(Speaking of Plastics Manufacturing Series) Fry, Bill-Working With Polyethylene-Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) (1999) PDF

Working
with Polyethylene
from the series
Speaking of
Plastics Manufacturing
By Bill Fry
Technical Advisor: Phillip Barhouse
Society of Manufacturing Engineers

Dearborn, Michigan
Copyright © 1999 by Bill Fry and
987654321
All rights reserved, including those of translation. This book,
or parts thereof, may not be reproduced by any means, in-
cluding photocopying, recording, or microfilming, or by any
information storage and retrieval system, without permission
in writing of the copyright owners.
No liability is assumed by the publisher with respect to use
of the information contained herein. While every precaution
has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher
assumes no responsibility for errors or omissions. Publica-
tion of any data in this book does not constitute a recommen-
dation or endorsement of any patent, proprietary right, or
product that may be involved.
International Standard Book Number: 0-87263-507-4
Additional copies may be obtained by contacting:
Customer Service
One SME Drive, P. O. Box 930
Dearborn, Michigan 48121
1-800-733-4763
Booklets in this Series
Working with Acrylic
Working with Cellulosic
Working with Nylon
Working with Polyethylene
Working with Polystyrene
Working with Vinyl
Additional booklets are planned
SME staff who participated in producing this book:

Millicent Treloar, Senior Editor
Rosemary Csizmadia, Production Supervisor
Kathye Quirk, Production Assistant
Frances Kania, Production Assistant
Printed in the United States of America
CONTENTS
Introduction................................................................ 1
Chemically Speaking .................................................. 8
Typical Applications .................................................. 12
Production Methods
Injection Molding .............................................................. 13
Extrusion .......................................................................... 16
Thermoforming ................................................................. 17
Blow Molding ................................................................... 18
Glimpse of the Future ............................................... 21
Physical Properties (Explained) ................................... 22
Specific Gravity ................................................................. 23
Tensile Strength ................................................................. 23
Impact Strength ................................................................ 24
Hardness: Brinell System ................................................... 24
Compressive Strength ....................................................... 24
Flexural Strength ............................................................... 24
Modulus of Elasticity .......................................................... 24
Thermal Expansivity (Coefficient of Expansion) .................... 24
Specific Heat ..................................................................... 25
Volume Resistivity .............................................................. 25
Power Factor ..................................................................... 25
Dielectric Constant ............................................................ 25
Dielectric Strength ............................................................. 25
Thermal Conductivity ........................................................ 26
Refractive Index ................................................................. 26
Moisture Absorption .......................................................... 26
Flammability ..................................................................... 26
Arc Resistance ................................................................... 26
Chemical Resistance ......................................................... 26
Glossary .................................................................. 30
Some Polyethylene Trade Names ............................... 36
INTRODUCTION
Polyethylene is the miracle material of the plastics
industry because of its wide range of use and its versa-
tility. It is the first plastics material that reached a pro-
duction rate of over one billion pounds (453.6 million kg)
per year.
Polyethylene is derived from ethylene gas. It was

first produced in England in 1936 by the fermentation of
vegetable materials. Because of the small quantities pro-
duced, vegetable matter proved to be an unsatisfactory
source. With the coming of World War II and the need for
a good insulation material, methods of producing ethyl-
ene gas from petroleum and natural gas were swiftly
developed. As soon as the way was opened, the torrent
of material and products started to flow. Polyethylene
became available in the United States in 1942 and was
immediately put to use as an electrical insulating mate-
rial for submarine cables and as radar shields. Since then,
the applications of Polyethylene have grown exponen-
tially. During the early years of its availability, it was used
primarily for military purposes, but with the end of World
War II, this waxy-like material soon found many com-
mercial applications because of its exceptional proper-
ties. Polyethylene is a tough, flexible, translucent
thermoplastic with excellent dielectric strength. It is
unaffected by moisture and many chemicals. Justifiably,
it is one of the most widely accepted materials in the
plastics industry.
Polyethylene materials are now generally produced

in three basic types: low, medium, and high density. The
chemical process for manufacturing each of these types
is somewhat different. The low- and medium-density
2 Working with Polyethylene
Polyethylene materials are usually processed by a high-

pressure system. The high-density materials are stiffer
and have higher heat resistance and tensile strength.
All Polyethylene materials can be processed by injec-

tion molding, extrusion, compression molding, casting,
thermoforming, blow molding, or fluidized bed coating.
Polyethylene is supplied by the raw material manu-

facturers in pellet or powder form. It is usually pack-
aged in 50-lb (23-kg) capacity paper bags, 200-lb (91-kg)
capacity cardboard drums, and for large volume proces-
sors, in 10,000-lb (4,536-kg) capacity containers. In some
instances, it is shipped in railroad or truck tank cars.
Since Polyethylene is very lightweight and has nearly

the lowest specific gravity of all of the thermoplastics
(except the cellular types), it is easily handled by stan-
dard pneumatic-type material handling equipment.
As with most thermoplastic products, occasionally

it is expedient to produce parts in sections. However, be-
cause of the chemical resistance of the Polyethylene plas-
tics, parts cannot be solvent welded by ordinary methods.
Chemical welding requires that the Polyethylene first
be treated by either acids or flame. This treatment
changes the molecular structure of the surface of the
Polyethylene, allowing it to be bonded together. There
are additional methods for treating the surface of Poly-
ethylene for bonding and decorating. Because of the tre-
mendous number of different formulations, it is wise to
consult with individuals having exact knowledge of the
formulation of the Polyethylene and who know what is
to be expected of the finished product. There are me-
chanical methods of bonding Polyethylene to itself. Hot
air welding is a method used by fabricators of sheet stock
Working with Polyethylene 3
to make products such as large square tanks. Mechani-

cal welding also can be used for many other types of prod-
ucts. Hot wire or almost any type of induction heating
will work well. Of course, riveted or threaded sections
and snap-fitted parts with an undercut or reverse taper
can sometimes be used as part of the integral design.
Polyethylene in very thin sections can be clear, such

as when it is made into film for bags. As the thickness
increases, it becomes more and more opaque. In its natu-
ral color it is a milky white, but it can be made in almost
any color desired.
As previously stated, Poly-

ethylene’s electrical (insulating)
properties have proven to be ex-
ceptional and it is used in tre-
mendous quantities for cable
and wire insulation. Its use as
a coating on television lead-in wire has been
quite significant. An important characteristic for
insulation is its ability to withstand changes in
temperature and humidity; these do not affect the
electrical properties of Polyethylene.
Much can be said about the chemical properties of

Polyethylene. The list of chemicals that will not alter or
harm this material is so long that
space will not permit inclusion of
them in this book. Let it suffice to say that,
at room temperatures, Polyethylene is
completely inert to most chemicals. The
few that will adversely affect Polyethylene
are hot oils, hydrocarbons, chlorinated
hydrocarbons, and chlorine gas. Some
Polyethylene products are capable of hold-
ing gasoline.
Although Polyethylene is
not classed as an outdoor type of
material, it can and is being used
successfully in many outdoor appli-
cations. Polyethylene film is in great
demand for agricultural uses as
weed-proof mulch and coverings for
trench silos and greenhouses. When a
Polyethylene product must be used out-
doors for extended periods, as is the case
for pipe, the addition of a percentage of car-
bon black or other antioxidants is recom-
mended. This helps to resist the damaging
effects of ultraviolet rays.
One of the most difficult problems facing

both processors and consumers in their choice
of Polyethylene as a material for product is its
tremendous variety of formulations. Over all of
the plastics materials made, none are more vari-
able than Polyethylene. The fact that any formula-
tion of Polyethylene, whether it is of the softer,
low-density type or the harder, high-density variety,
can be processed in the same equipment, and be-
cause many products are acceptable in both or either
type of material, only leads to further complications.
Choice of the exact formulation of Polyethylene to be
used for any particular product is not an easy decision.
This decision should, in all cases, be made by a person
or organization that is well qualified.
There is no sure and fast method
for making a choice. It must
be done carefully and with
due consideration of all the
possible variables. The raw
material supplier is the
best source of information.
Today, almost all of the carbonated wines sold in this

country have Polyethylene corks. Their cost is about one
third that of natural corks. Because of its resistance to
the acids in soil and low moisture absorption, its use in
sprinkler systems and low-pressure pipelines is popular.
The use of Polyethylene for radiation shields in

atomic reactors on submarines and other vessels was
an important factor in weight sav-
ings. The shields also were simple
to install. A 1-in. (25.4-mm)
thick sheet of Poly-
ethylene can afford the
same protection from ra-
diation as a slab of con-
crete 3 ft (91.4 cm) thick or
1 ft3 (197 cm3 ) of water. With
these facts in mind, it is not
too difficult to realize the tremendous savings possible
for construction materials.
Better methods of vacuum forming (thermoforming)

sections of linear Polyethylene have allowed its use for
industrial material handling containers. They are stiff,
yet flexible enough to withstand heavy blows, acid resis-
tant, and lightweight. This type of product can withstand
all sorts of abuse. Because of its soft,
smooth surface and chemical resist-
ance, it is used extensively in the
agricultural, food, and drug in-
dustries.
Virtually unbreakable
and flexible at high or low
temperatures, Polyethyl-
ene is an ideal material for
household products, such as ice cube trays or food con-

tainers. Polyethylene has become the favorite material of
the toy industry. A toy made of Polyethylene is practically
unbreakable and it will not mar the floor or furniture.
In the field of medicine, the use of Polyethylene has

become widespread. Since Polyethylene is nontoxic at
room temperatures, and it is almost com-
pletely inert, the use of this material for con-
tainers offers excellent protection for
sensitive drugs. The laboratory ware in most
hospitals is almost completely made of
Polyethylene because of its excellent chemi-
cal resistance, nontoxicity, and resistance to
breakage.
Fluidized bed coating is used to manu-

facture products of Polyethylene. The pro-
cess is quite complex and
allows producers to make some of the
largest products ever made with plas-
tics materials, such as 55-gallon
(208 L) drums and 10-ft (3-m)
long boats.
Vast amounts of Polyethyl-

ene material are used for the
production of film mate-
rials. Any one of the
three different grades
of Polyethylene can be
used. The low-density
grades were the first to be
used and these first films
were always slightly hazy, although transparent.
Packaging with Polyethylene film is an

industry in itself. Its acceptability is at-
tested to by the simple observation of
all the products afforded this protec-
tion. The higher-density types of
Polyethylene used as packaging are
clearer and stronger, and can stand
the high temperatures necessary for
sterilization. Since Polyethylene is
nontoxic, its use in the packaging
of foods of all kinds is deemed to
be completely safe.
Polyethylene film is easily heat

sealed. Printing or decorating is accomplished at great
speeds after the film has been properly surface treated.
Just as there are molding machines capable of making all
sizes of Polyethylene molded products, there are bag-mak-
ing machines capable of making all sizes of bags and cov-
ers. Drum and carton liners for industrial use are another
very important application in the packaging field.
One of the biggest markets today for Polyethylene

is the bottle industry. Polyethylene squeeze bottles, made
of the lower-density materials because of their flexibil-
ity, have become almost synonymous with all kinds of
toiletries and many kinds of foodstuffs; milk
and shampoo bottles are prominent examples.
Bottles made of the high-density types are
sterilizable and have found use as baby bottles,
among other products.
It is admittedly difficult to print or deco-

rate Polyethylene bottles. However, with
proper surface treatment, this can be ac-
complished and there are many reliable
sources for this service.
All of the thermoplastics

will burn and Polyethylene is
no exception. However, it is a
slow burning material and
formulations are available
that are self-extinguishing.
It is, of course, impossible

to know all of the answers neces-
sary to determine which type or particular formulation of
Polyethylene, and which method of production would be
absolutely best for a particular product. Through careful
examination and thorough research into the required
properties and the economics of various processing meth-
ods available, the decision becomes less hazardous.
Polyethylene is a material that has proven the old

adage, “Build a better mouse trap and the world will beat
a path to your door.”
CHEMICALLY SPEAKING
CHEMICALLY
Ethylene, a colorless, flammable gas, is the basis of
many plastic materials. This gas is obtained from many
sources: natural gas, distillation of coal, petroleum crack-
ing, and chemicals.
Ethylene Molecule
As compared to other plastic materials, which must

go through many processes before actually arriving at a
point where they are plastic materials, Polyethylene is
derived directly by the polymerization of the ethylene
gas in the presence of suitable catalysts. Free-radical cata-
lysts, such as peroxides or other diluents, are used.
Polymerization is accomplished in a pressure cham-

ber or autoclave and the type of Polyethylene produced
is entirely dependent on the amounts of pressure, heat,
and catalyst used.
Polyethylene is generally referred to as being high,

low, or medium density. By using high pressures and
heat, a low-density material is formed. The molecular
structure appears to be somewhat broken up and it is
generally referred to as being “branched.” Polyethylene
material of this type is soft, flexible, and tough.
The high-density Polyethylenes are formed at rela-

tively low pressures and are much stiffer, glossier, and
more resistant to heat. This is because the molecules are
distributed in a more orderly fashion.
To obtain a medium density material the same tech-

nique is used as to produce high-density material, only
at a lesser pressure. Another method is to mix high- and
low-density material in equal amounts.
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
APPLICATIONS
Ice cube trays
Tumblers
Dishes
Squeezable bottles
Pipe Tubing
Bags
Meteorological balloons
Greenhouses
Insulation
Freezer bags
Coated paper for freezer wrap
Toys
Outer jacket on
power cables
Wrapping
Lining papers
Protective covers
Washers
Gaskets
Electrical tape
Bushings
Tank liners
Automotive seat covers
Silo covers
Hardware packaging
Refrigerator containers
Sealant gun nozzles and cartridges
Veterinary syringes
Television
Plumbing thread protectors
Seals for dry cell batteries

Hardware friction catches
Laboratory ware
Mechanical pump parts
Bottles
Jars
Boxes
Fishing tackle boxes
Baby baths
Transparent film
Shipping bags
Housing
Tool handles
Marine floats
PRODUCTION METHODS
INJECTION MOLDING
Since its first use in the United States, Polyethylene
has increasingly become a material of choice because of
its ease of processing. The highest percentage of use for
Polyethylene has been in the injection molding process.
Polyethylene can be processed on all of the con-

ventional injection molding machines. The various
grades and types of Polyethylene can withstand an
extremely wide range of molding conditions. Under
ordinary circumstances, because of its excellent resis-
tance to moisture, predrying is not required. At times,
though, there can be a certain amount of moisture con-
densation on the pellets and the use of a hopper dryer
will eliminate this problem. The hopper dryer can also
improve molding conditions because the material is
fed into the heating chamber resulting in uniform heat
conditions. To obtain the best physical properties and
the best looking parts, it is a prerequisite that close

adherence to the fundamentals of plastics engineering
are followed. Theoretically, the process of injection
molding Polyethylene is very similar to that of any of
the other types of thermoplastics.
As is shown in the diagram “A Principle of Injection

Molding,” the raw material or pellets are fed into a hop-
per at the top of the machine. As the machine cycles, a
specific amount of material is metered down through
a chute into the rear of the heating cylinder. Each suc-
cessive cycle causes the plunger to move forward, forc-
ing the cold material into the heating chamber. It is then
passed through small orifices between the torpedo and
the inside wall of the cylinder. With each successive
cycle, the material moves closer to the nozzle.
The nozzle is removable for a number of reasons.

One reason being that different types of materials are
sometimes best handled with different types of nozzles.
Another reason, as in the case with dry-colored Poly-
ethylene, is to obtain better color distribution in the
molded part. Specially designed dispersion plugs can
be inserted into the nozzle.
The mold is clamped tightly to the face of the nozzle

with the orifice in the sprue bushing the same size as the
opening in the nozzle. By repeatedly pressing the cold
material into the rear of the heating chamber, the hot ma-
terial is forced into the closed mold. The mold is kept
at a controlled temperature determined by the speed of
the cycle and the required quality of the molded part.
At a precise time during the cycle, the mold opens and
the part is ejected or removed, either mechanically or
manually. The molded part can be complete in itself with
no further finishing or, as explained elsewhere in this
book, it can be a part of a multiple-section product. In
injection molding Polyethylene, the mold should be of
the finest quality. Dimensional tolerances, shrinkage,

and part finish or gloss are of the utmost importance.
The design of the mold, and specifically the method
of cooling and ejection of parts, is an important factor
not to be taken lightly; nor is the decision of which ma-
chine to use for any specific part.
A Principle of Injection Molding
For injection molding extremely large products, such

as a 20 gallon (76 L) can, some injection molding ma-
chines are equipped with a preplasticizing unit. This unit
is located directly above the heating chamber. It is simi-
lar in design to the regular heating chamber and is used
to facilitate the injection of premelted material into the
heating chamber. This method of injection molding im-
parts certain advantages, such as better color dispersion
in the part, increased speed of molding, and increased
machine capacity.
As every experienced molder will testify, it is prac-

tically impossible to predict the exact molding condi-
tions to use for any given product. The variables in the
injection molding process are many. By starting a
project with the correctly engineered tools and using
the recommendations of the raw material suppliers, the
ability to produce quality parts, economically, will be
more thoroughly assured.
EXTRUSION
The extrusion method of processing Polyethylene
is very similar to that of extruding any other type of
thermoplastic. This method of processing is perhaps
more widely used with Polyethylene than with some of
the other thermoplastics. All thermoplastic extrusion
machines are built with the basic purpose of producing
an article of almost any desired length. The main dif-
ferences in the extrusion of the various thermoplastics
are the variance of controls, heat, speed, and pressures.
It is always true, regardless of the grade or type of Poly-
ethylene used, that certain fundamental principles of
extrusion dictate the selection of the die design and
choice of machine.
A conventional extrusion machine is similar in de-

sign to a rubber extruder and can be compared to a meat
grinder. As shown in the diagram “A Principle of Extru-
sion” the material is fed from the hopper into a heated
barrel. The power-driven, revolving screw works the
material forward through the heated barrel, gradually
plasticizing it until it becomes quite soft and homog-
enized. It is then forced through a die designed in the
shape of the desired extruded product. The extruded
product can be either a profile, tubing or pipe, or flat
sheet stock and film. With each grade or type of Poly-
ethylene to be extruded, there are certain requirements
needed in the machine and the design of the die to pro-
duce a more uniform and dimensionally correct prod-
uct. Polyethylene is generally very soft as it comes from
the die. This necessitates the use of a specially designed
cooling apparatus and, in many cases, various types of
holding fixtures while the product is being removed
from the machine by either a conveyor system or a set
of pull rolls.
The extrusion method has certain basic operating

fundamentals that are similar to many other processes.
However, the number of variables inherent in extrusion
make it particularly dependent on the experience of the
operator, the ability to have the machine and the take-off
equipment in perfect synchronization, and the ability to
understand the requirements of the finished product.
A Principle of Extrusion
THERMOFORMING
The thermoforming of Polyethylene sheet is accom-
plished by methods used with other thermoplastics. The
only variation is that, instead of having a single heat source
above the material before forming, the low heat transfer
characteristics of Polyethylene sheet require the use of
heating on both sides of the sheet. As shown in the dia-
gram “A Principle of Thermoforming (Vacuum Forming),”
first the sheet is heated to a fairly soft state. It is then
intercepted by a mold, either convex or concave in de-
sign, and with the help of a vacuum, is pulled into the
desired shape. The part is then cooled and removed from
the mold. Excess material is then trimmed from the part.
In vacuum forming Polyethylenes, the stiffer high-den-
sity types are more often used than the low density.
There are many variations in thermoforming, each

differing mainly in the manner in which the sheet is
brought into contact with the die and the way the pres-
sure is applied. Each method is specifically designed to
produce parts of varied design. No one method is adapt-
able to all products. The choice of a method that is best
suited for any product should be decided by persons
experienced in thermoforming and who have a good
knowledge of plastics materials.
A Principle of Thermoforming (Vacuum Forming)
BLOW MOLDING
BLOW
Although blow molding of plastics is a very old
method of processing, it was only with the invention of
the Polyethylene materials that it became one of the
major plastics processing methods. There are three cate-
gories into which the blow molding method can be di-
vided: extrusion blowing, injection blowing, and
dual-sheet blowing. The method that is by far of great-
est importance is extrusion blowing.
The products produced by blow molding vary in size

from 1-oz. (28-g) pill bottles to 55-gallon (208-L) drums.
The size of the product is dependent on the size of the
extrusion machine and the area available in the mold.
Basically, the procedure of blow molding is one

wherein an extruded tube or part of a tube is clamped
between the faces of the die while it is still in its molten
state. Air is injected into the tube under pressure, forc-
ing the material against the inside walls or cavity of the
die. The pressure of the plastic against the die faces
makes the material take on the image of the die. The
part’s surface can be rough, highly polished, or engraved.
The tube, or parison as it is generally called, is usually
extruded downward. The dies can be single station on a
rotary table, on a shuttle table, or the mold can be mul-
tiple cavity with the parison being extruded out of a mani-
fold-type die. The extrusion of the tubing is continuous,
usually moving at a very slow speed. The die closes
around the tube, sealing off the bottom and as it moves
away from the extruder. The air is injected through the
top or open end. After forming, the die automatically
opens to eject the part.
In the aforementioned methods, the dies are gener-

ally moved along a horizontal plane. Another method is
to operate a turntable as an upright wheel with a series
of single-cavity dies mounted around the wheel. As each
mold contacts the tube being extruded, the preceding
cavity accepts the air pressure for forming the product.
As the wheel continues around, the products are ejected,
similar to a string of beads, and then the parts must be
trimmed at both ends.
Injection blowing is a technique that is usually slower,

and, therefore, is somewhat more expensive than the other
methods. In this method, a preform is molded around a
mandrel, which is then transferred to a blow-molding cav-
ity where it is blown while the material is still viscous.
After cooling, the part is ejected and the cycle is again
repeated. The operation can be done with one or more
mandrels and an equal number of blowing cavities.
The first method of blow molding was dual-sheet

blowing. In this method, dual sheets that have been heated
and softened are placed between the faces of the die to be
blown and then ejected. Alternatively, dual sheets can
be extruded with a number of dies on a vertical turntable
which close around the sheet continuously in sequence
with the speed of the extruder. A part made by this method
usually requires finishing around its perimeter.
GLIMPSE OF THE FUTURE

In prehistoric times, someone discovered a method
that caused a complete revolution in transportation—the
wheel. Not only did it change transportation for ancient
man, but it became the foundation of the industrial his-
tory of the world. The invention of Polyethylene may not
have caused as much furor as the invention of the wheel,
but without a doubt it has been the greatest single mate-
rial discovery to come forth in the plastics industry.
The outstanding properties of Polyethylene and its

history should be convincing enough to claim that it is
destined to do many more prominent tasks.
Since World War II, the use of Polyethylene has out-

paced other plastic materials that have been in use over
50 years. Polyethylene was the first plastics material to
reach the billion pound (453.6 million kg) a year mark in
production. Predictions for the years to come are that
production of Polyethylene will be many times this mark.
The use of the high-density types of Polyethylene is

expected to increase tremendously. The construction,
automotive, and aerospace industries will be constantly
finding new and better uses for it. The use of heavy-gage
sheets of Polyethylene as shields for protection against
radioactivity in atomic reactors will lead to more prom-
ising uses in nuclear applications.
With a material such as this, the bounds of imagina-

tion for engineers and designers should hold no limits.
Although the variety of Polyethylene formulations

are very numerous, the manufacturers of the raw mate-
rial are continuously searching for newer and better
forms of this material. Because of this research and dedi-
cation, we will continue to find some portion of our lives,
some part of our living, a little easier or perhaps a little
happier.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (EXPLAINED)

Every trade or industry develops a language all its
own in which it discusses the qualities and characteris-
tics of its materials and their handling. To those in the
industry and to most of those already in contact with it,
each one of these terms carries its own definition and
needs little or no explanation. Unfortunately, however,
there is an ever-widening circle of prospective users of
plastics whose everyday life is not spent discussing ma-
terials in terms of specific gravity, index of refraction,
thermal expansivity and the like, to whom these terms

are meaningless. These explanations are offered to help
new users of plastics to gain a better understanding of
the comparable features or characteristics of plastics
materials.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
GRAVITY
Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of the piece
as compared to the weight of an equal volume of water.
If 62° F (17° C) water is put in a 1 in. (25.4 mm) cube, it
would have a weight of .0361 lb (16 g). The temperature
is important, because if it were hotter, the cube would be
less dense and weigh less. If it were cooler, the cube would
be denser and weigh more. Nature has thus provided us
with a definite standard of weight and volume with which
we can compare the weight of any other material of equal
volume and temperature. The ratio of these values yields
the specific gravity.
TENSILE STRENGTH
STRENGTH
Tensile strength is the pulling force in pounds (kg)
necessary to break a given sample, divided by the area
of the cross section in in.2 (mm2). Figures given are in
thousands of pounds (kg).
IMPACT STRENG
IMPA TH
STRENGTH
Impact strength is measured as the mechanical en-
ergy absorbed by a standard test piece during fracture
by a blow from a pendulum hammer.
HARDNESS
HARDNESS:: BRINELL SYSTEM
The Brinell hardness is the ratio of the pressure on
a sphere used to indent the material to be tested, to the
area of the spherical indentation produced. The Rockwell
system is the depth of the indentation measured by
means of an arbitrary scale.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
STRENGTH
The compressive strength is the crushing load at
failure of a piece divided by the number of in.2 (mm2)
of resisting surface. Figures given are thousands of
pounds (kg).
FLEXURAL STRENGTH
STRENGTH
Flexural strength can be defined as the pressure in
pounds necessary to break a given sample when pres-
sure is applied to its center and it is supported at its ends.
Figures are given in thousands of pounds (kg).
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
MODULUS
The modulus of elasticity is the quotient obtained
by dividing the stress per in.2 (mm2) by the elongation in
1 in. (25.4 mm) caused by this stress.
THERMAL EXPANSIVITY (COEFFICIENT OF EXP

EXPANSIVITY ANSION)
EXPANSION)
The thermal expansivity is the increase in length
per unit length per ° F (° C) rise in temperature. This
characteristic is also called the coefficient of thermal
expansion. All materials of construction vary their length
with the temperature. The standard listed is the change

per in. (mm) of material for each ° F (° C) change in tem-
perature. The figures arrived at are low on the decimal
side, such as .00003 in. (0.76 μm), and there is the short
cut of 3 ⫻ 10–5.
SPECIFIC HEAT
HEAT
The specific heat of a substance is the ratio of its
thermal capacity to that of water at 33° F (0.5° C).
VOLUME RESISTIVITY
OLUME
Volume resistivity is measured as the resistance in
ohms between opposite faces of a .3937 in.3 (1.0 cm3)
piece of material; the result is given in the order of mil-
lions of ohms.
ACT
POWER FFA OR
CTOR
In a perfect condenser, the current leads the voltage
by 90°. When a loss takes place in the insulation, the ab-
sorbed current, which produces heat, throws the 90° re-
lation out according to the proportion of current absorbed
by the dielectric. The power factor is a direct percentage
measurement of the power lost. Measurements are usu-
ally made at million-cycle frequencies.
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
CONSTANT
The dielectric constant is the ratio between the ca-
pacity of a condenser with a given dielectric and the same
capacity with air as a dielectric.
DIELECTRIC STRENGTH
STRENGTH
The voltage that will rupture or puncture the mate-
rial in question when placed between electrodes of a
given size is known as its dielectric strength.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Thermal conductivity is the time rate of the trans-
fer of heat by conduction, through unit thickness, across
unit area for unit difference in temperature.
REFRACTIVE INDEX
REFRACTIVE
The refractive index for any substance is the ratio of
the velocity of light in a vacuum to its velocity in the
substance. It is also the ratio of the angle of refraction.
MOISTURE ABSORPTION
Moisture absorption is the percentage by weight of
water absorbed by a sample immersed in water. It de-
pends on the area exposed.
FLAMMABILITY
Flammability is based on the time a given piece will
continue to support a flame after having been held in a
Bunsen burner for a fixed period. The first material listed
supports flame the least number of seconds.
ARC RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE
Arc resistance is the time required for a given elec-
trical current to render the surface of the material under
test conductive because of carbonization by the arc flame.
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE
The ability of the material to resist changes in prop-
erties as a result of exposure to various chemicals is de-
noted as its chemical resistance. The degree of resistance
may be judged by visual examination and by measure-
ment of properties.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CHART

Low
ow-- density Polyethylene
Polyethylene
ASTM test
Properties method Value
Molding qualities — Excellent
Specific gravity D792 .91–.925
Refractive index D542 1.51

Tensile strength, psi (MPa) D638 1,050–2,500
(7.2–17.2)
Modulus of elasticity in D747 .17–.35

tension, 105 psi (kPa) (1.2–2.4)
Impact strength, ft Ib/in.2 D256 >16 (>33.6)

(kj/m2) of notch (.5 ⫻ .5 in.
[12.7 ⫻ 12.7 mm]
notched bar, Izod test)
Hardness, shore Duro scale Shore D 41–48
Resistance to heat, ° F (° C) — 212 (100)

Heat distortion, D648 105–121
° F 66 psi (° C 0.46 MPa) (41–49 )
Dielectric strength, D149 450–1,000

V/mm thickness
Dissipation (power) factor, D150 <.0005

103 cycles
Arc resistance D495 135–160
Water absorption, 24 hr D570 <.015

.125 in. (3.2 mm) thickness (%)
Burning rate — Very slow

Machining qualities — Fair
Effect of organic solvents — Fair
Effect of sunlight — Surface crazing resistant

(except black and brown)
Effect of weak acids — Resistant
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CHART (continued)

Low
ow-- density Polyethylene
Polyethylene
ASTM test
Effect of strong acids — Attacked by oxidizing

acids
Effect of weak alkalis — Resistant
Effect of strong alkalis — Resistant
Clarity — Translucent to opaque

The values and figures in this chart are based on the minimums and maximums of
figures submitted by various manufacturers. This includes all types of low-density
Polyethylene. These figures are offered for comparative purposes only and are not
intended to be other than approximations.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CHART

High- density P
High-density olyethylene
Polyethylene
ASTM test
Molding qualities — Excellent
Specific gravity — .94–.965
Tensile strength, D638 3,450–4,500

psi (MPa) (23.8–31.0)
Modulus of elasticity in tension, D747 .8–1.5

psi (kPa) (5.5–10.3)
Flexural strength, psi (MPa) D790 1,400 (9.7)
Impact strength, ft Ib/in.2 D256 14 (29.4)

(kj/m2) of notch (.5 ⫻ .5 in.
[12.7 ⫻ 12.7 mm)
notched bar, Izod test)
Hardness, shore Duro D scale D676 61–70

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CHART (continued)

High- density P
High-density olyethylene
Polyethylene
ASTM test
Thermal conductivity, — .008–.0009

BTU/ft2/sec./° F/in.
Resistance to heat, ° F (° C) — 250 (121)

Heat distortion, D648 140–180 (60–82)
° F 66 psi (° C 0.46 MPa)
Volume resistivity D257 1015–1016
Dielectric strength, D149 450–500

V/mm thickness
Dissipation (power) factor D150 <.0002
103 cycles
Elongation, % 23c — 100–700

hydrocarbon solvents
Water absorption, 24 hr D570 <.01–<.03

.125 in. (3.2 mm) thickness (%)
Effect of organic solvents — Slightly soluble in hot
hydrocarbon solvents
Machining qualities — Excellent
Burning rate — Very slow

Effect of sunlight — Requires ultraviolet fiIter
Weak alkali — Very resistant
Strong alkali — Very resistant

Weak acids — Very resistant
Strong acids — Attacked slowly by

oxidizing acids
Clarity — Translucent to opaque

The values and figures in this chart are based on the minimums and maximums of
figures submitted by various manufacturers. This includes all types of high-density
Polyethylene. These figures are offered for comparative purposes only and are not
intended to be other than approximations.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
AUTHOR
A pioneer in the plastics industry, Bill Fry was the
founder, owner, and operator of Fry Plastics, the first plas-
tics distributorship in the United States. Over several
decades, his significant contributions to the growth of
the industry have included:
• the production of various TV and radio programs
chronicling the growth of the plastics industry;
• lecturing in industrial arts departments, and de-
velopment of veteran training and general public
information programs; and
• designing and manufacturing plastic consumer
products sold around the world.
Since retiring from his company, Bill Fry continues
to be involved in writing and lecturing in the plastics
field. He is a member of the Society of Plastics Engi-
neers (SPE), the Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI),
and the Society for the Advancement of Material & Pro-
cess Engineering (SAMPE).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Special thanks is given to Phillip Barhouse, a man-
ager of quality systems, research, and development in
the plastics manufacturing industry for his technical
advice and review of the booklets in this series.
UV STABILIZER (ULTRAVIOLET)—Any chemical com-

pound which, when admixed with a thermoplastic resin,
selectively absorbs UV rays.
VENT—A shallow channel or minute hole cut in the cav-

ity to allow air to escape as the material enters the mold.
VlSCOSITY—lnternal friction or resistance to flow of a

liquid. The constant ratio of shearing stress to rate of
shear. In liquids for which this ratio is a function of stress,
the term “apparent viscosity” is defined as this ratio.
WELDING—Joining thermoplastic pieces by one of sev-

eral heat-softening methods.
YIELD VALUE (YIELD STRENGTH)—The lowest stress

at which a material undergoes plastic deformation. Be-
low this stress, the material is elastic; above it, viscous.
SOME POLYETHYLENE TRADE NAMES

POLYETHYLENE
Allied Resinous Products, Inc., Boronal®
Conneaut, OH
Ampacet Corporation, Tarrytown, NY Ampacet™
Georgia-Pacific Resins, Atlanta, GA Bakelite®
Hoechst, A.G., Frankfurt, Germany Hostalen®
Mardel Laboratories, Glendale Marplex®
Heights, IL
Millennium Petrochemicals, Inc., Petrothene Select®
Cincinnati, OH
Montell North America, Inc., HiFax®
Wilmington, DE
National Distillers and Chemical
Corporation, New York, NY Petrothene XL®
Occidental Chemical Corporation, Alathon®

Dallas, TX
Quantum Chemical Corporation, Petrothene®
Cincinnati, OH
Saltex Polymer Corporation, Fortiflex®
Houston, TX
GLOSSAR
GLOSSARY
OSSARY
ADHESIVE —A substance capable of holding materials
together by surface attachment. Adhesive is the general
term and includes, among others, the synthetic resin
adhesives as well as the vegetable- and animal-based ad-
hesives, such as cements, glues, mucilages, and pastes.
ANTIOXIDANT—Substance that prevents or slows down

oxidation of material exposed to air.
AUTOMATIC MOLD—A mold for injection or compres-

sion molding that repeatedly goes through the entire
cycle, including ejection, without human assistance.
BENZENE RlNG—The basic structure of benzene, the

most important aromatic chemical. It is an unsaturated,
resonant six-carbon ring having three double bonds. One
or more of the six hydrogen atoms of benzene may be
replaced by other atoms or groups.
BLEED—To give up color when in contact with water or

a solvent; the undesired movement of certain materials
in a plastic (for example, plasticizers in vinyl) to the sur-
face of the finished article or into an adjacent material.
Also called migration.
BULK FACTOR—Ratio of the volume of loose molding

powder to the volume of the same weight of resin after
molding.
CAVITY—Depression in a mold made by casting,

machining, hobbing, or a combination of these methods;
depending on number of such depressions, molds are
designated as single-cavity or multicavity.
COPOLYMER—See POLYMER.
CYCLE—The complete, repeating sequence of opera-

tions in a process or part of a process. In molding, the
cycle time is the period, or elapsed time, between a cer-

tain point in one cycle and the same point in the next.
DlSPERSION—Finely divided particles of a material in

suspension in another substance.
DRAWING—The process of stretching a thermoplastic

sheet or rod to reduce its cross-sectional area.
ELASTOMER—A material which, at room temperature,

stretches under low stress to at least twice its length and
snaps back to the original length upon release of stress.
ELECTROFORMED MOLDS—A mold made by electro-

plating metal on the reverse platter on the cavity. Molten
steel then may be sprayed on the back of the mold to
increase its strength.
EXTRUDATE—The product or material delivered by an

extruder, such as film, pipe, the coating on wire, etc.
EXTRUSION—The process of compacting a plastic ma-

terial and then forcing it through an orifice in more or
less continuous fashion.
FlLM—An optional term for sheeting having a nominal

thickness not greater than .010 in. (0.25 mm).
FLAME TREATING—A method of rendering inert

thermoplastic objects receptive to inks, lacquers, paints,
adhesives, etc. The object is bathed in an open flame to
promote oxidation of the surface of the article.
FOAMED PLASTICS—Resins in expanded form. They

may be flexible or rigid, the cells closed or intercon-
nected, the density anything from that of the solid par-
ent resin down to 2 lb/ft3 (32 kg/cm3). Compressive
strength of rigid foams is fair, making them useful as
core materials for sandwich structures. Both types are
good heat barriers.
GUSSET—A tuck placed in each side of a tube of blown

tubing as it is produced to provide a convenient square
or rectangular package, similar to that of the familiar
brown paper bag or sack.
HYGROSCOPIC—Tending to absorb moisture.
INERT—A substance that will not harm or affect another

substance.
INJECTION MOLDING—A molding process whereby a

heat-softened plastic material is forced from a cylinder
into a relatively cool cavity that gives the article the de-
sired shape.
IRRADIATION (ATOMIC)—As applied to plastics, re-

fers to bombardment with a variety of subatomic par-
ticles, generally alpha, beta, or gamma rays. Atomic ir-
radiation has been used to initiate polymerization and
copolymerization of plastics, and in some cases, to bring
about changes in the physical properties of a plastic
material.
LIGHT STABILITY—Ability of a plastic to retain its

original color and physical properties upon exposure to
sunlight or artificial light.
MACROMOLECULE—The large “giant” molecules that

make up the high polymers.
MAXIMUM USE TEMPERATURE—The highest tem-

perature to which a plastic material can be exposed for
an extended period of time.
MECHANICAL ADHESION—Adhesion between sur-

faces where the adhesive holds the parts together by
interlocking action.
MELT INDEX—The number of grams of molten plastic

that will flow through a standard orifice at a standard
temperature and pressure in a given period of time.
MOLDING POWDER—Plastic material in varying stages

of granulation, comprised of resin, filler, pigments, plas-
ticizers, and other ingredients ready for use in the mold-
ing operation.
MONOFILAMENT (MONOFIL)—A single filament of

indefinite length. Monofilaments are generally pro-
duced by extrusion. Their outstanding uses are in the
fabrication of bristles, surgical sutures, fishing leaders,
tennis racket string, screen materials, ropes, and nets.
The finer monofilaments are woven and knitted on tex-
tile machinery.
NONTOXIC—Not having a poisonous nature.
PARTING LlNE—Mark on a molding or casting where

the halves the of mold met in closing.
PLASTIC—One of many high polymeric substances, in-

cluding both natural and synthetic products, but exclud-
ing the rubbers. At some stage in its manufacture, every
plastic is capable of flowing, under heat and pressure, or
tensile stress, into the desired final shape.
PLASTICIZE—To soften a material and make it plastic

or moldable, either by means of a plasticizer or the ap-
plication of heat.
PLASTICIZER—Chemical agent added to plastic

compositions to make them softer and more flexible.
POLYETHYLENE—A thermoplastic material composed

of polymers of ethylene. It is normally a translucent,
tough, waxy solid, unaffected by water and by a large
range of chemicals. It is a particularly good insulating
material with a low power factor and low dielectric con-
stant, high volume resistivity, and high dielectric
strength.
POLYMER—A high-molecular weight organic com-

pound, natural or synthetic, whose structure can be rep-
resented by a repeated small unit, the mer; for example,
Polyethylene, rubber, and cellulose. Synthetic polymers
are formed by addition or condensation polymerization
of monomers. If two or more monomers are involved, a
copolymer is derived. Some polymers are elastomers,
some are plastics.
POLYMERIZATION—A chemical reaction in which the

molecules of a monomer are linked together to form
large molecules whose molecular weight is a multiple of
that of the original substance. When two or more mono-
mers are involved, the process is called copolymeriza-
tion or heteropolymerization. See also POLYMER.
RESIN—Any of a class of solid or semisolid organic prod-

ucts of natural or synthetic origin, generally of high
molecular weight with no definite melting point. Most
resins are polymers.
REVERSE TAPER—A direction opposite to the normal

draft angle in a mold cavity.
SANDWICH HEATING—A method of heating a thermo-

plastic sheet prior to forming, which consists of heating
both sides of the sheet simultaneously.
SELF-EXTINGUISHING—Will burn when in contact

with flame, but will not continue to burn when flame is
removed.
SEMI-AUTOMATIC MOLDING MACHINE—Any mold-

ing machine in which some part, but not all, of the
molding cycle is carried out without the direct attention
of a human.
SPRUE—Feed opening provided in the injection or trans-

fer mold; also the slug formed at this hole. “Spur” is the
shop term for the sprue slug.
STEREOSPECIFIC—A characteristic of certain polymer-

ization catalysts that yield polymers in which the mol-
ecules and side groups are arranged in orderly, rather
than random fashion.
SYNTHETIC RESIN—A complex, substantially amor-

phous, organic semisolid or solid material (usually a
mixture) built up by chemical reaction of comparatively
simple compounds. It approximates the natural resins
in lustre, fracture, comparative brittleness, insolubility in
water, fusibility or plasticity, and some degree of
rubber-like extensibility. However, it commonly deviates
widely from natural resins in chemical constitution and
behavior with reagents.
THERMOFORMING—Any process of forming ther-

moplastic materials, such as sheets, rods, and tubes,
with heat.
THERMOPLASTIC—A material that will repeatedly

soften when heated and harden when cooled. Typical of
the thermoplastics family are the styrene polymers and
copolymers, acrylics, cellulosics, Polyethylenes, vinyls,
nylons, and the various fluorocarbon materials.
TRANSLUCENT—Allowing the passage of light, but dif-

fusing it so as not to allow completely clear visibility.
ULTRAVIOLET RAYS—Rays from the zone of invisible

radiations beyond the violet end of the spectrum of vis-
ible radiations. These rays have enough energy to ini-
tiate chemical reactions and to degrade most plastics.
UNSATURATED COMPOUNDS—Any compound hav-

ing more than one bond between two adjacent atoms,
usually carbon atoms, and capable of adding other at-
oms at that point to reduce it to a single bond.

(Speaking of Plastics Manufacturing Series) Fry, Bill-Working With Polyethylene-Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) (1999) PDF

Cargado por

Información del documento

Título original

Derechos de autor

Formatos disponibles

Compartir este documento

Compartir o incrustar documentos

Opciones para compartir

¿Le pareció útil este documento?

¿Este contenido es inapropiado?

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

(Speaking of Plastics Manufacturing Series) Fry, Bill-Working With Polyethylene-Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) (1999) PDF

Cargado por

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

Working

from the series

Society of Manufacturing Engineers

SME staff who participated in producing this book:

Polyethylene is derived from ethylene gas. It was

Polyethylene materials are now generally produced

Polyethylene materials are usually processed by a high-

All Polyethylene materials can be processed by injec-

Polyethylene is supplied by the raw material manu-

Since Polyethylene is very lightweight and has nearly

As with most thermoplastic products, occasionally

to make products such as large square tanks. Mechani-

Polyethylene in very thin sections can be clear, such

As previously stated, Poly-

Much can be said about the chemical properties of

One of the most difficult problems facing

Today, almost all of the carbonated wines sold in this

The use of Polyethylene for radiation shields in

Better methods of vacuum forming (thermoforming)

household products, such as ice cube trays or food con-

In the field of medicine, the use of Polyethylene has

Fluidized bed coating is used to manu-

Vast amounts of Polyethyl-

Packaging with Polyethylene film is an

Polyethylene film is easily heat

One of the biggest markets today for Polyethylene

It is admittedly difficult to print or deco-

All of the thermoplastics

It is, of course, impossible

Polyethylene is a material that has proven the old

As compared to other plastic materials, which must

Polymerization is accomplished in a pressure cham-

Polyethylene is generally referred to as being high,

The high-density Polyethylenes are formed at rela-

To obtain a medium density material the same tech-

Seals for dry cell batteries

Polyethylene can be processed on all of the con-

the best looking parts, it is a prerequisite that close

As is shown in the diagram “A Principle of Injection

The nozzle is removable for a number of reasons.

The mold is clamped tightly to the face of the nozzle

the finest quality. Dimensional tolerances, shrinkage,

A Principle of Injection Molding

For injection molding extremely large products, such

As every experienced molder will testify, it is prac-

A conventional extrusion machine is similar in de-

The extrusion method has certain basic operating

There are many variations in thermoforming, each

A Principle of Thermoforming (Vacuum Forming)

The products produced by blow molding vary in size

Basically, the procedure of blow molding is one

In the aforementioned methods, the dies are gener-

Injection blowing is a technique that is usually slower,

The first method of blow molding was dual-sheet

GLIMPSE OF THE FUTURE

The outstanding properties of Polyethylene and its

Since World War II, the use of Polyethylene has out-

The use of the high-density types of Polyethylene is

With a material such as this, the bounds of imagina-

Although the variety of Polyethylene formulations

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (EXPLAINED)

thermal expansivity and the like, to whom these terms

THERMAL EXPANSIVITY (COEFFICIENT OF EXP