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Magnesium Alloys
Tampere University of Technology ‐ Tuula Höök
Magnesium (Mg) is one of the alkali earth metals. It is among the eighth most com‐ Introduction
mon element in the earth’s crust (2,1 %). Magnesium is the lightest of the metals,
which are widely used in industrial applications. Pure magnesium has a density of
1,74 kg/dm3, melting point of 651 °C and a boiling point of 1107 °C. Magnesium is not
used in its pure form in industrial applications. It is alloyed with aluminium, zinc,
manganese and other elements. Magnesium alloys physical characteristics vary from
pure magnesium.
Magnesium reacts very easily with oxygen and nitrogen. Magnesium chips and pow‐
ders burn rapidly. For these reasons magnesium is used in pyrotechnic applications.
In foundry technology applications the reactivity makes processing more complicated.
Raw material production
Magnesium can not be found in its pure form, but as compounds in seawater and Magnesium
ores. Typical compounds, from which magnesium can be extracted, are: sources
− dolomite (CaCO3*MgCO3), common in England, Germany, Brazil, Norway
and Mexico, magnesium concentration in weight 30%
− magnesite (MgCO3), common in Brazil, Austria, Korea, China and USA West
Coast, magnesium concentration in weight 30%
− serpentine (3MgO*2SiO2*2H2O), by‐product in asbestos production processes,
common in Italy, Russia and Canada, , magnesium concentration in weight
26%
− carnallite (MgCl2*KCl*6H2O), used in potash and magnesium production,
common in Mexico, USA, Germany, Russia, China, Iran and Israel, magne‐
sium concentration in weight 9%
− bischofite (MgCl2*6H2O), by‐product of the potash production process,
sources in sea water and water from the Great Salt Lake, magnesium concen‐
tration in weight 12%
− salts from sea water Mg2+(aq), magnesium ion concentration in typical sea wa‐
ter 0,13% and in Dead Sea water 4,2%
Largest primary magnesium producers are China, Russia, Canada and USA. Total
primary magnesium production was 667 000 tons in the year 2005. Production in
China was 468 000 tons and in rest of the countries 199 000 tons (Table 1).
Magnesium ‐ 1
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
Table 1. Primary magnesium production, years 2000 – 2005, International Magnesium
Association, http://www.intlmag.org
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
USA 74 43 32 43 43 43
Brazil 9 9 7 6 11 6
Canada 55 65 86 50 55 50
China 218 195 232 354 450 468
France 17 7 0 0 0 0
Israel 2 30 34 30 33 28
Kazakhstan 10 10 10 14 14 20
Norway 50 35 10 0 0 0
Russia 40 50 52 45 45 50
Ukraine 2 2 0 0 0 0
Serbia 2 2 2 2 4 2
Total 479 448 468 544 655 667
Magnesium compounds go through the following steps before they can be used in Steps from miner‐
casting processes: als and salts to
ingot bars
Step 1: Reduction from natural sources
Step 2: Refining of the reduced product (and casting to ingots)
Step 3: Alloying and casting to ingots
Reduction from natural sources
Magnesium appears in nature in ionic form. Before magnesium can be processed Reduction proce‐
further, there is a need to transfer electrons to it by a suitable reduction agent. Com‐ dures: electrolysis
mon reduction agents are: electric current, coal, silicone compounds, calcium carbide and thermal reduc‐
and aluminium. tion
There are two basic reduction techniques:
− The electrolysis of fused anhydrous magnesium chloride (MgCl2)
− Thermal reduction of magnesium oxide (MgO) by FeSi or other reduction
agents
80 % of the magnesium reduction plants use the electrolysis technique. The base Electrolysis
material for electrolysis is anhydrous magnesium chloride prepared from sea water or
from various mineral sources. Minerals are processed further and eventually all the
materials will be either bischofite (MgCl2*6H2O) or carnallite (MgCl2*KCl*6H2O). Both
salts contain large quantities of water, which must be removed totally before the salt
can be added to the electrolysis cell. Removing the excess water is the most compli‐
cated part of the whole process. Both bischofite and carnallite tend to form
magnesium oxide, which will later concentrate as sludge to the electrolysis cells. The
hydrolysis reaction produces also acid gases.
There are different electrolysis technologies. Each magnesium company has devel‐
oped own, more or less unique technology. Depending on technology, either molten
or solid MgCl2 is used. Cell temperature varies from 655 °C to 720 °C. The electrolyse
cell energy consumption per 1 kg of magnesium varies from 10,5 kWh to 19 kWh.
Total energy consumption varies between 18 – 28 kWh per 1 kg of magnesium.
Magnesium ‐ 2
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
Thermal reduction process uses magnesite (MgCO3) and dolomite (CaCO3*MgCO3) Thermal reduction
ores. First the ore is calcinated at temperatures of 700 – 1000 °C and ground into a fine
powder. The calcinations procedure releases carbon dioxide CO2 leaving the ores to
solid MgO (magnesite) and CaO*MgO (dolomite):
MgCO3 ‐> MgO + CO2
CaCO3*MgCO3 ‐> CaO*MgO + 2CO2
The most widely used commercial thermal reduction processes are silicothermic
processes. There are three main processes, which differ in heating and pressures, but
are similar in the chemical reaction. The idea in these processes is to reduce the re‐
maining oxygen from MgO with ferrosilicon (FeSi). Total energy consumption in the
thermal reduction process is 45 – 80 kWh per 1 kg of magnesium.
Refining of the reduced product
After the electrolysis, magnesium contains various impurities. Typically there are Refining after
remains of the electrolyte, magnesium oxide and magnesium nitrides. Most of the electrolysis
magnesium electrolysis plants have continuous refining furnace facilities (CRF). These
furnaces use settling process with the aid of higher density fluxes and a cell structure
through which the raw magnesium slowly moves.
Thermal reduction process usually leaves the raw magnesium with more impurities Refining after
than the electrochemical methods. Impurities include magnesium oxide, magnesium thermal reduction
nitride, sodium and potassium. These impurities are removed with MgCl2 fluxes.
Alloying and casting to ingots
Pure magnesium is not suitable for industrial applications. It is difficult to process and
its mechanical and physical properties are not acceptable. Alloyed magnesium is used
instead. Usually the alloy production is done by the same manufacturers as reduction
and refining, but it is also possible to set the business separately. Basically alloying is a
procedure to add different elements to pure magnesium in order to better the me‐
chanical and physical properties. There is a need to compromise with costs and
qualities of the alloy. Magnesium is alloyed with some common and cheap elements
like aluminum and zinc, but also with some expensive and rear elements like yttrium
and thorium. Alloying is discussed in more detail in the following chapter
’Magnesium Alloys’.
Magnesium ‐ 3
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium crystal structure is hexagonal close packed (a = 0.32092 nm and c = 0.52105 Crystal structure
nm). The lattice parameters a and c increase with increasing temperature.
Image 1. Magnesium crystal structure and primary slip planes. Depending on temperature
and alloying elements more slip systems occurs.
The density of magnesium at 20 °C is 1.738 g/cm3. At the melting point the density Density and
decreases to 1,65 g/cm3 and in the liquid state the density is approximately 1,58 g/cm3. shrinkage of pure
In the melting point there is a 4,2 % volumetric shrinkage. And during cooling from magnesium
the melting point to the room temperature an additional 5 % volumetric shrinkage
occurs.
Other properties of pure magnesium are: Other properties of
pure magnesium
− Melting point: 651 °C
− Boiling point: 1107 °C
− Linear thermal coefficient 20‐100 °C: 26,1 μm °C
− Linear thermal coefficient 20‐300 °C: 28,0 μm °C
− Specific heat capacity Cp at 20 °C: 1,025 kJ/kg K
− Specific heat capacity at solid state (298 ‐ 923 K): 26,19 – 1,01 x 10‐3 T – 1,60 x
105 / T2 + 8,41 x 10‐6 T2 J/mol K
− Specific heat capacity at liquid state (923 – 1600 K): 212,74 – 205,66 x 10‐3 T –
350,15 x 105 / T2 + 61,56 x 106 J/mol K
− Tensile strength in sand cast 13 mm diameter test bar: 90 MPa
− 0,2% tensile yield strength in sand cast 13 mm diameter test bar: 21 MPa
− Elongation in 50 mm in sand cast 13 mm diameter test bar: 2…6 %
− HB in sand cast 13 mm diameter test bar: 30 (500 kg, 10 mm)
− Poisson’s ratio ν: 0,35
− Dynamic elastic module E at 20 °C: 99,98% purity 44 GPa, 99,80% 45 GPa
− Stationary elastic module E at 20 °C: 99,98% purity 40 GPa, 99,80% 43 GPa
Pure magnesium is too fragile for technical applications as a consequence of the hex‐
agonal crystal structure. Good elasticity properties require the material to have at least
five independent basal slip systems. The number of basal slip systems in pure magne‐
sium is less. It is possible to better the mechanical properties by activating the non‐
basal slip systems by alloying.
Magnesium ‐ 4
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
The very basic mechanisms for strengthening magnesium are: Magnesium stren‐
gthening
− Precipitation hardening
mechanisms
− Dislocation and dispersion strengthening
− Strengthening by grain size refinement
Precipitation hardening occurs with elements, which are soluble to magnesium matrix Precipitation
at a certain degree, but the solubility decreases with decreasing temperature. The non‐ hardening
soluble part of the alloying element forms compounds with other alloying elements or
with magnesium and gathers as separate phases or as microscopic particles to the
solid material grain boundaries.
Alloying elements form complex binary, ternary and also unknown systems with
magnesium. In the following figures (Image 2, Image 3 and Image 4) there are phase
diagrams of the aluminum‐magnesium, magnesium‐zinc and magnesium‐
neodymium systems. In the magnesium rich end of the aluminum‐magnesium dia‐
gram there are two phases: pure magnesium and the Mg17Al12 + Mg –phase.
Aluminum solubility decreases quickly being only about 1% in the room temperature
and aluminum precipitates as Mg17Al12. Magnesium‐zinc system is more complicated.
Depending on zinc content and temperature MgZn, Mg2Zn3, MgZn2 of Mg2Zn11 com‐
pounds occurs. Neodymium‐magnesium phase diagram is presented as an example of
magnesium‐RE system. Neodymium forms intermetallic compounds Mg41Nd5 and
Mg3Nd.
Element solubility can change in the presence of some other elements. Example of this
phenomenon is an alloy with 2 % Al, 1 % Si, some RE elements and manganese. Man‐
ganese and RE solubility dropt to about 0,1% while in binary systems these elements
solubility is few percentages.
Al‐Mg phase
diagram
Image 2. Al‐Mg phase diagram. (Diagram is drawn on the basis of ASM Handbook, Volume 3,
Alloy Phase Diagrams, ASM International 2003)
Magnesium ‐ 5
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
Mg‐Zn phase
diagram
Mg‐Nd phase
Image 3. Mg‐Zn phase diagram. (Based on the Mg‐Zn phase diagram on Friedrich, Horst E.; diagram
Mordike, Barry L.: Magnesium Technology ‐ Metallurgy, Design Data, Applications, Springer
2006)
Image 4. Mg‐Nd phase diagram.
(Based on Friedrich, Horst E.;
Mordike, Barry L.: Magnesium Tech‐
nology ‐ Metallurgy, Design Data,
Applications, Springer 2006)
Intermetallic compounds are a source for precipitation hardening, but also a source Dislocation and
for dislocations. For example silicon forms the high melting temperature compound dispersion harden‐
Mg2Si, which disperses to the grain boundaries. Dislocations and the dispersed com‐ ing
pounds strengthen the alloy and better the high temperature properties at
temperatures between 100 and 150 °C. Other compounds have similar functions.
There have been experiments on different combinations of alloying elements, for
example RE, Ca and Sr.
Pressure die casting methods produces fine grain size without any special grain size Grain size refine‐
refining elements. In other methods, like sand and gravity die casting, zirconium is ment
used as grain refining element in aluminum free alloys. Also the traditional method to
superheat the alloy to about 850 °C before casting is used in these casting methods.
The mechanism of grain refining effect of the superheating procedure is unknown.
Magnesium ‐ 6
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
There is a need to make compromises with qualities: Some alloying element combina‐
tions better the alloy strength and elasticity, but worsen cast ability. Other element
combinations produce good strength and casting properties, but worsen the creep
properties. The element combination, which would produce all the desired properties,
is too expensive compared to steel or other common constructive materials. The most
difficult issues with magnesium are creep and corrosion.
The common alloying elements in standardized magnesium die casting alloys are: Common alloying
elements
− Aluminum: most common alloying element, increases strength and hardness
in room temperature, optimal strength and ductility at about 6 wt‐%, widens
the freezing range and betters the cast ability, the proportion of over 6 wt‐%
makes the alloy heat treatable.
− Zink: widely used with aluminum, increases strength in room temperature,
used in combination with Zr, RE or Th to produce precipitation hardening,
betters the corrosion properties by overcoming the harmful effects of iron and
nickel impurities.
− Manganese: increases the yield strength and improves salt water corrosion re‐
sistance of Mg‐Al and Mg‐Al‐Zn alloys, in the presence of manganese iron
forms relatively harmless intermetallic compounds
− Silicon: used in few alloys to improve the fluidity and also to better the creep
resistance, makes corrosion resistance worse in the presence of iron
− Copper worsens the corrosion resistance in proportions exceeding 0,05 wt‐%,
but at the same time betters the creep properties
− Beryllium: betters the processing properties
Magnesium alloys contain some elements, which are considered as impurities. These Impurities
elements are left from reduction and refining processes and usually have unwanted
defective effects to alloy properties. Typical impurities are copper, iron and nickel. All
decrease corrosion resistance. Magnesium is very low at the electrochemical series.
Separate copper, iron and nickel particles as well as some intermetallic compounds
are seeds for corrosion. Machined surfaces are especially vulnerable to corrosion in
the presence of moisture.
Based on the main alloying elements and the presence of zirconium, magnesium alloy Magnesium alloy
systems can be classified as: systems
Zirconium‐free alloys
− Magnesium‐manganese alloys
− Magnesium‐aluminum alloys
− Magnesium‐aluminum‐manganese alloys
− Magnesium‐aluminum‐silicon alloys
− Magnesium‐aluminum‐zinc alloys
− Magnesium‐aluminum‐zinc‐manganese alloys
Alloys with zirconium
− Magnesium‐zirconium alloys
− Magnesium‐zinc‐zirconium alloys
− Magnesium‐rare earth metal‐zirconium alloys
− Magnesium‐silver‐rare earth metal‐zirconium alloys
− Magnesium‐yttrium‐rare earth metal‐zirconium alloys
− Magnesium‐thorium‐zirconium alloys
− Magnesium‐thorium‐zinc‐zirconium alloys
− Magnesium‐silver‐thorium‐rare earth metal‐zirconium alloys
− Etc.
Magnesium ‐ 7
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
Zirconium refines the grain size in magnesium alloys. The earliest commercial alloys
were produced without zirconium. Aluminum, zinc and manganese were the first
alloying elements. These alloys tended to produce an unpredictable and large grain
size. And large grain size worsens the material mechanical properties. In the late
1930’s it was discovered in Germany that zirconium had a very powerful grain refin‐
ing effect. But it was also discovered that zirconium forms compounds with
aluminum and manganese. For that reason it is useless to add zirconium to alloys
containing those elements. A whole new line of zirconium‐containing alloys were
developed, but the older alloys are still in use.
The most common magnesium pressure die casting alloys are the older zirconium‐free
alloys with aluminum, silicon, zinc and manganese as main alloying elements. As
mentioned earlier, die casting method produces a fine grain structure without any
special grain refining elements and for that reason it is possible to use the older alloys
with good casting properties.
The following alloys are used for pressure die casting: Magnesium alloys
for pressure die
− magnesium‐aluminum‐silicon
casting
− magnesium‐aluminum‐manganese
− magnesium‐aluminum‐zinc
Pressure die casting method sets unique demands for cast ability and for this reason
all of the magnesium pressure die casting alloys have aluminum as one of the main
alloying elements.
There are several national and international magnesium pressure die casting alloys Standardization
and magnesium pressure die casting standards. The main magnesium alloy casting and standard
standards and the alloys in those standards are: alloys
− EN 1753 Magnesium and magnesium alloys. Magnesium alloy ingots and
castings. Alloys: MgAl2Mn, MgAl2Si, MgAl4Si, MgAl5Mn, MgAl6Mn,
MgAl7Mn, MgAl8Zn1 and MgAl9Zn1
− ASTM B94‐05 Standard Specification for Magnesium‐Alloy Die Castings. Al‐
loys: AM50A, AM60A, AM60B, AS41A, AS41B, AZ91A, AZ91B and AZ91D
− ISO 16220:2005 Magnesium and magnesium alloys ‐‐ Magnesium alloy ingots
and castings.
Standards have two main purposes: they list the alloying element concentration limits
to each alloy and give reference values to mechanical properties in castings. The
mechanical property values are given only as reference. The element concentration
limits are first to specify, when a certain alloy can be considered as AM50A or AZ91B
alloy and second to specify when a casting can be considered as AM50A or AZ91B
pressure die casting.
Other casting standards set both mechanical property and element concentration
requirements, but pressure die casting standards usually give requirements to element
concentration and set only references to mechanical properties. The reference values
are for test bars, not for actual pressure die castings.
Magnesium ‐ 8
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
The casting wall thickness influences on mechanical properties in all casting methods.
The thicker the wall is the lower the mechanical properties are. Some casting stan‐
dards, especially cast iron standards give mechanical property values as a function of
the casting wall thickness, but pressure die casting standards and books usually do
not mention this detail at all. In pressure die casting the casting process parameters
and casting design have stronger influence on the mechanical properties than in other
casting methods. For these reasons the mechanical properties are for reference only
and if the design is new or there are some other new parameters, it is strongly recom‐
mended to make a test casting if the mechanical properties are critical.
In the table next page (Table 2) there is a list of alloys in EN 1753 and ASTM B94
standards, mechanical reference properties from those standards, vendors in or near
EU region for each alloy and also a list of non‐standard magnesium alloys from those
vendors.
Sand casting and permanent mould casting methods usually produce worse mechani‐
cal properties than pressure die casting method. But it is rather difficult to compare
properties between different casting methods, because the design is different and for
some part types there is no good option for pressure die casting. Examples of the latter
are small computer or cell phone parts. With these parts the only real choice can be
done between material groups e.g. between aluminum or magnesium alloys. Some
comparisons between alloy groups and casting methods are presented in the next
table (Table 3).
Large pressure die cast component manufacturers and magnesium casting alloy
producers have developed some new alloys for pressure die casting. Increasing the
creep resistance is one of the main issues in the new alloy development work. In the
following table (Table 3) there is a list of alloys, developer and the content of these
alloys.
In this table there are some additional alloying elements compared to standardized
die casting alloys. These elements are:
− Calcium: increases creep resistance, acts as a deoxidant
− Lithium: reduces density, maximum solubility 5,5 mass‐%, decreases the
strength but increases the ductility and for a certain degree the elastic proper‐
ties
− Rare Earths: used as a mixture of different rare earth metals (cerium, lantha‐
num, neodymium, etc.), improve the high temperature strength and creep
resistance
− Yttrium: improves high temperature strength and creep resistance, used in
rear earth alloys
− Silver: used in rear earth or thorium alloys to better the age hardening proper‐
ties
Magnesium ‐ 9
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
Table 2. Standard alloys EN 1753 and ASTM B94. Main properties and some producers. In all alloys: Remaining is magnesium.
Dead Sea Magnesium
Magnesium Elektron
Max temperature for
AVISMA Titanium‐
Tensile strength Rm
Hydro Magnesium
magnesium Works
Melting range °C
acceptable creep
Elongation %
N/mm2
Alloy Al, % Mn, % Zn, % Si, % Cu, % Ni, % Be, % Impurities, %
EN‐MgAl2Mn 1,7‐2,5 > 0,35 < 0,20 < 0,05 < 0,008 < 0,001 Fe < 0,004; other 150–220 100 °C 8‐18
metals < 0,01 each
EN‐MgAl2Si 1,9‐2,5 > 0,20 < 0,20 0,7‐1,2 < 0,008 < 0,001 Fe < 0,004; other 170–230 150 °C 4‐14
metals < 0,01 each
EN‐MgAl4Si (similar 3,7‐4,8 > 0,20 < 0,20 0,7‐1,2 < 0,008 < 0,001 Fe < 0,004; other Similar to 200–250 150 °C 3‐12 X
AS41A) metals < 0,01 each AS41A
EN‐MgAl5Mn 4,5‐5,3 > 0,27 < 0,20 < 0,05 < 0,008 < 0,001 Fe < 0,004; other Similar to 180–230 100 °C 5‐15
(similar AM50A) metals < 0,01 each AM50A
EN‐MgAl6Mn 5,6‐6,4 > 0,23 < 0,20 < 0,05 < 0,008 0,001 Fe < 0,004; other Similar to 190–250 100 °C 4‐14
(similar AM60B) metals < 0,01 each AM60B
EN‐MgAl7Mn 200–260 100 °C 3‐10
EN‐MgAl8Zn1 7,2‐8,5 > 0,17 0,45‐0,9 < 0,05 < 0,025 < 0,001 Fe < 0,004; other 200–250 100 °C 1‐7
metals < 0,01 each
EN‐MgAl9Zn1(A) 8,5‐9,5 > 0,17 0,45‐0,9 < 0,05 < 0,025 < 0,001 Fe < 0,004; other Similar to 200–260 100 °C 1‐6
(similar AZ91D) metals < 0,01 each AZ91D
ASTM AM50A 4,5–5,3 0,28–0,50 < 0,20 < 0,08 < 0,008 < 0,001 < 0,001 Fe < 0,004; other 551–618 200 100 °C 10 X X X X
(similar MgAl5Mn) metals < 0,01 each
ASTM AM60A 5,6–6,4 0,15–0,50 < 0,20 < 0,20 < 0,25 < 0,01 < 0,01 Totally <0,30 540–615 220 100 °C 8
ASTM AM60B 5,6–6,4 0,26–0,50 < 0,20 < 0,08 < 0,008 < 0,001 < 0,001 Fe < 0,004; other 540‐615 220 100 °C 8 X X X X
(similar MgAl6Mn) metals < 0,01 each
ASTM AS41A 3,7‐4,8 0,22‐0,48 < 0,10 0,60‐1,4 < 0,04 < 0,01 < 0,01 Totally <0,30 565‐620 210 150 °C 6
(similar MgAl4Si)
ASTM AS41B 3,7‐4,8 0,35‐0,6 < 0,10 0,60‐1,4 < 0,015 < 0,001 < 0,001 Fe < 0,0035; other 565‐620 210 150 °C 6
metals < 0,01 each
ASTM AZ91A 8,5‐9,5 0,15‐0,40 0,45‐0,9 < 0,20 < 0,08 < 0,01 < 0,01 Totally <0,30 470‐595 230 100 °C 3
ASTM AZ91B 8,5‐9,5 0,15‐0,40 0,45‐0,9 < 0,20 < 0,25 < 0,01 < 0,01 Totally <0,30 470–595 230 100 °C 3
ASTM AZ91D 8,5‐9,5 0,17‐0,40 0,45‐0,9 < 0,08 < 0,025 < 0,001 < 0,001 Fe < 0,004; other 470‐595 230 100 °C 3 X X X X
(similar MgAl9Zn1) metals < 0,01 each
Magnesium ‐ 10
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
Table 3. Some non standard, patented magnesium systems.
Year of the
Company Others, % Description
Mn, %
patent
RE, %
Zn, %
Ca, %
Be, %
Al, %
Sr, %
Si, %
A creep resistant magnesium alloy
0,01 – 0,1 –
Aisin Seiki, Japan 2004 4 ‐ 9 0,8 ‐ 2 which has high strength, hardness and
1,5 1,3
metal mold cast ability
Avisma Titanium‐
0,1‐ 0,45‐ 0,21‐ 0,05‐
Magnesium Works, 2003 8,5‐9,5
0,40 0,90 0,50 0,10
Russia
Avisma Titanium‐
0,51‐ 7,0‐
Magnesium Works, 2003 2,0‐3,0 0,2‐1,7
1,0 11,0
Russia
Y, Sr, Ca, C, Be and some other RE A magnesium alloy with a high tough‐
elements, 0 – 8 % Y, 0 – 5 % Sr, 0 – 5 ness and strength.
% Ca, 0 – 2 % C and 0 – 0,01 % Be.
Beijing General Institute
2006 2 ‐ 10 2 ‐ 10 The additive RE elements are Ce, Nd,
of non Fe, China
Pr, La, Gd and Dy or their complex,
with a total rare earth element
content of 0 – 6 %
1 ‐ 100 A heat resistant magnesium alloy with
0,2 – 1 0,1 – 1 0,1 – 3
Mitsubishi aluminum, 0,21 – ppm 0,1 – 1 % Ge; Fe, Ni, Co and Cu < 50 excellent mechanical and creep proper‐
2005 1,5 ‐ 6 0,1 ‐ 1 (op‐ (op‐ (op‐ 0,3 – 3
Japan 1 (op‐ ppm ties, improved cast ability and creep
tion) tion) tion)
tion) strength.
1 ‐ 100 A heat resistant magnesium alloy with
0,2 – 1 0,1 – 1 0,1 – 3 0,1 – 1 Ge %; At least one of these: 0,1
Mitsubishi aluminum, 0,21 – ppm excellent mechanical and creep proper‐
2005 1,5 ‐ 6 0,1 ‐ 1 (op‐ (op‐ (op‐ – 1 % Pb, 0,1 – 1 % Sn and 0,1 ‐ 1 %
Japan 1 (op‐ ties, improved cast ability and creep
tion) tion) tion) Ag. Ge; Fe, Ni, Co and Cu < 50 ppm.
tion) strength.
A heat resistant magnesium alloy with
Mitsubishi aluminum, 0,21 – 0,1 – 3 % La, 0,1 – 3 % Ce and 0,1 to 3 excellent mechanical and creep proper‐
2005 1,5 ‐ 6 0,1 ‐ 1 0,3 – 3
Japan 1 % Nd. Fe, Ni, Co and Cu < 50 ppm. ties, improved cast ability and creep
strength.
A die casting magnesium alloy having
Mitsubishi aluminum, 0,001 – 0.01 – excellent heat resistance and casting
2003 1,5 – 6 0,1 – 1 0,2 – 1 0,1 ‐ 3 0,3 – 2
Japan 1 1 property as well as superior creep
characteristics is provided.
Magnesium ‐ 11
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
Year of the
Company Others, % Description
Mn, %
patent
RE, %
Zn, %
Ca, %
Be, %
Al, %
Sr, %
Si, %
A magnesium alloy for die casting. A
At least one of these: ≥ 0,01 % Sr, ≥
magnesium material with a purity of
0,05 – 0,15 – 0,05 % Sn, ≥ 0,01 % Ag and ≥ 0,05 %
Ryobi Ltd. 2006 99.5%, but keeps corrosion resistance
0,2 0,3 Al. At least 99,5 % Mg with impuri‐
and damping properties, has fire
ties.
retardancy and can be die‐cast.
First: at least one of these elements: AZ91‐base die‐casting magnesium alloy
0,1 – 2,0 % Si, 0,1 – 1,2 % misch metal which improves high‐temperature creep
with RE and 0,2 – 0,8 % Zr. Secondly: performance without reducing room‐
Takata Corp., Japan 2006 at least one of these elements: 0,1 – temperature strength.
1,5 % antimony, 0,2 – 3,5 % Ca and
0,1 – 2,5 % Sr. Added to a AZ91 base
alloy.
First: at least one of these elements: AZ91 ‐base die casting magnesium
0,1 – 2,0 % Si, 0,1 – 1,2 % RE and 0,2 – alloy, which improves the high‐
0,8 % Zr. Secondly: at least one of temperature creep characteristics
Takata Corp., Japan 2005
these elements: 0,1 – 1,5 % antimony, without reduction in room temperature
0,2 – 3,5 % Ca and 0,1 – 1,5 % Sr. strength
Added to a AZ91 base alloy.
AZ91 ‐base die casting magnesium
alloy, which improves the high‐
0,1 – 1,0 –
Takata Corp., Japan 2005 Added to a AZ91 base alloy. temperature creep characteristics
1,5 3,5
without reduction in room temperature
strength
Valentinovich Tetyukhin A magnesium based alloy with better
Vladis, Vladimirovich high temperature creep properties
2,6 – 0,24 – 0,11 – 0,8 – 0,05 –
Agalakov Vadim, Ser‐ 2005 compared to common standard alloys.
3,6 0,34 0,25 1,1 0,10
geevna Paderina Natalya,
Russia
Magnesium ‐ 12
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
Table 4. Comparisons of mechanical properties between alloy groups and casting methods.
HPDC = High pressure die casting.
Alloy Casting method Tensile Elongation Melting Max tempera‐
strength % range °C ture for
Rm acceptable
N/mm2 creep °C
AZ91D HPDC 230 3 470‐595 100
AS41B HPDC 210 6 565‐620 150
A360.0 HPDC 300 2,5 557‐596 100‐150
AZ91C Sand and gravity 160
die casting, as cast
A356 Sand and gravity 130 2 557‐613 150‐200 (tem‐
die casting, as cast pered)
Some special issues on standardised alloys:
creep and corrosion
Standardised magnesium pressure die casting alloys (all except Mg‐Al‐Si ‐alloys) do Creep properties
not have very good creep properties in temperatures exceeding 100 °C. All pressure
die casting alloys have aluminum as one of the alloying elements. Magnesium‐
aluminum –system tend to form intermetallic phase Mg17Al12 (See phase diagram in
Image 2), which ends in coarse particles to grain boundaries or as precipitated plates,
plaques or lamellar colonies to form continuous structures. The precipitated phases
increases alloy strength and hardness in room temperature, but together with particles
ended to the grain boundaries decrease the creep resistance with different mecha‐
nisms.
Magnesium alloys have only two separate split planes in room temperature, but when
temperature increases, more slip planes become active. Between 200–250 °C
depending on the alloy, additional pyramidal and prismatic slip planes become
operative and lower the creep resistance.
Silicon addition betters the creep resistance at some degree. Silicon forms another
phase Mg2Si, which has a higher melting temperature than Mg17Al12. Mg2Si compound
increases the number of dislocations in the material matrix. The magnesium‐
aluminum‐silicon alloys are little more resistant to the creep mechanisms than the
plain magnesium‐aluminum alloy. The creep properties are better in the range of 130–
150 °C. The common standard alloys containing silicon are MgAl2Si, MgAl4Si, AS41A
and AS41B.
Magnesium‐aluminum‐rear earths, magnesium‐aluminum‐calcium and magnesium‐
aluminum‐strontium –systems have shown more promising results in creep resistance
properties, even at higher, over 150 °C temperatures. These alloys are not commonly
available from vendors.
Magnesium ‐ 13
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
Another key issue is the corrosion properties of magnesium alloys. Magnesium stan‐ Corrosion proper‐
dard reduction potential is ‐2,37 V. Its position in the electrochemical series is low and ties
both pure magnesium and magnesium alloys are very reactive (Table 5). There are
some special design issues to notify and it is also important to consider the purest
alloys if the casting is designed for corrosive environment. Different alloys have
different standards for impurities. The cleaner alloys are
more expensive, but a safer choice.
Table 5. Standard reduction
Some elements and intermetallic compounds tend to Intermetallic
potentials
decrease and some tend to increase the magnesium alloy compounds and
Electrode Potential, V corrosion rate. Elements and intermetallics form micro impurities
Li, Li+ ‐3,02
size galvanic cells inside magnesium matrix. Some of
K, K+ ‐2,92
Na, Na+ ‐2,71
these cells are very active and produce pit corrosion.
Mg, Mg 2+ ‐2,37 Some act as corrosion inhibitors. Iron, copper, cobalt and
Al. Al 3‐ ‐1,71 nickel impurities worsen magnesium alloys corrosion
Zn, Zn2+ ‐0,76 resistance very quickly. Some alloying elements, that are
Fe, Fe2+ ‐0,44 used to better the alloy mechanical properties, slightly
Cd, Cd2+ ‐0,40 decrease corrosion resistance as a side effect. These
Ni, Ni2+ ‐0,24
elements are silver, calcium and zinc if alloyed more
Sn, Sn2+ ‐0,14
Cu, Cu2+ 0,34
than 2%.
Ag, Ag+ 0,80
Tolerance limits for some common alloying elements are:
− Iron: 0.017 wt‐%
− Copper: 0.1 wt‐%
− Nickel: 0.004 wt‐%
− Calcium: 0,2 wt‐%
− Silver: 0,5 wt‐%
− Zinc: 2,4 wt‐%
− Na, Si, Pb, Sn, Mn, Al: negligible effects up to 5 wt%
Manganese forms AlMnFe intermetallics in magnesium‐aluminum alloys. The com‐
pound cleans magnesium alloy by gathering to the melt surface as sludge. The
remaining compound is not particularly active inside the alloy.
Flux remains and blasting particles influence the magnesium alloy corrosion resis‐ Blasting particles
tance. Micro galvanic cell phenomenon can occur also if the casting surface is blasted and flux inclusions
with sand blasting or steel‐shot blasting or similar methods and there are blasting
particle remains in the casting surface. Steel shot blasting particles contain iron and
sand blasting particles silica. Pressure die casting foundries use protective gas atmos‐
phere and rarely flux in the melting and holding furnaces. Magnesium refining plants
use fluxes and it is possible that the alloy ingots have remains of magnesium and
potassium chloride. Also some scrap recycling methods include fluxing operations.
Heat treating effects corrosion properties on the heat treatable alloys and casting Grain refinement
methods with which the heat treating is possible. Pressure die castings are not heat and heat treatment
treatable. Response to heat treating is not straightforward. In the table below there is a
comparison of the alloy AZ91C and two different forms of AZ91E alloys. Heat treat‐
ment betters slightly the corrosion properties of the alloys with high impurity content.
Grain size refinement has the same effect. If the impurity level is very low, the alloys
have positive response to tempering procedures T6 and T5, but negative response to
grain size refining and tempering T4.
Magnesium ‐ 14
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
F is a designation for as cast condition, T4 for solution heat‐treating (16 h at 410 °C
and quenched), T5 for ageing (4h at 215 °C) and T6 for solution heat‐treating and
ageing (16 h at 410 °C, quenched and aged 4 h at 215 °C).
Table 6. Typical corrosion rates versus temper and grain size for two magnesium alloys. (D. L.
Hawke, J. E. Hillis, M. Pekguleryuz and I. Nagatsugawa – Corrosion Behavior in ASM
Specialty Handbook: Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys.)
Alloy Grain Mn, Fe* F T4 T6 T5
size, % (mm/yr) (mm/yr) (mm/yr) (mm/yr)
μm
AZ91C (untreated) 187 0,18 0,087 18 15 15 …
AZ91C (degassed 66 0,16 0,099 17 18 15 …
and grain refined)
AZ91E(1) (untreated) 146 0,23 0,008 0,64 4 0,15 0,12
AZ91E(1) (degassed 78 0,26 0,008 2,2 1,7 0,12 0,12
and grain refined)
AZ91E(2) (untreated) 160 0,33 0,004 0,35 3 0,22 0,12
AZ91E(2) (degassed 73 0,35 0,004 0,72 0,82 0,1 0,1
and grain refined)
Macroscopic galvanic corrosion is rather easily avoided by certain design methods. Macroscopic
Typically it occurs in assemblies: stainless steel fastening element is attached to two or galvanic corrosion
more magnesium alloy parts in corrosive atmosphere. Corrosive atmosphere occurs if
there is humidity in the air or the part comes into contact with water or other liquids,
especially with salt water. The galvanic pair does not necessarily cause corrosion in
dry atmosphere, for example in indoor equipment. Good design and proper material
selection is very important in corrosive environments.
Some basic rules: Basic design rules
− Use coated fasteners, for example zinc plate + chromate + silicate or 80 tin‐20
zinc plate + chromate
− Use insulating tapes, plastic caps, plastic washers, etc. between magnesium
and dissimilar metal part and/or to avoid contact with liquids and humidity
− Do not design holes or sinks which would entrap liquid to the places where
there is dissimilar metal in contact with magnesium. Use holes as draining for
liquid.
− Minimize contact with dissimilar metals.
− If the casting is for corrosive atmosphere, take one of the high purity alloys,
not a standard alloy
Magnesium ‐ 15
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
Melting
Liquid magnesium forms very easily compounds with silicon in ceramic crucible Crucibles
linings and builds siliceous deposition. For this reason magnesium melting or holding
furnaces should be equipped with an iron or steel crucible instead of a ceramic cruci‐
ble. Magnesium solutes iron also, but not with such harmful effects.
Magnesium is superheated to a casting temperature of about 680 °C. The temperature
is a little lower than the aluminium casting temperature and low enough for iron or
steel crucibles.
Liquid magnesium oxidises very easily if it is let in contact with oxygen in normal Liquid metal
atmosphere. Magnesium foundries and magnesium refining and alloying plants use protection
shield gases and fluxes to protect the metal. Aluminium containing magnesium alloys
form a porous MgO‐Al2O3 layer, which does not act as a proper shield for further
oxidation.
There are both cover and cleaning fluxes. Fluxes contain typically MgCl2, CaCl2, NaCl
and KCl as protective agents and some other compounds like MgF2, CaF2 and MgO
as thickening agents. Thickening agents make compounds agglomerate together to
form large clumps. Without thickening agents the flux compounds would spread all
over the molten metal and easily end to the cast ingots or castings. Cover fluxes are
prepared to form light compounds with the liquid magnesium alloy. Cleaning fluxes
form compounds that are heavier and tend to settle to the crucible bottom.
Magnesium refining plants use both fluxes and cover gases. Magnesium alloy pres‐
sure die casting foundries typically use only cover gases, because the fluxes are more
difficult to work with and the flux compounds end very easily to the finished castings.
In the cold chamber process the cover gases are used with special closed dosing fur‐
naces. In hot chamber process the furnace can be closed and shielded with cover gas
without any special modifications. Shield gases are different combinations of air, SO2
and SF6 or a mixture of SO2, CO2 and N2 (See table).
Table 7. Table: Magnesium melt shielding gases (Friedrich, Horst E.; Mordike, Barry L.:
Magnesium Technology ‐ Metallurgy, Design Data, Applications).
Melt tempera‐ Recommended Melt Salt impuri‐ Melt
ture °C protective gas, circulation ties protection
vol‐%
650 ‐ 705 air + 0,04 % SF6 No No Excellent
650 ‐ 705 air + 0,2 % SF6 Yes No Excellent
650 ‐ 705 75 % air Yes Yes Excellent
+ 25 % CO2
+ 0,2 % SF6
705 ‐ 760 50 % air Yes No Excellent
+ 50 % CO2
+ 0,3 % SF6
Magnesium ‐ 16
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
Cold chamber die casting cells need to have special closed dosing furnaces, which will Furnace types
transfer the liquid metal in a protective gas atmosphere to the cold chamber die cast‐
ing machine. In the image below there is one type of these furnaces. The furnace can
be equipped with one or two crucibles depending on the foundry melting unit. If
there is a separate melt shop, the furnace can be used as a single‐crucible holding
furnace combined with a magnesium transportation unit. If there is also a need to
produce melt, the furnace is equipped with two crucibles, one for melting and the
other for holding. Separate melting unit keeps the dosed metal in a constant tempera‐
ture. The nose in front of the first oven is the dosing unit from the oven to the casting
machine chamber.
Furnace in a hot chamber die casting cell can be much simpler. Hot chamber die
casting machine chamber is located in a holding furnace. It is much easier to close the
furnace and the chamber and protect the melt with a cover gas. In the following image
there is a one type of magnesium furnaces for hot chamber pressure die casting. The
furnace can be equipped with one or two crucibles like the cold chamber die casting
machine furnace.
Magnesium ‐ 17
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
Casting
The automotive industry accounts for 90% of the casting demand and the majority of
castings are produced with the high pressure die casting technology. Magnesium
alloys can be cast both with cold chamber and hot chamber pressure die casting ma‐
chines as was seen in the last chapter. The mould materials are the same as for
aluminum or zinc. Also the spraying agents are similar to other pressure die casting
alloys. The differences lie in the fact that magnesium alloy thermal properties are
unique. Some other differences are that magnesium does not solute iron like alumi‐
num, most alloys have a high fluidity and good cast ability and that magnesium has
superior qualities for machining. For these reasons the deep and thin parts are easier
to produce than with other pressure die casting alloys. Magnesium dies also last
longer than aluminum dies.
Magnesium does not store heat in the same degree as aluminum. Magnesium casting
cycle length is half the cycle length of aluminum. This is good for productivity, but on Thermal proper‐
the other hand maintaining the thermal balance in the die gets more difficult. Magne‐ ties and casting
sium alloys tend to bring less heat to the die than die spraying, radiation during die
opening time and conduction through the die casting machine base takes out from the
die. Usually it is necessary to heat the die with the die tempering equipment instead of
cooling. The recommended cavity surface temperature just before the shot is 220 ‐ 300
°C, but the common tempering equipment temperature does not rise above 250 °C.
The slow plunger movement in the first shot phase can be slightly accelerated in order
to minimize the heat loss through the casting chamber wall.
Typical cavity fill times for magnesium alloys are 10 – 100 ms (0). The fill time de‐
pends on the casting wall thickness, but also alloy grade, flow distance and the Casting values
difference between alloy and die temperatures. The melt in‐gate velocity is 30 ‐ 50 m/s,
even 100 m/s for very thin walled castings. Increasing the in‐gate velocity above 70
m/s increases the die wear rapidly. The intensification pressure is set between 40 – 100
MPa. If the wall thickness exceeds 5 mm, it is recommended to use increased intensifi‐
cation pressure to increase casting mechanical properties. Spraying agent is used in
very small dosages to avoid heat loss. Magnesium alloys are not very sticky.
Bühler recommendations for in‐gate velocities for various alloy types are:
− Zinc: 30 – 50 (40) m/s
− Aluminum: 20 – 60 m/s
− Aluminum in vacuum: 15 – 30 m/s
− Magnesium: 40 – 90 (40 ‐ 60) m/s
− Brass: 20 – 50 m/s
Table 8. Die fill time as a function of wall thickness for magnesium alloys. H. E. Friedrich, B.
L. Mordike: Magnesium Technology ‐ Metallurgy, Design Data, Applications, Springer 2006
Average wall thickness, mm Die fill time, ms
1 10 – 25
2 33 ‐ 47
3 40 – 60
4 46 ‐ 68
6 55 ‐ 86
8 64 ‐ 100
Magnesium ‐ 18
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
Die temperature influences mechanical properties. The colder the die is the worse the
mechanical properties are. The influence is strong: tensile strength increases approxi‐
mately 10 MPa per 10 °C increase in die temperature up to 250 °C. Increasing flow
distance inside the die cavity has similar effect: increasing flow distance reduces the
breaking elongation. It is recommended to keep the flow distance as short as possible
and notify the minimum wall thickness as a function of flow distance (Table 9).
Table 9. Minimum recommended wall thickness for alloy AM50/60 as a function of flow
distance. H. E. Friedrich, B. L. Mordike: Magnesium Technology ‐ Metallurgy, Design Data,
Applications, Springer 2006
Flow distance, mm Wall thickness, mm
0 0,7
100 1,1
200 1,5
300 1,75
400 2
500 2,3
600 2,5
800 2,75
1000 3
Magnesium Recycling
The vast majority of magnesium casting production is high pressure die casting for
automotive industry and there is no market for magnesium scrap outside this indus‐
try like there is a market for aluminum scrap. The raw material cleanliness and
alloying element concentration has a strong effect on mechanical and corrosion prop‐
erties. Recycling must be done carefully to avoid the side effects of worsening the
creep and especially the corrosion properties.
Recycling is reasonable if considered from the environmental point of view. The
energy requirement for melting and recycling magnesium is only about 5% of the
energy to produce the same quantity of primary material. But it is not possible to use
solely recycled material. Using a mixture of recycled and primary materials can still
lead to 30 – 70 % saving in energy consumption.
There are different sources for recycling material. Depending on the source the recy‐
cled material is divided to certain classes. There are different classification systems.
One common classification system is presented by Hydro‐Magnesium:
Class I: Sorted clean returns. 42 % of ingot demand. Consists of trimmed casting Magnesium recy‐
parts like runners and overflows and defective castings. cling classes
Class II: Sorted clean returns with inserts. Together with classes III and VIII rep‐
resent about 3% of the ingot demand. Inserts are small steel, brass,
bronze or other dissimilar metallic parts, which are cast to be an insepa‐
rable part of the finished casting. If the insert material is insoluble to the
magnesium alloy, there are no problems. But for example copper in
brass and bronze can lead to excessive amount of copper impurities.
Magnesium ‐ 19
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
Class III: Sorted oily/painted returns. Together with classes II and VIII represent
about 3% of the ingot demand. Some paints contain iron, copper or
nickel compounds as pigments. These compounds can worsen the cast‐
ing corrosion properties. Blue pigments contain copper and cobalt
compounds, green pigments copper, cobalt and nickel compounds, yel‐
low pigments nickel and red and black contain iron oxide compounds.
Starting from the next class, recycled magnesium needs special attention in transport‐
ing. There are some common regulations and legislations.
Class IV: Sorted dry chips. Class IV and V returns are a result from machining
operations. Together they represent about 4% of the ingot demand. The
classes starting from the class IV need special attention in packing and
transporting to the recycling plants. It is possible to use the dry chips in
in‐house recycling operations, but the large surface causes some oxida‐
tion problems. The large surface is a result of the small size of the chips.
It is not always possible to avoid burning if only protective gas is used.
Also there will be excessive dross.
Class V: Sorted oily/wet chips. See above.
Class VI: Dross ‐ salt‐free. Represents about 2% of the ingot demand. There is still
80 ‐ 90% magnesium in the dross. Dross can be classified also as a melt
loss.
Class VII: Sludge ‐ with salt. Not applicable in pressure die casting foundries. The
vast majority of foundries use flux less melting methods.
Class VIII: Mixed and off‐grade returns. This class represents the recycled parts
from scrapped automobiles. Usually these parts end to the separate
plastic and other scrap or to the aluminum recycling plants. It is not
very easy to separate magnesium from aluminum, because magnesium
tends to burn during magnesium melting phases.
Finished castings represent 50 % of the ingot demand (Image 7). It can be seen that
today the recycled car parts do not yet present a very large portion of the recycled
magnesium. It is possible that this portion increases when the newest and most mag‐
nesium containing cars grow older and end to scrap.
Magnesium ‐ 20
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
Total ingot consumption
Returns with some
Returns with some
harmless impurities:
harmful impurities: Dry
or oily/wet chips from
Recycled car parts, machining operations
painted defective parts 3%
Melt loss in the form of
dross or sludge
from foundries, clean
2%
returns with inserts
3%
Castings
50%
Clean returns:
Trimmings and defective
castings
42%
Image 7. Total magnesium ingot consumption and the sources of recycled magnesium in
magnesium foundries.
Some die casting foundries have practiced in‐house recycling for years, but it is not
yet very common practice. There are a few reasons for this: Recycled parts are small
compared to ingots. They are more difficult to handle. The melting and holding furna‐
ce needs to be loaded more frequently and this leads to shield gas losses and burning
accidents will be more common. Also the dross builds up more rapidly. It is common
to have both melting and holding furnaces at the casting cell. In‐house recycling needs
some separate equipment. In‐cell recycling is even less common than in‐house recy‐
cling.
Magnesium ‐ 21
CAE DS ‐ Pressure Die Casting Alloys
References
Magnesium Alloys
− AVISMA Titanium‐magnesium Works, http://www.avisma.ru
− Dead Sea Magnesium, http://www.dsmag.co.il
− Hydro Magnesium, http://www.hydro.com
− Magnesium Elektron, http://www.magnesium‐elektron.com
Furnaces
− MagCasTech, http://www.magcastec.com
− Rauch Fertigungstechnik, http://www.rauch‐ft.com
− Thermaltek, http://www.thermaltek.com
− Thermtronix, http://www.thermtronix.com
− StrikoDynarad, http://www.strikodynarad.com
Magnesium Web Pages
− International Magnesium Association, http://www.intlmag.org
− Magnesium.com, http://www.magnesium.com
Books
− H. E. Friedrich, B. L. Mordike: Magnesium Technology ‐ Metallurgy, Design
Data, Applications, Springer 2006
− A. A. Kaya, M. Pekgüleryüz, D. Eliezer: High temperature deformation, alloys
and processing of magnesium in ‘The deformation and processing of struc‐
tural materials’, Woodhead Publishing Limited 2005
− ASM Specialty Handbook: Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys. Editors M. M.
Avedesian and H. Baker Chapters:
o Properties of Unalloyed Magnesium
o I. J. Polmear ‐ Grades and Alloys
o D. L. Hawke, J. E. Hillis, M. Pekguleryuz and I. Nagatsugawa – Cor‐
rosion Behavior
Standards
− EN 1753 Magnesium and magnesium alloys. Magnesium alloy ingots and
castings.
− ASTM B94‐05 Standard Specification for Magnesium‐Alloy Die Castings.
− ISO 16220:2005 Magnesium and magnesium alloys ‐‐ Magnesium alloy ingots
and castings.
Magnesium ‐ 22