Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Oleg Kukharchuk
Oleg Kukharchuk
Approved Examiner Supervisor
Abstract
The main objective of this thesis project is to analyze some selected aspects of the feasibility study done in
connection with the planning of a new WtE (waste-to-energy) facility in the city of Donetsk, Ukraine.
The report pictures the present situation in Donetsk, existing infrastructure and national regulations,
selected location of the facility and suitable waste fuels for incineration, focusing on some important items
such as: land allocation and logistics; waste management strategy (collection and sorting, garbage trucks,
roads); fuel characteristics and incineration plant operational strategy; existing infrastructure and limitations
(city water system, natural gas system, electricity system, district heating system).
The study describes the technical solutions chosen for the WtE facility, the civil works and building service
systems, the operation and maintenance concept of the facility. The focus lies particularly on the general
technical design criteria - operational functions, availability and redundancy; the fuel handling process-
weighing, quality check, waste bunker, fuel treatment; the waste incinerator and steam boiler technology,
slag extracting system, hydraulic piping, auxiliary systems, boiler performance and steam data; the flue gas
cleaning system; the steam turbine and electrical generator drivetrain; and auxiliary systems.
Major attention is laid upon the operational strategy and functionality of the WtE complex involving the
waste incinerator and combined heat and power (CHP) plant, in order to be best adapted to the fuel resource
availability, environmental regulations, and the district heating network load profile.
SAMMANFATTNING
Huvudsyftet med detta examensarbete är att analysera några utvalda aspekter av
genomförbarhetsstudien som gjorts i samband med planeringen av en ny anläggning för
avfallsförbränning med energiutvinning (WtE) i Donetsk, Ukraina.
Rapporten beskriver den nuvarande situationen i Donetsk med befintlig infrastruktur och
nationella bestämmelser, utvald placering för anläggningen och lämpliga avfallsbränslen för
förbränning med inriktning på några viktiga föremål såsom markallokering och logistik. Också
andra detaljer är viktiga att diskuteras såsom avfallshanteringsstrategi (insamling och sortering,
sopbilar, vägar); bränsleegenskaper och förbränningsanläggningens operativa strategi; befintlig
infrastruktur och begränsningar (stadsvattensystem, naturgassystem, elsystem, fjärrvärmesystem).
Studien beskriver de tekniska lösningarna som valts för WtE-anläggningen, civilarbeten och
byggnadssystemen, anläggningens drift och underhållskoncept. Fokus ligger särskilt på de
allmänna tekniska designkriterierna - operativa funktioner, tillgänglighet och redundans;
bränslehanteringsprocessen - vägning, kvalitetskontroll, avfallsbunker, bränslebehandling;
avfallsförbränningsanläggning och ångpannteknik, slaggutdragningssystem, hydraulisk rörledning,
hjälpsystem, pannans prestanda och ångdata; rökgasreningssystemet; ångturbin och elgenerator;
och olika hjälpsystemen.
I would like to express my gratitude to Doctor Ivan
Kazachkov, who has helped and provided guidance
with this thesis. Without his help on some particular
topics, this thesis would never have been
completed.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................................... 2
Table of Figures ............................................................................................................................................. 5
Table of Tables .............................................................................................................................................. 7
List of Acronyms & abbreviations ................................................................................................................. 8
1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 9
1.1 Object of this work ........................................................................................................................ 9
1.2 Background .................................................................................................................................... 9
1.3 Description of conditions ............................................................................................................ 10
1.3.1 General condition ................................................................................................................ 10
1.3.2 Land allocation .................................................................................................................... 10
1.4 Waste management .................................................................................................................... 13
1.4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 13
1.4.2 Collection and sorting ......................................................................................................... 13
1.4.3 Garbage trucks .................................................................................................................... 13
1.4.4 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 14
1.4.5 Roads ................................................................................................................................... 14
1.5 Fuels ............................................................................................................................................ 14
1.5.1 Characteristics of solid fuels ................................................................................................ 14
1.5.2 Characteristics of natural gas .............................................................................................. 15
1.6 Existing infrastructure ................................................................................................................. 15
1.6.1 City water ............................................................................................................................ 15
1.6.2 Natural gas .......................................................................................................................... 15
1.6.3 Electricity ............................................................................................................................. 15
1.6.4 District heating system ........................................................................................................ 15
2 Technical description of WtE facility ................................................................................................... 20
2.1 General technical design criteria ................................................................................................. 20
2.1.1 Operational functions.......................................................................................................... 20
2.1.2 Availability and redundancy ................................................................................................ 20
2.2 General technical outline of the WtE facility .............................................................................. 21
2.3 Fuel handling ............................................................................................................................... 23
2.3.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 23
2
2.3.2 Weighing ............................................................................................................................. 24
2.3.3 Quality check ....................................................................................................................... 24
2.3.4 Waste bunker ...................................................................................................................... 25
2.3.5 Travelling crane ................................................................................................................... 25
2.3.6 Fuel treatment .................................................................................................................... 26
2.4 Boiler ........................................................................................................................................... 26
2.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 26
2.4.2 Grate boiler technology ...................................................................................................... 27
2.4.3 Slag extracting system ......................................................................................................... 30
2.4.4 Hydraulic station ................................................................................................................. 30
2.4.5 Performance and steam data .............................................................................................. 30
2.4.6 Design of furnace and convection part ............................................................................... 30
2.4.7 Heat absorbing surfaces and pressurized vessels ............................................................... 31
2.4.8 Evaporator surfaces............................................................................................................. 31
2.4.9 Vertical pass ........................................................................................................................ 32
2.4.10 Horizontal pass .................................................................................................................... 32
2.4.11 Auxiliary systems ................................................................................................................. 34
2.5 Flue gas cleaning system ............................................................................................................. 37
2.5.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 37
2.5.2 Description of technology ................................................................................................... 38
2.5.3 Reduction of nitrogen oxides (deNOx) ................................................................................ 40
2.5.4 Flue gas fan .......................................................................................................................... 41
2.5.5 Stack pipe ............................................................................................................................ 41
2.5.6 Equipment for measurement of emissions ......................................................................... 42
2.6 Steam turbine .............................................................................................................................. 43
2.6.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 43
2.6.2 Working principle ................................................................................................................ 43
2.6.3 Design parameters .............................................................................................................. 45
2.6.4 Turbine type ........................................................................................................................ 46
2.6.5 Auxiliary and bleed steam ................................................................................................... 47
2.6.6 Electric generator ................................................................................................................ 47
2.6.7 Turbine gear ........................................................................................................................ 48
2.6.8 Auxiliary systems ................................................................................................................. 48
2.7 Auxiliary systems ......................................................................................................................... 51
2.7.1 Internal district heating ....................................................................................................... 51
3
2.7.2 Process cooling system........................................................................................................ 52
2.7.3 Make up water production ................................................................................................. 52
2.7.4 Ammonia system ................................................................................................................. 53
2.7.5 Compressed air system ....................................................................................................... 53
2.7.6 Water system ...................................................................................................................... 53
2.7.7 Water sampling station ....................................................................................................... 55
2.8 Electrification of the facility ........................................................................................................ 55
2.9 Instrumentation and automation ............................................................................................... 57
2.9.1 Boiler control system .......................................................................................................... 58
2.9.2 Flue gas cleaning control system ........................................................................................ 58
2.9.3 Turbine control system ....................................................................................................... 58
2.10 Residue management.................................................................................................................. 58
2.10.1 Slag ...................................................................................................................................... 58
2.10.2 Scrap iron ............................................................................................................................ 58
2.10.3 Fly ash .................................................................................................................................. 59
2.11 Interconnection points ................................................................................................................ 62
2.11.1 Roads ................................................................................................................................... 62
2.11.2 District heating .................................................................................................................... 63
2.11.3 Electricity ............................................................................................................................. 65
2.11.4 Natural gas .......................................................................................................................... 67
2.11.5 City water ............................................................................................................................ 67
2.11.6 Sewage ................................................................................................................................ 68
3 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 70
References ................................................................................................................................................... 79
4
Table of Figures
Figure 1 Map of Ukraine with the city of Donetsk marked
Figure 2 The Proletarskij district
Figure 3 Closest housing accommodation to the WtE facility
Figure 4 The site of the WtE facility
Figure 5 View of the Larinsky landfill, Donetsk
Figure 6 Garbage truck from GreenCo
Figure 7 The district heating system in Donetsk
Figure 8 General process design of the WtE
Figure 9 Fuel reception in the WtE facility
Figure 10 Example of weigh‐bridge
Figure 11 Example of waste bunker
Figure 12 Example of travelling crane with grab
Figure 13 Grate boiler with furnace, empty passes and convection part
Figure 14 Example of a fuel feeding system
Figure 15 Example of a moving grate for a waste boiler
Figure 16 Waste incineration on a mechanical grate
Figure 17 Example of boiler tubes (boiler wall)
Figure 18 Example of possible SH arrangement
Figure 19 Example of feed water tank
Figure 20 Example of a combustion air system
Figure 21 Example of gas burner
Figure 22 Example of pneumatic hammer
Figure 23 Schematic outline of the flue gas cleaning process
Figure 24 Example of a bag house filter construction
Figure 25 Filter bag with filter supporting basket
Figure 26 Example of flue gas fans
Figure 27 3D view of a Siemens steam turbine
Figure 28 Cross section of a reaction steam turbine
Figure 29 Principal design of Donetsk WtE steam turbine
Figure 30 Working principle of impulse and reaction turbines
Figure 31 Synchronous generator from Alstom. The stator windings (orange) surround the rotor
magnet (metallic blue)
Figure 32 Principal design of a shell and tube heat exchanger
Figure 33 Principal diagram of the air cooled condenser
Figure 34 Example of dry air cooler battery
Figure 35 Example of compressed air tanks
Figure 36 Example of water sampling station
Figure 37 Examples of transformer, MV and LV switchgear
Figure 38 Example of large and small FC drives respectively
Figure 39 Example of mixing station for fly ash treatment
Figure 40 Landfill structure with mineral sealing layers and coverage layers
Figure 41 Layout of the new roads and the connection points to the existing road network
Figure 42 Layout of the new district heating interconnection pipe
Figure 43 Principal diagram of the interconnection
Figure 44 Principal of connection of the interconnecting pipe to the existing boiler house
Figure 45 Layout of the electricity cable and the connection point to the electricity grid
Figure 46 Layout of the new natural gas pipe and the connection point to the existing natural gas
system
5
Figure 47 Layout of the new city water pipe and the connection to the city water system
Figure 48 Layout of the sewage pipe and the connection point to the existing sewage system
Figure 49 Schematic future load
Figure 50 Annual fuel flow
6
Table of Tables
Table 1 Heating value, water content and ash content
Table 2 Properties of natural gas
Table 3 Specification of the different districts
Table 4 Efficiency of the boilers and heat loss in the district heating systems
Table 5 Supplied heat and gas consumption
Table 6 Water consumption
Table 7 Not allowed fuels
Table 8 Data of live steam to the turbine
Table 9 Data for internal district heating system
Table 10 City water quality
Table 11 Chemical composition of fly ash
Table 12 Data for the new roads
Table 13 Data for the heat production in the new WtE facility
Table 14 Electricity production of the WtE facility
Table 15 Data for the electricity connection cable
Table 16 Data for the natural gas
Table 17 Data for the city waste
Table 18 Data for the sewage water
Table 19 Daily average values and half hour average values, emission limits set by law in
the Waste Incineration Directive compared to expected actual emission values
after flue gas cleaning
Table 20 Average values measured over the sample period of a minimum of 30 minutes and a
maximum of 8 hours, emission limits set by law in the Waste Incineration Directive
compared to expected actual emission values after flue gas cleaning
Table 21 Average values which shall be measured over a sample period of a minimum of 6 hours
and a maximum of 8 hours, emission limits set by law in the Waste Incineration Directive
compared to expected actual emission values after flue gas cleaning
Table 22 Maximum permitted sound levels for work areas
Table 23 Production figures (2x50 MW steam power) [MWh]
Table 24 Estimated annual natural gas consumption for two waste‐fired boilers
Table 25 Approximate mass balance for a 100 MW WtE facility
Table 26 Estimated annual emissions
7
List of Acronyms & abbreviations
8
1 Introduction
1.1 Object of this work
The object of this work is to find feasibility of erection of WtE facility in Donetsk, Ukraine, regarding
present situation in Donetsk:
existing infrastructure and national regulations;
possible location of the facility;
suitable fuels for incineration.
Also determine the technical solutions for the WtE facility, civil works and building service systems,
operation and maintenance concept of the facility.
1.2 Background
Today in Ukraine, almost all municipal waste is put on landfills, no energy is recycled and the
environmental impacts are severe. To satisfy the energy demand, large amounts of natural gas are
imported from Russia. The government of Ukraine is now aiming to improve the environment in a
rational way and to provide the nation with renewable energy
The city of Donetsk is the fourth biggest city in Ukraine, located in the south east of the country, see
Figure 1. The area of the territory of Donetsk is 26 500 km2 and has approximately 1.1 million
inhabitants, in total 1.6 million if the metropolitan area is included.
Figure 1 Map of Ukraine with the city of Donetsk marked [1]
In 2015 approximately 470 000 tons of municipal waste was collected in Donetsk [2]. Today, the
largest part of the waste is deposited in landfills. The city of Donetsk has five landfill areas situated
between 5 and 40 km from the city. Larinsky, Petrovsky, Chulkovsky and SVD+ receive solid municipal
waste. Close to the Larinsky landfill there is also another landfill for industrial waste. The Larinsky
landfill does not fulfill the environmental regulations and will be closed in the future, the Petrovsky
landfill fulfills the environmental regulations but will be full in 2‐4 years and the Chulkovsky landfill has
already been closed since it did not fulfill the regulations [3].
The capacity of the landfills is limited and a substantial part of the municipal waste is deposited in
unapproved landfills. Altogether this means that the waste situation in the country is rather harsh.
Erecting a number of WtE facilities in Ukraine contributes to improving the problem with growing
9
waste volumes in the country and it also meets the demand for a stable and efficient, clean energy
supply
10
Figure 2 The Proletarskij district [1]
The distance from the site to the closest existing boiler house is around 3.5 km and the SVD+ landfill is
also located in proximity to the suggested site.
In Figure 3 a map of the closest housing accommodations is shown.
11
Figure 3 Closest housing accommodation to the WtE facility [1]
The projected site has an area of 30 hectares and has in the past served as a supply area for high
explosives which implies that a soil remediation may be required. In former times, the mining
industry was prospering in the Proletarskij district and due to this the site is covered with underground
passages which may aggravate the civil works. Figure 4 shows a view of the selected site in the Proletarskij
district
Figure 4 The site of the WtE facility [4]
12
1.4 Waste management
1.4.1 Introduction
According to the municipal waste transportation company and the city waste authority in Donetsk
there are both municipal and private waste companies in the city today. About 60% of the waste is
handled by private waste companies and 40% by municipal waste companies. Donetsk is divided into
nine districts and the contracts on waste transportation from each district are renewed on an annual
basis. Today, three districts are contracted by municipal companies while six districts are contracted by
private companies.
Figure 5 View of the Larinsky landfill, Donetsk [4]
13
trucks have a pushing mechanism while smaller trucks have a tilting mechanism [3]. Figure 6 shows a
garbage truck from GreenCo
Figure 6 Garbage truck from GreenCo [5]
1.4.4 Summary
The waste management in Donetsk is poorly organized. The garbage trucks are not weighed when
entering the landfill facility and the amount of collected waste is therefore not recorded. Payment of the
waste collecting service is controlled by the waste collecting companies and not all citizens
connected to the service pay their fee. According to a poll made in 2014 in the Donetsk region, 64% of
the persons interviewed were not satisfied with the quality of the waste management [2]. Furthermore,
the containers in the residential areas, as well as the garbage trucks, are in a bad condition and
replacement or service of the device is required.
1.4.5 Roads
The roads will connect to the existing roads in the city. The new roads will be built to endure the
heavy transports made during erection of the new WtE facility. The transports to and from the
facility will mainly be waste transports, transports of chemicals needed for the process and transports
of ash from the WtE facility.
1.5 Fuels
1.5.1 Characteristics of solid fuels
The new WtE facility will incinerate solid municipal waste. Data concerning water and ash content and
effective heating value of the solid fuel mixture expected to be incinerated in the WtE facility, as an hourly
average value, are shown in Table 1 below.
Table 1 Heating value, water content and ash content
Data regarding the effective heating value of 7 MJ/kg shown in Table 1 is taken from a Tacis project that
took place in 2013‐2014. During the project 72 containers of solid municipal waste from the Donetsk
area were examined considering the composition of waste. Based on this study an effective heating
value of 6.78 MJ/kg was calculated. The estimated effective heating value of the municipal waste in
Donetsk also corresponds well to information given by the director and head engineer at the MSW
incineration facility owned and operated by Kiev Energo, Ukraine. The municipal waste incinerated in
this facility today has an effective heating value of 6.7‐7.1 MJ/kg.
14
The heating value of the municipal waste in Ukraine has increased during the years. According to
information from Kiev Energo, when the MSW incineration facility in Kiev was taken into operation in
1987 the waste had an effective heating value of 3.3‐4.2 MJ/kg. Today the heating value has increased
distinctly and is around 7 MJ/kg.
The density of the municipal waste in Donetsk is, according to the municipal waste transportation
company and the city waste authority, normally around 250 kg/m3.
Table 2 Properties of natural gas [3]
1.6.3 Electricity
The closest electrical substation is located at a distance of 2.8 km from the WtE facility and is owned by
the private company DTEC. In the Proletarskij area, there are distribution lines of 35 and 330 kV
which are located within one kilometer.
15
2600 MW in the Donetsk area. The district heating nets supply the connected consumers with both hot
tap water and heat.
The Proletarskij area has five existing district heating nets. Each district heating net consists of one
boiler house with a number of gas fired boilers and a number of thermal stations where the heat is
transferred to the consumer’s heating system and tap water system. The nets are called:
District 11‐18 – one thermal station
District 11‐38 – thermal station integrated in boiler house
District Tsvetochniy – two thermal stations
District 2 – nine thermal stations
District 22‐30 – no thermal station
The different districts are shown in Figure 7 below.
Figure 7 The district heating system in Donetsk [3]
The heat transfer in the thermal station is performed by heat exchangers. The first step is the
production of tap water. The district heating water is led through a heat exchanger and heat is
transferred to the consumer’s net of tap water. The tap water should have a temperature of at least
16
60°C after heat exchange to avoid growth of bacteria in the system. The consumption of tap water is
compensated by refilling of fresh water.
After production of tap water the system for heat is connected in series. Heat from the district
heating net is transferred to the heating system in the premises by heat exchangers.
The leakage from the district heating net is compensated by refilling of district heating water in the
boiler houses.
Production of heat in the boilers and consumption of natural gas in the different districts for year
2013‐2015 is shown in Table 5. The water replenishment in the district heating net and the
consumption of tap water in the thermal stations is shown in Table 6 below. The figures shown in Table
6 are the sum of the consumption at the different thermal stations in every district.
17
Table 3 Specification of the different districts [3]
District 11‐18 District 11‐38 District Tsvetochniy District 2 District 22‐30
Connected capacity
District heating (Gcal/h) 16.3 14.6 30.1 57.0 13.0
Hot water supply (Gcal/h) 6.5 9.7 28.2 48.5 5.5
Steam supply (Gcal/h) 0.6 ‐ ‐ ‐
Designed capacity of the boiler house 23.3 24.9 133.5 125.3 18.5
(Gcal/h)
Type of boilers 3 x PVG‐8m 3 x PVG‐8m ‐ 3 x PTVM 30 m 2 x PVG‐8m
2 x DKVR 4/13 2 x DKVR 4/13 1 x TVG‐4r
Total length of district heating net (m) 25 240 12 620 ‐ 53 702 18 840
Total length of hot water supply net (m) 6 643 5 212 ‐ 26 958 5 012
Table 4 Efficiency of the boilers and heat loss in the district heating systems [3]
District Boiler efficiency Heat loss (%)
2013 2014 2015
District 11‐18 85‐92% 13.1 12.5 12.5
District 11‐38 92% 12.1 11.8 14.2
District Tsvetochniy 90% summer, 92% winter 13.1 14.3 11.7
District 2 92% 14.3 15.5 13.4
District 22‐30 92% 12.6 14.1 14.3
18
Table 5 Supplied heat and gas consumption [3]
2012 2013 2014 2015
District Supplied heat Gas consumption Supplied heat Gas consumption Supplied heat Gas consumption Supplied heat Gas consumption
(Gcal) (m3) (Gcal) (m3) (Gcal) (m3) (Gcal) (m3)
District 11‐18 35478 6212839 29 625 5 236 107 29 910 5 209 342 28 490 4 774 848
District 11‐38 46505 7794776 39 832 6 622 015 36 321 6 047 813 30 857 5 232 396
District Tsvetochiny 84245 13727250 73 479 12 144 604 73 480 12 313 373 69 560 11 100 314
District 2 158293 26116565 143 729 23 772 464 134 775 22 950 165 129 307 21 259 119
District 22‐30 31017 5 282 177 26 989 4 508 955 25 176 4 224 056 22 898 3 259 638
Table 6 Water consumption [3]
District Unit 2012 2013 2014 2015
District 11‐18 m3 45 064 41 564 34 300 34 947
Thermal stations m3 93 742 111 148 103 236 71 950
District 11‐38 m3 350 570 327 946 352 493 263 642
Thermal stations m3 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐
District Tsvetochiny m3 60 607 75 591 60 925 85 973
Thermal stations m3 620 211 576 526 563 855 496 686
District 2 m3 153 819 132 154 115 840 96 084
Thermal stations m3 1 079 605 968 331 945 635 852 314
District 22‐30 m3 197 132 148 113 132 515 116 000
Thermal stations m3 ‐
19
2 Technical description of WtE facility
2.1 General technical design criteria
The WtE facility shall be designed for an operational lifetime of at least 200 000 hours. This applies to all
major parts of the facility except for the boiler furnace, protective evaporator and superheaters due to
corrosion caused by the flue gas.
The main criteria for selection of technologies for the WtE facility are investment, operation and
maintenance costs, energy production, incineration capacity, annual gross operation time, availability,
proven technology, flexibility with regards to capacity and usage, steam data, minimization of
landfill products, inner and outer environment etc. The weight of each criterion differs between
different types of facilities and also to some degree between different projects. The specific valuation
basis of the purchaser will also affect the weighting process.
When constructing WtE facilities, there are a few criteria which always outweigh the others. These are:
Annual gross operation time
Availability
A good outer environment through low emission levels
Proven technology
21
Air cooled
Activated Hydrated
Power
High
Combustion pressure G
District
Condensate Mixer
Ammonia Baghouse
Low
ID fan
pressure
Steam
boiler
Fuel bunker
receiving hall for
waste
Fuel
Feed water
City Water
Water
Figure 8 General process design of the WtE
22
2.3 Fuel handling
2.3.1 General
The WtE facility will be designed to incinerate solid municipal waste. Table 7 below shows a list
containing fuels not accepted in the facility.
Table 7 Not allowed fuels
Non‐conforming waste Description
Hazardous waste Explosives, chemicals, solvents, fluorescent lamps, oil, mercury,
thermometers, batteries etc. and other
Hazardous Waste as defined in European List of wastes
(2000/532/EC) as amended replaced or re‐ enacted
from time to time
Electronic products TV and radio sets, computers, mobile phones, coffee machines etc.
Bulky items Maximum size of solid fuel pieces is limited to 1.1 m for one
dimension, 0.7x0.7 m for two dimensions and
0.5x0.5x0.5 m for three dimensions.
Objects made of metal and other Steel objects, furniture and construction material (insulation
non‐compositional materials material, stone, concrete etc.)
Rubber tires No larger fractions
Large stumps and branches, large quantities of wet organic materials
Heavy park and garden waste (leaves, fruit etc.)
Hard compressed materials and
bundles Construction material and industrial waste
Very dusty waste Saw dust or any large concentration of dusty waste
Monofraction [any]
Unacceptable heating value Waste with a heating value below 6 MJ/kg
Clinical waste Medicine, chemicals, amalgam waste, sharps etc.
Malodorous waste Sludge from sewage treatment etc.
Liquid waste Large quantities of beverages etc.
Drummed waste Edible oil etc.
Fire extinguishers [any]
Gas bottles [any]
Animal carcasses and tissue waste [any]
Radioactive materials From measuring equipments
Snow and ice [any]
The WtE facility will be designed for reception of waste from 00:00 Monday morning until 24:00
Saturday night. The WtE facility requires 1440 tons of waste per 24 hours with two lines in operation and
720 tons per 24 hours when one line is out of operation because of maintenance work. The fuel handling
equipment for the WtE facility consists of the following components:
Weigh‐bridges
Reception hall
Waste bunker
Two overhead travelling cranes
Charging hoppers for the boilers
When entering the WtE facility the garbage trucks will pass a weigh‐bridge for recording of incoming
waste. After that the trucks unload the waste into different slots in the waste bunker in a closed
receiving hall.
The waste in the waste bunker is fed to the boilers with cranes and fuel feeders. The cranes will be
used for both mixing of fuel in the waste bunker and for feeding of fuel to the boiler. The waste is
transferred via the fuel feeders into the boiler. In Figure 9 an outline of the fuel reception in the WtE
23
facility is shown.
Figure 9 Fuel reception in the WtE facility
2.3.2 Weighing
There will be two weigh‐bridges at the WtE facility; one for incoming garbage trucks and the other for
outgoing trucks. By weighing the trucks twice the difference in weight can be calculated and the amount
of received municipal waste can be registered. Additionally, slag and fly ash transports from the facility
are also weighed. The weigh‐bridges will be manned with personnel supervising the weighing and
video cameras will enable monitoring also from the control room. The weigh bridge station will also
be provided with a radioactivity detection system. Figure 10 below shows an example of a weigh‐
bridge for trucks.
Figure 10 Example of weigh‐bridge [4]
24
2.3.4 Waste bunker
After weighing, the garbage trucks will enter the tipping hall for unloading the waste into the waste
bunker. To avoid congestion, the different tipping bays will be provided with traffic lights.
The waste bunker will be designed for a storage volume of approximately 16 000 m3, which corresponds
to a waste storage of about two days. The waste bunker must be large enough to make mixing of the
incoming waste possible. A homogenous fuel mixture is essential to achieve a good incineration.
Concerning risk of fire and explosions, the bunker will be equipped with firefighting equipment, i.e.
foam and water cannons, in order to handle fires that may start in the bunker area. The bunker area will
be exposed to large amounts of dust and special care has to be taken to reduce the possibilities for
accumulation of dust in order to reduce the risk of dust explosions. This is important to keep in mind
while planning the design of the civil works of the bunker area; beams must be orientated correctly
and unnecessary platforms should be avoided. Figure 11 below shows a picture of a waste bunker
Figure 11 Example of waste bunker [6]
Figure 12 Example of travelling crane with grab [6]
2.4 Boiler
2.4.1 General
The boiler consists of furnace, empty passes and a convection part. The fuel is combusted on a grate in
the furnace and the hot flue gases are led to the convection part. After the furnace, there are two vertical
and empty passes before the flue gases enter the horizontal or vertical convection part. In the
convection part, the energy in the flue gases is transferred to the water/steam cycle and the flue gases
are cooled to a temperature which is appropriate for the flue gas cleaning process.
26
Figure 13 Grate boiler with furnace, empty passes and convection part
27
Figure 14 Example of a fuel feeding system [7]
Each grate lane has its own fuel feeder that feeds fuel on the grate. The feeder rams are located in a
common housing, but can be controlled individually in order to distribute the fuel uniformly over the
grate. The fronts of the feeders are protected by wear plats that can be exchanged during overhaul.
The grate is movable and inclined to secure mixing and thereby complete incineration of the waste.
Less than 3% (mass) of the bottom ash will be unburned. Every second row of grate bars is fixed and the
waste is pushed forward by a reciprocating movement of the other grate rows, attached to each other
via a grate truck or grate carriage. In this way, the fuel is mixed and moved forward to the slag shaft,
see Figure 15 below. The movement of the grate bars is achieved by hydraulic oil powered pistons.
The grate is divided into two or more lanes and between three and five sections. Each lane and section
should have its own driving equipment.
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Figure 15 Example of a moving grate for a waste boiler [8]
In the beginning of each grate lane, the fuel is not supposed to burn – instead this zone is intended for
drying of the fuel. Then the ignition zone where fuel starts burning follows. The middle of the grate
consists of the combustion zone which is followed by the final zone; the burnout zone where most of
the fuel has already been incinerated and mostly slag will be left. The primary air can be controlled
individually between the various zones in order to adjust the combustion. A grate in operation is
shown in Figure 16 below.
The grate is made of high‐temperature alloyed and durable cast steel. Primary air for the combustion is
introduced into the furnace via a duct system through the grate, i.e. between the grate bars. In this way,
the air also cools the grate to an appropriate temperature. Sometimes the grate has to be cooled
by water as well, but air cooling will be sufficient for WtE Donetsk because of the relatively low heating
value of the fuel.
Figure 16 Waste incineration on a mechanical grate [9]
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2.4.3 Slag extracting system
The slag extraction will be performed by a ram type slag extractor. The grate is connected to the
extractor via a slag shaft, through which the combustion residues will fall down after burn out of the
waste at the end of the grate. Together with small pieces of bottom ash, so called siftings, which will fall
between the grate bars, the slag is collected in the water bath of the wet ram type slag extractor. The
water level in the wet ram type slag extractor is kept constant by means of a level indicator and is
adjusted in such a way that the gas seal in the discharge chute is ensured. To avoid pollution by vapors
from the discharged warm slag, the outlet area of the slag extractor is encapsulated. The vaporish
air will be sucked off via vapor hoods and mixed to the secondary air system.
The slag is pushed from the water bath by means of a pusher and is transferred to a conveyor that
transports the slag that will be tipped directly on the concrete floor. The conveyor is followed by a
second conveyor moving perpendicular to the first conveyor. The second conveyor can be run in two
directions. Due to this the slag will be tipped along the whole conveyor instead of in just one large
heap. A metal separator will be installed at the second conveyor. The slag will be collected by a front
loader and transported from the WtE facility by a truck.
30
The furnace volume of the first pass will be around 840‐1500 m3 depending on the future elected
boiler manufacturer. Design pressure from the flue gas side is 33 mbar (calculated with 1.5 x safety
margin).
Figure 17 Example of boiler tubes (boiler wall) [10]
2.4.10.2 Superheaters
After the protective evaporator the superheaters – SH – follow. The flue gas temperature should not be
more than 650°C before the first superheater in order to minimize the risk of corrosion. There are
normally three superheaters and between each pair there is a steam cooler, i.e. two steam coolers in
total for three superheaters: one between SH1 and SH2 and one between SH2 and SH3. The steam
temperature after SH1 and SH2 must always be lower than after SH3, which is the final superheater, in
32
order to minimize the risk of corrosion. In principle it is always best to put the coldest superheater SH1
– first in the flue gas stream and the hottest – SH3 – last in the flue gas stream. Additionally, it is best
to have all superheaters connected concurrent with the flue gas stream. It is impossible however
to achieve a heat balance with these demands. An example of a possible SH arrangement after the
protective evaporator may be (the surfaces are listed in flue gas stream direction):
SH3 concurrent
SH1 counter‐current
SH2 counter‐current
Figure 18 Example of possible SH arrangement
The most important requirement is that SH3 is not first in the flue gas stream and counter‐current
connected at the same time. This leads to too high material temperatures and corrosion. The supplier
must present a temperature diagram for the flue gas and steam so the risk for corrosion can be
determined. The corrosion properties of the superheaters can be improved by choosing high‐alloy
materials but the result is not as great as with the evaporators. No part of the superheaters is
allowed to be hotter than the exit of SH3. SH1 and SH2 as well as the protective evaporator must be
dimensioned in this way.
Waste boilers have traditionally been fitted with drains on the superheaters which – at least in most
cases – other boilers have not. This could be because older waste boilers were mostly used for waste
destruction (with no power generation) and thus had bad water quality. This is no longer the case.
Waste fired boilers have just as high water quality as other boilers. It is therefore recommended that
drains on superheaters are excluded. Drains underneath superheaters have rather big problems with
corrosion, since these tubes are normally without cooling and therefore suffer from higher material
temperatures than other tubes.
2.4.10.3 Economizer
An economizer is a heat exchanger that heats the feed water almost to the boiling point before the
feed water enters the steam drum. The economizer is located last in the flue gas stream. There is no risk
of high temperature corrosion in the economizer, which is the case in the passes and superheaters.
It will be expensive if the economizer is located in the horizontal pass since the heat transfer coefficient
in such a boiler is rather low, making the economizer large. It also takes up a lot of space. Therefore,
the last part of the economizer will be made vertical, which is however less favorable from the point
of view of cleaning.
The economizer is made out of carbon steel and has a normal tube outer diameter of 33.7 mm. Inlet
water temperature should be approximately 130°C to prevent low temperature corrosion.
33
In the first part of the economizer the tube walls can have a bigger fin width – approximately 50 mm –
without problems. In the last part of the economizer, where the flue gas temperature is below 300°C,
the walls may be non‐cooled and made of sheet steel.
Figure 19 Example of feed water tank [4]
The feed water pumps take water from the feed water tank and supplies the boiler. The pumps must
always be available for supplying the boiler with water and thus replacing the steam which leaves the
boiler. It is extremely important that the pumps are always running when the boiler is in operation. If this
fails, the boiler will run out of water and the tubes will be destroyed. In order to secure the feed water
supply, the pumps have to be redundant, either with two 100% pumps or using three 50% pumps.
In the first case, one pump will always be in operation and the other one serves as back up. In the latter
case, two pumps are always in operation, using one pump as back up. The feed water supply has to be
secured also in the case of electrical power failure. This is obtained by using a diesel powered backup
generator or an emergency feed water pump powered by steam – as long as there is a need for feed
water, high pressure steam will be available.
Figure 20 Example of a combustion air system [11]
Figure 21 Example of gas burner [4]
2.4.11.4 Cleaning
During operation of the boiler, fly ash will form a layer on the walls and tubes and it will continuously
grow thicker making the heat transfer less efficient. It is therefore important to clean the bundles
during operation. There are several cleaning technologies available, all with their own advantages and
disadvantages and more or less suitable depending on the type of boiler.
There will be a great need for cleaning of the tube bundles, but it may also be necessary to clean the
walls of the empty passes during operation. The boiler will therefore be prepared for installation of a
soot cleaning system in the empty passes. If this cleaning system is installed, it will use high pressure
water for cleaning the walls in the boiler.
Since the superheaters are located in a horizontal pass, there are several advantages when cleaning
them. The tubes are in a hanging position and particles which fall off the tubes can be collected in
hoppers underneath and the fly ash be transported off in a separate mechanical system. In a vertical
pass, the tubes are arranged horizontally and there is a risk that falling dust will cause clogging on the
tubes underneath. In a horizontal pass, the most suitable cleaning method is rapping, which means
that the steam headers are struck with a hammer. This causes the tubes to vibrate and the ash to fall off.
The mechanical blow can be applied either with hammers attached to a rotating shaft alongside the
boiler or by a pneumatic hammer that travels on a rail along the boiler and can hit headers at several
positions. In Figure 22 a picture of a pneumatic hammer is shown.
36
Figure 22 Example of pneumatic hammer [4]
A rapping system cannot be used if the tubes are arranged horizontally since the headers are not
available from the outside. The advantages when it comes to cleaning are the most important
reasons for not locating the superheaters in a vertical drag.
The economizer will be located in a vertical pass after the superheaters. For the above mentioned
reasons, rapping is not possible in this case. Cleaning of the economizer will be made by ball shot
cleaning or by vibrating pneumatic cleaning. Vibrating cleaning is based on pistons that operate on
compressed air. The vibrations are transferred via the pistons to the tubes, which make the ash come off.
Ball shot cleaning may be used for cleaning the economizer. In this case, small metal balls are
circulated in the vertical pass. The balls are typically made of aluminum and are dropped from the top
of the vertical pass and collected again in a hopper in the bottom of the pass together with the ash.
After the balls and ash have been separated, the balls are sent back to the top of the boiler. A condition
for using this technology is that the economizer tubes are arranged in a zigzag pattern in order to
expose all the tubes to the metal balls.
2.4.11.5 Materials
The choice of tube materials on superheaters, evaporator tubes and economizers in the furnace and flue
gas channel are critical for a good and stable boiler operation. Materials should be selected on the
basis of their durability, corrosion/erosion resistance, heat resistance, heat conductivity and strength.
In a waste incineration steam boiler with a grate furnace, steam data of 40 bar/400°C are normal. In such
conditions, the risk of high temperature corrosion‐related damages are relatively small if the boiler is
properly designed, with flue gas temperatures lower than 650°C before the superheaters. With a
superheated (steam) temperature below 400°C, no special materials are needed in the superheater
tubes. Regular carbon pressure vessel steel tubes are sufficient for all tubes except for the final
superheater where alloy‐treated steel is adequate. These materials are relatively cheap and easy to
replace.
37
2.5.2 Description of technology
The principal for the flue gas cleaning in the WtE facility is additions of absorbents to the flue gases that
reacts with the pollutants in the flue gas and are then separated from the flue gases in a bag house
filter. In Figure 23 a schematic outline of the flue gas cleaning principal layout of the flue gas cleaning
system
Figure 23 Schematic outline of the flue gas cleaning process
2.5.2.1 Absorbents
Pollutants in the flue gas react with the absorbents and result in a dry residue containing unwanted
substances. The absorbents normally used are hydrated/slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) and activated carbon
stored in separate silos. The lime binds acidic gases like HCl and SO2 and the activated carbon binds
dioxins and heavy metals. The injection of lime and activated carbon is controlled by analyzing the
outgoing flue gas flow.
To get a proper quality of the hydrated lime, quick lime (CaO) will be purchased and slaking equipment
will be erected. The quick lime will be delivered to a silo from where it is transported to a dry slaker. The
dry slaker is a closed unit containing a screw conveyer where water is added and the reaction takes
place. The excess vapor from the dry slaker is transported to the filter. The hydrated lime is transported
to a collection vessel and from the vessel the hydrated lime is transported pneumatically to the
silo for hydrated lime. In case of malfunction of the slaking equipment, hydrated lime can be ordered
and stoppage of the WtE facility can be avoided. There can be variations of the design of the slaking
unit, but the main components should be the same.
38
The absorbents are added in the flue gas duct before a reactor unit or direct into the reactor, prior to the
bag house filter. The absorption and reaction is initiated directly. The absorbents are added in a dry
state but water can be added in the reactor. An amount of the used absorbents are recirculated to the
reactor or to the flue gas duct before the reactor to increase the utilization of the absorbents. The
recirculated absorbents can be moisturized with water before it is added to the reactor. The water
added either to the reactor or to the recirculated absorbents is used to increase the activity of the
absorbents and the amount of water is adapted in order for the flue gases to dry the absorbents before
they reach the filter; the residual product is therefore dry. After the reactor, the flue gases are led to the
bag house filter.
Figure 24 Example of a bag house filter construction [12]
39
Figure 25 Filter bag with filter supporting basket [13]
The bag house filter is cleaned using compressed air; residuals are collected in filter hoppers and
transported to the fly ash silo. The residues can, to a certain extent, be recirculated to increase the
utilization of the absorbents.
When SNCR is used for removal of nitrogen (deNOx), the dust removed in the bag house filters contains
large quantities of ammonia.
The used bag house filters will be recycled within the plant and incinerated in the boiler. The
incineration of the bag house filters will not lead to increased emissions to air.
There is no by‐pass possibility of the flue gas cleaning system. There are emission measuring instruments
installed that continuously monitors the emissions. If the flue gas cleaning would be out of operation, the
WtE facility will not and cannot from a technical perspective be operated
2.5.3.2 SNCR
Reduction of nitrogen oxides implies transformation into nitrogen gas and water. When reducing NOx in
the flue gases with SNCR, Selective Non Catalytic Reduction, the reduction is achieved thermally by
injection of a reducing agent, usually ammonia in water, into the furnace where the flue gases have a
temperature between 850 and 1000°C. At this temperature, the reaction is spontaneous and the
nitrogen oxides are transformed into nitrogen and water.
The reduction of NOx takes place by the following reactions:
40
4 NO + 4 NH3 + O2
4 N2 + 6 H2O
2 NO2 + 4 NH3 + O2
3 N2 + 6 H2O
In order to achieve adequate NOx reduction, ammonia is added in an excess. The larger part of this
excess is decomposed in the boiler but some of the ammonia passes through the system and exits the
boiler with the flue gas. This ammonia, called slip, has to be limited for environmental as well as technical
reasons. A part of the slip will end up in the dust in the bag house filters. This ammonia will evaporate if
the dust is moistened which can lead to work environment problems meaning that respiratory
protective equipment can be needed for the nearby personnel. Very high amounts of ammonia in
the flue gases may cause clogging of the bag house filter.
An SNCR system is relatively simple and has rather low investment costs. On the other hand, it
requires a large surplus of ammonia for an effective reduction, which increases the operating costs. An
SNCR system integrates combustion and NOx reduction, which means if the combustion conditions
changes, the SNCR system has to adjust in a proper way to keep up the NOx reduction and prevent the
slip from increasing.
Using SNCR, the NOx emissions can be reduced to less than 100 mg/Nm3.
Figure 26 Example of flue gas fans [4]
2.5.6.1 General
The WtE facility will only cause emissions to air since no waste water is produced in the flue gas
cleaning process. Emissions to air from waste incineration facilities are regulated in the Waste
Incineration Directive 2000/76/EC. The directive also requires installation of measurement systems to
monitor the parameters and relevant emission limits. The sampling and measurement procedures to be
used are listed in the environmental permit issued by the authorities
Sampling and analysis of all pollutants are carried out as given by CEN‐standards. Likewise, calibration
of the continuous measurement system will be performed with reference methods according to CEN‐
standards at least every three years.
2.5.6.3 Equipment
Measurement of emissions to air is fully automatic. The measurements are best done in the stack or in
connection with the stack by means of a multipurpose instrument measuring several different
substances one at a time; hence the measurement is not completely continuous. There is also a
supplementary instrument for measurement of carbon monoxide and oxygen. The measurement
equipment should be placed in a well‐protected space.
To enable control of the flue gas cleaning system and of the fuel, measurement of some components in
the raw flue gas, before entering the flue gas cleaning process, is usually made. It is common to
measure e.g. oxygen content (O2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrochloric acid
(HCl), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and moisture content.
An instrument for measuring dust and moisture content in the flue gas is often placed directly after the
bag house filter to enable immediate detection of ruptures in the filter.
Measured data is registered and transferred to the central control room
42
2.6 Steam turbine
2.6.1 General
The Donetsk WtE facility will produce electricity which will be delivered to the national grid in
Ukraine. The electricity will be generated using a steam turbine, see Figure 27. In addition to the
electricity, the residual heat left after the turbine will be used to heat water to the local district
heating grid in Proletarskij, which will be used for both heating of premises and for tap hot water.
Figure 27 3D view of a Siemens steam turbine [14]
43
Figure 28 Cross section of a reaction steam turbine [15]
44
cold condenser. Most turbines have radial exhausts, but axial exhausts exist as well.
2.6.2.6 Baseframe
The turbine is fixed to a steel baseframe, aligned on the concrete foundation at the facility. The
gearbox and most of the auxiliary equipment is normally mounted to the baseframe as well, although
some equipment is normally installed below or to the side of the baseframe, such as the oil system.
Figure 29 Principal design of Donetsk WtE steam turbine
Figure 30 Working principle of impulse and reaction turbines [16]
46
reaction condensing turbine. Different turbine suppliers have different design solutions and it is hard
to predict the final design.
The second bleed is a controlled bleed at varying pressure between 3‐8 bar. This steam is used for
heating of the feed water tank. This bleed is a selective bleed which can extract steam at two
different points in order to maintain a set steam temperature at different boiler loads. The extracted
steam flow depends on the temperature changes in the feed water tank. The flow is controlled by
separate control valves on each of the two extraction points. There is also a check valve to prevent
water from the feed water tank from entering the turbine in case of feed water pump failure.
The third and fourth bleeds are controlled bleeds for the hot condensers. Steam is extracted and
condensed in heat exchangers, thereby heating water for district heating purposes. The amount
extracted depends on the forward temperature of the district heating water. Check valves prevent
condensate from flowing backwards into the turbine.
47
Figure 31 Synchronous generator from Alstom. The stator windings (orange) surround the rotor
magnet (metallic blue) [17]
Some of the rotational energy is converted into heat in the generator, which means that the generator
has to be equipped with an air‐water cooling system.
48
Figure 32 Principal design of a shell and tube heat exchanger [18]
The turbine will possibly be fitted with two turbine condensers in series (on the district heating side) in
order to increase heat and electricity output of the facility. However, during winter periods the district
heating load will be so large that the existing gas boilers in Donetsk will be needed for peak loading.
Since the WtE facility will be connected to the return side of the district heating grid, the WtE facility
can maintain a rather low discharge temperature even during winter periods, because the gas boilers
will always supply additional heating and ensuring that the temperatures at the consumer side will
be sufficient. Therefore, the temperature difference over the turbine condensers in the WtE facility
will be relatively low. This means that two turbine condensers might not be economically and
technologically feasible. With the added need of a cold condenser, the need for two turbine condensers
for district heating is even more doubtful. It will depend on the final investment costs for the extra turbine
and how much extra heat it will deliver.
In backpressure turbines with district heating the condenser is a heat exchanger, normally of shell and
tube type, which transfers heat from the steam to the district heating grid, while at the same time
condensing the steam from the turbine using the returning water from the district heating grid. The
backpressure is normally controlled by setting a specific discharge temperature that the heat
exchanger shall deliver to the district heating grid. The higher the discharge temperature, the higher the
temperature (and thus backpressure) after the turbine, which means lower electricity generation.
Installing two turbine condensers in series increases the heating and electricity output of the turbine,
but the temperature difference over the district heating side of the condenser has to be large or the
added cost of the second condenser will normally not pay off.
49
cooled by ambient air passing over the exterior surface. The main advantage is that there is no
cooling water loss.
The steam is condensed inside of the condenser tubes which are cooled by ambient air passing over the
exterior surface. A principal diagram of the working process of the air cooled condenser is shown in
Figure 33 below. The steam from the turbine enters the channels marked in red, and is led through
the inclined condenser bundles where the latent heat is cooled off and the steam is turned to
condensate. The flow is then released to the condensate collectors marked in blue and the
condensate is finally returned to the process.
Figure 33 Principal diagram of the air cooled condenser
Table 9 Data for internal district heating system.
51
District heating temperature after the Works °C 65 75 – 90 120 130
District heating flow m3/h ‐ 1500 ‐ 2200 2600 ‐
pH ‐ 6.5 – 10 ‐ ‐
Hardness °dH ‐ 0.4 – 1.3 ‐ ‐
O2 content mg/l ‐ 0.01 – 0.04 ‐ ‐
Figure 34 Example of dry air cooler battery [19]
Figure 35 Example of compressed air tanks [4]
Table 10 City water quality
Parameter Unit Value
General data pH 7.69
Solids content mg/l
Total dissolved solids mg/l 602
(TDS)
Total organic carbon mg/l
(TOC)
Cation NH4 mg/l 0.11
K mg/l 6.64
Ca mg/l 92.99
54
Mg mg/l 28.53
Fe mg/l 0.11
Mn mg/l 0.0142
Na mg/l
Anions Cl mg/l 56.29
SO4 mg/l 164.33
NO3 mg/l 5.66
F mg/l 0.274
SiO2 mg/l
Other HCO3 mg/l
NaCl mg/l
Figure 36 Example of water sampling station [4]
Figure 37 Examples of transformer, MV and LV switchgear [4]
The equipment will be installed with at least one spare cassette, which can handle the highest power, for
every physical size. For future possible expansion in the facility, there will also be sufficient (25%) unused
space ready to be used without taking any part of the switchgear out of operation.
Electric motors not intended to run at constant speed are speed regulated with the help of frequency
converters. High frequency currencies generated by these are eliminated with insulated bearings or with
the help of electrical filters. For the control and supervising of D.O.L. drives intelligent motor control
units are used. These units and the frequency converters communicate with the control system via
field bus
Figure 38 Example of large and small FC drives respectively [4]
The facility is provided with equipment for emergency power generation, in the form of an emergency
diesel engine and a battery‐fed UPS system. Emergency power from the diesel engine will automatically
power necessary process and civil equipment needed to safely stop the facility and other essential
functions in case of power supply failure. The fuel tank is large enough for 36 hours of full load operation
of the diesel engine.
The UPS system is used for power supply to the facility’s computer equipment, instruments and any
other equipment which must not be disturbed by loss of power. All control and supervision equipment
56
which generates system alarms in case of power loss are power‐fed from the UPS system. The UPS system
is dimensioned to feed all UPS‐connected equipment for 1‐2 hours without external power‐feed. The
UPS itself is power‐fed by the emergency diesel.
Locally placed control systems and controls are avoided as far as possible, in order to achieve a
unified facility with easy troubleshooting, less maintenance and unified documentation.
The control system is connected to a control network, to which also the operator stations are
connected. The operator stations are windows‐based standard computers with two or more monitors.
Equipment for registering alarms and events is included. Analogue values are logged and displayed with
trend curves. Alarms, events and logged values are continuously and safely stored with back‐up. The
operator stations include a report generator which can generate reports describing the operation in
the facility with a time perspective ranging from an hour to at least a year. Connection and logging to
the main computer network is possible.
All process equipment related to the facility is possible to control from the operator stations in the
central control room. The facility is equipped with at least three operator stations. Equipment from
different contractors and subcontractors are implemented in the control system with standardized
presentation principles, making the look and feel the same independent of the equipment supplier.
There is also at least one engineering station placed in the central control room.
The control system includes equipment for making backups of the entire software on persistent
media, including set points and original set points.
Computer equipment for the reporting of collected environmental data is installed separately from the
rest of the computer system.
The facility is also equipped with an ITV system with all necessary equipment from the TV cameras to the
57
TV monitors in the control room. The ITV‐system is based on a separate TCP/IP network.
2.10.1 Slag
Slag is what will be left on the grate after incineration, i.e. mainly incombustibles. The slag will be
transported by the moving grate through the slag shaft to the slag bunker where it is slaked with
water. According to EU regulations, the slag is normally classed as non‐hazardous waste and can be
used as construction material e.g. as road constructions at landfill sites or similar, but if a user cannot be
found the slag will be stored in landfill.
Based on figures provided by boiler manufacturers the guaranteed maximal value of the total amount
of organic carbon in the slag, including grate siftings, will be lower then 3 weight‐% DM. The guaranteed
maximal value of dioxins and furans will be 15 ng/kg TE.
58
2.10.3 Fly ash
The fly ash consists of particles going with the flue gases out from the furnace and further on through the
boiler. Some of the fly ash will deposit in the boiler’s empty passes or in the horizontal pass, or it will
pass the boiler into the flue gas cleaning. In the flue gas cleaning it will be separated from the flue gas
in the bag house filter. The fly ash will, together with the residues from the bag house filter, be stored
in a fly ash silo. The fly ash is classed as hazardous waste and has to be stored in a landfill in a secure way.
The following components in the WtE facility are estimated to contain fly ash (amount of fly ash in
each component is stated for normal operation conditions):
Scraper conveyor below boiler super heater sections (one for each line), 5 kg of fly ash
Scraper conveyor below boiler economizer pass (one for each line), 5 kg of fly ash
Dust sender for boiler ash to residue silo (one for each line), 200 kg of fly ash
Dust sending pipes from boiler to residue silo (one for each line), normally 0 kg of fly ash
Bag house filter (one for each line), 10 tones of fly ash
Screw conveyor below bag house filter (one for each line), 5 kg of fly ash
Screw conveyor to mixer (one for each line), 5 kg of fly ash
Mixer unit (one for each line), 30 kg of fly ash
Dust sender below bag house filter (one for each line), 200 kg of fly ash
Dust sending pipes from bag house filter to residue silo (one for each line), normally 0 kg
of fly ash
Reactor (one for each line), 100 kg of fly ash
Residue silo (common for both lines), up to 200 tons of fly ash
The residue silo is designed to be able to store fly ash at site for a couple of days. When the fly ash
shall be transported from the site it is fed from the residue silo to bulk trucks in a dry state.
The fly ash is fed from the silo to bulk trucks in a dry state. The fly ash is then transported in closed
trucks to the landfill where the fly ash is received in a mixing station. The fly ash is unloaded into a silo
using pressurized air. In the mixing station the fly ash is mixed with cement or ash from coal facilities
and water to produce stable concrete‐like material with stable and good leaching characteristics. The
strength of the stabilized fly ash can reach up to the concrete strength class C32. Figure 39 below shows
an example of a mixing station for fly ash treatment.
Figure 39 Example of mixing station for fly ash treatment [20]
In principal, the mixing station consists of the following parts:
Receiving station. Where the fly ash, cement and coal ash is received and sent to the storage
silos. The transportation is made by using pressurized air.
59
Storage silos. The will be three silos of each around 250 m3. The three silos provides
a possibility to store several ash fractions and cement separately.
Water tank or reservoir. Since rather large amount of water will be needed for the
stabilization process, a tank or reservoir of at least 100 m3 is needed to secure the supply of
water. For the stabilization process, various quality of water can be used, i.e. rain water, city
water, leachable water from the landfill or surplus waste water from the WtE Facility.
Mixer unit. In the mixer the fly ash is mixed with coal ash and water. The mixing is performed
in batches, normally one batch could be made in less then one minute.
Discharge system. After mixing, the stabilized fly ash is discharged to ground level to
a discharge area. The transport to the landfill is then made using a front loader.
Control and operation room. From the control room, the operation is controlled and
monitored. In order to receive a good stable mixture, trained and experienced personnel
is needed at the mixing station.
The mixing properties for a stable concrete are about 25% fly ash, 25% coal ash and 50% water
depending on the quality and properties of the fly ash and the coal ash. The coal ash could also be
replaced with cement.
At the mixing station there is continuous measuring and logging of hydrogen gas and ammonia gas. The
ammonia in the fly ash is a result of the SNCR flue gas treatment where ammonia is added in to the
boiler furnace in order to reduce the formation of NOx, some of the ammonia will be bound to particles
and separated in the bag house filter. When combustion of waste containing aluminium takes place,
oxides are formed which, in contact with water, form hydrogen gas. In order to reduce the
concentrations of the ammonia and hydrogen a good ventilation of the mixing station and its
components are important, also when the mixing station is out of operation.
The fly ash deposit area should be surrounded by a geological barrier and a leachate water dam to
collect the small amount of leachate water.
The deposit area should be prepared with a mineral sealing bottom layer with a thickness of more than
0.5 meter, consisting of i.e. clay. On top of the sealing layer a geo‐textile and a geo‐membrane are placed
and further a gravel layer with drainage for leachate water. The stabilized ash is then deposited. A
covering mineral sealing layer of 0.5 meter is then placed, followed by a geo‐membrane and a gravel layer.
Finally the landfill is covered by a vegetation and cover layer with a thickness of 1 meter. In Figure 40
below the landfill structure with mineral sealing layers and coverage layers is shown.
60
Figure 40 Landfill structure with mineral sealing layers and coverage layers [20]
Table 11 Chemical composition of fly ash
Component Unit Interval
Al2O3 % DS 5‐15
CaO % DS 20‐30
Cl % DS 5‐20
Fe2O3 % DS 3‐8
K2O % DS 2‐8
MgO % DS 2‐4
Na2O % DS 2‐9
P2O5 % DS 1‐3
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SiO2 % DS 15‐25
Hg mg/kg DS 3‐12
Heavy metals (Sb+As+Pb+Cr+Co+Cu+Ni) mg/kg DS 6000‐15000
2.11.1 Roads
New roads have to be built and connected to the existing road network. A connecting road to the
existing main road, H‐20, will be built with four separate connections. In Table 12 below data for the new
roads is shown.
Table 12 Data for the new roads
Parameter Unit Value
Two‐lane sections m 7.0
Width m 0.5
Hard shoulders on each side Total width m 8.0
One‐lane entry‐ and exit ramps
Width m 4.0
Hard shoulders on each side Total width m 1.0
Total width m 6.0
Figure 41 below shows a layout of the new roads with connection points to the existing road network.
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Figure 41 Layout of the new roads and the connection points to the existing road network
Table 13 Data for the heat production in the new WtE facility
Parameter Unit Normal operation
Heat production MW 65‐75
Heat production Gcal/h 55‐65
Pipe dimension ‐ DN600*
Heat supply
Flow m3/h 2000
Temperature °C 75‐90
Heat return
Flow m3/h 2400
Temperature °C 45‐55
The static pressure in the internal district heating and interconnection pipe system is controlled by low
pressure auxiliary steam in the expansion tank. The discharge temperature of the district heating water
is controlled by varying the district heating flow with the frequency controlled district heating pumps
and by cooling off excess heat in the air cooled condenser.
The existing control system in the boiler houses controls the discharge temperature of the local
63
networks to follow the ambient temperature. During winter season, the local temperature control is
supported by gas boilers.
The interconnection pipe system is designed for an optimal electricity production at the WtE facility
which requires the discharge temperature to be kept as low as possible. Therefore, the system is
designed for a delivery of 70 MW at a temperature difference of 25°C.
The interconnection pipe system consists of two parallel pipes with a length of eight kilometers each,
with pumps, valves, heat exchangers and control equipment. The first two sections between the WtE
facility and the first two local networks is 4 + 1.5 kilometers and the pipe dimension is DN600. The
third section between the second and the third local network is 1.7 kilometers and the pipe dimension
is DN450. The last two sections are 1.5 kilometers and the pipe dimension is DN400. In Figure 42
below a layout of the new district heating interconnection pipe is shown.
Figure 42 Layout of the new district heating interconnection pipe
The district heating pumps are located at the WtE facility and are positioned on the return pipe
between the pressure holding of the expansion tank and the warm condensers of the boiler. There are
two pumps working in parallel with frequency controlled motors for adjustment to required flow.
The plate heat exchanger of each of the five local networks is designed with a large surface area for
heat transfer at low pressure losses, in total for all exchangers with a surface area of about 5 000 m2. The
heat transfer coefficient of the heat exchangers is around 5 kW/(m2K). In all, this gives a heat transfer
temperature difference of only about 2°C. Figure 4‐43 shows the principal of the interconnection
pipe.
64
WtE facility
Figure 43 Principal diagram of the interconnection
In Figure 44, the principal of connection of the interconnection pipe to the existing boiler house is
To WtE
TC
New heat exchanger
From WtE
Existing boilerhouse
Figure 44 Principal of connection of the interconnecting pipe to the existing boiler house
The district heat in the WtE facility is produced either in the turbine condensers and/or the direct
condenser. Large pumps will circulate the district heating water through the WtE facility as well as the
new closed district heating circuit. A small pump will maintain the pressure in the system by adding
water on the suction side of the circulation pumps when necessary
2.11.3 Electricity
The electricity produced in the WtE facility will be transferred to the electric grid preferably through an
existing electrical substation. The connection to the electrical substation will be done at 110 kV. Since
the electricity produced at the WtE facility will have a voltage of 10.5 kV, a step‐up transformer from 10.5
kV to 110 kV will need to be installed.
65
The main specifications of the electricity produced at the WtE facility are summarized in Table14
below.
Table 14 Electricity production of the WtE facility
The WtE facility will be connected to an existing transformer and switchgear station with a distance to
the site of approximately 3 km. The real distance for cabling is however estimated to 4 km. The
connection cable will consist of three cables and one cable direct earth. The new cable will be buried
together with the new district heating pipes. Data for the connection cable is shown in Table 15.
Table 15 Data for the electricity connection cable
Parameter Unit Value
Cable length km 4
Cable cross‐sectional area mm2 300
Earth cable cross‐sectional area mm2 120
In Figure 45 below a layout of the electricity connection cable and the connection to the existing
electricity grid is shown.
Figure 45 Layout of the electricity cable and the connection point to the electricity grid
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2.11.4 Natural gas
Connection will be made to the existing natural gas system in the area. The main figures for the
consumption of natural gas and pipe dimensions are listed in Table 16 below
Table 16 Data for the natural gas
Parameter Unit Normal Operation
Consumption during start‐up, per boiler MW 40
Consumption during start‐up, one boiler Nm3/h 3 000
Consumption during start‐up, one boiler Nm3 30 000
Pipe dimension mm 100*
Pipe length km 1.5
The closest natural gas regulation station is situated north of the main road H‐20. In Figure 46 a
layout of the new natural gas pipe and the connection to the existing natural gas system is shown.
Figure 46 Layout of the new natural gas pipe and the connection point to the existing natural gas
system
Table 17 Data for the city wate
Parameter Unit Value
Consumption, normal/peak (Only for process) m3/h 7/35
Pipe dimension ‐ DN150
67
Pipe length km 1,2
Figure 47 below shows a layout of the new city water pipe and the connection point to the existing city
water system.
Figure 47 Layout of the new city water pipe and the connection to the city water system
2.11.6 Sewage
A new sewage pipe will be constructed and connected to the existing sewage system. Table 18
shows the production of sewage water as well as the dimensions of the sewage pipe.
Table 18 Data for the sewage water
Parameter Unit Value
Production m3/h 35
Temperature °C 40
Pipe diameter ‐ DN100
Pipe length km 1.5
Figure 48 below shows a layout of the new pipe and the connection point to the existing sewage
system
68
Figure 48 Layout of the sewage pipe and the connection point to the existing sewage system
69
3 Conclusion
The WtE facility introduces a completely new energy producing technology in Ukraine. The overall
concept of the plant is to take care of the municipal waste in Donetsk and by means of modern and
efficient technology convert it into clean energy available for the citizens.
The idea behind the facility is to build a plant as environmentally friendly as possible. The design of the
WtE facility is based on best available technology, BAT, and the production answers to all relevant
EU‐standards connected to the specific area.
While designing the WtE facility has a time perspective of 25 years in mind. This means that the plant
also should fulfill legislative requirements regarding efficiency and emissions that could be standard
in the future. To build such a facility is expensive.
Consumptions and emissions
In Table 24 the estimated annual consumption of natural gas in the WtE facility is shown. The gas is
used during start‐ups, shut‐downs and in case the temperature of the flue gas falls beneath 850°C,
this to fulfill the EU‐directive on waste incineration
Table 20 Estimated annual natural gas consumption for two waste‐fired boilers
Parameter Unit Value
Annual consumption Nm 200 000
Maximum momentary consumption Nm3/h 10 000
The facility will produce bottom ash (slag) and fly ash according to Table 21 below. The annual
consumption of fuel and consumables are also estimated in the table.
Table 21 Approximate mass balance for a 100 MW WtE facility
Production
Bottom ash tons/year (DM) 90 000
Fly ash tons/year 15 000
Consumption of consumables
Fuel tons/year 480 000
Activated carbon tons/year 150
Lime tons/year 4 500
Ammonium solution (25%) m3/year 1 500
Water m3/year 15 000
In the following text below comments and calculations behind the data in Table 21 can be read.
Activated carbon
The activated carbon consumption is estimated based on guaranteed values of activated carbon
consumption from flue gas cleaning suppliers of delivered equipment in facilities of similar size and
type as the proposed facility in the plant description.
Estimated activated carbon consumption: 19 kg/h. Based on 8000 h of operation 19*8000/1000 =
152 tons/year
70
Lime
The figure is based on reaction formulas between hydrated lime Ca(OH)2 and HCl and SO2. The
amount of HCl and SO2 removed in the flue gas cleaning process is the difference between raw gas
contents and emission levels after the flue gas cleaning. Reaction formulas between hydrated lime
and HCl and SO2 are then used to calculate how much reactant is needed to remove the HCl and SO2.
Reaction formula for HCl: Ca(OH)2 + 2 HCl CaCl2 + 2 H2O
Reaction formula for SO2: Ca(OH)2 + SO2 CaSO3 + H2O
Using the flue gas flow, molar weights of hydrated lime, HCl and SO2 and the difference in HCl and SO2
content before and after the flue gas cleaning process, the required flow of hydrated lime can be
calculated. This is the stoichiometrical flow of lime, but since the reactions are never complete,
excess lime is needed to be able to reach as close to complete reaction as possible. Depending on the ratio
of HCl and SOx in the flue gases, the lime consumption will vary. With the foreseen flue gas composition
(HCl: 800 mg/Nm3; SOx: 300 mg/Nm3) the consumption of lime will be around 2.2 times the stoichiometric
value according to operational experience.
Calculations:
“Flue Gas Flow” * (“Concentration In” ‐ “Concentration Out”) * “Molar Weight Lime” / “Molar
Weight Acid Component” / “kg/mg”
HCl reduction: 250000*(800‐40)*74.09/(2*36.46)/1000000 = 193 kg/h
SOX reduction: 250000*(300‐100)*74.09/64.06/1000000 = 58 kg/h
Total: 241*2.2 = 552 kg/h
Annual consumption based on 8000 h of operation: 552*8000 = 4418 tons/year
Ammonia
Reaction formula for NH3 and NO2 has been used, with an excess ammonia consumption of 20%
estimated, based on guarantee values from WtE boiler suppliers.
Reaction formula NO2: 8 NH3 + 6 NO2
7 N2 + 12 H2O
The result is for pure NH3, so the amount of 25% ammonia solution is 4 times as large.
Calculation:
“Flue Gas Flow” * (“Concentration In” ‐ “Concentration Out”) * 8 * “Molar Weight Ammonia” / (6 *
“Molar Weight Nitrogen Dioxide”) / “kg/mg”
250000*(400‐100)*8*17.03/(6*46.01)/1000000 = 37 kg/h
Total: 1.2*4*37 = 163 kg/h
Annual consumption of 25% ammonia/water solution (density 900 kg/m3) based on 8000 h of
operation: 163*8000/900 = 1450 m3/year
Bottom ash
Calculated based on estimated value of ash in waste fuel, which is 32% (of weight of dry mass) based on
experience from typical Swedish household waste. The moisture content of the fuel is estimated
similarly to 45% of weight.
Calculation:
Fuel flow to boilers: 60 tons/h = 33 ton/h dry mass Ash
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flow from boiler: 33*0.32 = 10.6 tons/h dry mass
Annual ash flow based on 8000 h of operation: 10.6*8000 = 84800 tons/year dry mass
Fly ash
Fly ash flow is estimated based on experience from levels of inert material in the fuel and flue gas
cleaning processes similar to the WtE facility. Of the initial fly ash content, some is collected in and
removed from the boiler, while the rest of the fly ash is collected in the bag house filters of the flue gas
cleaning along with the reaction products from the reactor. According to experience from similar plants
there will not be more than 5000 mg/Nm3 of ash leaving the furnace and that half of this is collected
within the boiler while the other half follows the flue gases to the bag house filter where the rest is
collected along with reaction products.
Estimations of annual emissions to air from the WtE facility are presented in Table 22.
Table 22 Estimated annual emissions
Emissions to air
SO2 tons year 55
NOX tons/year 218
HCl tons/year 11
Dust tons/year 11
Hg kg/year 55
Dioxins g/year 0.11
The actual emission values provided in the plant description are derived from suppliers of flue gas
cleaning equipment corresponding to the one in question and experience from facilities using this
technology
Emissions to air
Emissions from the facility are regulated in the Waste Incineration Directive (2000/76/EC) as mention
earlier. In the directive there is a differentiation between incineration facilities and co‐incineration
facilities, the latter where the main purpose is generation of energy. However, for co‐incineration
facilities incinerating untreated mixed municipal waste, the same emission limit values as for
incineration facilities apply. Thus, these limit values apply for the WtE facility in Donetsk.
Requirements on emissions from WtE facilities are higher than on facilities using other types of fuels e.g.
wood fuel or oil. During procurement of process equipment, it is important to ensure that contractual
requirements put on the supplier of flue gas cleaning equipment are even higher than those required
by law. This is to obtain a margin to ensure that set emission limits are not exceeded during periods with
operational disturbances.
Air emission limit values will most likely be set according to the Waste Incineration Directive. These
limits values are severe but manageable when using modern technology. In Tables Table 23, Table 24
and Table 25 below, limits by law for emissions in the exhaust gas from WtE facilities are listed together
with approximate expected actual emissions from the WtE facility when using the flue gas cleaning
technology in question. The actual emission values are derived from suppliers of flue gas cleaning
equipment corresponding to the one in question and experience from facilities using this technology.
Values are divided in three different tables due to different requirements on sampling periods for
the different pollutants, all according to the Waste Incineration Directive.
Values are standardized for the following conditions: temperature 273 K, pressure 101.3 bar, 11%
oxygen, dry gas.
72
The comparison shows that expected actual values fall below expected limit values, thus showing
that the chosen flue gas cleaning technology manages to meet requirements concerning all pollutants
expected to be regulated in the permit.
Table 23 Daily average values and half hour average values, emission limits set by law in the Waste
Incineration Directive compared to expected actual emission values after flue gas cleaning
Legislative requirement Expected actual value
Table 24 Average values measured over the sample period of a minimum of 30 minutes and a maximum of 8
hours, emission limits set by law in the Waste Incineration Directive compared to expected actual emission
values after flue gas cleaning
Average value (30 min to 8 hours)
Parameter Unit
Legislative requirement Expected actual value
Table 25 Average values which shall be measured over a sample period of a minimum of 6 hours and a maximum
of 8 hours, emission limits set by law in the Waste Incineration Directive compared to expected actual emission
values after flue gas cleaning
Average value (30 min to 8 hours)
Parameter Unit
Legislative requirement Expected actual value
Limit values for carbon monoxide, CO, are as follows:
50 mg/m3 as a daily average
150 mg/m3 of at least 95% of all measurements determined as 10‐minute average values
or 100 mg/m3 of combustion gas of all measurements determined as half‐hourly average
values taken in any 24‐hour period.
Odour
Apart from the regulated emissions above, there may be a bad odour from the waste fuel at the
73
facility during certain circumstances. Normally, the waste bunker keeping the waste is designed to
minimize the odour by using bunker air as combustion air, thus creating an underpressure in the
bunker. This is an efficient way to avoid the waste from spreading a bad odour. Nevertheless, this
may arise during periods of longer planned stops. During these periods no combustion air is needed,
taking away the underpressure in the bunker. Consequently, the bunker air is able to spread to the
surroundings.
However, measures are normally taken to minimize this effect; the level of waste in the bunker is
kept at the lowest possible, one of the two boiler lines is always in operation if possible thus
minimizing the periods of planned stops when both lines will be out of operation simultaneously.
There is also a diluting effect from the surrounding air, reducing the odour significantly. Owing to
this, the possible bad odour is present most locally and during short periods of time.
Noise emissions
Noise is regulated in the EU noise directive 2003/10/EC. The directive states the exposure limit values for
workers.
Additionally, there will be a number of other requirements to fulfill for the suppliers of process
equipment. Among others, the following maximum sound levels in different premises apply for
process equipment:
Table 26 Maximum permitted sound levels for work areas
Max equivalent sound level LpAeq dBA
1 m distance 1 m
Work area Noise dose
operator and
from the distance
others machine from the
surface1 installation2
Production premises for example machine hall,
80 75 65
turbine hall, reception hall
Repair workshop, electric operations room3 etc 75 70 60
Driver’s cabins 75 ‐
Changing rooms ‐ ‐ 55
Laboratories, measurement and control
rooms 50 45 40
Cafeteria ‐ ‐ 50
Workshop office, staff room ‐ ‐ 45
Office, conference room ‐ 35 30
Fan rooms, compressor rooms etc. (normally
unmanned) ‐ 80 75
Operation concept
The WtE facility will be operated approximately 8000 hours per year. During the summer time the
demand of district heating will be low; therefore some of the produced heat has to be cooled in a
cold condenser. Since a condensing turbine will be used, some steam has to pass through the
condensing stage also during winter. This means that some low grade steam has to be cooled in the
cold condenser also at this time of year.
In Figure 49 a schematic future load curve for the WtE facility is shown.
74
Figure 49 Schematic future load
In Table 27 the annual production figures for the WtE facility are shown
Table 27 Production figures (2x50 MW steam power) [MWh]
Air cooling District heating Electricity, gross Electricity, cons. Electricity, net
Jan 3 123 47 768 22 226 2 522 19 704
Feb 2 821 43 145 19 263 2 278 16 985
Mar 3 758 47 448 22 172 2 500 19 673
Apr 24 408 23 604 23 251 2 647 20 604
May 38 218 10 416 25 125 2 619 22 506
Jun 36 985 10 080 24 315 2 534 21 780
Jul 14 449 10 416 12 196 1 391 10 805
Aug 19 049 10 416 14 698 1 391 13 307
Sep 36 985 10 080 24 315 2 534 21 780
Oct 22 621 27 163 23 834 2 735 21 098
Nov 3 218 46 332 21 383 2 437 18 946
Dec 3 123 47 768 21 414 2 522 18 892
Sum 208 820 334 636 254 192 28 112 226 080
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Operation organization
The operation staff will make inspection rounds of the WtE facility and can be either shift working
staff or daytime staff. Three to four shift working staff should always be working at the facility,
accompanied by at least three daytime operation staff during weekdays. The maintenance staff will be
working from Monday to Friday, excluding holidays, 08.00 until 16.00. On all other times, maintenance
staff will be on‐call duty. Categories for maintenance staff are: mechanical, electrical, instrumentation
and automation.
Follow‐up
A close follow‐up of the operation can be performed by the operators of the facility or by an
operating engineer. Different data need to be controlled on a regular basis, e.g. temperatures and
pressures in the boiler. These data will show if something is not well‐functioning and if the facility
may need to be stopped in the near future. By following the operation the possible unplanned stop can
be more or less planned and the time for the stop can be as suitable and short as possible, which will
minimize the loss of income.
Optimization
If the operation of the facility is optimized the lifetime of the equipment will increase. Optimization
means that the different conditions for the incineration are trimmed, e.g. that the right amount of
oxygen, waste and chemicals are used and that the temperatures are correct in the boiler and flue gas
cleaning. It is also important to adjust the operation to different conditions, e.g. wet fuel.
Operating manuals
The operator’s manual is a living document and will be updated when changes are made in the
facility. It is important that the manuals are used and that all of the operators run the facility
according to the instructions.
The operating manuals are delivered by the suppliers of the facility.
Roundation
A roundation of the facility is carried out at least once a shift. The suppliers of the facility will hand
over a list of roundation and this list must be followed to uphold the guarantees. During the roundation
all the critical parts for the operation are checked, the operator looks for changes in the operation, for
example vibrations, noise, leakage etc. Each round and all the deviations are documented.
76
Annual variations in fuel supply
The required supply of waste will vary depending on the availability of the WtE facility. In Figure 50 the
annual fuel flow is shown. The green curve in Figure 50 shows the daily amount of waste delivered
to the WtE facility over the course of a year, while the orange curve shows the daily incineration
of waste fuel in the WtE facility over the same time. The grey curve shows the accumulated discrepancy
between waste fuel received and incinerated at the WtE facility (using the value axis on the right).
Assuming no discrepancy at the beginning of the year, the accumulated discrepancy over a year results
in a waste fuel surplus of about 40 000 tons, assuming a four‐week long revision period on each boiler
during the summer.
800 40000
700 35000
600 30000
500 25000
Accumulated tons
400 20000
Tons/day
300 15000
200 10000
100 5000
0 0
‐100 ‐5000
1‐Jan 1‐Feb 1‐Mar 1‐Apr 1‐May 1‐Jun 1‐Jul 1‐Aug 1‐Sep 1‐Oct 1‐Nov 1‐Dec
Figure 50 Annual fuel flow
Maintenance concept
The WtE facility will be designed for one maintenance stop during one summer month for each line.
The maintenance will normally be performed on one line at a time while the other line will be in
operation. The ratio between preventative maintenance and immediate maintenance at a new
facility shall be at least 80% preventative maintenance and at maximum 20% immediate
maintenance. To achieve these numbers it is necessary to carry out preventative measures during
operation and during the stops
Preventive work during annual stops
During the summer stop the facility is cleaned and inspected. Controls of the status of the facility by for
example x‐rays, thickness measurement and hydrostatic tests are made. All preventative works that
are required are carried out, for example, changing of bearings in a pump. Parts need to be changed
77
after a certain life time, before they are completely worn out. The requirements from the suppliers
must be followed.
Preventive work during operation
During operation is it important to have a close follow‐up of the facility and the equipment. Lubrication
must be done according to the suppliers’ instructions. Measurement of vibration will show the status
of the component, if the alignment is accurate and if any component needs to be replaced in the near
future. The preventive works during operation will reduce the amount of unplanned stops, the works
can be planned and performed before the equipment breaks and causes an unplanned stop.
Redundant equipment
Redundant equipment is to prefer for critical systems and components. Double components will
increase the availability for the facility and will reduce the immediate maintenance works, the works will
be easier to plan and the facility can still be in operation during the time they are performed.
Electrical energy and insulation
The text above shows that wants to build a facility as energy efficient as possible. Therefore, the plant is
designed to consume as little electricity as possible. During operation the heat needed to warm the
facility building is covered by losses from the production process. The key behind the technical
design is to keep as much energy as possible in the internal buildings and to prevent external losses.
Some examples of different energy saving solutions in the WtE facility follow in the sections below.
The use of electrical energy is minimized within the facility by using frequency converters for variable
drive equipment. The use of electrical energy will thereby not be more than needed to fulfill the
required work at any given moment. Furthermore, electric motors are chosen according to energy
effectiveness class IE3, the highest efficiency class, for motors between 1 kW and 375 kW. Motors
that are not classified have an efficiency of at least 96%.
All hot parts in the WtE facility shall be well insulated by mineral wool in order to save energy. This
concerns, for example, the boiler itself, flue gas ducts and pipes for steam and district heating. Also
tanks like the feed water tank and steam drum shall be insulated. Insulation is also a question of
working environment since it gives a more comfortable air temperature and reduces the risk of
burns. No accessible parts in the facility shall have a surface temperature of more than 55°C.
Air preheating and heat recovery
One of the most important objectives of the WtE facility is to achieve a high electricity output. This is
achieved by using relatively high steam data, 60 bar/425°C, which increases the performance of the
turbine. Air preheating also serves as a means of increasing the electrical efficiency if bleed steam
from the turbine is used for heating the air. The reasoning behind this is based on the fact that the
steam leaves some of its energy in the turbine as an increased electrical output. The rest of the heat
energy is then returned to the water/steam cycle via heating of the combustion air instead of being
“wasted” in the condenser.
Waste heat is also recovered to the district heating system whenever possible. This might for example
apply to cooling of the blow down water since temperatures are high enough for being utilized as
district heat.
78
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