Physics

INSTITUTE OF AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY
AIRFORCE COLLEGE
FUNDAMENTAL COURSE
PHYSICS
MALAYSIAN AVIATION TRAINING ACADEMY
Apprentice Course
For training purposes only Rev. 0 Issued 01 Dec 06 Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved
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ENHANCEMENT PROGRAMME
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Apprentice Course
MIP/MECH/TN/006
Fundamental Course Royal Malaysian Air Force Mech. Interaction
Physics 2.1- H.0 -1
Apprentice Course – Phase I
2.1 MECHANICAL INTERACTION
2.1.1 Impulse
In previous chapters we looked at how forces product change in the

acceleration of objects. We saw that to get something moving we need to exert a force
or forces on it. This force produces acceleration, which result in change in the velocity
of the object.
Motion can be analyzed in different way. Consider motion caused force acting
for a specified time. The force produces velocity. The product of force and time is the
Impulse ( I ) of the force:
I = F x ∆t (2.1)
The units of impulse have no special name and written as Ns (Newton second) and
its direction is the same as that of the force.
Example 1
A light hammer hits the head of a nail and exerts a force of 10 N for 0.3 seconds.
a) How much is the impulse produced by the hammer on the nail?
b) If the heavy hammer that exerts a force of 30 N hit on the same nail, for how
long should it be in contact to produce the same impulse?
Solution
a) Impulse due to the light hammer.
I = F x ∆t
= 10 N x 0.3 s
= 3.0 Ns
b) Impulse to the heavy hammer.

I = F x ∆t
3.0 Ns = 30 N x ∆t
Therefore,
∆t = 3.0 Ns
30 N
= 0.1 s
Force-time graph
We can place instrument on interacting bodies so that we can measure how the force
applied on the body changes with time. For example, we could place an electronic force
measuring device in a ping pong ball and throw it against a wall ( figure 1.1 ). If we observe
what happens in this collision with the wall, we find that the acting on the ball due to the
wall is not constant:
For training purposes only Rev. 0 Issued 01 Dec 06 Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved.
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Physics 2.1- H.0 -2
á The force is zero just before the ball first makes contact with the wall; at this time
the ball has maximum velocity.
á The force increase to maximum which occurs when the ball come to stop before
reversing its direction.
á The force then decreases, reaching zero again as the ball leaves the wall. The area
under the force-time graph represents the impulse of that force as shown in figure
41.1 (b)
V V=0 V
F=0 F = max. F=0
(a)
I = F x ∆t
Force ( F )
Time ( s)
(b) ∆t
Figure 1.1: Force- time graph diagram for a ping-pong ball colliding with the wall.
Example 2:
What is the impulse of a constant force of 40 N over an interval of 1.0 s?
Solution
As figure 1.2 shows, the impulse of the force over the 1.0 s interval is;
I = F x ∆t
= 40 N x 1.0 s
= 40 Ns
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Physics 2.1- H.0 -3
40
Force ( N)
20
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 Time (s)
Figure 1.2: The area under a force time graph is the impulse of that force.
Example 3
What is the impulse of a force of 1.0 N for the first 4 s, and then increases to 4.0 N over the
further 6 s?
Solution
Draw the graph represent the force –time.
6
5
Force (N )
4
3
2
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 time ( s )
Figure 1.3 : The area under the Force–time graph is the impulse of that force.
The impulse of the force over the 10 s intervals is;

Impulse, I = area under the graph
= ( 1.0 N x 10.0 s ) + ( ½ x 3 N x 6 s )
= 10 Ns + 9 Ns
= 19 Ns
2.1.2 Linear Momentum
The impulse, I can be directly related to the change in velocity during the period the
force is applied. Assuming that the mass of the object remains fixed, since F = ma and
acceleration, a is related with ∆t and ∆v, then:
F = ma = m vf - vi
∆t
The product of mass and velocity is called momentum, p;

p=mv
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Fundamental Course Royal Malaysian Air Forc Mech. Interaction
Physics 2.1- H.0 -4
Therefore; F ∆ t = m (vf - vi )
So, Impulse = Change in momentum.
I = ∆p ( 2.2 )
Momentum is related to velocity, and velocity is a vector quantity that has both a
magnitude and direction. The unit of momentum is not given any special name, but is stated
in kg.m/s. The momentum of an object therefore depends both on the mass of the object and
its velocity.
Example 4
A 20 000 kg coal truck is traveling at 100 km/h. A passing car has a mass of 500 kg and is
traveling at 105 km/h. Which has the larger momentum?
Solution
Momentum for the truck;
p = m.v
= 20 000 kg x 100 km x 1000 m
h 60 min. x 60 s
= 5.6 x 105 kg.m/s
Momentum for the car;

P = m.v
= 500 kg x 105 km x 1000 m
h 60 min x 60 s
4
= 1.5 x 10 kg.m/s
Thus, the truck has the larger momentum even though it is traveling more slowly than the
car.
Example 5
Figure 1.4 shows the magnitude of force acting on 1.5 kg object on a smooth level surface
during 10 s intervals.
a) Calculate the change in momentum of the object during the 10 s intervals.
b) If the object was initially moving with the velocity 10 m/s and has a mass of 10 kg.
What is its new velocity?
8
7
6
Force (N )
5
4
3
2
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 time ( s )
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Physics 2.1- H.0 -5
Figure 1.4: The force acting on a 10 kg. mass.

Solution
a) Change in momentum = Impulse
Impulse, I = ∆ ( mv ) = ∆p = F ∆t
= area under the graph
= ½x8Nx4s + 8Nx2s + ½x8Nx4s
= 48 Ns
b) Impulse, I = Change in momentum, ∆p

F ∆t = m ( vf – vi )
48 Ns = 10 kg ( vf - 10 m/s )
48 Ns = ( vf - 10 m/s )
10 kg
vf - 10 = 4.8
vf = 4.8 + 10
= 14.8 m/s
2.1.3 Conservation of Momentum
Suppose we have a group of object. These objects may be everyday thing, such as a
flock of birds flying together, a school of porpoises, or wall of bricks. They may also
microscopic particles such as atoms forming a slice of chocolate cake. We can consider the
motion of any of these groups or systems of objects using Newton’s second law. We can
represent the system of particles by mass equal to the mass of the system positioned at the
center of mass of the object. Newton’s second law states:
F net = m system x a center of gravity

The total momentum of the group of objects or system is the vector sum of all the
individual momentum of the particles within the system:
F net = p1 + p2 + p 3 ............... = p
The forces acting on the objects, which make up the system are two kinds:
; Those between objects or particles in the system. For example gravity, electrostatic,
magnetic, etc.; these are internal forces.
; Those applied from out side the system. For example pushing, prodding or pulling
forces; these are external forces.
The internal forces effectively cancel each other out and cannot cause the system
momentum to change. The total momentum of the system can only be change if there are
out side forces acting on the system:
Impulse due to external forces = ∆p net
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Physics 2.1- H.0 -6
Suppose there are in externally applied forces? Then there can be no change in the
momentum of the system in other words:
The total momentum of a group or system of objects is always the same unless the
system is acted on by the some external force.
This is known as the law of conservation of momentum. In simple terms this means
that, no matter how a group of moving object will change, both in direction and in size, but
the vector sum of momentum is constant. This is represented;
Total momentum before impact = total momentum after impact

p before = p after
p1 + p2 + ....... = p1 + p2 + .........
m1 v1 + m2 v2 + ........... = m1 v1 + m2 v2 + ..........
Example 6
As shown in figure 1.5, a 2.0 kg object collides with a 3.0 kg stationary object on a smooth
level surface. After the collision the object stick together and move with a speed of 2.0 m/s.
What was the initial speed of the 2.0 kg object?
m1 = 2 kg m2 = 3.0 kg m = ( 2 + 3 ) kg
v = ? at rest ( v = 0 m/s ) v = 2.0 m/s
Figure 1.5 : Collision of a 2.0 kg object with a 3.0 kg stationary object.
Solution
The system made up of two objects.
There are no out side forces acting on the system, so the law of conservation of momentum
applies;
p before = p after
p1 + p2 = p1 + p2
m1 v1 + m2 v2 = (m1 + m2 ) v
2 kg ( v ) + 3 kg ( 0 m/s ) = ( 2 + 3 ) 2 m/s
2 kg ( v ) + 0 = 10 kg.m/s
v = 10 kg. m/s
2 kg.
= 5 m/s
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Physics 2.1- H.0 -7
Momentum and Newton’s third law.
Problems previously considered in terms of Newton’s third law ( the law of action
and reaction) can now be viewed in terms of momentum. The recoil of a cannon after firing
is an example ( Figure 1.6).
V
V = 0 m/s V
Ball move to the right
Cannon recoils to left
Figure 1.6 : Recoil is an example of conversation of momentum.

The cannon and cannon ball can now be considered as a system or a group of object.
The total momentum of the system before firing the powder is zero. This is because the
velocities of cannon and cannon ball are zero.
The law of conservation of momentum tells us that the total momentum remains constant:
Total momentum before = Total momentum after
0 = m cannon v cannon + m ball v ball
Example 7
If the cannon has a mass of 500 kg and the ball only 20 kg, and the velocity of the ball is
100 m/s then.
Solution
0 = ( 500 kg x v cannon ) + ( 20 kg x 100 m/s )
- 500 kg x v cannon = 2000 kg.m/s
v cannon = 2000 kg.m/s
- 500 kg
= - 4 m/s
4 The negative sign tells that the cannon goes to the opposite direction to the cannon
ball. It recoils.
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Physics 2.1- H.0 -8
2.1.4 Work, Energy and Power
We do work when we kick a ball, throw the rock, lift a bag or climb a ladder. We all
know that work in our everyday world refers to something you do to earn money. Suppose
were offered $ 10 to move a 100 kg box into the next room. You probably jump to the
chance of earning money to do requiring little effort. However, what if you were offered
same amount to move the 100 kg box between Alor Star and Johor Baru, or to move a 1000
kg box into the next room? The offer is not as appealing. The first alternative involves
moving the box much further, and the second involves lifting a much heavier box. Clearly
we recognize that the effort or work we are required to do is related to force we need to use
and the distance we need to move the object.
In physics, work is a scalar quantity equal to the product of the magnitude of the
displacement and the component of the force in the direction of the displacement.
Work = force component x displacement

W = Fxs ( 2.4 )
Where; F is the component of force along the displacement ( in other word, Force
which is parallel with the displacement )
FII
s
Initial position final position
Figure 1.7 ; Work is done when an object is moved. Work = F x s
Forces often act in a different direction from the displacement ( for example when
force pushing a lawn mower or pulling a billy cart ). The component of force along the
displacement figure 1.8 is given by F cos , therefore;
Work = F cos x s ( 2.5 )
The angle is between F and s.
Figure 1.8 :
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Physics 2.1- H.0 -9
Work has only magnitude (size). Nobody tells you to do a certain amount of work in
some direction. Work is scalar quantity.
The unit of work is Newton meter (Nm), given by combining the unit of force
(Newton), with and that displacement (meter). The unit of work is usually given as Joules
(J) after J. P. Joule, the scientist who spend a large part of the 19th century carrying out
research into work and energy. One Joule ( 1 J ) is the work done when an object is
displaced one meter ( 1 m ) by the application of a force of one Newton ( 1 N )
1 J = 1 Nm
When considering work it is important to make clear which force is doing the
work. Consider a person pushing a heavy box with a force of 100 N. There may be more
than one force acting on the box, such as friction. Thus, we can talk about the work done
by the 100 N force, the work done by the friction force, and the total work done by the
net force (100 N - Ffriction ).We can also talk about work done against forces. In this case
it is assumed that the opposing force used in calculating the work is of the same
magnitude but opposite sign (direction) to the original force.
Therefore:
work done against friction = -Ffriction x s
against gravitational force = Fgravity x s = + mg x s
Example 7
A 100 kg mass, initially stationary, is pulled 5.0 m along a rough surface with a force of
50 N ( Figure 1.9). A constant frictional force of 1O N acts on the mass.
a) How much work is done by the 50 N force?
b) How much work is done by the friction force?
c) How much work is done against the friction force?
d) How much work is done by the net force?
100 kg
50 N
10 N
positive direction
Figure 1.9: Force acting on a mass.
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Physics 2.1- H.0 -10
Solution
a) Work done by 50 N forces:
Work, W = Fs
= 5O N x 5.0 m
= 250 Nm @ 250 J
b) Work done by friction:

Work = -10 N x 5.0 m
= - 50 J
c) The force opposing the friction force is of the same magnitude but in the opposite
direction;
Force = - Ffriction = -(-10)
= + 10 N
Work done against friction:
Work = 1O N x 5.0 m
= + 50 J
d) Net force = 5O N - 1O N = 40 N in the horizontal.

Work done by net force:
Work = 40 N x 5.0 m
= 200 J
Note: the total force = sum of the work done by all of the forces acting on the body
(Force-displacement graphs)
Force-displacement graphs.
We have already seen that the area under velocity-time and force-time diagrams can
be used to calculate displacement and impulse. In a similar way we can use a force-
displacement diagram to calculate the work done by a force.
Example 8
Varying force was applied to a stationary object over a distance of 24 m as shown in Figure
1.10. Determine the work done on the object.
Solution
The work done by a force is the area under the force-displacement diagram.
In this example,
work = area under the graph
= ( ½ x 6 N x 12 m ) + ( 6 N x 4 m ) + ( ½ x 6 N x 8 m )
= 84 J
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Force (N)
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 Distance (m)
Figure 1.10: Graph of force applied versus distance.
Energy and work
We look at the world around us we can identify things that are capable of doing work, that
is, things that can exert a force to move an object, including:
a truck about to collide with a stationary car will shortly exert a large force on that
car and move it some distance
a bomb, about to explode, will shortly exert very large forces on nearby bricks and
cause them to move
a compressed spring or stretched elastic will be capable of exerting a force on a mass
attached to its end and moving that mass.
All of these objects are capable of doing work, even though they are not yet doing any
work. This ability to do work is referred to as the energy associated with the body:
4 Energy is the capacity of a body for doing work
The energy of a body can also be thought of as stored work. When you do work on a
body, that work is stored in the form of energy. Because of this energy the body can do
work on something else.
We can identify many forms of energy that allow bodies to do work. In physics we
identify energies associated directly with the motion of objects as mechanical energy.
Mechanical energy includes kinetic energy and potential energy. Examples of kinetic
energy are:
• Energy of motion (a fast-moving, heavy truck will do work in a collision)
• Energy of rotation
Examples of potential energy are:

• Energy associated with shape (a compressed spring can do work on a mass attached to it)
• Energy associated with position (gravitational force does work as an object falls).
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Other forms of energy are less clearly linked to motion and initially were not
identified as a form of energy. These include: chemical energy, nuclear energy, electrical
energy, thermal (heat) energy, light energy, and sound energy. All forms of energy are
measured in the same units, joules. Table 6.1 shows some typical energy values associated
with everyday phenomena.
Activity Typical energy value (J)
Lifting a brick to head height from ground 50 J used

Throwing a brick as hard as you can 751J used
Climbing a ladder 1500 J used
Eating a sweet biscuit 300000 J gained
Drinking a glass of soft drink 300000 J gained
Boiling a kettle 700 000 J used
Eating a packet of chips 1 000 000 J gained
Burning 1 litre of petrol 40 000 000 J released
Jumbo jet taking oft 1 500 000 000 000 J used
TABLE 1.1: Typical energy values for everyday phenomena
Kinetic Energy ( KE )
It is clear that fast-moving objects can exert forces on other bodies during collisions.
These forces can do work. What exactly is the form of this energy and how is it related to
the characteristics of the motion? Recall that:
F = ma
and:
v2 = u2 + 2as
Therefore:
v2 = u2 + 2Fs/ m
Rearranging this equation we find:

½ mv2 = ½ mu2 + Fs
Or, work done by the force:
W = Fs = ½ m v2 - ½ mu2
We call ½ mu2 the translational kinetic energy (energy of motion) of an object of mass m,
moving with velocity V. Kinetic energy (KE), like work, is a scalar quantity. It does not
have a direction. It is not a vector quantity:
KE = 1/2 m v2
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This result is known as the work-energy theorem. It states that the total work done
on an object is equal to its change in kinetic energy. It holds whether the net force is
constant or not. The theorem states:
The network done on an object is equal to its change in kinetic energy:
W = Fs = ½ m vf2 - ½ m vi2
A word about vector and scalar notation
Energy, like work, is a scalar quantity. You don't talk about energy being produced
in a given direction. You only talk about the amount of energy. When you refer to equations
in which energy is involved you do not use vector notation, which is bold type, to refer to
either velocity or displacement. In particular you write:
Î V2 (not v2)
Î X2 (not x2)
However, you need to remember that momentum is a vector and you must always state its
magnitude and direction and continue to write it as a vector quantity.
p = mv
Example 9
A truck with a mass of 5000 kg is moving at 10 m/s. It brakes for 100 m with a braking
force of 1000 N.
a) What is the initial kinetic energy of the truck?
b) How much work does the braking force do?
c) What is the final kinetic energy of the truck and the magnitude of its new velocity?
Solution
Notice that the force acting is a braking force. The force acts in the opposite direction to
the displacement. Thus, F and s have opposite signs.
a) Kinetic energy of the truck.

KE (start) = ½ mv2
= ½ x 5000 kg x (10 m )2
= 2.5 x 105 J
b) Work is done by the braking force.

W =-Fx s
= - 1000 N x 100 m
= - 1 x 105 J
c) The final kinetic energy of the truck and the magnitude of its new velocity is.
W = -1 x 105 J
∆KE = KE (final) – KE (start)
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So, W = KE (final) – KE (start)
-1 x 105 J = KE ( final ) - 2.5 x 105 J

KE ( final ) = - 1.5 x 105 J + 2.5 x 105 J
= 1.5 x 105 J
½ m v2 = 1.5 x 105 J
½ (5000 kg) v2 = 1.5 x 105 J
v2 = 1.5 x 105 kg m2/s2
2500 kg
= 600 m2/s2
v = 7.7 m/s
Potential energy
If we compress or stretch a spring we do work on it. When we release the spring, it

will returns to its original shape, and does work on any object attached to it. If we lift a
mass from the floor to a hook we have to do work on the mass against the force of gravity.
If we release the object from the hook it accelerates, gaining kinetic energy.
When the spring was compressed it had stored energy associated with it. That
energy can be released to do useful work. When the mass was on the hook it had stored
energy associated with its position. That energy can be released as the object falls,
resulting in an increase in kinetic energy. We refer to stored energy that can be released to
do useful work as potential energy. Two main types of potential energy are associated
with mechanical energy:
1. Gravitational potential energy

2. Spring potential energy.
Gravitational potential energy
If we slowly lift an object with mass m through a vertical height h (figure 1.11), we
must exert a force:
F l i f t = mg
This force performs an amount of work given by;
W = F x h = mgh
Since the object may have had some stored or potential energy at the start of the
experiment, we can talk only of the change in potential energy. The increase in stored or
potential energy is,
∆PE = mgh
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As the object normally starts from a particular height, it should be noted that it is the
distance through which the object is moved that is important. Hence we often use:
∆PE = mg ∆h
Where ∆h signifies the change in height.
Flift
h
mg
Figure 1.11: The change in potential energy = mgh
Spring potential energy
When we stretch or compress a spring, we must exert a force to oppose the restoring
force of the spring. The restoring force is not a constant force but depends on the extension
of the spring, as shown in Figure 1.12.
A B
8 kg 8 kg
5.0 m 7.0 m
Figure 1.12: Potential energy can be store in a spring and is proportional of the spring.
F ( restoring ) = - k X
F (pull ) = - Frestoring = k X
The work done in extending the spring equal to the slope of force-displacement (extension)
curve Figure 1.13:
W = ½ kX x X = ½ kX 2
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In this example the work done in extending the spring by 0.05 m is….
W = ½ x 180 N x 0.05 m
= 4.5 J
Force (N)
200
160
120
80
40
0 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.05

Extension (m)
Figure 1.13: Force is directly proportional to extension.
Non-potential energy: friction
If you do work on a system and energy is stored in a form from which it can
never be released, then this cannot be termed potential energy. An example is when
you pull an object across a rough surface. You exert a force to overcome friction, and
do work against the friction force. This work goes into breaking intermolecular bonds,
and heating the object slightly. The energy is rapidly shared between all of the
molecules in the object. It is very unlikely that all of these molecules will choose the
same moment to return the energy to the outside world. It is locked away in random
motions of the individual molecules and so is unlikely ever to do useful work again.
Forces that lock up energy in this way are called non-conservative.
Conservation of energy
The workings of our universe are closely linked to the transfer of energy between
one-object and another, and the change of energy from one form to another. We sense the
objects in the universe, not by touch but by the light and radio emissions they produce.
The light energy is produced through changes in nuclear energy in the star. When it
strikes our eyes, the light energy is converted into electrical energy, which is transmitted to
our brain. When a stone falls to the ground, it loses height and gains velocity-gravitational
potential energy is exchanged for kinetic energy. When a hammer hits a nail, the hammer
does work on the nail and drives it into the wood. Kinetic energy is converted to breaking
the bonds of the wood, compressing the air molecules, creating a sound wave, and
producing heat by causing the molecules in the nail, hammer and wood to vibrate faster.
If we store work in one form of energy, it is possible to release that energy and allow
it to do work on some other system in many different ways. The released energy may cause
an object to gain velocity and so increase its kinetic energy. The same release of energy
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maybe used to drive an electrical generator and produce electrical energy. Figure 1.14
shows these possibilities.
If we consider all forms of energy, including heat, sound, electrical, chemical
energy, etc., we find that the total energy of a closed system remains fixed. Energy can
never be created nor destroyed; it can only be changed from one form to another. This
fundamental law is known as the law of conservation of energy. The law can be stated
as follows:
The total energy of a closed system is constant. Energy can be changed from one
form to another, and transferred from one body in the system to another; but the
total amount of energy remains fixed.
This means that if we look at an experiment and identify all the forms energy present
at the start of the experiment and all the forms in which is present at the end, the total
energy must remain unchanged.
Electrical
energy
Belt-driven turbine
Weight attached to
pulley of turbine
system
PE to KE
PE to KE +
electrical
energy
Figure 1.14: Transformation of energy.
Conservation of Mechanical Energy.
We can simplify the discussion of mechanical interactions if we restrict our

considerations isolated systems in which:
> There are no external forces, which can add energy to the system after we start
experiment
> No energy is dissipated through friction or by permanent distortion of the objects.
> Mass are conserved and no nuclear explosions or changes occur.
We describe this type of system as a conservative system due to the absence of

dissipative or non-conservative forces such as friction. In such a system we need consider
only the total kinetic energy and the total potential energy of the system during the
interaction.
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The total mechanical energy (total kinetic energy + total potential energy) of a
conservative system remains constant:
ΣK E before + ΣP E before = ΣK E after + ΣP E after
The law of conservation of mechanical energy is useful in that it allows us to

solve problems of motion, which we previously found difficult to solve using
Newton's laws.
Example 10
Two carts of masses 0.2 kg and 0.8 kg are held together with a compressed spring
between them. They are on a smooth level surface and the mass of the spring is
negligible (Figure 1.15). When released, the spring expands from 10 cm to 30 cm
and the carts move apart. The spring then falls to the surface. The 800 g can is
observed to have a speed of 0.50 m/s. When compressed, the energy stored in the
spring is 0.50 J. What is the speed of the 0.2 kg cart when free of the spring?
200 g 10 cm 800 g
Figure 1.15: Two carts held together with a compressed spring.
Solution
Step l : Identify the system; energy can be stored in the two carts and the spring.
State what level you is taking for the P E to be zero. Let the PE be zero at height = 0
on the track.
Step 2: Calculate the total mechanical energy before and after release.
At start, K E of 0.2 kg cart = 0

K E of 0.8 kg cart = 0
P E of carts = 0
P E of spring = 0.50 J (given in question)
Thus, total mechanical energy at start = 0.50 J
After release:
KE of 0.2 kg cart = 1/2 x 0.2 kg x v12
= 0.1 v12 (where v1 = velocity of 0.2 kg cart)
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KE of 0.8 kg cart = 1/2 x 0.8 kg x v22

= 0.4 x 0.52
= 0.1 J (where v2 = velocity of 0.8 kg cart)
PE of carts = 0
PE of spring = 0
Thus, total mechanical energy after release = 0.1 v12 + 0.1 J
Step 3: Apply the law of conservation of energy.
0.5 J = 0.1 v12 + 0.1 J + 0

v12 = 0.4 / 0.1 = 4
v1 = 2.0 m/s
Example 11
A 100 kg skier skiing at 6.0 m/s along level ground comes to a slope of vertical rise
1.5 m. assuming no friction, what is the skier's speed at the top of the slope?
Solution
Step 1: Draw a diagram figure 1.16.
State the height at which you will set PE = 0; at level of start.
Vend
Vstart
1.5 m
Figure 1.16: A skier comes to a small rise.
Step 2: Calculate the total mechanical energy at the start and it the top of the slope.
At start:
KE = ½ mv 2 = 1/2 x 100 x 62 = 1800 J
PE = 0
At the end:
K E = ½ mv 2 = ½ l00 v2
PE = mg ∆h = 100 kg x 9.81 m/s 2 x 1.5 m = 1470 J
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Step 3: Apply the law of conservation of energy:

1800 J + 0 = ½ x 100 v 2 + 1470 J

v 2 = 2 x (1800-1470)
100
= 6.6 m2 /s 2
v = 2.6 m/s
Power
Power is a measurement of how fast we can do work or the amount of work

done per unit time by a system. It is calculated by measuring the total amount of
work done in a given time or the change of energy of a system in a given time. The
power is then given by;
Power = work =w
elapsed time t
Power can also be thought of as the rate at which energy is transformed from
one type to another. The unit of power, the watt, takes the name of a famous
scientist, engineer James Watt, who carried out experiments on steam engines in
order to improve their efficiency. When one joule of work is done in one second, one
watt of power is required; that is:
1 W = 1 J/s
And; 1 hp = 745.7 W @ 0.7457 kW
Power is important in considering the limitations of the system to perform

work. For example, if you carry a heavy box upstairs, it is often 'easier' to work
slowly and take your rime to move the object. The total work done is the same
whether you perform it in 1 second or 600 seconds. The body is limited not in the
total work it can do but in the maximum power it can deliver.
In a similar way most engines are limited in their power output, but can
produce that power for a long period of time. It is sometimes useful to be able to
describe power in terms of the force acting. This is derived as follows.
Power = Work
elapsed time
P = W
t
Example 12
A 100 kg person runs up a set of stairs in 10.0 seconds. If the vertical height of the stairs is
10 m, what is the total energy used and the power output by the person?
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Solution
The work done against gravity =Fxs
= mg ∆h
= 100 kg x 9.81 m/s2 x 10 m
= 9800 J
Then, power = W
t
= 9800 = 980 W
10
2.1.4 Collisions
One of the more obvious ways in which objects exchange energy is when they
collide. Collisions are common in everyday life: tennis racquets hitting tennis balls, two
billiard balls colliding, a hammer striking a nail, a truck crashing into a car.
At atomic levels scientists can learn of the structure of materials only by studying
the effects of deliberately firing subatomic particles at the material and interpreting the
particles' resulting tracks after they have collided with atoms of the material.
What do we mean by a collision? When two bodies interact over a short time and the
forces of interaction are so strong that all other forces have negligible effect on the
interaction, we term this a collision. Think of the subtle differences between a light touch, a
slap, and a blow with a hand to the body.
Collisions usually result in an abrupt change in the- motion of one or both bodies
and the strong forces which act during the short contact time will often distort the shape of
the bodies involved. During the collision we usually don't know how the force between the
colliding bodies varies with time. However if the discussion of collisions is restricted to
simple systems in which friction plays no part, then the results of such collisions can be
predicted using the three conservation laws;
Conservation of mass
Conservation of momentum
Conservation of mechanical Energy
If we have two objects, which are forced to run on a straight track so that they collide
precisely head on, we, need only apply the conservation laws to the motion along the direction
of the track.
We can identify two kinds of collision, which differ in whether the distortion of the
colliding objects is temporary or permanent. The types of collisions are referred to as elastic
collisions and inelastic collisions. The word 'elastic' refers to the ability of both colliding
bodies to return elastically to their original shape.
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Collisions in one dimension
If we have two objects, which are forced to run on a straight track so that they collide
precisely head on, we, need only apply the conservation laws to the motion along the direction
of the track.
We can identify two kinds of collision, which differ in whether the distortion of the
colliding objects is temporary or permanent. The types of collisions are referred to as elastic
collisions and inelastic collisions. The word 'elastic' refers to the ability of both colliding
bodies to return elastically to their original shape.
Elastic collisions
When two bodies collide head on, the forces, which act during the interaction, may
compress the objects and change their shape. If the objects return to their original
shape ( figure 1.17 ), no energy will be locked up in any permanent distortion. Such
collisions are known as elastic collisions.
V1 V2 V1’ V2’
Figure 1.17: Elastic collisions
In elastic collisions the total mechanical energy is constant and both the law of
conservation of momentum and the law of conservation of mechanical energy applied.
The law of conservation of momentum states:
Σ MV before = Σ MV after
The law of conservation of mechanical energy states;

ΣK E before + Σ P E before = Σ K E after + Σ P E after
For two objects undergoing an elastic collision these laws are;

Conservation of momentum:
m1ul + m2u2 = ml vl + m2 v2
Conservation of mechanical energy:

½ m1u12 + ½ m2u22 = ½ m1v12 + ½ m2v22
Where: m1 = mass 1 and m2 = mass 2, u1 = the initial velocity of mass 1 and

u2 = the initial velocity of mass 2.
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Example 13
Ball A has a mass of 100 g and a velocity of 0.4 m/s. It has an elastic collision with an
identical ball B of velocity 0.2 m/s. After the collision, ball A has a velocity of 0.2 m/s.
What is the velocity of ball B?
Solution
Step 1: Draw a diagram (figure 1.18). Indicate which direction is positive.
positive position
A B A B
mA = 100 g mB = 100 g
v = 0.4 m/s v = 0.2 m/s v = 0.2 m/s vB = ?
Figure 1.18:
Step 2: This problem can be solved using either the law of conservation momentum:
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

(100 g x 0.4 m/s) +(100 g x 0.2 m/s) = (100 g x 0.2 m/s) + (100 g x v2)
40 g.m/s + 20 g.m/s = 20 g.m/s + 100 g v2
60 g.m/s - 20 g.m/s = 100 g v2
40 g.m/s = v2
100 g
Thus:
v2 = 0.4 m/s
Inelastic Collisions
When a collision between two bodies occurs and the bodies are either permanently
distorted or fused together. ( Figure 1.19 ), then energy must be locked up in the distortion.
These collisions are termed Inelastic collisions. How ever the law of conservation of
momentum still applies to inelastic collisions.
Before After
v1 v2 same velocity
A B A B
V1 v2 v’1 v’2
A B A B
Figure 1.19: Inelastic Collision.
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Example 14
Two identical cars of mass 1000 kg traveling at 20 m/s collide head on and lock
together on impact.
a) What is the total momentum of the two cars before the collision?
b) What is the total momentum of the two cars after the collision?
c) How much kinetic energy is lost during the collision?
Solution
Step 1: Draw a diagram (figure 1.20). Indicate which direction is positive. Positive
direction is left to right.
a) Total initial momentum = (1000 kg x 20 m/s) + (1000 kg x –20 m/s)

= 20 000 kg.m/s – 20 000 kg.m/s
= 0 kg.m/s
b) Apply the law of conservation of momentum;
Total momentum after collision = Total momentum before collision

= 0 kg.m/s
c) ΣK E before = ½ m1u12 + ½ m2u22

= ( ½ x 1000 x 202 ) + ( ½ x 1000 x (-20)2 )
= 400 000 J @ 400 kJ.
Σ K E after = 0
Change in KE = - 400 kJ
positive
1000 kg 1000 kg
20 m/s 20 m/s
v=?
Figure 1.20: Inelastic collision of two car.
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Task 1
1. Sue hit a cricket ball with a bat. She exerts a force of 20 N for 0.15 s. What is the
impulse of the force?
2. The following graph represents the force applied to an object versus time. What was
the total impulse applied to the object?
10
8
6
4
2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 time (s)
3. Calculate the momentum of a 100kg man running at 8.0 m/s?
4. Which has greater momentum, a 1.0 kg mass moving at 60 m/s or a 10.0 kg mass
moving at 5.0 m/s?
5. What is the momentum of a 20 g bullet moving at 300 m/s?
Task 2
1. A stationary object of mass 10 kg explodes into two sections. One section of mass
6.0 kg moves away at 8 m/s. What is the velocity of the other section?
2. A 0.1 g bullet is fired into a block of wood mounted on a glider on a linear air track.
The mass of the block and glider is 1.0 kg. The bullet becomes embedded in the
wood and the system moves off at speed of 0.92 m/s after impact. Calculate the
speed of the bullet before impact?
3. Two identically spheres are traveling in opposite directions as shown below. After
collision they become locked together. Calculate the speed of the spheres after
impact?
10 g 10 g
30 m/s 40 m/s
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4. A 20 g object collides with a 30 g stationary object on a smooth level surface. After

the collision the objects sticks together and moves with a speed of 21.0 m/s. What
was the initial speed of the 20 g object?
5. A glider of mass 100 g is moving on air track at 0.15 m/s. When a 50 g mass is
dropped onto it. What will be the speed of glider and the mass?
6. Two carts of masses 100 g and 200 g are held together with a compressed spring
between the masses shown below. They are on a smooth level surface and the mass
of the spring is negligible. When released the spring expands and the cart is
observed to have a speed of 0.1 m/s. What is the speed of the 100 g when free of the
spring?
100 g 200 g
Task 3
1. The following graph shows how the force varies with distance as it acts on a mass of
10.0 kg, initially at rest on a smooth level surface.
a) Calculate the work done in moving the object 4.0 m.
b) Calculate the work done in moving the object 8.0 m.
c) Calculate the acceleration of the object.
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 distance (m)
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2. The following graph shows how the force varies with distance as it acts on a mass of
2.0 kg, initially at rest on a smooth level surface.
a) Calculate the work done in moving the object 10.0 m.
b) Calculate the work done in moving the object 24.0 m.
10
8
6
4
2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 distance (m)
3. A car with a mass of 1500 kg is moving at 20 m/s. What is its kinetic energy?
4. A 10 g bullet has a speed of 1.0 km/s.

a) What is its kinetic energy?
b) What is its kinetic energy if its speed is halved?
c) What is its kinetic energy if its speed is doubled?
5. A truck of mass 1000 kg accelerates from 15 m/s to25 m/s in 5.0 s.

a) What is the initial kinetic energy of the truck?
b) What is the final kinetic energy of the truck?
c) How much is work done by the truck engine?
d) What is the driving force of the engine?
Task 4
1. How much is work done in raising a 10 kg mass trough a vertical height of 10 m?
2. A ball of mass 200 g is at rest at a point A on a smooth level surface as shown.

What will its gain in potential energy when it moved to point D?
D
2m
3. A 54 kg student climbs a 100 m high hill.

a) What is her increase in gravitational potential energy?
b) What is the source of this energy?
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Task 5
1. Two cart of masses 300 g and 900 g are held together with a compressed spring
between them (as shown). They are on a smooth level surface and the mass of the
spring is negligible. When released, the spring expands and the carts move apart.
The spring then falls to the surface. The 300 g cart is observed to have a speed of 0.6
m/s.
a) What is the speed of the cart of the 9000 g?
b) What is the energy store in the spring?
300 g 900 g
2. A 10 kg mass, initially stationary, is pulled 10 m along a rough surface with a force

of 90 N. a constant frictional force of 10 N acts on the mass (as shown in figure
below).
a) What is the net force acting on the mass?
b) Determine the kinetic energy of the mass at the 10 m mark.
10 N 90 N
10 kg
3. A large wooden block of mass 10 kg is suspended by two pieces of strings. A bullet

of mass 10 g traveling at a speed of 110 m/s strikes the block and become embedded
in it. The block swings, as illustrated below, rising to a vertical height h, Assume
that after impact the kinetic energy of the bullet and block is transformed into
gravitational potential energy. Calculate the vertical height h that the block raised.
110 m/s
h
10 g
4. A 65 kg girl roller skating at 15 m/s along a level road and comes to a hill of vertical
rise 5.0 m. Assume no friction, what is the girl’s speed at the top of the rise?
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5. An air track glider of mass 100 g moving with the velocity of 0.89 m/s collides with
a stationary glider of mass 200 g. the glider lock together on impact.
a) What is the speed of the combined gliders after impact?
b) How much kinetic energy is lost in the collision?
Task 6
1. A 1000 kg car accelerates from 0 m/s to 30 m/s in 5.0 s.

a) What is its acceleration?
b) What is its kinetic energy after 5.0 s?
c) What is its power output?
2. An 80 kg teacher climbs up a ladder with vertical rise of 3.0 m in 3.9 s. A 45 kg

student climbs the same in 2.4 s.
a) Determine the work done by both teacher and student.
b) Who has the greater power output?
3. A horse pulls a cart with a force of 250 N. The cart moves at an average speed of
9.0 m/s. Calculate how much is the power generate by the horse?
4. A car uses 60 kW to move at a constant speed of 20 m/s along a level surface.

What force does the engine develop?
5. A motor is used to power the lift on building site. The lift raises a load of bricks
of mass 200 kg to a height of 3.0 m in 10 s. How much is the power provided by
the motor?
6. A 10 kg box was lifted by a force, which equal to its weight. The box moves
with a constant upward velocity of 1.5 m.
a) What is the input by the force?
b) If the box was lifted for 5 s, what is its gain in potential energy?
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Fundamental Course Royal Malaysian Air Force Fluids
Physics 2.2 - H.0 -1
2.2 FLUIDS
The three common states, or phases, of matter are solid, liquid, and gas. We
can distinguish these three phases as follows. A solid maintains a fixed shape and a
fixed size; even if a large force is applied to a solid, it does not readily change its
shape or volume. A liquid does not maintain a fixed shape it takes on the shape of
its container but like a solid it is not readily compressible and only a very large force
can change its volume significantly. A gas has neither a fixed shape nor a fixed
volume-it will expand to fill its container. For example, when air is pumped into an
automobile tire, the air does not all run to the bottom of the tire as a liquid would; it
spreads out to fill the whole volume of the tire.
Since liquids and gases do not maintain a fixed shape, they both have the
ability to flow; they are thus often referred to collectively as fluids.
2.2.1 The Density and Specific Gravity
The density, , of an object ( is the lowercase Greek letter “rho” is defined as

its mass per unit volume:
=m (2.1)
V
Where: m is the mass of the object (kg)
V is volume (m3).
Density is a characteristic property of any pure substance. Objects made of a

given pure substance, such as pure gold, can have any size or mass, but the density
will be the same for each.
The SI unit for density is kg/m3. Sometimes densities are given in
g/cm3. Note that since l kg/m3 = 1000 g/(100 cm)3 = 10-3 g/cm3, then a density given
in g/cm3 must be multiplied by 1000 to give the result in kg/m3. Thus the density of
aluminum is = 2.70 g/cm3, which is equal to 2700 kg/m3. The densities of a
variety of substances are given in Table 4.1. The table specifics temperature and
pressure because they affect the density of substances (although the effect is slight
for liquids and solids).
The specific gravity of a substance is defined as the ratio of the density of
that substance to the density of water at 4.0 0C. Specific gravity (abbreviated SG) is
a number, without dimensions or units. Since the density of water is 1.00 g/cm3 =
1.00 x 103 kg/m3, the specific gravity of any substance will be equal numerically to
its density specified in g/cm3, or 10-3 times its density specified in kg/m3. For
example see Table 4.1, the specific gravity of lead is 11.3, and that of alcohol is 0.79.
Specific Gravity, SG = Density of substance

Density of water
Example 1
What volume does 0.5kg of alcohol if the density of alcohol is 790kg/m3? What is the
weight of this volume?
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Solution:
1) Mass of alcohol (m) = 0.5kg.
Density of alcohol ( ) = 790 kg/m3
=m
V
790 kg/m3 = 0.5 kg
V
V= 0.5 kg
790 kg/m3
= 6.33 x 10-4 m3
2) Mass of alcohol (m) = 0.5 kg

Gravity (g) = 9.81 m/s2
Weight = m.g
= ( 0.5 kg ) ( 9.81 m/s2 )
= 4.9 kg m/s2
= 4.9 N
Table 2.1 : Densities of the substance.
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Example 2
What volume of water has the same weight as 1m3 of lead if density of water and
lead are 1000 kg/m3 and 11300 kg/m3.
Solution:
Volume of lead (V) = 1m3
Density of lead ( ) = 11300 kg/m3
= m
V
11300 kg/m3 = m
1 m3
Mass of lead = 11300 kg/m3 x 1 m3

=11300 kg.
To find the volume of water that has the same weight as 1 m3 of lead is
= m
V
1000 kg/m3 = 11300 kg
V
V = 11300 kg
1000 kg/m3
= 11.3 m3
Example 3
0.2 m
36 kg
0.3 m
0.3 m
From the above figure. Calculate: -

1) The volume of the container
Volume (V) = 0.3 m x 0.3 m x 0.2 m
= 0.018 m3
2) The density of the container

Mass of container (m) = 36 kg
Volume of container (V) = 0.018 m3
= m
V
Density of the container ( ) = 36 kg
0.018 m3
= 2000 kg/m3
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2.2.2 Pressure in Fluids
Pressure is defined as force per unit area, where the force F is understood to
be acting perpendicular to the surface area A
Pressure, P = F (2.2)
A
The SI unit of pressure is N/m2. This unit has the official name Pascal (Pa),
in honor of Blaise Pascal that is, 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. However, for simplicity, we will
often use N/m2. Other units sometimes used are dynes/cm2, lb/in.2 (sometimes
abbreviated "psi").
The concept of pressure is particularly useful in dealing with fluids. It is an
experimental fact that a fluid exerts a pressure in all directions. This is well known
to swimmers and divers who feel the water pressure on all parts of their bodies. At
any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure is the same in all directions. This is
illustrated in Figure 2.1. Consider a tiny cube of the fluid, which is so small that we
can ignore the force of gravity on it. The pressure on one side of it must equal the
pressure on the opposite side. If this weren't true, there would be a net force on the
cube and it would start moving. If the fluid is not flowing, then the pressures must
be equal.
Figure 2.1. Pressure is the same in every direction in a fluid at a given depth; if it
weren’t, the fluid would be in motion.
Let us now calculate quantitatively how the pressure in a liquid of uniform

density varies with depth. Consider a point, which is at a depth h below the surface
of the liquid (that is, the surface is a height h above this point), as shown in Figure
2.2. The pressure due to the liquid at this depth h is due to the weight of the column
of liquid above it. Thus tile force acting on the area is F = mg = Ahg, where Ah is the
volume of the column, is the density of the liquid (assumed to be constant), and g
is the acceleration of gravity.
The pressure, P, is then
Pressure, P = F
A
P = gh (2.3)
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Figure 2.2: Calculating the pressure at a depth, h in a liquid.
Archimedes' principle
Archimedes' principle, principle that states that a body immersed in a

fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. The
principle applies to both floating and submerged bodies and to all fluids, i.e., liquids
and gases. It explains not only the buoyancy of ships and other vessels in water but
also the rise of a balloon in the air and the apparent loss of weight of objects
underwater.
In determining whether a given body will float in a given fluid, both weight
and volume must be considered; that is, the relative density, or weight per unit of
volume, of the body compared to the fluid determines the buoyant force. If the body
is less dense than the fluid, it will float or, in the case of a balloon, it will rise. If the
body is denser than the fluid, it will sink.
Relative density also determines the proportion of a floating body that will be
submerged in a fluid. If the body is two thirds as dense as the fluid, then two thirds
of its volume will be submerged, displacing in the process a volume of fluid whose
weight is equal to the entire weight of the body. In the case of a submerged body, the
apparent weight of the body is equal to its weight in air less the weight of an equal
volume of fluid.
The fluid most often encountered in applications of Archimedes' principle is
water, and the specific gravity of a substance is a convenient measure of its relative
density compared to water. In calculating the buoyant force on a body, however, one
must also take into account the shape and position of the body. A steel rowboat
placed on end into the water will sink because the density of steel is much greater
than that of water. However, in its normal, keel-down position, the effective volume
of the boat includes all the air inside it, so that its average density is then less than
that of water, and as a result it will float.
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Barometer
Device used to measure atmospheric pressure. Because atmospheric

pressure changes with distance above or below sea level, a barometer can also be
used to measure altitude. There are two main types of barometers: mercury and
aneroid.
In the mercury barometer, atmospheric pressure balances a column of
mercury, the height of which can be precisely measured. To increase their accuracy,
mercury barometers are often corrected for ambient temperature and the local value
of gravity. Common pressure units include pounds per square inch; dynes per
square centimeter; Newton per square meter (the SI unit called the pascal); inches,
centimeters, or millimeters of mercury; and millibars (1 millibar equals 1,000 dynes
per square centimeter, or 0.75 millimeter of mercury). Normal atmospheric pressure
is about 14.7 pounds per square inch, equivalent to 30 inches (760 millimeters) of
mercury, 1,013.2 millibars, or 101,320 Pascal’s (1.01 x 105 Pa = 1 atm).
Of the many different varieties of mercury barometers, most variations arise
from different techniques for measuring the height of the mercury column. Though
other liquids can be used in a barometer, mercury is the most common. Its density
allows the vertical column of the barometer to be of manageable size. If water were
used, for instance, the column would have to be 34 feet high.
A non-liquid barometer called the aneroid barometer is widely used in
portable instruments and in aircraft altimeters because of its smaller size and
convenience. It contains a flexible-walled evacuated capsule, the wall of which
deflects with changes in atmospheric pressure. This deflection is coupled
mechanically to an indicating needle. A mercury barometer is used to calibrate and
check aneroid barometers. Calibration can be, for example, in terms of atmospheric
pressure or altitude above sea level.
A barometer that mechanically records changes in barometric pressure over
time is called a barograph. Though mercury barographs have been made, aneroid
barographs are much more common. The motion of the aneroid capsule is magnified
through levers to drive a recording pen. The pen traces a line on a graph that is
usually wrapped around a cylinder driven by a clockwork mechanism.
Figure 2.3: Schematic representations of (A) a differential manometer, (B) a

Torricellian barometer, and (C) a siphon.
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Example 1
Calculate the pressure that exerts from a 60-kg person whose two feet cover an area
of 500 cm2.
Solution:
Mass of person, m = 60 kg
Weight of person, F = 60 kg x 9.81 m/s2

= 588.6 kg.m/s2
= 588.6 N
Area, A = 500 cm2

= 500 (x 10-2 m) 2
= 500 x 10-4 m2
From the formula;

Pressure, P = F
A
= 588.6 N
500 x 10-4 m2
= 11772 N/m2
Example 2
2m
30 kg
1m
1m
Calculate the pressure that can exert to the container
Solution:
Weight of the container = (30 kg) (9.81 m/s2)
= 294.3 kg.m/s2
= 294.3 N
Area of the container =1mx1m

= 1 m2
The pressure can exert to the container
Pressure, P =F
A
= 294.3 N
1 m2
= 294.3 N/m2.
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Example 3
Calculate the pressure can exert on the water in the water storage tank. Refer to
figure below. Density of water is 1000 kg/m2.
p = gh
= (1000 kg/m3)(9.81 m/s2)(30 m)
= 294300 N/m2.
Tank
Water
30m
Pipe
House
2.2.3 Bernoulli’s Theorem.
Bernoulli’s principle states that where the velocity of a fluid is high, the
P pressure is low, and where the velocity is low, the pressure is high. For ex-
ample, if the pressures at points 1 and 2 in Figure below are measured, it will be
found that the pressure is lower at point 2, where the velocity is greater, than it is at
point 1, where the velocity is smaller.
Figure 2.4: Fluid flow through a pipe of varying diameter.
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Figure 2.5: Examples of Bernoulli’s principle: (a) atomizer, (b) Ping-Pong ball in jet of
air, (c) airplane wing.
Venturi tube
Short pipe with a constricted inner surface, used to measure fluid flows and
as a pump. The 18th-19th-century Italian physicist Giovanni Battista Venturi,
observing the effects of constricted channels on fluid flow, designed an instrument
with a narrow throat in the middle; fluid passing through the tube speeds up as it
enters the throat, and the pressure drops. There are countless applications for the
principle--e.g., an automobile carburetor, in which air flows through a venturi
channel at whose throat gasoline vapour enters through an opening, drawn in by the
low pressure. The pressure differential can also be used to measure fluid flow.
Figure 2.6: Venturi tube.
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Physics 2.2 - H.0 -10
2.2.4 Fluids in Motion.
If the flow is smooth, such that neighboring layers of the fluid slide by each
other smoothly, the flow is said to be streamline or laminar flow. In this kind of
flows, each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path, and these paths do not cross
over one another figure below (a). Above a certain speed, which depends on a
number of factors, as we shall see later, the flow becomes turbulent. Turbulent flow
is characterized by erratic, small, whirlpool-like circles called eddy currents or
eddies Figure (b). Eddies absorb a great deal of energy, and although a certain
amount of internal friction, called viscosity, is present even during streamline flow, it
is much greater when the flow is turbulent. A few tiny drops of ink or food coloring
dropped into a moving liquid can quickly reveal whether the flow is streamline or
turbulent.
Streamlining
In aerodynamics, the contouring of an object, such as an aircraft body, to

reduce its drag, or resistance to motion through a stream of air.
A moving body causes the air to flow around it in definite patterns, the
components of which are called streamlines. Smooth, regular airflow patterns
around an object are called laminar flow; they denote a minimum of disturbance of
the air by the object's motion through it. Turbulent flow occurs when air is disturbed
and separates from the surface of the moving body, with the consequent formation of
a zone of swirling eddies in the body's wake. This eddy formation represents a
reduction in the downstream pressure on the moving object and is a principal
source of drag.
Streamlining, then, is the contouring of an aircraft or other body in such a
way that its turbulent wake is reduced to a minimum. The mechanics of airflow
patterns lead to two principles for subsonic streamlining: (1) the forward part of the
object should be well rounded, and (2) the body should gradually curve back from
the midsection to a tapering rear section. An efficiently streamlined body thus takes
on the look of a horizontally inclined teardrop shape.
An aircraft or other body that is traveling at supersonic speeds requires a
different streamlined form from that of a subsonic aircraft because it is moving
faster than the speed at which the pressure impulses it creates are propagated in
air. Because the pressure waves can no longer be transmitted ahead of an aircraft
moving at supersonic speed, they pile up in front of it, creating a compression, or
shock, wave. Further shock waves are created at the midsection and tail of the
supersonic aircraft. The strength of these shock waves is dependent on the
magnitude of the change in the air's direction, which in turn is dependent on the
sharpness or angle of the forward tip and other surfaces of the aircraft's body.
Supersonic aircraft thus have sharply pointed noses and tails and straight, narrow
bodies to minimize the intensity of the shock waves (and attendant drag).
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Physics 2.2 - H.0 -11
Figure 2.7: (a) Streamline or laminar flow; (b) turbulent flow
Laminar flow
Type of fluid (gas or liquid) flow in which the fluid travels smoothly or in
regular paths, in contrast to turbulent flow, in which the fluid undergoes irregular
fluctuations and mixing. In laminar flow, sometimes called streamline flow, the
velocity, pressure, and other flow properties at each point in the fluid remain
constant. Laminar flow over a horizontal surface may be thought of as consisting of
thin layers, or laminae, all parallel to each other. The fluid in contact with the
horizontal surface is stationary, but all the other layers slide over each other. A deck
of new cards, as a rough analogy, may be made to “flow” laminarly.
Laminar flow in a straight pipe may be considered as the relative motion of a
set of concentric cylinders of fluid, the outside one fixed at the pipe wall and the
others moving at increasing speeds as the centre of the pipe is approached. Smoke
rising in a straight path from a cigarette is undergoing laminar flow. After rising a
small distance, the smoke usually changes to turbulent flow, as it eddies and swirls
from its regular path.
Laminar flow is common only in cases in which the flow channel is relatively
small, the fluid is moving slowly, and its viscosity is relatively high. Oil flow through
a thin tube or blood flow through capillaries is laminar. Most other kinds of fluid
flow are turbulent except near solid boundaries, where the flow is often laminar,
especially in a thin layer just adjacent to the surface.
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Physics 2.2 - H.0 -12
Figure 2.8: Velocity profile for laminar flow between two plates (or inside a
cylindrical tube), driven by a pressure gradient.
Turbulent flow
Type of fluid (gas or liquid) flow in which the fluid undergoes irregular
fluctuations, or mixing, in contrast to laminar flow, in which the fluid moves in
smooth paths or layers. In turbulent flow the speed of the fluid at a point is
continuously undergoing changes in both magnitude and direction. The flow of wind
and rivers is generally turbulent in this sense, even if the currents are gentle. The air
or water swirls and eddies while its overall bulk moves along a specific direction.
Most kinds of fluid flow are turbulent, except for laminar flow at the leading
edge of solids moving relative to fluids or extremely close to solid surfaces, such as
the inside wall of a pipe, or in cases of fluids of high viscosity (relatively great
sluggishness) flowing slowly through small channels. Common examples of
turbulent flow are blood flow in arteries, oil transport in pipelines, lava flow,
atmosphere and ocean currents, the flow through pumps and turbines, and the flow
in boat wakes and around aircraft-wing tips.
2.2.5 Viscosity
Real fluids have a certain amount of internal friction, which is called

viscosity. Viscosity exists in both liquids and gases, and is essentially a frictional
force between adjacent layers of fluid as the layers move past one another. In
liquids, viscosity is mainly due to the cohesive forces between the molecules. In
gases, it arises from collisions between the molecules.
Different fluids possess different amounts of viscosity; syrup is more viscous
than water; grease is more viscous than engine oil; liquids in generally are much
more viscous than gases.
A thin layer of fluid placed between two flat plates. One plate is stationary
and the other made to move at constant speed, Figure 2.9. The fluid directly in
contact with each plate is held to the surface by the adhesive force between the
molecules of the liquid and those of the plate. Thus the upper surface of the fluid
MIP/PH1/TN/006
Physics 2.2 - H.0 -13
moves with the same speed V as the tipper plate, whereas the fluid contact with the
stationary plate remains stationary. The stationary layer fluid retards the flow of the
layer just above it, which in turn retards the flow of the next layer, and so on. Thus
the velocity varies continuously from 0 to V, as shown in the figure 2.9.
Moving plate V F
Velocity
Fluid l
Gradient
Stationary plate
Figure 2.9: Determination of viscosity.
Fluid Temperature Coefficient of Viscosity

( 0 C) Η ( Pa.s)tt
Water 0 1.8 x 10-3
20 1.0 x 10-3
100 0.3 x 10-3
Whole blood 37 ≈ 4 x 10-3
Blood plasma 37 ≈ 1.5 x 10-3
Ethyl alcohol 20 1.2 x 10-3
Engine oil (SAE 10) 30 200 x 10-3
Glycerin 20 1500 x 10-3
Air 20 0.018 x 10-3
Hydrogen 0 0.009 x 10-3
Water vapor 100 0.013 x 10-3
tt
1 Pa.s = 10 P = 1000 cP
Table 2.2: Coefficient of viscosity for various fluids
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Physics 2.2 - H.0 -14
2.2.6 Pascal's Principle
Pascal's principle states that pressure applied to a confined fluid

increases the pressure throughout by the same amount.
Two examples, hydraulic brakes in an automobile and the hydraulic lift, are
illustrated in the figure 2.10.
Figure 2.10: Application of Pascal’s Principle (a) hydraulic brakes in a car; (b)
hydraulic lift.
Principle of Pressure and Force Conversion
Hydraulic device can be used to convert pressure or force.

; Pressure Converter
i. Two pistons of different area A1 and A2 are connected by the same
piston rod.
ii. The piston transfers the balanced forces.
iii. The forces in the system are constant but the pressures at the both
piston area are not same.
F1 = F2 = F and P ≠ P1 ≠ P2
Where: P = F
A
We get; F = P1 A1 = P2 A2
So, P1 = A2
P2 A1
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Physics 2.2 - H.0 -15
; Force Converter
i. A fluid connects two pistons of different area A1 and A2.
ii. The fluid transfers the pressure throughout the same amount.
iii. The pressure throughout in the system is constant but the forces at
the two pistons are not.
P = P1 = P2 and F1 ≠ F2 ≠ F
So; P = F1 = F2
A1 A2
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Physics 2.2 - H.0 -16
Task 1
1. Calculate the mass of air in a big box measuring 2 m x 5 m x 5 m, when the

density is = 1.3 kg/m3.
2. Mercury has a density of = 14 000 kg/m3.

a) Explain the meaning of this statement.
b) Calculate the density in g/cm3, using the correct conversion factors.
3. What volume does 50 kg of alcohol if the density of alcohol is 790 kg/m3?

What is the weight of this volume?
4. What volume of water has the same weight, as 10 m3 of lead if the density of
water and lead are 1000 kg/m3 and 11 300 kg/m3 respectively?
Steel Block
0.2 m
142.2 kg
0.3 m
0.3 m
5. The above figure shows a steel block with dimension 0.3 m by 0.3 m by 0.3
m. Determine…
a) the volume of the steel block.
b) the density of the steel block.
1m
Free Space
0.5 m Mercury level

2m
2m
6. The container in the figure above is filled to a depth of 0.5 m with mercury.
a) Determine the mercury volume.
b) The mass of mercury is 28 000 kg.
c) Determine the density of mercury.
d) Determine the mass of water needed to fill the free space above the
mercury in the container if the density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
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Physics 2.2 - H.0 -17
7. A rectangular block measures 10 cm x 8 cm x 15 cm, and has a mass of 9.37

kg.
a) Determine the weight force of the block.
b) If the area of the block measures 10 cm x 8 cm, determine the
pressure the block can exert.
8. Determine the maximum pressure that can exert from a 70 kg person whose
two feet cover an area of 500 cm2.
9. Calculate the pressure 0.76 m below a mercury level. The density of mercury
amounts to = 1.36 x 104 kg/m3.
Task 2
Hydraulic Fluid
D = 16 cm D = 8 cm
F1 = 1200 N F2
1. By using Pascal’s Law, what is the value F2, in the above figure?
MIP/PH1/TN/006
Fundamental Course Royal Malaysian Air Force Matter
Physics 2.3 - H.0 - 1
Apprentice Course - Phase I
2.3.0 NATURE OF MATTER

2.3.1 Introduction
Matter in bulk, in the way its affects our senses, is an aggregate of a very large
number of atom. these aggregate appear to in three physical states or phases: gases,
liquids, and gasses. (figure 3.1)
2.3.2 Gases
In gases, the inter atomic forces are practically nonexistent, allowing

individually gas atom (or molecules) to move independently except during collisions
with one another. This freedom of motion also allows gas to fill any available volume
.
Average distance between molecules is much greater than the size of the
molecules and the intermolecular forces are much weaker than the forces which
hold the atom in the molecule together.
2.3.3 Liquids
In liquids, and solids their inter-atomic forces are strongly enough to hold the
molecules together. So that the external forces cannot significantly change the
volume occupied by given liquid and solid samples. Thus we say that liquids and
solids are nearly incompressible.
In solids, the inter-atomic forces arrange the atoms in a rigid three-
dimensional array, or lattice structure. As a result, solids not only are
incompressible, but also rigid resisting attempts to change their shape. This three-
dimensional structure is lacking in liquids, however liquids are readily deformable in
shape, conforming to the shape of any container, and are able to flow in response to
applied forces.
2.3.4 Solids
Atom (or molecules) are tightly packed and held in more or less fixed position by
forces, of a electromagnetic origin. The shape and volume of a solid remain
essentially constant so long as the origin. The shape and volume of a solid remain
essentially constant so long as the physical conditions, such as physical pressure
and temperature. Most solids the atoms do not exists as isolated entities; rather
their properties are modified by nearby atoms. The regular arrangement the atoms
or groups of atoms is one of the most important features of solids. The structure of
solid exhibits a regularity or periodicity constituting what is called crystal lattice.
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Physics 2.3 - H.0 - 2
Figure 3.1: A simplified model showing the relative molecular separation in the solid, liquid, and gaseous
phases. During a change of phase, the temperature remains constant.
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Physics 2.3 - H.0 - 3
Types of solids
Solids may be classified according to the predominant type of binding. Most

solids posses an orderly three-dimension lattice structure and referred to as
crystalline solids.
1) Covalent solids
The atoms are bound together by localized directional bond. Many covalent solids
are transparent, especially diamond. This because their first electronic state is
higher than the photon energies in the visible spectrum. In which four binding
electrons of each carbon atom are oriented.
The crystal lattice is determined by the orientation and nature of the
directional bond. The are extremely hard and difficult to deform. Also, are poor
conductor of heat and electricity because there are no free electron the required to
excite whole crystal vibration in a covalent solid due to the rigidity of the bond.
2) Ionis crystal
Consist of a regular array of positive and negative ion resulting from the transfer of
one electron ( or more) from one kind of atom to another. The ion are so arranged
that a stable configuration is produced under their mutual electronic interaction.
They have no free electron, are also poor conductors of heat and electricity.
At high temperature the ion may gain some mobility resulting better electrical
conductivity. Ionic crystal are usually hard, brittle and have a high melting point
due too the relatively strong electrostatic forces between the ion. Some of them
strongly absorb electromagnetic radiation in the infrared region of the spectrum.
The ions are spherically symmetric and thus their binding does not show
direction al preference, as do those of covalent solids. Therefore the ions are
arranged in the crystal as if they were packed spheres. There are an infinite
numbers of ways of packing spheres (figure 3.2a & 3.2b)
Cubic-closed-packed (CCP)
Hexagonal-closed-packed (HCP)
MIP/PH1/TN/006
Physics
MIP/PH1/TN/006
Fundamental Course
For training purposes only Rev. 0 Issued 01 Dec 06

Royal Malaysian Air Force
Figure 3.2a: Arrangement of atoms in (a) a simple cubic- closed –packed (b) hydrogen- bond solids,
and (c) ionis crystal. Each diagram shows the relationship of the bonds. Each of these “cells” is
Matter
repeated in three dimensions to the edges of the macroscopic crystal.

2.3 - H.0 - 4
Malaysian Aviation Training Academy All rights reserved

Physics 2.3 - H.0 - 5
Figure 3.2b: Diagram of NaCl crystal
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Physics 2.3 - H.0 - 6
2.3.5 Nuclear Physics
Atomic nucleus
All matter is composed of difference combination of at least three fundamental

particles; Neutron, Proton, and electron.
These three basic elements we call atom. Both neutron and proton placed at
the center of the atom we call nucleus. Electron moving orbiting the nucleus and it
very fast. The same element will have the same atom in all aspect and if difference
element it atomic also different. Nucleus contain most of the mass of an atom and
the mass of an electron are extremely small. The nucleus is only about one-ten
thousand of the diameter of the atom and therefore matter, consist largely of space
that is almost empty. (figure 3.3)
Neutron contribute to the, mass of the nucleus, but did not affect the net
positive charge of the nucleus, which is due only to the proton. Neutron responsible
to neutralize pushing forces between protons
What holds the nucleus together is nuclear force. It is very strong forces, and
short range forces. If two nucleons (which are protons or neutrons) are separated by
approximately 1 fm, a strong attractive force occurs which quickly drop to zero as
their separation becomes larger.
Element
Each element is assigned a number is distinguishes it from any other element.

This number equal the number of protons in the nucleus of the element, given
symbol Z.
The atomic number Z of an element is equal to the number of the proton in the
nucleus of an atom of that element.
The atomic number indirectly determines the chemical properties of an

element because Z determines the number of electrons needed to balance the
positive charge of the protons.
The chemical nature of an atom depends on the number of electron, in
particular the outermost, or valence electrons.
As the number of protons in a nucleus increases, so does the number of
neutrons. In lighter elements, the increase is approximately one to one, but heavier
elements may have more than 11/2 times more neutrons than protons (table 1:
periodic table). For examples, oxygen have 8 protons and 8 neutrons in a nucleus is
called the mass number A. (figure 3.4)
The mass number A of an element is equal to the total number of protons and
neutrons in its nucleus
If we represent the number of neutrons by N, we can write the mass number in

terms of the atomic number Z and the number of neutrons:
A=Z+N mass number
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Physics 2.3 - H.0 - 7
Where; A = total number of protons and neutrons

Z = number of proton
N = number of neutrons
Thus, the number for uranium is 92 + 146, or 238. the mass number for
oxygen is 16.
A general way of describing the particular atom is to write the symbol for the
element with its mass number and atomic number shown as follow;
Mass number A
[symbol] = x
Atomic number z
For example, the uranium atom has the symbol 238

92 U
The structures and the symbols for the first four elements are shown in (figure 3.5)
an alphabetical listing of all the element is given in the table .
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Figure 3.3: The atomic structure. Model of beryllium atom. The nucleus consist of
four protons and five neutrons surrounded by four electrons. The positive charge of
the protons is exactly balanced by the negatively charged electrons in the neutrons
in the neutral atom.
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Physics 2.3 - H.0 - 8
Table1: Periodic table of the elements
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Physics 2.3 - H.0 - 9
Figure 3.4: Comparison of the number of neutrons as a function of the atomic

number. Notice that nuclei with higher Z have a greater proportion of neutrons.
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Physics 2.3 - H.0 - 10
Figure 3.5: Structure and symbols for the first four elements.
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Physics 2.3 - H.0 - 11
Example 1
201 Hg
How many neutrons are in the nucleus of an atom of mercury 80 ?
Solution:
the symbol shows that the atomic number is 80 and the mass number is 201. thus,
N =A–Z
= 201 – 80
= 121
It is possible for two atoms of the same element to have nuclei that contain
different numbers of neutrons. Such atoms are called isotopes:
Isotopes are atoms which have the same atomic numbers Z but different mass
number A.
For example, naturally occurring carbon is a mixture of two isotopes. The most
abundant form 12 C , has 6 protons and neutrons in its nucleus. Another form,
13 6
has an extra neutron. Some elements have as many as 10 different isotopic
6C
forms.
2.3.6 Structures and Properties of the Nucleus.
Total binding energy represents the amount of energy is that must put into a
nucleus in order to break it apart into a constituent protons and neutrons.
If the mass of helium, say 4 He , a nucleus were exactly equal to the mass
of two protons. The nucleus could 2 fall apart without any input of energy. To be
stable, the mass of the nucleus must be less than that of its constituent nucleons,
so that the energy input is needed to break it apart.
The average binding energy per nucleon is defined as total binding energy of a
nucleus divided by A, the total number of nucleons. Figure 3.6
Nuclear Fission
The uranium nucleus, after absorbing a neutron, actually had split into two
roughly equal pieces. This was startling, for until then the known nuclear reactions
involved knocking out 0nly a tiny fragment ( for example n, p, or a ) from a nucleus.
This process called nuclear fission because of its resemblance to biological
fission (cell division ). When the nucleus elongates ( in this model ) into the shape,
the attraction of the two ends via the short-range nuclear force is greatly weakened
by the increased separation distance and the electric repulsive force becomes
dominant. So the nucleus splits in two. The two resulting nuclei, N1 and N2 are
called fission fragment.
For example, a fission bomb produce many highly radioactive fission
fragments, as does a nuclear reactor. When a fission bomb explodes, this radioactive
isotopes are released into the atmosphere and are known as radioactive fallout.
Figure 3.7
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Physics 2.3 - H.0 - 12
Figure 3.6: Average binding energy per nucleon for the most stable nucleus at each
mass.
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Physics 2.3 - H.0 - 13
Fusion
The mass of every stable nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of its
constituent protons and neutrons. For examples, the mass of the helium isotopes
4
He Is less than the mass of two proton plus the mass of two neutrons. Thus, if
2two protons and neutrons were to together to form a helium nucleus there would be
a loss of mass. This mass loss is manifested in building up nuclei by bringing
together individual protons and neutrons, or building larger nuclei by combining
small nuclei, is called nuclear fission.
Why small nuclei can combine to form larger ones with the released of
energy; it is because the binding energy per nucleon is smaller for light nuclei than it
is for those of increasing mass (up about ~ 60). It is believed that many of the
element in the were originally formed through the process of the fusion, and that
today , fusion is continually taking placed within the stars including our sun,
producing the prodigious amount of radiant energy they emit.
MIP/PH1/TN/006
Physics 2.3 - H.0 - 14
TASK
1. The number for gold is 79197Au. For the gold: -

a) Which is the gold atomic number?
b) How many mass numbers ?
c) How many electron numbers?
d) How many proton numbers?
2. The number for uranium is 92236 U:-

a) What is the mass number?
b) How many electrons?
c) How many neutrons?
3. What is the terms of isotopes?
MIP/PH1/TN/006

Physics

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INSTITUTE OF AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY

MALAYSIAN AVIATION TRAINING ACADEMY

MALAYSIAN AVIATION TRAINING ACADEMY

This training note is intended for training purposes

MALAYSIAN AVIATION TRAINING ACADEMY

2.1 MECHANICAL INTERACTION

In previous chapters we looked at how forces product change in the

b) Impulse to the heavy hammer.

What is the impulse of a constant force of 40 N over an interval of 1.0 s?

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 Time (s)

The impulse of the force over the 10 s intervals is;

2.1.2 Linear Momentum

The product of mass and velocity is called momentum, p;

Momentum for the car;

Figure 1.4: The force acting on a 10 kg. mass.

b) Impulse, I = Change in momentum, ∆p

2.1.3 Conservation of Momentum

F net = m system x a center of gravity

Impulse due to external forces = ∆p net

Total momentum before impact = total momentum after impact

Figure 1.5 : Collision of a 2.0 kg object with a 3.0 kg stationary object.

Momentum and Newton’s third law.

Cannon recoils to left

Figure 1.6 : Recoil is an example of conversation of momentum.

2.1.4 Work, Energy and Power

Work = force component x displacement

Figure 1.7 ; Work is done when an object is moved. Work = F x s

Work = F cos x s ( 2.5 )

The angle is between F and s.

work done against friction = -Ffriction x s

against gravitational force = Fgravity x s = + mg x s

Figure 1.9: Force acting on a mass.

b) Work done by friction:

d) Net force = 5O N - 1O N = 40 N in the horizontal.

Figure 1.10: Graph of force applied versus distance.

Energy and work

4 Energy is the capacity of a body for doing work

Examples of potential energy are:

Activity Typical energy value (J)

Lifting a brick to head height from ground 50 J used

TABLE 1.1: Typical energy values for everyday phenomena

Rearranging this equation we find:

Or, work done by the force:

The network done on an object is equal to its change in kinetic energy:

A word about vector and scalar notation

a) Kinetic energy of the truck.

b) Work is done by the braking force.

So, W = KE (final) – KE (start)

-1 x 105 J = KE ( final ) - 2.5 x 105 J

If we compress or stretch a spring we do work on it. When we release the spring, it

1. Gravitational potential energy

Gravitational potential energy

This force performs an amount of work given by;

Where ∆h signifies the change in height.

Figure 1.11: The change in potential energy = mgh

Spring potential energy

0 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.05

Figure 1.13: Force is directly proportional to extension.

Non-potential energy: friction

Figure 1.14: Transformation of energy.

Conservation of Mechanical Energy.

We can simplify the discussion of mechanical interactions if we restrict our

We describe this type of system as a conservative system due to the absence of