1

C HAPTER FIVE
CONSOLIDATION

5.1. INTRODUCTION:-

Whenever a soil is subjected to a compressive force its volume decreases. The property of the soil due to which
a decrease in volume occurs under compressive forces is called the compressibility. This compression of soil
mass occurs due to one or more of the following reasons.
a. Compression of solid particles & water in the soil
b. Compression and expulsion of air in the voids.
c. Expulsion of water from the voids.
The compression of solid particles and water is negligibly small. Also for a saturated soil mass air will not be
there and the 2nd cause also does not apply. Therefore compression in a saturated soil mainly occurs due to
expulsion of water. The compression of a saturated soil under a steady (not changing with time) and static load
is known as Consolidation.
As the consolidation of soil occurs water goes out from soil. The solid particles shift their position by
rolling and sliding, there by attaining a closer packing and results in reduction of volume.
The vertical downward movement of a structure due to a decrease in volume of the soil is known as
Settlement of structure. Settlement is a result of compression (consolidation) of soil.

GL

Settlement of foundation

It is necessary to study the consolidation characteristics of soils to forecast the magnitude and rate of
settlement.
5.2 TYPES OF CONSOLIDATION:-
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Consolidation is of the following types.

1. Initial consolidation
The reduction of volume of a soil just often the application of the load is called initial consolidation.
For a saturated soil mass, the initial consolidation is mainly due to compression of solid particles. It is
negligibly small.
2. Primary Consolidation
After the initial consolidation is complete, further reduction in volume occurs due to expulsion of water
from voids. When a saturated soil mass is subjected to pressure all the applied pressure is taken up initially
by water as a pore water pressure. Through time water flows from the soil and a decrease in volume occurs.
It is a time dependent consolidation as it depends on the permeability of the soil. This reduction in volume
as a result of expulsion of water from the soil is known as primary consolidation. This consolidation in fine-
grained soils is slow and very quick in coarser-grained soils.
3. Secondary consolidation
Even after the primary consolidation, the reduction in volume continues at a very small rate. This consolidation
is called secondary consolidation. It is due to plastic readjustment of particles and adsorbed water. It is very
small generally. Of the three, the primary consolidation is very important.
Consolidation Test Apparatus
Consolidation test can be performed in laboratory to study the compressibility of a soil. The apparatus
is known as Consolidometer or Odometer. It consists of a loading device and a cylindrical container called
consolidation cell in which the specimen is placed. Dial gauge
Hanger

Fig.Consolidometer apparatus

Consolidation cell

The load is applied from the hanger by suspending weight. It is applied in increments. The increments may
be 25, 50,100,200, 400, 800, 1600 and 3200 Kpa. First 25 Kpa. pressure is applied and dial gauge readings are
taken usually after 0.25, 1.0, 2.25, 4.0, 6.25, 9,0, 12.25, 16.0, 20.25, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144, 169,
196, 196, 225, 289, 324, 500, 600 and 1440 min (24 hrs). Similarly the 2nd increment i.e. 50 kpa is applied and
dial gauge readings for each time is read. The process is repeated for all the load increments. Finally the sample
is unloaded by reducing the load successively by ¼ till zero. Then the water content of the soil is determined.

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The test results

1. Dial gauge reading – Time plot
For each load increment a plot b/n dial gauge reading and time can be made. This is required for
determining the coeff of consolidation which is useful for obtaining the time rate of consolidation in the field.

Dial gauge
Reading

24 hrs
Time
2. Final void ration – Effective stress plot
The final thickness of the specimen is the thickness after 24 hours of application of the load. The final
void ratios for each load increments (ef)1, (ef)2, (ef)3 etc can be plotted against the effective stresses 25 kpa, 50
kpa, 100 kpa etc .
The final void ratio for each effective
stress can be determined from the change
ef (ef)1
in thickness by the height of solids method.

(ef)2

(ef)3
1 2 3
H
The equivalent height of solids of solids (Hs) is determined
from the dry mass of solids (Ms) and area A of the soil x – section. H

Vs  Ms  1
Hs   * Hs Solids H
A  G.gw  A

e=
Vv

Vt Vs
 e
 A * H    A * Hs 
Vs Vs A * Hs
H  Hs
Since A is constant e =
Hs
Here H = H0 -  H Where H0 = initial height of sample  H = change in thickness.

 e  f (H )

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3. Final void Ratio – log  plot

In this plot, the final void ratio for each load is plotted as ordinate on arithmetic scale versus the
effective stress as abscissa on log-scale. This is straight line plot.

ef

Log 
Coefficient of compressibility (av)
This is defined as the decrease in void ratio per unit increase in effective stress. It is the slope of e -
 de e
 plot at a point. i.e av  
d 
The slope is negative. The negative sign then makes it positive and av is reported as positive.
Coefficient of Volume Change (mv)
This is the volumetric strain per unit increase in effective stress.
v / vo
i.e mv = - Wherev  change in volume

Vo = original volume.
It can be expressed in terms of
a. change in void ratio
v e e / 1  e0 e 1 av
-   mv    *  mv 
v0 1  eo   1  e0 1  e0
b. Change in thickness Since A is constant during the test,
H  H
  /  o
 mv  where H0 = original thickness

H = change in thickness
Compression index (Cc)
This is the slope of the e – log  plot
 e  e e
i.e Cc = = =
log10    log10 ( 0 ) log10     0   
  log10  
 o   0 
Where  0 = initial effective stress.

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 = change in effective stress.

 
Taking one log cycle i.e  10  log1o  1.0
o o
We have Cc = - e
- Cc is an extremely useful index as it does not depend on the effective stress and is constant. It is used to
find the final (magnitude) of settlement in the field.
 For undisturbed clays , Cc = 0.009 ( LL – 10 )
 For disturbed clays , Cc = 0.007 ( LL – 10 )
Where LL = Liquid limit in %age
Normally consolidated clays (NCC)
A clay soil sample which had not been subjected to a pressure greater than the present pressure is called
normally consolidated clay.
Over – consolidated clays (OCC)
A soil that had been subjected previously to a pressure in excess of the present pressure is called over-
consolidated clay.

Determination of final settlement in the field (sf)

Final settlement of a soil deposit is the total change in thickness of the clay layer after a load  has
been applied for sufficiently long time.

1. For normally – consolidated soils (clays)

A. Using coefficient of volume change (mv)
v / vo H / H 0
Mv = -     mv  o     1
 
Where Ho = initial thickness of layer.
 = applied pressure
 Sf = mv.H0 . 
Here the values of  is the change in stress at the mid – layer of the soil

B. By using void ratio (e)

 e
 where eo  inital void ratio
 1 eo
 e   e 
   Ho    Sf  H 0    2
 1  eo   1  eo 

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C. By using compression index (Cc)

 e
Cc =
 o   
log10  
 o 
Substituting e for e in eqn 2 we have

Ho  o    Ho  o   
Sf = Cc log 10    Cc log  
1  eo  o  1  eo  o 

2. For over – consolidated clays.

When the present stress  0    is less than the pre – consolidation pressure c  the recompression
index is used (cr)

0 o   c

Cr  o   
For this case Sf = Ho. log10  
1  eo,  0 

Example 1: What is the final settlement of clay layer shown below. The pressure increase at the middle of
the layer is 25kN/m2 Cc = 0.20 and eo = 1.0
Solution
Sand layer
r = 19kN/m3
o at middle layer of clay
3m
3 =1h1 + 2 h2
r = 17kN/m
m = 19*3+17*1=74kN/m2
2m 1. clay layer
2m
2 AASTU  WT 6
m
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Ho  o    2.0  74  25 
 sf  Cc. * log10    0.20 * log10  
1  eo  o  11  75 
 Sf  0.0253m 25.30mm

Example 2 : In the above example what will be the final settlement if water table rises by 4m. r sat = 20
kN/m3 for clay. Solution: - In this case the o becomes.

o  t  u t  r1 h1  rsat h2  19 * 3  20 *1.0  77 KN / m 2
u  rw . hw  9.81 *1  9.81KN / m 2
2.0  67.19  25 
 Sf  0.20 * * log10    0.0275m  27.50mm
11  67.19 

Example 3 : An isolated footing /foundation/ is 2m * 2m. The increase in pressure at the base is 150KN/m2.
Assuming a pressure distn of 2V : 1H find the final settlement of the clay layer Cc = 0.25 and eo = 0.80.
GL
1m
q =150KN/m2 rs = 17KN/m3

1
Z=4m B=2m 2m
2

r sat = 20K/m3 0.50m
1.50m q2 Clay ,r sat = 18kN/m3
3m
B+Z=2+4 -6m

Solution: - The pressure increase at the mid layer of clay will be

q1( B * L)
q2 = 
( B  Z ) *( L  Z )
150 (2 * 2)
   16.67 KN / m 2
(2  4) * (2  4)
o atmiddle of clay is
 rs h1  rsub1 h2  rsub2 * h3
 17 * 3  (20 9.81) * 0.50  (18  9.81) * 1.50  68.38 KN / m 2  o
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Cc  o   
Sf Ho log10  
1  eo  o 
0.25  68.38 16.67 
Sf  * 3.0 * log10  
1  0.80  68.38 
 Sf  0.0395m  39.50mm

5.3. TERZAGHI’S THEORY OF CONSOLIDATION.

This theory is used for determination of the time rate of consolidation of a saturated soil subjected to static &
steady load.
Assumptions
a. the soil is homogeneous isotropic & fully saturated
b. Consolidation takes place as a result of only expulsion of water
c. Darcy’s law is valid , i.e V = Ki.
d. Soil is laterally confined. Drainage of water takes place in vertical direction only.
e. K and coeff of volume change (mv) are constant.

Let a pressure increase of  be applied to a clay layer fanatically the whole pressure will be taken by
water as an excess hydrostatic pressure (u)

 ui  where ui  heigtofwatercolumm
rw
As consolidation progresses, the hydrostatic pressure dissipate, because water starts escaping to the sand
layer found above and under the clay layer. Finally the whole hydrostatic pressure dissipates and the load is
taken up by the solid particles.
Based on continuity eqn Darcy’s law and coeff of volume change, ,Terzaghi derived the following eqn.
u Cv. 2u
  Basicdifferential eqn for one dim ensional consolidation.
t Z 2
This equation shows that u depends on depth (Z) and time (t) .
Cv in the above equation is called coeff of consolidation.
K
Cv =  can be found from consolidation test results.
rw . mv
The solution of this equation is complex.
The excess hydrostatic pressure (u) at any depth at time t is found to be a function of time factor ,Tv,
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Cv.t
Tv  Where Cv = coeff. Of consolidation
d2
d = length of drainage path.

Sand Sand

H/2
d=H/2 H Clay layer H=d Clay layer

Sand Imperious layer

Open layer half closed layer

d = H/2 for open layer

d = H for half closed layer.
Degree of consolidation at any depth is the ratio of dissipated pore water pressure to the initial pore water
pressure.
Ui  U U
 UZ  * 100 1 
Ui Ui

Ui
Thus at time t = 0 UZ = 1 -  1  1 o
Ui
O
At time t = tf , UZ = 1 -  100 %
Ui
The average degree of consolidation over the whale clay layer is .
Ui  Ut ut
U * 100  1 
Ut ui
Where ui = the initial pressure over the entire depth.
1 2d
Ui =
2d UdZ
Ut = Average pore water pressure over entire depth at time t.
1 2d
1 2d
ut  u  1  2d UdZ
2d UdZ 1 2d
2d UdZ
When the initial excess pressure (ui) is constant

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1 2d
U=1- , which can be expressed as
2d UdZ
oo

U=1-
 2  m 2Tv
e  f (Tv)
N  0 m2
x
Where m = (2 N 1) , N  is an iteger , 0,1,2,3, etc   
2
The average degree of consolidation, u is a function of time facter. TV.
Settlement at time t St
U=  *100
Final settlement Sf
 St  u * Sf
Approximate Relation b/n U and TV

1. For U < 0.60 (6o%) , TV = u2
4
2. For U > 0.60 (60%) , TV =  0.933. log10 1  U   0.085

Example
A 4m thick clay layer below the foundation of a tower is overlain by a sandy pervious stratum and is
underlain by an impervious stratum. Cv for the clay layer = 0.025 cm2/min . The expected final settlement, Sf
= 100mm.
a. How much time will it take for 75% of Sf to take place?
b. What is the settlement that would occur in one year?
C. How much time is required for a settlement of 80mm?
Solution:

Sand
Half closed layer
Clay layer 4m=H=d
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 H=d=4m

a. u = 75%  0.75>0.60 = 60%

 Tv =  0.933 log10 1  0.75 0.085  0.477

Cvt 0.025* t 0.477 * (400) 2

= Tv =  0 . 477  t   5.81 years
d2 4002 0.025 * 60 * 24 * 365
Cvt 0.025 * 365 * 24 * 60
b. Tv = 0.082
d2 (400) 2
4 * 0.082
 U2 = 0.1044

 U=0.323 < 0.60cm ok.
 S(1yr) = U*Sf = 0.323 * 100mm = 32.3mm = 3.23 cm
80mm
c. U=  0.80%  0.60%
100mm
 Tv =  0.933 log10 1  0.80   0.085  0.567
2
Tv =
Cvt
t 
400 0.567  6.90 years
2
d 0.025 * 365 * 24 * 60

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