hase appre. vers the the skedly oR. 40,27 Errors in the simulation of pressure transients in a hydraulic system by D. Maudsley*, BEng, PhD, CEng, MIEE, MinstMc. jescrbing dynamic equations for pressure transients in Pee Cin om ly eo ee ‘No elosed form of solution exists and, consequently, simulation techniques must be used t0 effect a solution. The partial differential equations must be discretised, at east to ordinary differential equations using a finite differ. tence scheme. It is shown in the paper that finite differ fencing introduces a sour he sinulation. The ferors takes the form of different frequencies. disturbance bebig propagated through the finite diffe. scheme witha shift in phase and atten Solution. Isis shown that, for a linear system, the distortion ‘ean be quantified. Errors can be minimised by a correct choice of the number of discrete segments. A simple example of « non-linear system is inchuded to ilustrate the technique, 1, Introduction A distributed parameter problem of particular interest is the surge analysis of liquids ina closed pipe. When @ dynamic mathematical model of such a distributed pars meter system is to be produced for simulation, two approaches are possible: (@) treat the system asa series of Linked identical sub systems, ie, amped parameters, and produce the model equations using the mass and momentum conservation equations for each ‘ump':and (6) produce the relevant partial differential equations to describe the system, again by use of the conservation equations. Ifthe former approach is taken, a fundamental decision sto the number of ‘lumps’ the system should be split up into must be made. When the latter approach is taken, the Aescribine partial differential equations are non-linear and have no analytical solution. Solutions are obtained by humerical techniques which require the partial differential equations to be reduced, 2t least to ordinary differential equations, by finite difference approximations. For this ‘eduction a choice of grid spacing must be made. This is exactly analogous to the decision made in the lumping process in method (2), Since the equations solved are finite difference approxi ‘mations to the original equations, itis important to establish the conditions under which the finite difference solution is agreement with the solution of the original exact eque- tions, if one exists. In particular. the choice of finite differ nce grid spacing must be examined. This is often done by ‘examining a series of solutions in which the number of grid points is increased gradually. In general, itis found that, at sme point, the size of grid spacing no longer hes an effect on the solution, and thus a minimum grid spacing for a {Department of Electrical, instrumentation and Control Eninesring, Tessie Polytechnic, Middlesbrough, Clveland Ved. 6 , Thoms. Y Tre Onat Nov l, Tan-bron 19 flea § OmH, Tequired accuracy may be established. This technique is ‘obviously time consuming. The analysis presented here Sevelops an alternative solution to this problem by consid sting a particular linearised set of equations and examining exact and finite difference solutions. The results of the analysis are then tested ona finite difference approximation of @ nondinear set of equations, 2. System equations Fora liquid filed system working above its vapour Pressure, two equations are required to describe the Dressure and flow along the pipe: the continuity and ‘momentum equations. The simplified equations considered here are, mentum: — vir (1) Momer 5 VL i @ and these relate pressure H and velocity V of a liquid flowing in @ pipe of diameter D and friction coefficient fa is the velocity of sound in the liquid and x the distance along the pipe (Streeter, 1967). ‘The equations are quasilinear, and there is no closed form of solution. Eqns (1) and (2) may be reduced to ordinary differential equations by treating time as a con. tinuous variable and reducing the spatial terms by finite differences, Using a centred finite difference scheme, Eqns (1) and (2) reduce to av; Det aa -= yy of a 3p Vl @) at, a (4) dr where dx i the distance between solution points along the % axis and N'is the number of spatial segments used, each of width x Note, at the boundaries x = O and x=, the centre Aifference scheme given by Eqns (3) and (4) require points Outside the system. ie, when x = 0, Eqn (4) gives dy P(,- ¥) at g 2A Tr ions are introduced using forward (etx = 0) and backward (at x = L) differences, These simultaneous, ordinary differential equations may be solved readily either on a digital computer using standard {integration routines, or on an analogue computer.‘ne probiem, as indicatea earlier, is tie choice of Ny the number of spatial segments. If = 0, the equation may 'be combined to give, aH at 6) These are the wave equations which have an anal solution. The error analysis considers these hyperbolic Partial differential equations and their solution when presented infinite difference form. The result developed 3. Error analysis The solution to the wave equations (5) and (6) has the form, V= Voexp(y/—Lwt) exp(yx) =) and H= Hy exo(/~ 10) exp(yx) ® fs Fouriec mode exp (y/— wr) is transmitted through the system, where. = a+ — 18 = propagation coefficient, (= spatial attenuation coefficient, and B= spatial phase shift coefficient. Substitution of (7) and (8) into Eqns (5) and (6) yields hw yarv—18 +f: = ie, = 0 no attenuation (9) 8 = w/a linear phase/frequency celaionship fio} Conditions [9] and [10] indicate that a Fourier mode, Gine wave), will propagate through the system withou: Gistortion due to either attenuation or dispersion, Consequently. itis necessary that any finite difference simulation heme used to elfect 2 solution of Eqns (3) and (6) should have similar distortionless attenustionang phase shift properties. Consider the finite difference scheme, Eqns (3) and (4), with £=0 and again consider the propagation of a Foune. mode through the system. now the solution must be discretised in space to give Vi= Voexp(V— we) exp(yiaxy +6 Q) H,= Hoexp(y/— lw) exp(yide) (10) Subang ara.) gn) ans), (with f= 0), and eliminating F'gand Hp yields 20? ae? sonsyaee(1 23) an Equating real and imaginary parts ot Eqn (11), aus 2w? Ax?) bi com2oax eos26ara(1 7 Ar) CF heen fin and i there sinh ax sin 26x =0 Sara Eqn (13) gives as one condition, e=0 and from (12), Bax=4 Ix =~ cos 2 for wet ay : ‘The second condition from (13) is, bax=* 2 and from (12), ‘tw? Ax? jours 82) as) for w> ax ‘These expressions for a and 6 are plotted as Fig 1, and this indicates that up to a frequency w = g/? Ax the ane: Uuation is zero and the phase shift is proportional te Frequency, ie, the two conditions necessary for undistorted Propagation. Between frequencies a/2 Ax and g/d, the attenuation is zero, but the phase shit characterintce we no longer linea. Above frequency w =a/ x, te phere chit pecomes constant and the attenuation increases tepily 1, infinity. ZThus, a disturbance whose frequency components lie thin the range w=0 to 9/2 willbe transmitted though the simulated system with minimum distortion, a¢ tre, exact solution requires. Ifthe disturbance has components Outside this range, the simulation will not give the nan tfsPonse of the system, ie.the signal willbe distorted, 4 during its propagation through the finte dffersnee approximation : Phase ata Sayre © o20a 05 es Fig 1 Phase shift and atterwst.on v. frequency fo difference scheme (Eans (14) and (15)) ‘Trans Inet MC Vol 6, No 1, Jan-Mar 1988 Its valid f shsen 4.Sol The the hy} dhifere lines in (Street nay be tu ego cu ad & aes Since a Plot ass leristic The deri exactly may be Appene| Hete9 ae Where th “artied « Trans ing:ne unre yt oe pet fedihe system are known, then the number of pen shown tha, up 10a frequency w= a/2Ax. apt were witb dione {ransmission; thus it is required C3) ne gal fequencies of interest « Pee a Sa ae woo a6 sono HN, ese L= enh of em Tvs, 1 ) 2wh yoo teeyouta te noted that this xpresion for Nis ony «ge ethe peta cented ne lesen scheme + Ghosen here 4,Solution by method of characteristics The method of characterises may be wed to tasform snc ee paral differential equation into ex the nebo ijn which ae ony wad along partis “ag, esibesst pune, je the nate destin esi 2 wl, 1967s Lier, 1960) Bans (1) 2932) __ (ree arora to he fllowing pa of exact een may paatons, (ee Appendix 1) v edi VL yyj=o a6) ad ai Fig 1,ana Gee: ee on ae i undistorted : faze £44 ,0V, LF yyy=0 18) Ga tear ai 2D he phase shit sy ilyto fay onents ie ners gqce ain constant fora iven system, Eqn (17) 2n6 (19) ied trough ec suaght ines on the-x, «plane. These ae the charac: components teristic directions along: ‘hich Eqns (16) and (18) are valid. the true ‘The derivative terms in Eqns (16) and (18) can be expressed istorted ‘exactly in finite diff form, and if, ), the equations ly qt pe root feguced to the folowing expilscheme, (se paper 1) eee ie veteos [EH Hi.) Levi] 29 =| 4 ret mteas[for hs Fades #hd| -@D ls z ae ge fof” whee te subscript fand upescips refer fossil nd Poe dart sepments, respectively "yo secompli an orderly computer solution, gn of characteristics is established.a pipe of length L is considered 2y for finite % ine eifference grid spacing 1 Fi * 1 frequency content of disturbances likely to to be made up of NV equa-iengih segments, ie. Ax = 8 The grid time interval may be found from Eqns (17) and (19), t= Aaya ‘An error analysis of this characteristic scheme may be catried out by considering the wave equation solution Maudsley (Eqns (7).(8)) discretised in both time and space to give Vx Voexp (v1 wj At) exp (ids) ery H’= Hoexp(s/— 1 w) At) exp (vid) ee) G21,2,.66(N = Nand j= 1,2, Substituting into Eqns (20) and (21), and rearranging the resultant equations, gives exp (Jil wAt)= exp (72) = exp (ax - V=1B4x) Thus, exp(—a)= 1, 1e.0 = 0,no attenuation and war= Bax, wt ax @ since ra ax ona characteristic. ‘These are the two conditions for distortonless propagz tion, It should be noted that this result for the hyperbolic characteristic method is only valid when a finite difference frid can be established which is identical witha grid of Characteristics, ie, the condition Ax/1 =a, must hold Ina hyéraulic system, is constant. Thus, the method of ‘characteristics affords a solution to the particular hyper bolic differential equation considered, which agrees with the solution of the original equation, the wave equation, ie, distortion propagation 5. Example Consider a horizontal pipe with a fixed-head reservoir at the upstream end and a valve at the downstream end. The valve is intially fully open and a disturbance is introduced into the system by the gradual closure ofthe valve (Streeter and Wylie, 1967). Data for the example ae listed in “Appendix 2. ‘The dynamic equations for the system were given earlier as Eqns(1) and (2). The ordinary differential equations ‘vith spatial finite differences, Eqns (3) and (4), were Solved for various grid spacings using a fourth-order variable- stepdength Runge-Kutta integration routine, Note: inthis simulation example, fs no longer set to zero but has value of 0.019. Plotted as Fig 2 is the pressure disturbance at the valve during end afier its closure “The characteristic scheme, Eqns (20) and (21), has also been solved for this example for a characteristic grid with time increments Af of 0.216s, and segment length, Ax, fof 259 m, ie, with A'= 5. The result is plotted as Fig 26. Shorter segment lengths and times were tried in order to model the friction term, f, more efficiently; no difference in solution was obtained. The characteristic solution, being exact, may be used in comparison with the finite difference schemes also shown in Fig 2 “The finite difference result with N= 5, (Fig 2), showed signs of distortion, especially at the maxima and minima, e' £ ees | fay a ' Sn i i i) 2 8 0 @ 4 16 16 20 20 s i of eas : Pressure « 10°Nm 2 ° 2 4 6 8 0 a M16 18 20 | 6) 9-5 Coeractensves) wh ural) CRO Ie seid m5 pe Iom 20) Time, sece Fig 2 Pressure disturbance for example when compared with the result for V= 10 and the ‘characteristic result, (Fig 2c and d). With N= 2, (Fig 2a) an almost-pure sinusoid, shifted in phase from the charac- teristic result. is produced. Using the example date. Eqns (14) and (15) have been plotted as Fig 3 for various values of Ny ie, the solution scheme propagstion characteristics. ‘The example simulated is a tinite hyperbolic system and reflection of d'scurbances occurs. Pressure and velocity disturbances caused by the closure of the valve will be transmitted along the pipe and reflected back from the fixed head reservoir. The basic period of the disturbance in the system will be, T= 4L/a, ie, frequency w = maf2brs*= Lars, Fourier analysis of the characteristic result show it to bea neartrisngie wave, consisting ofa fundamental frequency 1.40 rs and odd harmonics with decreasing. amplitudes. these frequencies re indicated in Fig 3. With 2. Fig 3 snows that only the fundamental-trequency component wii be propagated by the finite uitference 10 ‘Attenuation foctor 02 4 6 a0 214 6 Frequency rod see 1320 Fig3 Phase shift and attenuation v. frequency for Finite Difference Scheme for values of N. ~—— Phase shift v. frequency for linear wave equation (Eqns (5) and (6)) scheme without attenuation, slthough shifted in phase fom the correct result, The higher harmonics are attenuated and their effect is negligible, leaving the fundamental asa pure sinusoid. The simulation result of Fig 2 supports this analysis. V= 10 allows the fundamental third and fith harmonies to be propagated through the system withost attenuation and only a distortion phase shift inthe fifth harmonic. Earlier it was shown that for no distortion N > 2wLlé ‘Assuming that up to the fifth harmonic i tobe transmited without distortion then N’> 16,and for up to thitd hharmonic/V> 10. These values are supported by the simul tion results of Fig 2. only the fundsmental i to be propagated without distortion, then N’ > 3. Fig 2a shows that, with W= 2,8. | pure sinusoid with the fundamental frequency in propagated: } Ie should be noted that this result sill gives an accurate estimate of the maximum valve of the pressure disturbasc® and the fundamental frequency. Thus, if only an estimate of the maximum value of disturbance is required. a very coarse discretisation ofthe equation wil suffice. Ths agrees with the (indings of Hayaski and Ransford (1960) and Harding (1974) for such a hydraulic system 6. Conclusion It has been shown that, for an accurate simulation of the pressure transients in a hydraulic system. care must be taken in the finite difference segmentation of the describiné hyperbolic partial differential equations. A linear hyper- bolic system has the characteristic of undistorted propas®™ tion of disturhances, this implies zero artensati. 7 and 2 lineat phase: frequency relationship. When finite diferent approximations are used, undistorted propagation is only 1984 ‘Trans Inst M € Vol 6, No 3, Jan=! prisible doth att torace develop vuppet fi sitferen peopaga Ap eens Refere Harding fret Hay ahi Clos APPE! ‘equati Gon nu eat’ de es ede eu us wel fines o along Vtg Fig Tran5 jcted frequency range, above this range ipl over at ble over a Tes ase distortion (dispersion), occur. muation an both an ileenc scream expesion has Deen Faces en ene & Ene i ves the minimum numberof finite ps ee ges Nb chon te sinotos roe ator example of 2 nontinear hydraulic system has aired thesis ovale theorte fevor anal { ioe N20 20 References ing, D_ A. 1974.‘A note onthe representation of pipe dig. On pressure surge analysis. BHRA, TN 826, popnhh Tad Ransford, G. 1960, Sudden Opening and yah g of an Outlet Vale in a Pipeline’, La Howie Blanche, 15 (6), 657 5 uuterM, 1960. The Numeria! Solution of Hyperboli eral Differential Equations by the Method of Cherac rate, Mathematical Methods for Digital Computers, {Ralston and Wilf e6s), Wiley and Son. Susster,V.L-and Wylie E, B. 1967. Hydraulic analysis, ‘McGraw-Hill APPENDIX 1 — Characteristic finite difference wr Finite live equations (se Streeter and Wylie (1967)) ie Consider Eqns (16), (17): (18) and (19) from section 4. phase from vivi=0 3 uated and 2D asa pure this (a2) sd fifth without - he fifth) ~ yiwieo (3) 2D > 2wbla ‘e te ated © ama of) tire a the simul” 4 5 constant, thus Eans (A2) and (A4) plot as straight Geen fineson thea, 1 plane, These are the characteristic directions reroute along which Eqns(A1) and (A3)are valid. Thus, rectangular propagated. , reeute disturbance estimate davery 1 This (1960) slation of the must be hhe describing zar hyper ed propage: jon anda te difference tion is only Fig 4 xt grid for characteristic solution Trane inst M/C Vo! 6, No 1, Jan=Ms: 1984 Aiauasiey avid can be set up and the finite difference approximations to (A1) 10 (Ad) established (see Fig 4), thus Ep = Had + Wp - Vad f Val Valllp ~ t4)=0 (AS) (As) (ep — Xa) =p 14) Ey Ha) * Wp ry Vp\¥a! (fp- to) =0 (AT), (A8) &, xp)= ally ~ ta) ‘These four equations suffice to find the four unknowns tp) Xp. Vp and Hp, and hence to determine a solution. A Eid of characteristics is established (see Fig 4), starting Sith known steady-state conditions at t= fo, then Vand Hare known at N + | sections, Ifthe time intervals are specified with the aid of Eqns (A6) and (AR), Ar= Ox/a = Teta = tp ~ tp and the characteristic lines from the etions intersect at other selected sections. That is the Characteristics from A and C (Fig 4) intersect at P, which is Section B, With this scheme, the caleulation of velocity at ‘any interior section is obtained by solving Eqns (AS) and (A1) for pi. eliminating Hpi. Fant [ra + Vier == ia ~ His) a fat FE yal ale Vested] (09) and simlasly for Hy 1y"05 [hia tls #2 Vina ~ Yin) afar 2 Maal YeuleaD} (aio) ‘These two equations permit the calculation of interior points of the grid if values of V and H are known at all Sections for the preceding time step, either as given initial ‘conditions or as the result of a previous stage of calculation. at Time section y Spotol 1-1 i it section Fig 5 Characteristic difference method notation u‘away ___ Fig S shows the subscript notation used. Introduc weer ice thine si eh ba yee TE ‘ete, and setting f= 0, Eqns (A9) and (A10) may be written as Eqns (20) and (21) in section 4, thus H1.)+hae Md) we(ALL) viteos[ Eu. a Hy t-os[2e7.-Vi.) 10s] (12) 5 APPENDIX 2 Data for example Length, = 1295 m Diameter, D=0.9 m Wavespeed,@ = 1208 m/s Friction coefficient, f= 0.019 Initial flow rate, Vo= 1.07 m/s Initial pressure at outlet, Ho 4m of water Ac ; the con ' by Prof J. 1. Introdu Compute analytical d praphical te computatio Such proces nonlinear s process can computers ofa limited which the a force measurement Institute. Contents ‘A Hligh Speed Weighcell, P. Hugrins Self Calibrating Balances, FE. Wagner CChristison Spit Electronic Balance, John Parkin Pitfalls of Industrial Weighing, E. Emmerson ‘Metrologia! Regulations for Lead Cells, Zohn J. Elengo Jr Patter Examination of Weighing Equipment, A. A. Gril ‘Welghingin the Glass Industy, J. W. Relton Development ofa Programmable Scale forthe Palnt Industry, Weightech 81- Weighing and Colfected papers from a conference at Harrogate on 30 Sept—20 Oct 1981, orzanised by the Industrial Weighing land Force Measurement Sub-Committee of the Measurement and Instrumentation Technology Panel of The Alfred E, Brendel ‘A Dynamic Transducer ~ Advantageous Results for Static and Process Weight Measurements, John L, G. Beaumont ‘Alignment Experiments: One Part of the Troughed Belt Weighing Research Programme at Warren Spring Laboratory, J, 4. Abbott 22 +2 Microprocessors Conttol Coal Blending, D. C. Farquharson, C. Kuiper and F. J. Turner ‘A Programmable Precision Instrument ofthe Accurtcy Clas 0.0005 for Strain Gauge Measurements, H. H. Scheel and M, Kreuter Harmonisation of European Weighing Machine Regulations, 6, F. Hodiman “The Limitations of Strain Gauge Load Cells Used as Foree Transfer Standards, R. F Jenkins Published by The Institute of Measurement and Control, 174 pages. £8.00 Créer from the Publications Department, Inst MC, 20 Peel St, London W8 7PD, quoting IB 45, 2 ‘Trans ing MC Vol 6, No 1, Jan—Mar 1964 aman other | use of hare further rest algorithms tunons and frequency such appro input mult event res The var a compreh | anextensi 1975). Em jad the pr facilities un the frec ulustrated 2. Analy tt app tener ft feedback, | saree particular Thus, an wide spp algorthn prefera A Nibrary x | beobia § useorhy | configur analysis to inclu be exam Dept of The Creu Trans ta i"