EARTH SCI REVIEWER Galaxy – is a cluster of billions of Density: (4.

50x10^31 g/cm^3)
stars and cluster of galaxies from a
BRANCHES OF EARTH super cluster (Andromeda is the Three Most Abundant Elements of
SCIENCE galaxy that moves towards us) the Universe

Oceanography: Study of Black Hole – a region of space  Hydrogen

ocean
 Meteorology: Study of
atmosphere
 Geology: Study of Earth
 Astronomy: Study of non-
Earthly Bodies
THE UNIVERSE AND THE
SOLAR SYSTEM
Baryonic Mater – ordinary matter
consisting of protons electrons and
neutrons.
Dark Matter – matter that has
gravity but does not emit light.
Dark Energy - a force that
counteracts gravity and causes the
universe to expand
Protostar – the early stage of a star
Thermonuclear Reaction -
responsible for the energy produced
by a star
Main Sequence Stars – stars that
fuse hydrogen atoms to form helium
atoms in their cores
Light Years – the distance light can
travel in a year
holding a gravitational field so
intense that no matter or radiation can
escape.
The universe is at least 13.8 billion
years old
The solar system is at least 4.5-4.6
billion years old
STRUCTURE, COMPOSITION,
AGE
The universe comprises of space and
time, and all matter and energy in it.
It is made up of:
 4.6% Baryonic
MatterComposed of
subatomic particles
 24% Cold Dark
Mattercan explain what
may be holding the galaxies
together.
 71.4% Dark Energy can
explain the observed
accelerating expansion
Diameter: 91B Light Years (1 Light
Year = 9.4607x10^12)
 Helium
 Lithium
Stars – the building blocks of
galaxies burn out of gas and dust in
galaxies.
Life Cycle of a Star
Began with the Stellar Nebula
1. Normal Star
2. Red Giant – Star runs out of
Hydrogen
3. Planetary Nebula- A ring
shaped nebula formed by an
expanding shell of gas around
an aging star ( hindi talaga
part ng lifecycle eh)
4. White Dwarf- 1% of Sun’s
diameter; same mass with the
Sun
5. Black Dwarf- No heat or
light emitted; the universe is
too young to have black
dwarf.
1. Massive Star
2. Red Supergiant – Star runs
out of Hydrogen
3. Supernova
 Type I – White
Dwarf
  Type II – Neutron
Star and Black Hole
4. Black Hole – A region of
space having a gravitational
field so intense that even
light could not escape
5. Neutron Star – Composed
mainly of neutrons that are
rapidly spinning
Protostar – the core of a future star
as thermonuclear reaction sets in
 Stellar interiors are like
furnaces where elements are
combined together
 Most stars such as the sun
belong to the kinds called
“Main Sequence Stars”
 In the core of such stars
hydrogen atoms are fused.
Ways to Determine the Age of the
Universe
 By estimating the age of the
oldest stars.
 By measuring the rate of
expansion of the universe.
Expanding Universe
Doppler Effect – the increase and
decrease of the frequency of the wave
due to movement of the source.
In 1929, Edwin Hubble
announced his significant discovery
of the redshift
 If the source of light is
moving away from the
observer then the
electromagnetic spectrum
will be redshifted
 If the source is moving
towards the observer then it
is blueshifted
Cosmic Microwave Background
 There is a persuasive CMB
radiation in the universe from
380,000 years after the Big
Bang (Recombination Era
the time when the universe
cooled down, and released
photons called CMB)
 Its accidental discovery 1969
by Arno Penzias and
Robert Wondrow Wilson
earned the Physics Nobel
Prize in 1978
 Is a faint glow of light that
fills the universe, falling on
Earth from every direction
with nearly uniform intensity.
Origin of the Universe
Steady Stated Model
 Proposed by Sir Hermann
Bondi, Thomas Gold, and
Sir Fred Hoyle in 1948.
 A view that the universe is
always expanding but
maintaining a constant
average density.
 Observations of the CMB
produced evidence
contradicting to this theory
and have led scientists to
support the Big Bang Model.
The BIG BANG Theory
In Einstein’s General Theory
of Relativity, gravity is thought of as
distinction of Space and time and no
longer describes by a gravitational
field in contrast with Isaac Newton’s
Law of Gravity.
General relativity – explains the
peculiarities of the orbit of Mercury
and the bending of light by the sun
and has passed rigorous tests.
Cosmological Principle – Assumes
that the universe is homogeneous and
isotropic when average over large
scales.
SOLAR SYSTEM OVERVIEW
 The solar system is located at
the Milky Way Galaxy
 The solar system revolves
round line the galactic center
once in about 240 million
years
 The Solar System comprises
the sun, eight planets, five
dwarf planets, satellites,
 asteroids, comets, and other
minor bodies.
 The asteroid belt lies
between Mars and Jupiter.
 Meteoroids are smaller
asteroids. Thought as
“remnants of failed
planets” one that did not
return due to disturbance
from Jupiter’s galaxy.
 The Kuiper Belt lies beyond
Neptune and comprises
numerous rocky and icy
bodies to hundreds of
kilometers in size.
 The Oort Cloud marks the
outer boundary of the Solar
System and is supposed made
out of icy objects.
Two Kinds of Planets
 Terrestrial (earthlike)
– Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars
– Four inner planets of
the Solar System
– Relatively small in
size
– Rocky surface
(Surface of Venus cannot
be seen directly from
Earth because of its
dense atmosphere)
 Jovian (Jupiterlike)
– Jupiter Saturn Uranus
Neptune
Space Debris
 Asteroids
 Meteoroids – small dust
grains throughout the solar
system.
 Comets – highly elliptical
orbits, most likely come close
to the Sun
- Icy objects,
blown to space
by wind
pressure
Small Scale Features of the Solar
System
 Most planets rotate prograde
 Inner terrestrial planets are
made up of materials with
high melting points such as
silicates, iron and nickel
 They rotate slower, have thin
or no atmosphere, higher
densities and lower contents
of volatiles – hydrogen
helium and noble gases.
 The outer four planets –
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune are called gas giants
because they are made out of
gases and larger in size.
 They rotate faster, have thick
atmosphere, lower densities
and fluid interiors rich in
hydrogen, helium…
Most Planets Rotate Prograde
 Mercury 0
 Venus 177
 Earth 23
 Mars 25
 Jupiter 3
 Saturn 29
 Uranus 98
 Neptune 30
Large Scale Features
 All planets revolve around
the Sun
 The period of the revolution
of the planets increase in
distance from the Sun
 The innermost planets moves
fastest, the outermost slowest
 All planets are located at
regular intervals from the Sun
 Much of the mass of the
Solar System is concentrated
at the Sun 99.85% while
angular momentum is held by
the outer planets.
 Orbits of the planets are
elliptical and are on the same
plane
Hypotheses on the Formation of the
Solar System
  Nebular Hypothesis
 Encounter Hypothesis
 Protoplanet Hypothesis
Nebular Hypothesis
 In the 1700s Emmanuel
Swedenborg, Immanuel
Kant, and Pierre-Simon
Laplace independently
thought of a rotating gaseous
cloud that cools and the rest
into a disc that become the
planets.
 This nebular theory failed to
account for the distribution of
angular momentum in the
solar system.
 It presupposes that around
4.5 billion years ago, a star
system was formed from a
rotating cloud of gas or
nebula of extremely hot gas.
When the gas cooled, the
nebula began to shrink, and
as it becomes smaller, it
rotated faster, casting of rings
of gas and forming a disc like
shape. The centrifugal force
from the nebula’s rotation
and the gravitational force
from the mass of the nebula
formed the rings of gas
outside. As the nebula
continuous to shrink, these
rings condensed into various
densities of planets and their
satellites. The remaining part
of the nebula which has the
most mass, formed the Sun.
Encounter Hypotheses
 Comte de Buffon’s (1749)
Sun-comet encounter that
sent matter to form planet
 James Jeans’ (1927) sun-star
encounter that would have
drawn from the sun matter
that would condense to
planets
 Thomas Chrowder
Chamberlin (T.C.
Chamberliain) and Forest
Ray Moulton (F.R.
Moulton’s) (1904)
planetisimal hypothesis
involving a star much
bigger than the Sun passing
by the Sun and draws
gaseous filaments from both
out which planetisimals
where formed.
Protoplanet Hypotheses
 Ray Lyttleton’s (1940) sun’s
comparison star colliding
with another to form a proto-
planet that breaks up to form
Jupiter and Saturn
 Otto Schmidt’s accretion
theory proposed that the sun
passed through a dense
interstellar cloud and
emerged with a dusty gaseous
envelope that eventually
became the planets.
 However, it cannot explain
how the planets and satellites
were formed. The time
required to form the planets
exceeds the age of the solar
system
 Nobel Prize winner Harold
Urey’s compositional studies
on meteorites in the 1950s
and other scientists’ work on
these objects led to the
conclusion that meteorite
constituents have changed
very little since the solar
system’s early history and
can give clues about their
formation.
 The currently accepted theory
on the origin of the solar
system relies much on
information from the
meteorites.
 About 4.6 billion years ago,
in the Orion arm of the Milky
Way galaxy, a slowly
rotating gas
 And dust cloud dominated by
the hydrogen and helium
starts to contract due to
gravity
 As most of the mass move to
the center to eventually
become a proto-Sun, the
remaining materials form a
disc that will eventually
become the planets and
momentum is transferred
outwards.
 Due to collisions, fragments
of dust and solid matter begin
sticking other to form larger
and larger bodies from meter
to kilometer in size. These
protoplanets are accretions of
frozen water, ammonia,
methane, silicon, aluminum,
iron, and other metals in rock
and mineral grains envelope
in hydrogen and helium
 High-speed collisions with
large objects destroys much
of the mantle of Mercury,
puts Venus in retrograde
rotation.
 Collision of the Earth with
large object produces the
moon. This is supported by
the composition of the moon
very similar to the Earth’s
Mantle.
 When the proto-Sun is
getting established as a star,
it’s solar wind blasts Humanities failure to protect the
hydrogen, helium, and environment and life here on Earth
volatiles from the inner is likely due to the following:
planets to beyond Mars to
form the gas giants leaving  Inability to recognize the full
behind a system we know to consequences his/her actions
day  Lack of appreciation of how
1. Milky Way galaxy is truly unique Earth is.
filled with absurd of
the molecules
hydrogen gas and
with dusts(ice
covered dust)
2. Dust provide sites for
condensation of gas
3. Cloud begins to
collapse under self-
gravity dust begin to
accrete
4. Cloud collapses to
rotating disk
 Planetisimals contain both
rock and metal
 A planet grows slowly from
the uniform particles
 The resulting planet is of
uniform composition
 Heat from radioactive decay
causes differentiation
 The resulting planet has a
metal core and low density
crust