate the Executive Director, American
action to rectify the condition. The fol- School Counselor Association,
lowing procedure may serve as a guide: 1101 King St., Suite 625, Alexan-
1. The counselor should consult confi- dria, VA 22314.
dentially with a professional colleague ASCA's Ethical Standards for School
to discuss the nature of a complaint to Counselors were adopted by the ASCA Del-
see if the professional colleague views egate Assembly, March 19,1984, revised
the situation as an ethical violation. March 27, 1992 and June 26, 2004.
2. When feasible, the counselor should
directly approach the colleague whose
behavior is in question to discuss the
complaint and seek resolution.
3. If resolution is not forthcoming at
the personal level, the counselor shall
utilize the channels established within
the school, school district, the state
school counseling association and
ASCA's Ethics Committee.
4. If the matter still remains unresolved,
referral for review and appropriate
action should be made to the Eth-
ics Committees in the following se-
quence:
- state school counselor association
- American School Counselor Asso-
ciation
5. The ASCA Ethics Committee is re-
sponsible for:
• educating and consulting with
the membership regarding ethical
standards
• periodically reviewing and recom-
mending changes in code

Peer Facilitator Curriculum 4. Demonstrate an understanding of prob-
lem-solving techniques.
(High School) PERFORMANCE STANDARDS:
4.01 Describe the 5-step decision-making
Course Title: Peer. Counseling I process.
INTENDED OUTCOME: 4.02 Demonstrate the use of the 5-step
After successfully completing this course, decision-making process.
the student will be able to: 4.03 Identify resources for appropriate re-
1. Demonstrate an understanding of the fun- ferrals.
damental characteristics for all counsel- 4.04 Identify methods for conflict resolu-
ing/facilitative relationships. tion.
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS: 5. Demonstrate an understanding of basic
1.01 Identify the role of a peer facilitator. leadership skills.
1.02 Establish and adhere to designed PERFORMANCE STANDARDS:
ground rules. 5.01 Describe the functions and character-
1.03 Maintain an ongoing journal of per- istics of a leader.
sonal responses to class and related 5.02 Identify the effects of the individual's
activities. · self-concept on behavior and inter-
1.04 Identify the aspects of trust in a help- personal relationships.
ing relationship. 5.03 Demonstrate leadership functions
1.05 Identify the aspects of confidentiality and characteristics through selected
in a helping relationship. group process.
1.06 Identify the aspects of positive hu- 6. Demonstrate an understanding of group
man regard in a helping relationship. dynamics and be able to perform group-
2. Demonstrate an understanding of self, oriented tasks.
others, and community. PERFORMANCE STANDARDS:
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS: 6.01 Identify elements of group interac-
2.01 Develop an increased awareness of tion.
self. 6.02 Identify various group-oriented tasks.
2.02 Develop an increased awareness of 6.03 Utilize elements of successful group
self in relation to one's environment. interaction by participating in a vari-
2.03 Identify interpersonal skills necessary ety of roles within group settings.
to maintain positive peer relation- 6.04 Participate in assigned targeted
ships. groups within the school and com-
2.04 Assess the concepts of prejudice and munity.
discrimination and their impact on
peer relationships. Course Title: Peer Counseling II
3. Demonstrate an understanding of facilita- INTENDED OUTCOME:
tive communication skills. After successfully completing this course,
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS: the student will be able to:
3.01 Identify and apply skills used in the 1. Demonstrate an understanding of the ef-
art of listening. fects of peer pressure on the individual
3.02 Identify a variety of verbal and non- and society.
verbal communication behavior. PERFORMANCE STANDARDS:
3.03 Identify and apply the six facilitative 1.01 Define positive and negative aspects
responses (highs and lows). of peer pressure.
3.04 Develop ability to use the feedback 1.02 Give examples of how peer pressure
model to facilitate communications. affects behavior.
3.05 Identify various blocks to communi- 1.03 Identify "sub-cultures" or groups
cation and how they affect behavior. within the school.
1.04 Demonstrate ways of saying no to
negative peer pressure.

1.05 Indicate a variety of alternatives to 6.01 Identify the factors leading to stress.
negative peer pressure. 6.02 Identify the impact of stress on hu-
1.06 Describe and evaluate the role of man behavior.
peer pressure as it pertains to teenage 6.03 Assess various coping strategies in
social issues. relation to self and others.
2. Demonstrate an understanding of the impact
of interpersonal skills on all aspects of life. Course Title: Peer Counseling Ill
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS: INTENDED OUTCOME:
2.01 Identify the characteristics of healthy After successfully completing this course,
relationships. the student will be able to:
2.02 Identify the effects of being socially I. Identify the needs and concerns of the stu-
dysfunctional. dent population.
2.03 Identify methods of establishing and PERFORMANCE STANDARDS:
maintaining positive personal rela- 1.01 Identify techniques for conducting
tionships. needs assessment.
3. Demonstrate an understanding of person- 1.02 Conduct a needs assessment.
al behavior as it relates to long and short
range life and career goals. 2. Demonstrate a knowledge of school re-
sources and community youth servicing
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS: agencies.
3.01 Identify the need for setting goals. PERFORMANCE STANDARDS:
3.02 Identify and apply decision-making 2.01 Demonstrate familiarity with school
and problem-solving models for set- and community resources.
ting goals.
2.02 Demonstrate knowledge of the refer-
3.03 Exhibit personal responsibility in set- ral processes.
ting goals.
3. Demonstrate a knowledge of program
3.04 Exhibit how self-awareness relates to planning and implementation.
career life choices.
3.05 Identify personal strengths, weak- PERFORMANCE STANDARDS:
nesses, skills, and abilities. 3.01 Utilize research skills in program
planning.
3.06 Explore various careers appropriate to
individual needs, interests, and skills. 3.02 Devise and coordinate program de-
livery with school personnel and
3.07 Develop a career-life plan (including community agencies.
career/educational planning).
3.03 Analyze and evaluate program effec-
4. Demonstrate an understanding of academ- tiveness.
ic motivational skills.
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS:
Course Title: Peer Counseling IV
4.01 Identify the aspects of motivation.
INTENDED OUTCOME:
4.02 Assess personal study habits.
The purpose of this course is to provide
4.03 Develop and organize effective study students with varied experiences in program
habits. continuity and development. After successfully
4.04 Develop and utilize effective test-tak- completing this course, the student will be
ing skills. able to:
4.05 Develop and implement educational I. Utilize a variety of facilitative strategies
contracts. applicable to given situations.
5. Demonstrate an understanding of the as- PERFORMANCE STANDARDS:
pects of assertiveness. 1.01 Identify appropriate facilitative strat-
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS: egies applicable to given situations.
5.01 Discriminate between passive, asser- 1.02 Demonstrate knowledge and skills of
tive, and aggressive behavior. peer counseling intervention strate-
5.02 Identify areas in personal lives where gies in a variety of settings.
assertive responses could be made. 2. Utilize knowledge and understanding
5.03 Identify the thoughts, feelings, and gained through individual and group re-
behaviors that support non-assertive- search projects.
ness, assertiveness, and aggressiveness. PERFORMANCE STANDARDS:
6. Demonstrate an understanding of the ef- 2.01 Conduct individual and/or group
fects of stress and related coping skills. research projects to explore personal/
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS: social/academic/career goals.

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ADD, 77, 140, 152-153, 158, 161, 167, 215, Basic Counselor Interventions, 111, 123, 129-
239,243, 247, 254, 258,284,293, 130, 133, 363, 406
297, 312,314, 336, 351, 354, 402,
404, 412-413, 421 Basic Helping Roles, 304
ADHD, 254-258, 419, 423 Behavior Checklist, 250, 420-422
Adolescents, 15-16, 18-22, 26-28, 36, 38-39, Behavioral Counseling, 90, 195, 203-204
65, 72, 74, 91, 93-94, 138, 231, 296, Behaviorists, 90, 92
314, 318, 322, 325, 383 Bibliocounseling, 209, 261
Administrators, 3-4, 9, 13, 21, 23, 25, 28-30, Black History Awareness, 317
32, 43, 45-48, 50-51, 55-56, 59, 64-66,
74, 79-80, 82-83, 85, 91, 104, 106-108, Black Manhood Training Model, 231
116-120, 122-123, 128, 130-131, 133- Brief Counseling, 28, 46, 56-57, 94-95, 97, 143,
135, 139, 145, 184, 193, 208, 210-211, 193-194,203,209-210,222, 236,255,
222,225,231-232, 254,259,268,276, 337, 339, 358, 384, 413
286,297, 301, 317, 321, 324-325, 329, Buckley Amendment, 208, 385
331,336,341-342, 347, 349,357, 359,
362-363, 367, 370-371, 375-382, 384- Bullying, 20, 273, 396, 433
386, 389-390, 394, 399-400, 402-403, Building Support, 77
405-407, 409-411, 413-415, 417-418,
424-427, 434, 437, 439-440 c
African Americans, 48 CACREP, 100
AIDS, 19, 48, 103, 174, 326 Career
All Handicapped Children Act, 362, 380 awareness, 42-43, 136, 276
Annual Guidance Calendar, 124, 130 counselors, 58
Approaches development, 4, 6, 52, 58, 71, 99-100, 110,
comprehensive, 33, 338, 435 136-138, 295, 317, 372, 374
crisis, 11-12, 14, 27 fairs, 388
developmental, 11, 14, 29-30, 32-33, 42, 48, nights, 388
51,9~ 11~ 11~ 317, 335, 341, 365 resource center, 58, 129, 385
preventive, 13 week, 130
process, 337, 339, 363
remedial, 13, 365

Case Computer(s), 15, 57, 65, 94, 96-97, 104, 118,
conferences, 362, 425-426 129, 135, 137-140, 152, 307, 354, 385,
391, 405-406,414, 431, 433
consultation, 329, 347, 349, 356, 364
Confidentiality, 81, 103, 108, 121, 178, 208,
management approach, 337 221, 242,269, 279, 344, 347, 386,
studies, 179, 392, 419, 422-423, 438-439 391, 402,434
Caseload, 104, 110-111, 123-124, 133-134, Conflict(s), 1, 5, 11-13, 15, 18, 33, 35, 37, 43,
143, 191-193 48, 63, 70, 87,92, 103, 146, 165, 199,
Certification, 9, 100-102, 301, 311, 381, 402 204, 210-211, 225-226, 232, 261, 266,
268-269, 273, 276, 296, 302, 307, 313,
Changing Society, 8, 15 318-321, 324, 334, 337, 340, 396
Character Education, 74-75, 103, 110, 276-277 Confronting, 11, 15, 24, 69, 88-89, 91, 93, 103,
Chemical Awareness, 303 121, 137, 143, 157, 164-167, 169, 181,
Child 197, 203,208,213, 226-227, 231, 238,
241, 249, 254-255,261,268, 284, 321,
abuse, 103, 119, 190, 208-209, 275, 317, 344, 334, 342-343, 363, 365-366, 384, 413,
347, 386, 392 429, 436-437
study, 8, 30, 35, 58, 117, 122, 335-336, 340, Consultation
362, 369-370, 380-381, 391, 394-398,
400 advantages, 367
study teams, 30, 58, 340, 362, 369, 380-381, defined, 331
391, 394-398, 400 diagnostic-prescriptive approach, 336, 362,
Civil Rights, 49 364
Clarifying, 22, 24, 55, 64, 69, 103, 105, 129, limitations, 367
136, 141, 143, 157, 161-162, 164-165, process, 332, 336, 339-340, 342, 344, 346,
169, 172, 180-183, 186-187, 197, 209, 353-355, 364, 367
229,242, 248, 264-265, 272,308, 310, relationships, 333, 344
320, 329, 348, 350-352, 357, 359, 363-
364, 372, 377, 382-383, 409, 437 Consultee(s), 116-117, 331-332, 334, 336-339,
342-352, 354-355, 364-365, 367
Classroom Guidance, 27, 30-31, 47, 57, 66, 72,
93, 11~ 114, 12~ 125, 12~ 13~271- Consulting, 47, 105, 117, 122, 263, 321, 330,
273, 275-277, 286, 293, 299-300, 307- 339, 356, 362, 367
308, 314, 377, 389,392,416,427, 436 Contingency
Closure, 112-113, 143, 167, 188, 229, 238, 240, contracts, 203-204
274, 286-287 Continuing Education, 102, 341
Code of Ethics, 97, 302 Contracting, 90, 204, 206, 263
Collaboration, 50, 54, 128, 331, 338-339, 355, Coordination
372, 422, 432
defined, 369
Communication
Counseling
communication labs, 239-240, 246
accreditation, 100-101
communication skills, 13, 42-43, 64, 69-70,
75, 116, 145, 231, 239,241-242,244- bereavement, 231, 337
245, 247,270,297, 312, 319, 321, defined
343, 360, 404 solution-focused, 46, 94, 194, 335
Community Counselor
involvement, 43, 71, 373 credentialing, 101
pride, 42-43 education, 9, 86, 98, 100, 102, 106, 141, 169,
service, 71, 316, 327 179, 235, 313, 381
Comparative Group Studies, 419

interventions, 43, 46, 51, 110-111, 118, 120, Association for Multicultural Counseling
122-124, 129-130, 133, 135, 141, 143, and Development (AMCD), 98
145, 189,299, 313, 363, 372, 390, Association for Specialists in Group Work
400, 405-406, 417, 424-426, 428-429, (ASGW), 99
435
International Association of Addictions and
meetings, 127 Offender Counselors (IAAOC), 99
student ratios, 22, 29-30, 83, 111, 134, 222, International Association of Marriage and
270 Family Counselors (IAMFC), 99
role, 55, 104-105, 111, 373 Military Educators and Counselors Associa-
student advocate, 211, 273, 381 tion (MECA), 98
Counselor Interventions, 43, 46, 51, 110-111, National Career Development Association
118, 120, 122-124, 129-130, 133, 135, (NCDA), 99
141, 143, 145, 189, 299, 313, 363, National Employment Counselors Associa-
372, 390, 400, 405-406, 417, 424-426, tion (NECA), 100
428-429' 435
Public Offender Counselor Association
Counselor-Student Ratios, 22, 29-30, 83, 111, (POCA), 99
134,222, 270
Vocational Guidance Association (VGA), 8,
Counselor-Teacher Relationships, 80, 266 99
Counseling Associations Crisis
American Association of Counseling and De- interventions, 11, 121, 192-193, 221, 301,
velopment (AACD), 97 328, 382
American College Counseling Association Curriculum
(ACCA), 98
committee, 388
American Counseling Association (ACA), 8,
29, 53, 97-102 Cyberbullying, 433
American Mental Health Counselors Associa-
D
tion (AMHCA), 98
Decision Making, 5, 21, 42-44, 52, 70, 75, 108,
American Personnel and Guidance Associa-
113, 136-137, 139, 148, 150, 153, 168,
tion (APGA) (see ACA), 8-9, 97
173-175, 195-196, 219, 237, 240, 277,
American Psychological Association (APA), 8, 47 281, 372, 434
American Rehabilitation Counseling Associa- Developing Understanding of Self and Others
tion (ARCA), 99 (DUSO), 31, 93
American School Counselor Association Developmental
(ASCA), 3, 8-9, 25-26, 51-55, 74, 85,
conditions, 41
97, 99-100, 102-106, 108-109, 122-
123, 136-138,208,223, 272, 277, 302, stages, 3, 14, 35-37, 42, 49, 70, 72, 96, 341
331, 338, 371-372, 375, 410-411, 417- theory, 40-41, 51
418, 432, 434-435,437, 439
Developmental Guidance
Association for Adult Development and Ag-
curriculum, 28, 42, 78, 121
ing (AADA), 98
defined, 85
Association for Assessment in Counseling
(AAC), 98 emergence, 1
Association for Counselor Education and goals, 3, 5-6, 9, 25, 27, 30, 34, 36, 42-45,
Supervision (ACES), 98, 100, 108 52-53, 67, 69-71, 85, 90-91, 97, 134,
13~ 13~ 14~ 145, 14~ 152-153, 16~
Association for Humanistic Education and
173, 175, 180, 185-187, 193-194, 196,
Development (AHED), 99
206-207, 216, 218, 222-223, 226, 228,
234,236,251, 255, 265-266, 272, 275,

295-296, 308,314, 338, 341, 343, 346, F
352, 357-358, 362, 369, 371-373, 376- Facebook, 15, 307,432-433
377, 379, 388-389, 396-397, 401, 405,
409,411, 416, 431,434-435, 437,439 Facilitative
principles, 43-44, 74 activities, 145, 173
programs, 43-44, 49, 105, 141, 143, 372 conditions, 90, 113, 116, 145-148, 150-152,
154, 156, 16~ 167, 175, 19~ 214,
specialist, 85 219,233, 241, 261,269-270, 278, 283-
theory, 34 284, 307-308, 334
units, 69, 89, 279, 385 counseling, 17 5
Diagnostic-Prescriptive Approach, 336, 362 feedback, 23, 79, 112-113, 139, 148, 152-
Direct 155, 157, 164-167, 172-175, 188-189,
219,224,229, 234, 237, 239-241, 243-
approaches, 260-261 245, 248-250, 252, 262-265, 269, 281,
services, 106, 110, 299, 328, 330, 369-370, 283, 292,297, 335, 351, 401,415,
372, 381, 398-399 418, 434,436, 439
model, 79, 92, 145, 148-149, 153, 156-157,
E 168, 175, 203,219, 237, 264,278,
Education( al) 282, 311-312, 338, 340, 360, 364, 367,
amendments, 208 · 377, 388
in terven ti on, 316 procedures, 17 4
planning, 30, 42-43, 58, 71, 103, 130, 380, processes, 113, 145, 148-149, 152-155, 166,
431 173, 175, 219,221, 237, 281, 333
planning team, 380 responses, 135, 145, 155-157, 164-166, 168-
170, 172-173, 175, 181, 186, 197-198,
Elementary and Secondary Education Act 200, 203, 208-209, 212-213, 219, 221,
(ESEA), 10, 61, 73 237,242-243, 248,264,270, 279,282,
Elementary School 285,294, 308,323, 342, 345, 350-351,
counselor schedule, 125 355, 360, 363, 437
guidance, 10, 29-30 tasks, 17 4
Environment Facilitative Conditions
school, 4, 6, 12, 29, 42, 45, 55, 79, 147, 232, acceptanc~21, 41, 52, 91, 113, 147, 175,
280, 357 224,229,241, 303,306-308, 356
Essential Guidance Program, 72 caring, 10, 41, 64, 87, 113, 116, 140, 146-
14~ 15~ 17~ 175, 188-18~ 193,20~
Evaluating Alternatives, 397 212, 229,241,277, 284, 299, 303,
Evaluation(s), 6, 23-24, 26, 39, 43, 53-54, 56, 308, 310, 312, 327, 342, 356, 358, 385
58, 68-69, 73, 78-80, 82, 90-91, 98, friendliness, 147, 175
10~ 103, 10~ 11~ 135-13~ 15~ 15~
154, 168, 187-188, 194, 204, 215, 239, respect, 41, 49, 74-75, 81, 87-88, 94, 103,
243, 245-246, 249, 281, 283, 297-298, 117, 129, 137, 147, 175, 178, 198,
302, 309, 319, 325, 327, 339, 342, 208, 276-277, 282, 306, 317, 386, 408,
345, 348, 356, 363, 372, 374, 378- 428
380, 387, 391, 394, 396-397, 402-403, trustworthiness, 41, 147, 151, 277
407-411, 413-419, 424, 431, 435-436, understanding, 3-4, 7, 28-29, 31, 41-43, 52,
438-439 64, 72, 78, 81, 87, 92-93, 95, 98, 113,
Exceptional Student Education Planning Team, 117, 131, 146-148, 156-158, 160-161,
125-127 165, 16~ 175, 185-18~ 18~ 193, 19~
198,224, 229,241,245-246, 248-249,
252, 255-256, 260, 282, 286, 295-296,

307-308, 320, 331, 338, 342, 344, 352, coordination, 118-119

356-357, 360, 370, 376-377, 404, 418, coordinator, 369, 423, 427
434,440
curriculum, 14, 28, 34, 42, 44, 46, 50, 52, 54,
Facilitator(s), 14, 30, 47, 56, 74, 79, 92, 110, 62, 68, 78, 83, 106, 114, 121-122, 272,
115-116, 123, 127-128, 133, 141, 145, 276, 278, 295-297, 299-300, 357, 372-
156, 175,224, 228, 274, 276,278, 374, 379, 385,405, 407, 416
282,285, 294, 301-328, 342, 349,
360-361, 363, 369, 377, 384, 387,391, defined,271
398,431 needs, 56-57, 76, 83, 119-121
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act, 385 program, 4, 6 1 12, 15, 20, 26-28, 32, 42-43,
Feedback 45-46, 50, 52-53, 55-5 7, 60, 64, 68, 72,
75, 79-82, 93, 104, 108, 119, 129, 131,
receiving, 248, 269 134, 141, 192, 223, 276, 278, 296,
Feeling(s) 302, 311, 313, 317, 327, 357,363,
words, 92, 157-159, 161, 219, 238, 242-243, 371-373, 375-376, 388-389, 414-416,
247-248, 275 419,432,434
focused, 92, 157-160, 164-165, 169, 172, units, 30, 39, 44-46, 56-59, 68-69, 72, 74, 76,
182, 197, 264, 320 78-80, 83, 89, 122, 128, 130, 132, 267,
273-281, 285-287, 293-297, 299, 321,
First Amendment, 436 324, 377, 385, 389, 392, 405, 433
Flexible Time, 46, 77, 110, 117, 125-127, 129-
130, 191, 370, 398, 400 H
Florida Classroom Guidance Project, 286 Helping Relationship(s), 41, 49, 64, 77-78, 90-
Follow-up, 67, 102, 111-113, 116, 128-129, 91, 111, 145-146, 148, 151, 154, 156,
187, 192, 197, 200,204, 211, 238, 168, 175, 17~ 180-181, 18~ 21~ 224,
274, 277, 303, 319, 346, 348, 355, 236, 304-305, 311-314, 349, 417
358, 362, 383-384, 397 Helping Roles
Fresh Start, 228 special assistant, 304, 328
tutor, 133, 302, 305, 314-315, 325, 328
G
special friend, 128, 133, 305-306, 314-315,
Go For It Club, 252 324,328
Grade Level Team Meeting, 126, 344 small group leader, 307, 328
Groups High Facilitative Responses
closed, 259 feeling-focused, 92, 157-160, 172, 197, 264
facilitating, 240, 283 clarifying or summarizing, 157, 161, 164-
group counseling defined, 224 165, 172, 197
evaluation, 245-246 open question (see also questions), 157, 162-
guidelines, 260 165, 169, 171, 181, 359
work, 99, 112, 114, 122, 221, 233,250, 259, facilitative feedback
281,287, 376, 427 complimenting, 44, 164, 167, 241
Grouping Students, 290 confronting, 93, 137, 164-165, 167, 169,
Grow With Guidance System, 295 231,241,261, 284, 321, 334,429
Growth Group Experience, 239 simple acknowledgments, 157, 167
Guidance linking, 136, 157, 167, 170, 172-173, 197
association(s), 8 1 97, 99 High School
committee, 55-57, 82, 120, 377, 384, 389, counselor schedule, 127
398,404 guidance, 8,24, 29, 72

Hispanic(s), 2, 48, 177-178 M
HIV, 19 Magic Circle, 31
Making Positive Changes, 133, 286
Managing
Inclusion, 273
counselor priorities, 120
Indirect interventions, 124
feedback, 167, 243, 24~
large groups, 291, 294
services, 106, 110, 140, 370, 372
Maximizing Student Participation, 294
Individual Counseling
Measuring
advantages, 221
outcomes, 297
defined, 178
Middle School
limitations, 222
counselor schedule, 126
Individual Educational Plans (IEPs), 362, 380-
guidance, 26-28, 35, 37, 54, 63, 66, 72, 74,
381, 394
120, 126, 129-130, 192, 216, 230-231,
Intervention(s), coordinating, 399 233-235, 245-246, 250, 259, 266, 268,
Involuntary Counselees, 210 273, 276, 287, 297, 306, 315, 317-318,
324, 326, 349, 372, 375, 390, 393,
404-405, 427, 429
J
Job Corps, 10 peer day, 326
Johari's Window, 149 Military Educators, 98
Minorities, 47, 49
L Missouri Comprehensive Guidance Program
Large Group Guidance Model, 415
advantages, 299 Motivational Group Counseling, 250
defined, 271 Multicultural
limitations, 299 counsclin& 1~41, 49, 75, 97-98, 103,268,
Law of Parsimony, 132 295, 346
Learning ethnic diversity, 346
climate, 14, 29, 49-50, 62, 83, 148, 264, 269, Multiple Interventions, 133, 135, 276, 341,
273, 366 355, 366, 381, 391,393,400, 422-423
styles, 96, 137-139, 329 MySpace, 15, 432-433
Legal Responsibility, 208
N
Legislators, 62, 105, 141-142, 378
National Board for Credentialing of Counsel-
Licensure, 100-101, 103 ors (NBCC), 101
Life Span Development, 40 National Defense Education Act (NDEA), 8, 10,
Life Style, 85, 136 102
Listening, 69, 81, 156, 161, 165, 177, 186, 212, National Association of Peer Program
234, 238, 241-242, 244,254,268-269, Professionals(NAPPP), 302
273,284,293, 300, 307-308, 310, 315, Native Americans, 49
319, 354, 359, 381, 388, 414
Networking, 97, 139, 228, 277, 302, 307, 326,
Low Facilitative Responses 377,382,411,432,434,439
advising/evaluating, 168 Non-verbal, 93, 97, 150, 156, 159-160, 181,
analyzing/interpreting, 168-169 185, 221, 241-242,262,283
reassuring/supporting, 168-169

0 Problem Solving, 21, 35, 42-43, 52, 70, 91-92,

Other Helping Processes, 5, 7 122, 153, 173-175, 195-197, 240-241,
318, 324, 372
p Professional
Paraprofessionals ethics, 102, 344, 347
coordinating, 384 preparation, 100
Parent Professionalism, 63, 97, 100, 435
consultation, 122, 125-127, 335, 425 Protected Time, 119, 132
group, 425, 431 Public Law 94-142, 141, 362, 380-381, 394-396
teacher organizations, 120, 404 Pupil Appraisal, 122
Peer Facilitator
Q
advantages, 327
Questions
class, 116, 127
closed, 162-164, 169, 411
coordinating, 322, 387
open, 157, 162-165, 169, 171, 181, 359
defined, 302
limitations, 328 R
programs, 116, 303, 310, 313, 316, 325-328, Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, 88-89, 95,
387, 431 335
projects, 116, 128, 301, 328, 363 Referral(s)
training, 30, 115-116, 123, 125, 128, 304- coordinating, 383
305, 310, 323, 325, 327, 369, 384 Referring, 203, 248, 293, 380, 382-384, 421
Peer Facilitator Quarterly (PFQ), 302 Relating, 36, 170, 374, 437
Peer Helpers, 116, 302, 312, 317-318, 321, 382, Relationship(s)
385
quadrant, 149, 152-153, 164
Peer Mediators, 302, 313, 318-321, 324
Research, 41, 46, 99-100, 104, 107, 133-135,
Peer Relationships, 28, 37, 70, 140, 230, 266, 138, 151, 177,239,278, 287, 305,
268, 270, 277, 303-304, 306, 327 319, 322, 339,347, 372, 402-403, 408,
Personalization, 218, 275 410-411,414,417,419, 422, 430,438
Peervention, 303 Resistance, 88, 210, 213-215, 219, 227, 233,
Play Media, 97, 138, 186 238, 248, 261, 283, 314, 342, 365,
370,402, 440
Play Therapy, 87, 423
Resource Centers, 316
Prevention, 10, 13-14, 17, 19-20, 29, 60, 66,
71, 86, 99, 103, 226, 232,273, 296, Responsibility, 10, 18, 21, 26, 36, 43, 50, 57,
303, 313,321-322, 326 59-60, 74, 76, 80, 83, 87-89, 91-92,
103, 106, 108-109, 118-119, 121, 140,
Principal(s), 9, 30, 32, 50, 55, 59, 80, 106, 117, 14~ 16~ 181, 185, 187, 196-197, 199-
131-13~ 191, 31~ 34~ 34~ 35~ 361-
200, 202-203, 208, 210-211, 214, 226,
362, 370, 382, 384,389, 394-395, 401- 235, 240,251,257,260, 263, 266-268,
402, 417, 427 275,277,301, 304, 321, 331,335,
Priorities, 14, 24, 79, 82, 104, 119-123, 141, 338-339, 341-342, 345, 354-355, 357,
153, 194,209, 376-377, 382, 389,404, 362, 366, 369, 376, 378,381, 383,
407,438 385, 389, 400, 437
Priority-setting, 120-123 Responsible, action, 113, 148, 154-155, 173,
Privacy Act, 385 187, 219,229,237, 281
Responsive Education, 303

Role-play, 89-90, 93, 139, 187, 201, 209, 226, counseling
234, 240-242, 245, 251, 296, 309, 320, crisis-centered, 225, 228
348
growth-centered, 225-228, 247, 425
s problem-centered, 5, 121, 225-226, 228,
247, 259, 425
Scheduling, 25, 68, 76, 78, 110, 118, 123, 128-
129, 131, 193,269,280, 363-364, 391, limitations, 269
398 Special Guidance Events
Scholar's Club, 228 coordinating, 388
School Achievement, 256, 371, 412 olympics, 317
School Personnel projects, 311, 323
roles, 34, 55 Staff Development, coordinating, 384
occupation specialists, 58 Stages
other administrators, 59 counseling, 180
principals, 9, 55, 117, 131-132, 191, 319, small group counseling, 229
342,349, 358,361-362, 382, 384, 389,
State of America's Children, 17, 61-62
394-395, 402, 427
Student
psychologists, 58, 362, 377-378, 380-381,
397 advisor(s), 61, 67, 76, 80, 128
registrars, 5 7 appraisal, 369
social workers, 59 assistance programs, 66, 104, 303
teachers, 11-13, 27-29, 40, 45-46, 50, 55-56, community service, 327
61, 63-67, 72-75, 77-80, 82-83, 107, inventory results, 289
110, 114-115, 117-119, 121-122, 125-
coordinating records, 385
129, 132-133, 142, 148, 156, 162-163,
168-169, 178, 181-182, 190-192, 196, services team, 126
199, 202-204, 206, 210-211, 214-216, Student-Teacher
219, 225, 230, 232, 244, 248-249,
relationships, 63, 80, 156, 244
251-253, 255, 259, 263, 267-268, 272,
277-278, 287-288, 292-293, 296-297, Study Skills, 3, 28, 43, 45, 68-69, 72, 130, 210,
305-308, 311, 313, 315,317, 319, 324, 232,267, 327, 372
327, 329, 331-337, 339-344, 346, 349- Studying, 7, 27, 41, 162-163, 268, 305, 315,
353, 355, 358, 360-361, 365, 367, 369, 344,360,409,422
378-387, 390, 392-393, 395-397, 404,
Suicide, 17, 19-20, 103, 274, 313, 344, 382,
407, 412-413, 420-430, 438-439
386, 393
Secondary Education Act, 10, 61
Supervision, 9, 17, 32, 50, 68, 78, 98, 100, 115-
Self-concept, 27, 33, 36, 39-40, 44, 65, 87, 90, 116, 128, 140, 204, 293, 299, 301-302,
203,251, 295,409 304, 307-314, 316, 321, 323, 325, 327,
Self-disclosure, 88, 113, 135, 147-155, 162, 335, 358, 363, 369, 380, 384-385, 390,
164, 168-169, 173-175, 181, 209, 215, 392, 398, 428
217,219,224,237,240-243,247, 263- Systematic
264, 281, 284, 333, 345
case studies, 419, 421, 423, 430, 438
Setting Goal, 51, 70, 95, 136, 193, 255
facilitative approach, 348
Sexual Harassment, 160, 296, 321
problem-solving model, 195-196, 202
Small Group
training, 301, 328
advantages, 269
coordinating, 388

T projects, 127
Target
u
populations, 82, 136, 143, 230, 294-295,
377, 404,435 Understanding
students, 82, 110, 113, 124, 134-136, 143, attitudes, 42-43
22~ 23~ 239, 241, 243, 245, 261-26~ feelings, 286
287, 294, 306, 336, 377, 427, 438 self, 31, 42-43, 93, 245, 260
Teacher
concerns, 63 v
consultation, 122, 255, 335, 425-426 Vocational Guidance, 8 1 15, 99, 130
group, 335, 425 Volunteers, 71, 73, 105, 140, 210, 213, 317,
327, 356, 381-382, 384-385, 398
inventory results, 288
ratings, 45, 355, 420, 426-427 w
seminars, 117, 129, 335, 340, 344, 360, 365 Weekly Schedule, 78, 111, 113, 119, 123-124,
Teacher-Advisor 128-130, 134, 143, 192, 276, 340-341,
group meetings, 126 398
program(TAP), 56-59, 67, 69, 72-79, 83, 91- Wellness, 60, 71, 277, 318
92, 114-116, 121-122, 126-128, 132,
y
170, 233,238, 273,275-276, 280, 300,
376, 387, 390-391, 404-405 Youth Opportunity Centers, 10
scheduling, 78
Teaching, timely, 12, 25, 45, 66-67, 72, 121,
135, 166, 168, 170-171, 186, 197, 200,
209, 248, 252, 257, 274-275, 284-285,
290, 304-305, 340, 343, 345-346, 365,
377, 431
Technology, 20, 92, 137-140, 307, 349, 360,
431-434
Test Buster Pep Rally, 296, 317
Theories
Adlerian, 93
Behavioral Counseling, 90, 195, 203-204
Client-centered, 21, 87-90, 92, 107, 151, 156
Gestalt Theory, 93
Personal Theory, 95, 97
Psychoanalytic Theory, 93
Rational Emotive Therapy (RET), 88
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT),
88-89, 95, 335
Reality Therapy, 91-92
Time-Management, 28, 69, 105
Training
approach, 336, 360
as treatment, 324, 327

Robert D Myrick-Developmental Guidance and Counseling - A Practical Approach-Educational Media (2011) PDF

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Robert D Myrick-Developmental Guidance and Counseling - A Practical Approach-Educational Media (2011) PDF

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Dev~lopmental Guidance

Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2010942410

Printing (Last Digit)

ii Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

as an elementary and middle school counselor, a district guidance coor-

as a contributor and co-author, helped refine and clarify the concepts of

as an editor, sharpened the language and ideas ...

as a consultant and conference presenter, helped others to implement

as a loving and devoted wife and mother, provided timely encourage-

Educational Media Corporation® iii

iv Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Educational Media Corporation® v

Chapter 6 Individual Counseling as a Counselor Intervention ........................... 177

vi Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Educational Media Corporation® vii

2.1 Developmental Stages/Tasks .................................................................................. 36

viii Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Educational Media Corporation® ix

In particular, I wish to acknowledge

x Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Educational Media Corporation® 1

Enrollment at public and private Statistically speaking, a student who

2 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

We know some students, more than This book is an attempt to advance

Educational Media Corporation® 3

Guidance and In addition to describing a program,

4 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

The term "counseling" is used to In this case, counseling is both a job

Educational Media Corporation® 5

6 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

The term "counseling" will be used to The Formative Years

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Educational Media Corporation® 9

The report recommended counsel- Thus, as characterized by Mitchell and

10 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Four Approaches to Guid- Counselors, by nature of their train-

Educational Media Corporation® 11

12 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

The Remedial Approach The preventive approach tries to

Educational Media Corporation® 13

While the term "prevention" attempts Skill building in the developmental

14 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Guidance and Counseling For example, there has been an in-

Educational Media Corporation® 15

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Educational Media Corporation® 17

Violence has become part of many Ideally, schools should be havens

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Educational Media Corporation® 19

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Guidance in the High Schools Rogers' theory appealed to many

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Educational Media Corporation® 25

In defensive of some counselors, ASCA One problem that continued to

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In response to providing a better If you were to visit a junior high

Educational Media Corporation® 27

Some of the issues discussed in home- The most important consideration