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✷✳✹✳✶✳ ❈✐❝❧♦ ❉❖ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✹
✷✳✹✳✷✳ ❈✐❝❧♦ ❉❖ ❲❍■▲❊ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✺
✷✳✺✳ ❆rr❡❣❧♦s ✭❆rr❛②s✮ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✺
✷✳✺✳✶✳ ❊s♣❡❝✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❆rr❡❣❧♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✻
✷✳✺✳✷✳ ❆rr❡❣❧♦s ❡stát✐❝♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✼
✷✳✺✳✸✳ ❆rr❡❣❧♦s ❞✐♥á♠✐❝♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✼
✷✳✺✳✹✳ ❘❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛r ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ✉♥ ❆rr❡❣❧♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✽
✷✳✻✳ ❯t✐❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❆r❝❤✐✈♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✾
✷✳✻✳✶✳ ●r❛❜❛❝✐ó♥ ② ❧❡❝t✉r❛ ❞❡s❞❡ ❛r❝❤✐✈♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✵
✷✳✼✳ ■♥✈♦❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❛ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛s ❡①t❡r♥♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✶
✷✳✽✳ Pr♦❣r❛♠❛❝✐ó♥ ▼♦❞✉❧❛r ❡♥ ❋❖❘❚❘❆◆ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✷
✷✳✽✳✶✳ Pr♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦s ❊①t❡r♥♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✸
✷✳✽✳✷✳ Pr♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦s ■♥t❡r♥♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✸
✷✳✽✳✸✳ Pr♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦s ■♥trí♥s❡❝♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✸
✷✳✽✳✹✳ Pr♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦s ▼♦❞✉❧❛r❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✹
✷✳✾✳ ❉❡❝❧❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❙✉❜r✉t✐♥❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✹
✷✳✶✵✳ ❉❡❝❧❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❋✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✺
✷✳✶✶✳ ❊s♣❡❝✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣❛rá♠❡tr♦s ❞❡ ❡♥tr❛❞❛ ✲ s❛❧✐❞❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✻
✷✳✶✶✳✶✳ ❋✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ❙✉❜r✉t✐♥❛s ② ❆rr❡❣❧♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✼
✷✳✶✷✳ ▲❛ s❡♥t❡♥❝✐❛ ❈❖◆❚❆■◆❙ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✾
✷✳✶✸✳ ❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ▲♦❝❛❧❡s ② ●❧♦❜❛❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✾
✷✳✶✹✳ ❈r❡❛❝✐ó♥ ② ✉t✐❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ▼ó❞✉❧♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✶
✷✳✶✺✳ ❯t✐❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❇✐❜❧✐♦t❡❝❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✷
✷✳✶✻✳ ●rá✜❝♦s ❝♦♥ ●♥✉♣❧♦t ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹
✷✳✶✻✳✶✳ ❯t✐❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦❞♦ ■♥t❡r❛❝t✐✈♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹
✷✳✶✻✳✷✳ ❯t✐❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ♠♦❞♦ ❇❛t❝❤ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✻
❆r✐t♠ét✐❝❛ ❋✐♥✐t❛
▲♦s ♠ét♦❞♦s ♥✉♠ér✐❝♦s q✉❡ s❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❡♥ ❡st❛ ❞✐s❝✐♣❧✐♥❛ ❡stá♥ ❝♦♠♣✉❡st♦s ♣♦r
✉♥❛ s❡r✐❡ ❞❡ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ✉♥❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥
♥✉♠ér✐❝❛ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡❧ r❡✜♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ✐♥❝✐❛❧❡s✳ ❆ ❡st❛ s❡✲
❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦s s❡ ❧❛ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ✏ ✐t❡r❛❝✐ó♥✑ ② ❡s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ r❡✐t❡r❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ❤❛st❛
q✉❡ ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝✉♠♣❧❛ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ❝♦t❛ ❞❡ ❡rr♦r✳
P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ s❡ r❡q✉✐❡r❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛s ❞❡ ♠ét♦❞♦s ② r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛r❧♦s ❡♥tr❡ sí✱
②❛ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❜❛st❛ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❢ór♠✉❧❛s ♦ ❛❧❣♦r✐t♠♦s ❛✐s❧❛❞♦s✱ ♣✉❡s ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦
❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❧❛s ✈❡♥t❛❥❛s✱ ❞❡s✈❡♥t❛❥❛s ② ❧✐♠✐t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ♠ét♦❞♦ ♥✉♠ér✐❝♦ ♣❛r❛
♣♦❞❡r ❡❧❡❣✐r ❡❧ ♠ás ❛❞❡❝✉❛❞♦ ♣❛r❛ r❡s♦❧✈❡r ❝❛❞❛ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛✳
✶
❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✶✳ ❆♥á❧✐s✐s ◆✉♠ér✐❝♦✱ ❊rr♦r❡s ② ❆r✐t♠ét✐❝❛ ❋✐♥✐t❛
❊rr♦r ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥✳
❖tr❛ ❢✉❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❡rr♦r ❡s ❧❛ q✉❡ ♣r♦✈✐❡♥❡ ❞❡ ♣❛rá♠❡tr♦s ♥✉♠ér✐❝♦s ✭❡♥ ❢ór✲
♠✉❧❛s✮ ❝✉②♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s só❧♦ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛rs❡ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❊s ❡❧ ❝❛s♦
♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s ❢ís✐❝❛s ② q✉í♠✐❝❛s✳ ❆ ❡st❡ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❡rr♦r ❧♦ ❧❧❛✲
♠❛r❡♠♦s ❡rr♦r ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧✳ ❉❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ q✉❡ ♥♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ✉s❛r ✉♥❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛
❞❡ ❞í❣✐t♦s ♣❛r❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s✱ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ❡rr♦r ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛
♥❡❝❡s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✏ ❝♦rt❛r✑ ❧❛ s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❞í❣✐t♦s ✭t❡ór✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛✮✳ ❚❛❧❡s
❡rr♦r❡s s♦♥ ✐♥❤❡r❡♥t❡s ❛❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ✉s❛❞♦✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❛ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡✲
s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❧♦s ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ❣❡♥ér✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♦
✏ ❡rr♦r❡s ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ♥✉♠ér✐❝❛✑✳ ❊♥ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛❞♦r❛ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡♥ ♣♦r
s✉st✐t✉✐r ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ r❡❛❧ ✭t❡ór✐❝♦✮ ♣♦r ✉♥ ✏ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ♠áq✉✐♥❛✑✳ ❙❡❣ú♥ ❡❧
♠ét♦❞♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❡♠♣❧❡❡ ♣❛r❛ ✏ ❧✐♠✐t❛r✑ ❧❛ s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ✐♥✜♥✐t❛ ❞❡ ❞í❣✐t♦s s❡ ❧❡s
❧❧❛♠❛ ❡rr♦r❡s ❞❡ r❡❞♦♥❞❡♦ ♦ ❡rr♦r❡s ❞❡ tr✉♥❝❛❞♦✳
X≅x ✭✶✳✶✮
❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ❧❛ ♠❛②♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✈❡❝❡s ♥♦ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s ❝✉❛❧ ❡s ❡❧ ❝❛s♦✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡
r❡s✉❧t❛ ♠ás ❛❝♦♥s❡❥❛❜❧❡ ❡♠♣❧❡❛r ❡❧ ❡rr♦r ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ❞❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞♦ ❳✿
∆(X) = |x − X| ✭✶✳✸✮
∆(X) = |x − X| ≤ ∆X ✭✶✳✹✮
❙❡ ✐♥✜❡r❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✶✳✹ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ✏ ❡①❛❝t♦✑ ① ❝❛❡ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ ✏ ♠❛r❣❡♥ ❞❡ ❡rr♦r✑✭♦
✏ r❛♥❣♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❝✐ó♥✑✮ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦r✿
X − ∆X ≤ x ≤ X + ∆X ✭✶✳✺✮
P❛r❛ ✜♥❡s ♣rá❝t✐❝♦s✱ s✉❡❧❡ ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐r t♦♠❛r ∆X ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ♠í♥✐♠♦ ✈❛❧♦r q✉❡ ✈❡r✐✲
✜q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡s✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ✶✳✹✳
8
✐♥s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛♥t❡ s✐ s❡ tr❛t❛r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ❚✐❡rr❛ ② ❧❛ ▲✉♥❛ ✭3,84x10 ♠✮✳
P♦r ❧♦ t❛♥t♦✱ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛♠❜♦s ❡rr♦r❡s ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦s ❝♦✐♥✲
❝✐❞❛♥✱ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛✜r♠❛r ❝❛t❡❣➥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ❡s ✏ ♠ás ♣r❡❝✐s❛
q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛✑✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ s❡♥t✐❞♦✱ ♣❛r❛ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐③❛r ❧❛ ♥♦❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✏ ❡rr♦r ❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r
♠❡❞✐❞♦ ♦ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛❞♦✱ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ t♦♠❛r ❡❧ ❡rr♦r ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ❡♥ r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❛ ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞
❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✳
P♦r ❡st❡ ♠♦t✐✈♦✱ s❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛ ❡rr♦r r❡❧❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞♦ ❳✱ ❛ ❧❛
r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧ ❡rr♦r ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ∆(X) ❞❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ② ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ❞❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦
✏ ❡①❛❝t♦✑ ① ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ ✭ x 6= 0 ✮✳ ❊s ❞❡❝✐r✱
∆(X)
δ(X) = ✭✶✳✻✮
|x|
❖ ❡①♣r❡s❛❞♦ ❞❡ ♦tr❛ ❢♦r♠❛✱ ∆(X) = δ(X).|x|✳ ❚❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ s✉❝❡❞❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦
❞❡ ❧♦s ❡rr♦r❡s ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦s✱ s❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦t❛ ❞❡ ❡rr♦r r❡❧❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦
❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞♦ ❳ ❞❛❞♦✱ ❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♥ú♠❡r♦ ♥♦ ♠❡♥♦r ✭❡st♦ ❡s✱ ♠❛②♦r ♦ ✐❣✉❛❧✮ q✉❡ ❡❧
❡rr♦r r❡❧❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❞✐❝❤♦ ♥ú♠❡r♦✳ ❆sí ♣✉❡s✱ ♣♦r ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ s❡ t✐❡♥❡✿
δ(X) ≤ δX ✭✶✳✼✮
∆X = δ(X).|X| ✭✶✳✾✮
▲❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ✏ ❡rr♦r r❡❧❛t✐✈♦✑ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛ ♠✉② ❜✐❡♥ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ♠❛②♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s
❢ís✐❝♦s ②❛ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡s❝❛❧❛ ❡♠♣❧❡❛❞❛✳ P♦r ❧♦ t❛♥t♦✱ ✉♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❡♥ ❡❧
t❛♠❛ñ♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✉♥✐❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♥♦ ❛❢❡❝t❛rá ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡❧ ❡rr♦r r❡❧❛t✐✈♦ ✭q✉❡ ❡s
❛❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥❛❧✮✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ sí ❛❢❡❝t❛rá ❛❧ ❡rr♦r ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦✳
100 · δ(X) %
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦✿
x = −43,33333 . . . = −(43 + 31 ) = −130
3
s❡ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛ ❝♦♥ ❳ ❂ ✲✹✸
∆(X) = −130
3
− (−43) = −1 3
♠✐❡♥tr❛s
−1
1
δ(X) = 3
−130 = 130
3
1 10
P♦r ❧♦ t❛♥t♦ ❡❧ ❡rr♦r ♣♦r❝❡♥t✉❛❧ ❡s✿ 100 · 130
= 13
%
❈❛s♦s ❊s♣❡❝✐❛❧❡s
❆ ✈❡❝❡s✱ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡♥ ❝✐❡rt❛s s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s✱ t❛❧❡s ❝♦♠♦ ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥❡s ♣♦r ❝❡r♦✱
❧♦❣❛r✐t♠♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈♦✱ ✐♥✈❡rs❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ s❡♥♦ ♦ ❝♦s❡♥♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ♠❛②♦r
q✉❡ ✶✱ ❡t❝✳ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s q✉❡ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ s❡r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦s ♥✉♠ér✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡✳
❆ ❡st❛s s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s s❡ ❧❡s s✉❡❧❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛r ❡①❝❡♣❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ s❡
tr❛t❡ ❞❡ s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡①❝❡♣❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s✱ r❡s✉❧t❛ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ ♣♦❞❡r ❡①♣r❡s❛r ❞✐❝❤♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✱
♣❛r❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛r ❞❡ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛✱ q✉❡ ♥♦ s❡ tr❛t❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ✈á❧✐❞♦✳
❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ s❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ✉♥ r❡s✉♠❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♥✉✲
♠ér✐❝♦s ② ♥♦ ♥✉♠ér✐❝♦s ✭◆❛◆✱ +∞ ② −∞✮ ♣r♦♣✐❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ■❊❊❊✲✼✺✹✱ ♣❛r❛
♥ú♠❡r♦s r❡❛❧❡s ❞❡ s✐♠♣❧❡ ② ❞♦❜❧❡ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥✳
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦✿
❙❡❛ x = 2,718281 ② X = 2,7183 s✉ ✈❛❧♦r r❡❞♦♥❞❡❛❞♦ ❛❧ ❝✉❛rt♦ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧✳ P♦r ❧♦
t❛♥t♦ |x − X| = |2,718281 − 2,7183| = 0,000019 < 0,00005 = 0,5 · 10−4 ♦ s❡❛ q✉❡
❳ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛ ❛ ① ❝♦♥ ✹ ❞í❣✐t♦s ❡①❛❝t♦s✳
∆(X)
δ(X) = ≤ 5 · 10−k ✭✶✳✶✶✮
|x|
❡rr♦r r❡❧❛t✐✈♦ ♠á①✐♠♦ ♦ ❝♦t❛ ❞❡ ❡rr♦r r❡❧❛t✐✈♦
❆ ❡st❡ ✈❛❧♦r s❡ ❧❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛
♣❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❝♦♥ ❦ ❞í❣✐t♦s ❡①❛❝t♦s✳
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦✿
❆❧ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ❞♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s x1 = 2,3456
x2 = 2,3462 ❡♥ ♣✉♥t♦ ②
✢♦t❛♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✷ ❞í❣✐t♦s ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧❡s✱ s❡ ❝♦♥✈✐❡rt❡♥ ❡♥ X1 = 2,35
② X2 = 2, 35✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❤❛❝❡ s✉♣♦♥❡r q✉❡ ❛♠❜♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s✳
❱❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡rr♦r ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ s✉♠❛ ♦ r❡st❛ ❡s ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ♦ r❡st❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡rr♦✲
r❡s ❡♥ ❧♦s tér♠✐♥♦s✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ♥♦ s❛❜❡♠♦s s✐ ∆(X) ② ∆(Y ) t✐❡♥❡♥ s✐❣♥♦s
✐❣✉❛❧❡s ✉ ♦♣✉❡st♦s✱ só❧♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡✿
❈✉❛♥❞♦ x±y ❡s ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠ás ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦ q✉❡ ① ♦ ②✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧♦s ❢❛❝t♦r❡s |x|
|x±y|
②
|y|
|x±y|
❛♠♣❧✐✜❝❛♥ ∆(X) ♦ ∆(Y ) r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳
Y ·dX−X·dY
∆( X
Y
) ≈ d( X
Y
)= Y2
∆(X·Y ) δ(X)
δ(X · Y ) = |x·y|
≈ · |X|
❆❞✐❝✐ó♥ ✐♥s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛♥t❡
▲❛ s✉♠❛ ♦ r❡st❛ ❞❡ ❞♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❝✉②❛s ♠❛❣♥✐t✉❞❡s s♦♥ t❛♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s q✉❡ ❧❛
s✉♠❛ ✭♦ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛✮ s❡ r❡❞♦♥❞❡❛ ❛❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ♠❛②♦r✳
❘❡❞♦♥❞❡♦ ❡s❝♦♥❞✐❞♦
❊s ❡❧ ❡rr♦r q✉❡ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❦✲és✐♠♦ ❞í❣✐t♦ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦✲
♥❡s ❞❡ ♠áq✉✐♥❛ ❛ú♥ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❤❛②❛♥ s✐❞♦ r❡❞♦♥❞❡❛❞♦s ❝♦rr❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ❦
❞í❣✐t♦s ❡①❛❝t♦s✳ ▲❛ ❛❝✉♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❡rr♦r s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ú❧t✐♠♦ ❞í❣✐t♦ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛t✐✈♦✱
s✐ ❜✐❡♥ ❡s ❧❡♥t❛✱ ❡①✐st❡✳
❊rr♦r ❆❜s♦❧✉t♦
∆(v · z) = f l(v) · f l(z) = 56394234,2136 − 56370000 = 24234,2136
❊rr♦r ❘❡❧❛t✐✈♦
δ(v · z) ≈ (0,0498/124,1498) + (32/457932) ≈ 0,0004011 + 0,0000698 =
= 0,0004709
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦✿
❯♥ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ s✉str❛❝❝✐ó♥ ❝❛t❛stró✜❝❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐rs❡ ❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ❞✐s❝r✐♠✐♥❛♥t❡
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❣r❛❞♦✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦✱ ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❡①❛❝t❛ ❡s x1 = −0,001
② x2 = −1000✳
❊♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❛❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ❞✐s❝r✐♠✐♥❛♥t❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ t♦❞❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❞❡ t✐♣♦ ❘❊❆▲
❡♥ ❋✾✵ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛
x1 = −0,00100390 ② x2 = −1000,000000
√ √
b2 − 4 · a · c ≈ b2 = |b|
♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥
′
(x)
C = | x·f
f (x)
| ❡s ❡❧
✶✺
❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✷✳ ❆♥á❧✐s✐s ◆✉♠ér✐❝♦ ② Pr♦❣r❛♠❛❝✐ó♥
♣♦r ❏♦❤♥ ❇❛❝❦✉s✱ ❣❛♥❛❞♦r ❡♥ ✶✾✼✼ ❞❡❧ ❚❯❘■◆● ❆❲❆❘❉✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧
♣r❡♠✐♦ ♥♦❜❡❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠át✐❝❛✱ ♣♦r s✉s tr❛❜❛❥♦s s♦❜r❡ s✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ❛❧t♦ ♥✐✈❡❧ ② ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❞❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛❝✐ó♥
❋❖❘❚❘❆◆✳
❊♥ ✶✾✻✻ ❋❖❘❚❘❆◆ s✉r❣✐ó ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ❡st❛♥❞❛r✐③❛❞♦✱ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦
❡♥ ❡s❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❝♦♠♦ ❋❖❘❚❘❆◆✻✻✱ ❡❧ ❝✉á❧ ❛ñ♦s ♠ás t❛r❞❡ s❡ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠ó ❡♥
❋❖❘❚❘❆◆✼✼ ❛❧ ❝✉♠♣❧✐r ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ♥♦r♠❛s ❡st❛❜❧❡❝✐❞❛s ♣♦r ❆◆❙■ ✭❆♠❡r✐❝❛♥ ◆❛t✐♦♥❛❧
❙t❛♥❞❛r❞s ■♥st✐t✉t❡✮ ② ♣♦r ■❙❖ ✭■♥t❡r♥❛t✐♦♥❛❧ ❖r❣❛♥✐③❛t✐♦♥ ❢♦r ❙t❛♥❞❛r❞✐③❛t✐♦♥✮✳
❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡s❡ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦✱ ❡❧ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❞❡ ♥✉❡✈❛s ✈❡rs✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❋❖❘❚❘❆◆ ❢✉❡
❛♣♦rt❛♥❞♦ ♠❡❥♦r❛s ② ♥✉❡✈❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞ ✈❡rs✐ó♥ tr❛s ✈❡rs✐ó♥✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ s❡♥t✐❞♦✱ ❛
♣❡s❛r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛♣❛r✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♥✉❡✈♦s ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡s ❞❡ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❇❆❙■❈✱ P❆❙❈❆▲✱
❈✱ ❈✰✰✱ ❏❛✈❛✱ ❈ ★✱ ❡t❝✳ ❋❖❘❚❘❆◆ s✐❣✉❡ s✐❡♥❞♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡
❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧✐③❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❛❧t♦ ❞❡s❡♠♣❡ñ♦ ♣❛r❛ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦s ❝✐❡♥tí✜❝♦s ② ❞❡ ■♥❣❡♥✐❡rí❛✳
▲❛ ✈❡rs✐ó♥ ♠ás r❡❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❋❖❘❚❘❆◆ ❞✐s♣♦♥✐❜❧❡ ❛❝t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛❧
❡stá♥❞❛r ■❙❖✴■❊❈ ✶✺✸✾✲✶✿✷✵✶✵✱ ♠ás ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❋❖❘❚❘❆◆ ✷✵✵✽✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s
q✉❡ ❧❛ út✐♠❛ ✈❡rs✐ó♥✱ ❛❝t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦✱ ❡s ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♦
❋❖❘❚❘❆◆ ✷✵✶✺✳ ❊st❛ ✈❡rs✐ó♥ ♣r❡✈é ❧❛ ✐♥❝❧✉s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♠❡❥♦r❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♦♣❡r❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞
❡♥tr❡ ❋❖❘❚❘❆◆ ② ❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ❈ ✭■❙❖✴■❊❈ ❚❙ ✷✾✶✶✸✮ ② ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛s ❛❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s
r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡s❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❡♥ ♣❛r❛❧❡❧♦ ✭■❙❖✴■❊❈ ❚❙ ✶✽✺✵✽✮✳
✷✳✶✳✷✳ ❱❛r✐❛❜❧❡s
❊♥ ❧❛ ❞❡❝❧❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ ❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❡s❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡stá ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦
❝♦♥ ✉♥ ú♥✐❝♦ ❧✉❣❛r ❞❡ ❛❧♠❛❝❡♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦✳ ▲❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s s❡ ❝❧❛s✐✜❝❛♥ s❡❣ú♥ ❡❧ t✐♣♦
❞❡ ❞❛t♦ ✭❝♦♠♦ ❧♦ s♦♥ ❧❛s ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡s✮ ❛❧ q✉❡ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡♥✳ ❊❧ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❞❛t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✐♥❞✐❝❛ ❡❧ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❞❛t♦ q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡✱ ✐♥❝❧✉②❡♥❞♦ s✉ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥✱ ❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ ❧♦s
r❡q✉❡r✐♠✐❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❛❧♠❛❝❡♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦✳ ❈✉❛♥❞♦ ✉♥ ❞❛t♦ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r t✐♣♦ ❡s ❛s✐❣♥❛❞♦
❛ ✉♥❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ ❡st❡ ❡s ❝♦♥✈❡rt✐❞♦ ❛❧ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❞❛t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✭s✐ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦✮✳
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦✿
❙✐ ❜ ❡s ❞❡❝❧❛r❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ t✐♣♦ ❡♥t❡r❛ ② s❡ ❧❡ ❛s✐❣♥❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ✷✳✺✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❛❧♠❛❝❡✲
♥❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❜ s❡rá ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ✷✱ ② ♥♦ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡rá ♥✐♥❣ú♥ ❡rr♦r ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣✐❧❛❝✐ó♥✳
❯♥❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ s❡ ❧❡ ❞❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r✳ ❯♥❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛
❛♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡❥❡❝✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ s❡♥t❡♥❝✐❛ ❉❆❚❆ ♦ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ s❡♥t❡♥❝✐❛
❘❡❛❧❡s
❘❊❆▲ ❬✭❬ ❑■◆❉ ❂ ❪ ✈❛❧♦r✲❦✐♥❞✮❪ ❬❬❧✐st❛✲❛tr✐❜✉t♦s❪✿✿❪ ❧✐st❛✲❡♥t✐❞❛❞❡s
❈♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s
❈❖▼P▲❊❳ ❬✭❬ ❑■◆❉ ❂ ❪ ✈❛❧♦r✲❦✐♥❞✮❪ ❬❬❧✐st❛✲❛tr✐❜✉t♦s❪✿✿❪ ❧✐st❛✲❡♥t✐❞❛❞❡s
▲ó❣✐❝♦s
▲❖●■❈❆▲ ❬✭❬ ❑■◆❉ ❂ ❪ ✈❛❧♦r✲❦✐♥❞✮❪ ❬❬❧✐st❛✲❛tr✐❜✉t♦s❪✿✿❪ ❧✐st❛✲❡♥t✐❞❛❞❡s
P❘❖●❘❆▼ ♣r✉❡❜❛
❊◆❉
❉♦♥❞❡ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❡s ❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛✳ ▲❛ s❡♥t❡♥❝✐❛ ❊◆❉ ❡s ❧❛ ú♥✐❝❛
♣❛rt❡ ♦❜❧✐❣❛t♦r✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛✳ ❙✐ ❧❛ s❡♥t❡♥❝✐❛ ❊◆❉ ✐♥❝❧✉②❡ ❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡❧
♣r♦❣r❛♠❛✱ ést❡ ❞❡❜❡ s❡r ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛ ❝♦❧♦❝❛❞♦ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ s❡♥t❡♥❝✐❛
P❘❖●❘❆▼✳
❊❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ❡s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛❞♦ ✉♥ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧✱ ❥✉♥t♦ ❝♦♥
❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦s ❡①t❡r♥♦s ② ❧♦s ❜❧♦q✉❡s ❝♦♠✉♥❡s✳ ▲♦s ♥♦♠❜r❡s
❣❧♦❜❛❧❡s ❞❡❜❡♥ s❡r ú♥✐❝♦s ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛✳
✷✳✸✳✶✳ ❙❡♥t❡♥❝✐❛ ■❋
❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ♠ás s✐♠♣❧❡✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❧❛ s❡♥t❡♥❝✐❛ ■❋✱ ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡❥❡❝✉t❛r ✉♥
❜❧♦q✉❡ ❞❡ ❝ó❞✐❣♦ s✐ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r♦✳ ❊♥ ❝❛s♦ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✱
❧❛ ❡❥❡❝✉❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦s✐❣✉❡✱ s✐♥ ❡❥❡❝✉t❛r ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦✳ ❊♥ ❧❛ ✜❣✉r❛ ✷✳✶ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛r ❡❧
❞✐❛❣r❛♠❛ ❞❡ ✢✉❥♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❞❛✳
■❋ ✭ ❦❲❛tts ❁ ✺ ✵ ✮ ❚❍❊◆
❝ ♦ s t ♦ ❂ ✸✵
❊▲❙❊ ■❋ ✭ ❦❲❛tts ❁ ✶ ✵ ✵ ✮ ❚❍❊◆
❝ ♦ s t ♦ ❂ ✷✵ ✰ ✵ ✳ ✺ ∗ ❦❲❛tts
❊▲❙❊ ■❋ ✭ ❦❲❛tts ❁ ✶ ✺ ✵ ✮ ❚❍❊◆
❝ ♦ s t ♦ ❂ ✶✺ ✰ ✵ ✳ ✸ ∗ ❦❲❛tts
❊▲❙❊ ■❋ ✭ ❦❲❛tts ❁ ✷ ✵ ✵ ✮ ❚❍❊◆
❝ ♦ s t ♦ ❂ ✺ ✰ ✵ ✳ ✷ ∗ ❦❲❛tts
❊▲❙❊
❝ ♦ s t ♦ ❂ ✵ ✳ ✶ ✺ ∗ ❦❲❛tts
❊◆❉ ■❋
❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛♠♦s ✉♥ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥
♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❞❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡str✉❝t✉r❛s ■❋✳
P❘❖●❘❆▼ ❛r❣❴❝♦♠♣
■▼P▲■❈■❚ ◆❖◆❊
✦ ❈❛❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡❧ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♥✉♠❡r♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦
❘❊❆▲✱ P❆❘❆▼❊❚❊❘✿ ✿ P✐ ❂ ✸ ✳ ✶ ✹ ✶ ✺ ✾ ✷ ✻ ✺ ✹
✦ ❉❡❝❧❛r❛❝✐♦♥ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s
❘❊❆▲ r❡ ✱ ✐♠
✦ ❙❡❝❝✐♦♥ ❡❥❡❝✉t❛❜❧❡
P❘■◆❚ ∗ ✱ ✬ ■ ♥ ❣ r ❡ s ❡ ✥ ❧ ❛ ✥ ♣ ❛ r t ❡ ✥ r ❡ ❛ ❧ ✿ ✥ ✬
❘❊❆❉ ∗ ✱ r ❡
P❘■◆❚ ∗ ✱ ✬ ■ ♥ ❣ r ❡ s ❡ ✥ ❧ ❛ ✥ ♣ ❛ r t ❡ ✥ ✐ ♠ ❛ ❣ ✐ ♥ ❛ r ✐ ❛ ✿ ✥ ✬
❘❊❆❉ ∗ ✱ ✐♠
■❋ ✭ ✐♠ ❂❂ ✵ ✮ ❚❍❊◆
■❋ ✭ r ❡ ❃ ✵ ✮ ❚❍❊◆
P❘■◆❚ ∗ ✱ ✬ ❆r❣✉♠❡♥t♦✥ ✿ ✬ ✱ ✵
❊▲❙❊ ■❋ ✭ r ❡ ❁ ✵ ✮ ❚❍❊◆
P❘■◆❚ ∗ ✱ ✬ ❆r❣✉♠❡♥t♦✥ ✿ ✬ ✱ P✐
❊▲❙❊
P❘■◆❚ ∗ ✱ ✬ ✥❆r❣✉♠❡♥t♦✥ ■ ♥ ❞ ❡ t ❡ r ♠ ✐ ♥ ❛ ❞ ♦ ✥ ✬
❊◆❉ ■❋
❊▲❙❊
■❋ ✭ r ❡ ❂❂ ✵ ✮ ❚❍❊◆
■❋ ✭ ✐♠ ❃ ✵ ✮ ❚❍❊◆
P❘■◆❚ ∗ ✱ ✬ ❆r❣✉♠❡♥t♦✥ ✿ ✬ ✱ P✐ ✴✷
❊▲❙❊
P❘■◆❚ ∗ ✱ ✬ ❆r❣✉♠❡♥t♦✥ ✿ ✬ ✱ −P✐ ✴✷
❊◆❉ ■❋
❊▲❙❊ ■❋ ✭ r ❡ ❃ ✵ ✮ ❚❍❊◆
P❘■◆❚ ∗ ✱ ✬ ❆r❣✉♠❡♥t♦✥ ✿ ✬ ✱ ❆❚❆◆✭ ✐♠✴ r ❡ ✮
❊▲❙❊ ■❋ ✭ ✐♠ ❃ ✵ ✮ ❚❍❊◆
P❘■◆❚ ∗ ✱ ✬ ❆r❣✉♠❡♥t♦✥ ✿ ✬ ✱ ✭❆❚❆◆✭ ✐♠✴ r ❡ ✮ ✰ P✐ ✮
❊▲❙❊
P❘■◆❚ ∗ ✱ ✬ ❆r❣✉♠❡♥t♦✥ ✿ ✬ ✱ ✭❆❚❆◆✭ ✐♠✴ r ❡ ✮ − P✐ ✮
❊◆❉ ■❋
❊◆❉ ■❋
❊◆❉P❘❖●❘❆▼ ❛r❣❴❝♦♠♣
✭✈❛❧♦r✲❝❛s❡✮
✭r❛♥❣♦✲✐♥❢❡r✐♦r ✿✮
✭✿ r❛♥❣♦✲s✉♣❡r✐♦r✮
✭r❛♥❣♦✲✐♥❢❡r✐♦r ✿ r❛♥❣♦✲s✉♣❡r✐♦r✮
❈❛❞❛ ✈❛❧♦r ❝❛s❡ ❞❡❜❡ s❡r ❞❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❞❛t♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥✳ ▲♦s t✐♣♦s ❞❡
❞❛t♦s ♣❡r♠✐t✐❞♦s s♦♥✿ ✐♥t❡❣❡r✱ ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r ② ❧♦❣✐❝❛❧✳ P❛r❛ ❧♦s ❝❛r❛❝t❡r❡s✱ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s
❈❆❙❊ ♥♦ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♥ t❡♥❡r ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❧♦♥❣✐t✉❞ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥✳
P❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❝❛s❡✱ ❡❧ ❜❧♦q✉❡ ❞❡ ❝ó❞✐❣♦ ❛ ❡❥❡❝✉t❛r ❡s ❛q✉❡❧ q✉❡ ❡s
✐❞é♥t✐❝♦ ❛❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ ✐♥❢❡r✐♦r ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡
❧❛ ❝♦♠♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r♦ s✐ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❡s ♠❛②♦r ♦ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ r❛♥❣♦
✐♥❢❡r✐♦r✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡❧ r❛♥❣♦ s✉♣❡r✐♦r ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣❛r❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r♦
s✐ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❡s ♠❡♥♦r ♦ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛❧ r❛♥❣♦ s✉♣❡r✐♦r✳ ▲♦s r❛♥❣♦s ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s
♥♦ ❡stá♥ ♣❡r♠✐t✐❞♦s ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s t✐♣♦s ❞❡ ❞❛t♦ ❧♦❣✐❝❛❧✳
❙✐ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣❛r❛❝✐♦♥❡s r❡s✉❧t❛ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✱ s♦❧♦ s❡ ❡❥❡❝✉t❛ ✉♥ ❜❧♦q✉❡ ❞❡
❝ó❞✐❣♦✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ♥♦ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ❡❥❡❝✉❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❝❛s❝❛❞❛✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦
❡①♣❧✐❝✐t❛r ❧❛ s❛❧✐❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❜❧♦q✉❡✳
▲❛ s❡♥t❡♥❝✐❛ ❈❆❙❊ ❉❊❋❆❯▲❚ ❡s ♦♣❝✐♦♥❛❧✱ ❧❛ ❡❥❡❝✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❜❧♦q✉❡ ❞❡ ❝ó❞✐❣♦
❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ s❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ s✐ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❞❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣❛r❛❝✐♦♥❡s
r❡s✉❧t❛r♦♥ ❢❛❧s♦s✳ ❙✐ ❡st♦ s✉❝❡❞❡ ② ♥♦ ❡①✐st❡ ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ s❡♥t❡♥❝✐❛ ❈❆❙❊ ❉❊❋❆❯▲❚✱
❧❛ ❡❥❡❝✉❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥t✐♥ú❛ ❢✉❡r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❈❆❙❊✳
❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛r❡♠♦s ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s✱ ❡st❛ ✈❡③ ♣♦r
♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❈❆❙❊
❘❊❆▲ ♠ ❛ t r ✐ ③ ✭ ✵ ✿ ✾ ✱ − ✶✿✶ ✱ ✹ ✿ ✺ ✮
❘❊❆▲ ❆ ✭ ✶ ✵ ✮ ✱ ❇✭ ✶ ✵ ✮ ✱❈✭ ✶ ✵ ✮
■◆❚❊●❊❘ ♠❛tr✐③❆ ✭ ✶ ✵ ✱ ✶ ✵ ✱ ✶ ✵ ✮
■◆❚❊●❊❘ ♠❛tr✐③❇ ✭ − ✸✿✻ ✱ ✹ ✿ ✶ ✸ ✱ ✵ ✿ ✾ ✮
P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✿
❉❖ ❥ ❂✶✱ ♥
❆✭ ✐ ✱ ❥ ✮ ❂ ❙◗❘❚✭ ✐✰❥ ✮
❊◆❉ ❉❖
❊◆❉ ❉❖
❉❊❆▲▲❖❈❆❚❊✭❆✱ ❇✮
❊♥ ❡❧ ❢r❛❣♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❝ó❞✐❣♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r s❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✜❧❛s ② ❝♦❧✉♠✲
♥❛s ❞❡❧ ❛rr❡❣❧♦ ❆ ② ❧❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡❧ ❛rr❡❣❧♦ ❇✱ s❡ ✐♥❣r❡s❛♥ ❡♥ t✐❡♠♣♦
❞❡ ❡❥❡❝✉❝✐ó♥ ♣♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥str✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❘❊❆❉✳ ❯♥❛ ✈❡③ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦ ❡❧ t❛♠❛ñ♦ ❞❡
❧♦s ❛rr❡❣❧♦s✱ s❡ r❡s❡r✈❛ ❧❛ ♠❡♠♦r✐❛ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s ♠✐s♠♦s ❝♦♥ ❆▲▲❖❈❆❚❊✳ ❨
❝✉❛♥❞♦ ②❛ ♥♦ s❡ ♣r❡❝✐s❛✱ s❡ ❧✐❜❡r❛ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ♣♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❉❊❆▲▲❖❈❆❚❊✳
❘❊❆▲ ❆✭ ✶ ✷ ✱ ✽ ✱ ✹✮
❆✭ ✶ ✱ ✶ ✱ ✶ ✮ ❂ ✵
❆✭✶✱ ✶✱ ✶✮❀ ❆✭✷✱ ✶✱ ✶✮❀ ❆✭✶✱ ✷✱ ✶✮❀ ❆✭✷✱ ✷✱ ✶✮❀ ❆✭✶✱ ✶✱ ✷✮❀ ❆✭✷✱ ✶✱ ✷✮❀ ❆✭✶✱ ✷✱ ✷✮❀ ❆✭✷✱
✷✱ ✷✮
❘❊❆▲ ❆✭ ✸ ✱ ✸ ✮ ✱ ❇✭ ✸ ✱ ✸ ✮ ✱ ❈✭ ✽ ✾ ✮ ✱ ❘
❘ ❂ ✼✳✶
❘❊❆▲ ❆✭ ✶ ✵ ✱ ✶ ✵ ✮
■◆❚❊●❊❘ ✐ ✱ ❥
❉❖ ✐ ❂✶✱ ✶✵
❆✭ ✐ ✱ ✿ ✮ ❂❆✭ ✐ ✱ ✿ ✮ ✴ ❆✭ ✐ ✱ ✐ ✮ ✦ ❉✐✈✐❞❡ ❛ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✐❧❛ ✐
✦ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❆✭ ✐ ✱ ✐ ✮
❆✭ ✐ ✱ ✹ ✿ ✽ ✮ ❂❆✭ ✐ ✱ ✹ ✿ ✽ ✮ ∗ ✷ ✦ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛ ♣♦r ✷ ❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ✹ t♦ ✳ ❛❧ ✽ ✈♦ ✳ ❞❡
✦ ❧❛ ❢✐❧❛ ✐
❆✭ ✐ ✱ ✿ ✹ ✮ ❂❆✭ ✐ ✱ ✿ ✹ ✮ ✴ ✸ ✳ ✵ ✦ ❉✐✈✐❞❡ ♣♦r ✸✳✵ ❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ✶ ❡r ✳ ❛❧ ✹ t♦ ✳ ❞❡
✦ ❧❛ ❢✐❧❛ ✐
❊◆❉ ❉❖
❆✭ ✿ ✱ ✾ ✮ ❂ ❆✭ ✿ ✱ ✾ ✮ ✰ ✶ ✦ ❙✉♠❛ ✶ ❛❧ ✾ ♥♦ ✳ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❢✐❧❛
P❘❖●❘❆▼ ❧ ❡ ❡ ❈ ♦ ♦ r ❞
■▼P▲■❈■❚ ◆❖◆❊
■◆❚❊●❊❘ ♥ ✱ ✐
❘❊❆▲✭ ✽ ✮ ① ✱ ② ✱ ③
✦ ❆❜r❡ ✉♥ ❛r❝❤✐✈♦ ✱ s✐ ♥♦ ❡①✐st❡ ❧♦ ❝r❡❛ ✱ s✐ ❡①✐st❡ ❧♦ r❡❡♠♣❧❛③❛
❖P❊◆✭❯◆■❚❂✷✱ ❋■▲❊❂ ✬ ❝ ♦ ♦ r ❞ ❡ ♥ ❛ ❞ ❛ s ✬ ✮
❉❖ ❲❍■▲❊ ✭ ✳❚❘❯❊✳ ✮
✦ ▲❡❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ❛r❝❤✐✈♦
❘❊❆❉ ✭ ✷ ✱ ✬ ✭ ✸ ❋✶✺ ✳ ✺ ✮ ✬ ✱ ❊◆❉❂✾✾✮ ① ✱ ②✱ ③
❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♣❛r❛ ❜♦rr❛r ❧❛ ♣❛♥t❛❧❧❛✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ✐♥✈♦❝❛r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝❧❡❛r ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ♦♣❡✲
r❛t✐✈♦✱ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛✿
❈❆▲▲ ❙❨❙❚❊▼✭ ✧ ❣ ♥ ✉ ♣ ❧ ♦ t ✥− ♣ ❡ r s ✐ s t ✥ ✬ ♠ ✐ ❙ ❝ r ✐ ♣ t ✳ ♣ ✬ ✧ ✮
◆♦t❛✿ ▲♦s ❝❛r❛❝t❡r❡s ✥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s✳
❙❯❇❘❖❯❚■◆❊ ■♥t❡r❝❛♠❜✐♦ ✭❛ ✱ ❜✮
✦ ❉❡❝❧❛r❛❝✐♦♥ ❞❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s
❘❊❆▲ ❛ ✱ ❜
✦ ❉❡❝❧❛r❛❝✐♦♥ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❛✉①✐❧✐❛r❡s
❘❊❆▲ ❛✉①✐
✦ ❈✉❡r♣♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉❜r✉t✐♥❛
❛ ✉ ① ✐❂❛
❛❂❜
❜❂❛ ✉ ① ✐
P❘❖●❘❆▼ ▼❯❊❙❚❘❆
■◆❚❊●❊❘ ♥
❈❆▲▲ s✉❜❴❆✭ ♥ ✮ ✦ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❛ ❧❛ s✉❜r✉t✐♥❛
P❘■◆❚ ∗ ✱ ♥
❊◆❉
❙❯❇❘❖❯❚■◆❊ s✉❜❴❆✭ ❛ ✮
■◆❚❊●❊❘ ❛
✳ ✳ ✳
❊◆❉ ❙❯❇❘❖❯❚■◆❊
▲❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡♥ t✐❡♥❡ ❝♦♠♦ á♠❜✐t♦ ❛❧ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡❀ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛
t✐❡♥❡ ❝♦♠♦ á♠❜✐t♦ ❛ ❧❛ s✉❜r✉t✐♥❛ s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ♥ ② ❛ s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛♥ ❞❡
❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦s✳ ❊st❛ ❛s♦❝✐❛❝✐ó♥ ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❛ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ❛ ❞❡s❞❡ s✉❜❴❆
s❡r ❞❡✈✉❡❧t♦s ❛ ♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛ ▼❯❊❙❚❘❆✳
❋❯◆❈❚■❖◆ ❢ ❛ ❝ t ♦ r ✐ ❛ ❧ ✭ ♥ ✮
■◆❚❊●❊❘ ❢ ❛ ❝ t ♦ r ✐ ❛ ❧ ✱ ♥ ✱ ❛✉①
❛✉① ❂ ✶
❉❖ ✐ ❂✷✱ ♥
❛✉① ❂ ✐ ∗ ❛✉①
❊◆❉ ❉❖
❢ ❛ ❝ t ♦ r ✐ ❛ ❧ ❂ ❛✉①
❊◆❉ ❋❯◆❈❚■❖◆
❊◆❉
❊st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ♥♦ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❜❡ s❡r ✉♥ ❡s❝❛❧❛r✱ s✐♥♦ q✉❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♣✉❡❞❡
s❡r ✉♥ ❛rr❡❣❧♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✈❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✿
❋❯◆❈❚■❖◆ ❤ ✐ ❧ ❜ ❡ r t ✭ ♥ ✮
■◆❚❊●❊❘ ✐ ✱ ❥ ✱ ♥
❘❊❆▲✱ ❉■▼❊◆❙■❖◆✭ ♥ ✱ ♥ ✮ ✿ ✿ ❤ ✐ ❧ ❜ ❡ r t
❉❖ ✐ ❂✶✱ ♥
❉❖ ❥ ❂✶✱ ♥
❤ ✐ ❧ ❜ ❡ r t ✭ ✐ ✱ ❥ ✮ ❂ ✶ ✳ ✵ ✴ ✭ ✐✰❥ ✰✶✮
❊◆❉❉❖
❊◆❉❉❖
❊◆❉ ❋❯◆❈❚■❖◆
◆ót❡s❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r q✉❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞✐✈✐s✐ó♥ s❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐ó ✶✳✵✴✭✐✰❥✰✶✮✱ ❡♥
✈❡③ ❞❡ ✶✴✭✐✰❥✰✶✮✳ ❙❡ ❞❡❥❛ ❛❧ ❧❡❝t♦r ✐♥q✉✐❡t♦ q✉❡ ❡①♣❡r✐♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ❛♠❜❛s ✈❡rs✐♦♥❡s
② s❛q✉❡ s✉s ♣r♦♣✐❛s ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥❡s✳
P❘❖●❘❆▼ ♠✐Pr♦❣r❛♠❛
■▼P▲■❈■❚ ◆❖◆❊
✦ ❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❞❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛❝✐♦♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥ ✐♥t❡r♥❛
❘❊❆▲ ❛ ✱ ❜
❘❊❆❉ ∗ ✱ ❛ ✱ ❜
P❘■◆❚ ∗ ✱ ❞ ✐ s t ✭ ❛ ✱ ❜ ✮
❈❖◆❚❆■◆❙
❋❯◆❈❚■❖◆ ❞ ✐ s t ✭ ① ✱ ② ✮
❘❊❆▲✱ ■◆❚❊◆❚✭ ■◆ ✮ ✿ ✿ ① ✱ ② ✱ ❞✐st
❞ ✐ s t ❂ ❙◗❘❚✭ ① ∗ ① ✰ ② ∗ ② ✮ ✮
❊◆❉ ❋❯◆❈❚■❖◆ ❞ ✐ s t
❊◆❉
P❘❖●❘❆▼ ❋ ❛ ❝ t ♦ r ✐ ❛ ❧
■▼P▲■❈■❚ ◆❖◆❊
■◆❚❊●❊❘ ■
❉❖ ■ ❂ ✶ ✱ ✶✵
P❘■◆❚∗ ✱ ■ ✱ ❋❛❝t ✭ ■ ✮
❊◆❉ ❉❖
❈❖◆❚❆■◆❙
❋❯◆❈❚■❖◆ ❋❛❝t ✭ ♥ ✮
■◆❚❊●❊❘ ❋❛❝t ✱ ♥ ✱ ❛✉①
❛✉① ❂ ✶
❉❖ ✐ ❂✷✱ ♥
❛✉① ❂ ✐ ∗ ❛✉①
❊◆❉ ❉❖
❋❛❝t ❂ ❛✉①
❊◆❉ ❋❯◆❈❚■❖◆
❊◆❉
✐
❊❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ s❡ ❞❡❜❡ ❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✱ s❡ ❤❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧
♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ tr❛t❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡st❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡s
r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❞❛ ❛ s✉ ✈❡③✱ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❋❛❝t✳
▲❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ✈❡③ q✉❡ ✐ t✐❡♥❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ✶✳ ❊st❡ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s ♣❛s❛❞♦ ❛
❋❛❝t ❡s ✐♥✈♦❝❛❞❛✱
❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♥✳ ❉❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❋❛❝t✱ s❡
❋❛❝t ❡♥ r❡❡♠♣❧❛③♦ ❞❡❧ ♣❛rá♠❡tr♦ ❢♦r♠❛❧
❛s✐❣♥❛ ❛ ✐ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ✷ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝✐❝❧♦ ❉❖ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❡st❡ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s ♠❛②♦r q✉❡ ♥✱ ❡❧ ❝✐❝❧♦ ❉❖
♥♦ ❡s ❡❥❡❝✉t❛❞♦✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✐ ❤❛ s✐❞♦ ♠♦❞✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❛ ✷ ② ♣♦r ❧♦ t❛♥t♦
❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❧❛ ❡❥❡❝✉❝✐ó♥ r❡t♦r♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❋❛❝t ❛❧ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧✱ s✐❡♥❞♦
ést❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r q✉❡ s❡ ✐♠♣r✐♠✐rá✳
❆❤♦r❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✐ s❡ ✐♥❝r❡♠❡♥t❛rá ❛ ✸ ② s❡ ❡❢❡❝t✉❛rá ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ✐♥✈♦❝❛❝✐ó♥
❛ ❋❛❝t✳ ❉❡ ❡st❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ✈❡r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❋❛❝t✱ ♥✉♥❝❛ s❡ ✐♥✈♦❝❛rá ♣❛r❛
✐
✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣❛r❡s ❞❡ ✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ✐ ❡s t♦♠❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧✳
❊st❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ s❡ s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛ ❢á❝✐❧♠❡♥t❡ r❡✲❞❡❝❧❛r❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✐ ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦❝❛❧✱
❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❋❛❝t✳ ❈♦♠♦ r❡❣❧❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❡s ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡❝❧❛r❛r t♦❞❛s ❧❛s
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❧♦s s✉❜✲♣r♦❣r❛♠❛s✳ ❚❡♥❣❛ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡①✐st❡ ♥✐♥❣ú♥
♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❡♥ ❧❧❛♠❛r ✐ t❛♥t♦ ❛ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❧♦❝❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❣❧♦❜❛❧✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣✐❧❛❞♦r
❡s ❝❛♣❛③ ❞❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r ❡❧ á♠❜✐t♦ ❞❡ ✈❛❧✐❞❡③ ♣♦r s✉ ❞❡❝❧❛r❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❊s ❞❡❝✐r✱ s✐ ❡♥ ✉♥
♣r♦❣r❛♠❛ s❡ ❞❡❝❧❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞ ② ❡s❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ s❡ ♣❛s❛
❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ♣❛rá♠❡tr♦ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥✱ ❡s ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❧♦❝❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
▼❖❉❯▲❊ ♠ ❛ t r ✐ ① ❋ ✉ ♥ ❝ t ✐ ♦ ♥ s
■▼P▲■❈■❚ ◆❖◆❊
❈❖◆❚❆■◆❙
❙❯❇❘❖❯❚■◆❊ ❝ r ❡ ❛ ▼ ❛ t r ✐ ③ ■ ❞ ❡ ♥ t ✐ ❞ ❛ ❞ ✭ ♦r❞❡♥ ✱ ♠❛tr✐③ ✮
✦ ❈r❡❛ ✉♥❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ✐❞❡♥t✐❞❛❞
❘❊❆▲✭ ✽ ✮ ✱ ❆▲▲❖❈❆❚❆❇▲❊ ✿ ✿ ♠ ❛ t r ✐ ③ ✭ ✿ ✱ ✿ ✮
■◆❚❊●❊❘ ✿ ✿ ✐ ✱ ♦r❞❡♥
■❋ ✭❆▲▲❖❈❆❚❊❉✭ ♠ ❛ t r ✐ ③ ✮ ✮ ❚❍❊◆
❉❊❆▲▲❖❈❆❚❊✭ ♠ ❛ t r ✐ ③ ✮
❊◆❉■❋
✦ ❈r❡❛ ❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③
♠❛tr✐③ ❂ ✵
❉❖ ✐ ❂✶✱ ♦r❞❡♥
♠❛tr✐③ ✭ ✐ ✱ ✐ ✮ ❂ ✶
❊◆❉❉❖
❙❯❇❘❖❯❚■◆❊ ✐♠♣r✐♠❡▼❛tr✐③ ✭ ❛ ✮
✦ ■♠♣r✐♠❡ ❧❛ ▼❛tr✐③
❘❊❆▲✭ ✽ ✮ ❛ ✭ ✿ ✱ ✿ ✮
■◆❚❊●❊❘ ✐ ✱ ❥ ✱ ❝ ❛ ♥ t ❋ ✐ ❧ ❛ s ✱ ❝ ❛ ♥ t ❈ ♦ ❧ s
❝ ❛ ♥ t ❋ ✐ ❧ ❛ s ❂ ❙■❩❊ ✭ ❛ ✱❉■▼❂✶✮
❝ ❛ ♥ t ❈ ♦ ❧ s ❂ ❙■❩❊ ✭ ❛ ✱❉■▼❂✷✮
❉❖ ✐ ❂✶✱ ❝ ❛ ♥ t ❋ ✐ ❧ ❛ s
❉❖ ❥ ❂✶✱ ❝ ❛ ♥ t ❈ ♦ ❧ s
❲❘■❚❊ ✭ ∗ ✱ ✬ ✭ ❋✶✷ ✳ ✹ ✮ ✬ ✱ ❆❉❱❆◆❈❊❂ ✬◆❖ ✬ ✮ ❛✭ ✐ ✱ ❥ ✮
❊◆❉❉❖
❲❘■❚❊ ✭ ∗ ✱ ∗ ✮
❊◆❉❉❖
❊◆❉ ▼❖❉❯▲❊
P❛r❛ ♣♦❞❡r✱ ✉t✐❧✐③❛r ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦ ❡s ♣r❡❝✐s♦ ❝♦♠♣✐❧❛r❧♦✱ ❞❡ ❡st❛ ❢♦r✲
♠❛ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣✐❧❛❞♦r ❝r❡❛rá ❞♦s ❛r❝❤✐✈♦s✱ ✉♥♦ ❝♦♥ ❡①t❡♥s✐ó♥ ✳♦ ② ♦tr♦ ❝♦♥ ❡①t❡♥s✐ó♥
✳♠♦❞✱ ést♦s ❛r❝❤✐✈♦s s❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛rá♥ ❛❧ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ❛❧ ❝♦♠♣✐❧❛r❧♦ ② ❝♦♥str✉✐r
❡❧ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛ ❡❥❡❝✉t❛❜❧❡✳ P❛r❛ ♣♦❞❡r ✉t✐❧✐③❛r ❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ② s✉❜✲r✉t✐♥❛s ❞❡❧ ♠ó❞✉❧♦
q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❝r❡❛❞♦✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧✱ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ ❞❡❝❧❛r❛r ❞✐❝❤♦ ♠ó❞✉❧♦
♣♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ s❡♥t❡♥❝✐❛ ❯❙❊✳
P❘❖●❘❆▼ ♠ ❛ t r ✐ ❝ ❡ s
✦ ▼♦❞✉❧♦s ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞♦s
❯❙❊ ♠ ❛ t r ✐ ① ❋ ✉ ♥ ❝ t ✐ ♦ ♥ s
■▼P▲■❈■❚ ◆❖◆❊
✦ ❈♦❞✐❣♦ ❞❡❧ Pr♦❣r❛♠❛ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧
✳ ✳ ✳
❊◆❉P❘❖●❘❆▼
♣❡r♦ s❡❛ ❝✉❛❧ ❢✉❡r❡ ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥✱ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡♥ ✐♥❝♦r♣♦r❛r ❛ ♥✉❡str♦s ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛s ♠❛②♦r
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞✱ ♥❡❝❡s✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛r✱ ❛❣r❡❣❛♥❞♦ ❝ó❞✐❣♦ ❡①✐st❡♥t❡✱ ②❛ ♣r♦❜❛❞♦ ②
❞❡ ❡①❝❡❧❡♥t❡ ❝❛❧✐❞❛❞✳
P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡①✐st❡♥ ❞♦s ❜✐❜❧✐♦t❡❝❛s ❞❡ ❝ó❞✐❣♦ ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ♠✉② ❞✐❢✉♥❞✐❞❛s ❧❧❛♠❛✲
❞❛s ❇▲❆❙ ✭ ❇❛s✐❝ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❆❧❣❡❜r❛ ❙✉❜♣r♦❣r❛♠s✮ ② ▲❆P❆❈❑ ✭ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❆❧❣❡❜r❛
P❛❝❦❛❣❡✮ q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡♥ ✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛❞♦s ✉♥❛ ❣r❛♥ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♠ét♦❞♦s ♦♣t✐♠✐③❛❞♦s
♣❛r❛ r❡s♦❧✈❡r ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❞❡ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❧✐♥❡❛❧✳ ❙❡ tr❛t❛ ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ② s✉❜✲r✉t✐♥❛s ❢✉❡r✲
t❡♠❡♥t❡ ♣r♦❜❛❞❛s ② ❛♠♣❧✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❧❛❜♦r❛t♦r✐♦s ❞❡ ✐♥✈❡st✐❣❛❝✐ó♥ ② ❡♥
❧❛ r❡s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❞❡ ✐♥❣❡♥✐❡rí❛✳
P❘❖●❘❆▼ t r ✐ ❉ ✐ ❛ ❣
✦ ❘❡s✉❡❧✈❡ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ tr✐ −❞ ✐ ❛ ❣ ♦ ♥ ❛ ❧
■▼P▲■❈■❚ ◆❖◆❊
■◆❚❊●❊❘✱ P❆❘❆▼❊❚❊❘ ✿ ✿ ♥❂✸
❘❊❆▲✭ ✽ ✮ ✱ ❉■▼❊◆❙■❖◆✭ ♥ ✮ ✿ ✿ ❧❉ ✱ ❞❉ ✱ ✉❉ ✱ ①
■◆❚❊●❊❘ ■◆❋❖
❈❆▲▲ ✐♥❣❱❡❝ ✭ ❧❉ ✱ ✧ ❉ ✐ ❛ ❣ ♦ ♥ ❛ ❧ ✥ ■ ♥ ❢ ❡ r ✐ ♦ r ✥✥✥✥✥ ✧ ✮
❈❆▲▲ ✐♥❣❱❡❝ ✭❞❉ ✱ ✧ ❉ ✐ ❛ ❣ ♦ ♥ ❛ ❧ ✥ P r ✐ ♥ ❝ ✐ ♣ ❛ ❧ ✥✥ ✥✥✧ ✮
❈❆▲▲ ✐♥❣❱❡❝ ✭✉❉ ✱ ✧ ❉ ✐ ❛ ❣ ♦ ♥ ❛ ❧ ✥ ❙ ✉ ♣ ❡ r ✐ ♦ r ✥✥✥ ✥✥✧ ✮
❈❆▲▲ ✐♥❣❱❡❝ ✭ ① ✱ ✧ ❚❡r♠✐♥♦s ✥ ■ ♥ ❞ ❡ ♣ ❡ ♥ ❞ ✐ ❡ ♥ t ❡ s ✧ ✮
❈❆▲▲ ❉●❚❙❱✭ ♥ ✱ ✶ ✱ ❧❉ ✱ ❞❉ ✱ ✉❉ ✱ ① ✱ ♥ ✱ ■◆❋❖ ✮
P❘■◆❚ ∗ ✱ ✧▲❛✥ s ♦ ❧ ✉ ❝ ✐ ♦ ♥ ✥ ❡ s ✿ ✥✧ ✱ ①
❈❖◆❚❆■◆❙
❙❯❇❘❖❯❚■◆❊ ✐♥❣❱❡❝ ✭ ✈❡❝ ✱ t ✐ t ❧ ❡ ✮
✦ ■♥❣r❡s❛ ✈❡❝t♦r
❘❊❆▲✭ ✽ ✮ ✈❡❝ ✭ ✿ ✮
■◆❚❊●❊❘ ✐ ✱ ♥
❈❍❆❘❆❈❚❊❘∗ ✷✷ t ✐ t ❧ ❡
❈❆▲▲ ❙❨❙❚❊▼✭ ✧ ❝ ❧ ❡ ❛ r ✧ ✮
P❘■◆❚ ∗ ✱ ✧ ■ ♥ ❣ r ❡ s ❡ ✥✧ ✱ t ✐ t ❧ ❡
♥❂❙■❩❊ ✭ ✈❡❝ ✮
❉❖ ✐ ❂✶✱ ♥
❲❘■❚❊✭ ∗ ✱ ✬ ✭ ❆✶✵ ✱ ✥ ■✷ ✱ ✥❆✹✮ ✬ ✱ ❆❉❱❆◆❈❊❂ ✬◆❖ ✬ ✮ ✧ ❊❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ✥ ✭ ✧ ✱ ✐ ✱ ✧✥ ✮ ✿ ✥✧
❘❊❆❉ ✭ ∗ ✱ ∗ ✮ ✈❡❝ ✭ ✐ ✮
❊◆❉❉❖
❊◆❉ ❙❯❇❘❖❯❚■◆❊
s❡t ❛✉t♦s❝❛❧❡
✉ ♥ s ❡ t ❧♦❣
✉ ♥ s ❡ t ❧❛❜❡❧
s❡t ① t ✐ ❝ ❛✉t♦
s❡t ② t ✐ ❝ ❛✉t♦
s❡t ❣r✐❞
s❡t t✐t❧❡ ✧ ❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✥ ❙ ❝ r ✐ ♣ t ✧
s❡t ①❧❛❜❡❧ ✧①✧
s❡t ②❧❛❜❡❧ ✧②✧
♣❧♦t ✧ ✈ ❛ ❧ ♦ r ❡ s ✳ ❞❛t ✧ ✉s✐♥❣ ✶ ✿ ✷ t✐t❧❡ ✇✐t❤
✬ ❢ ✶ ✭ ① ✮ ✥❂✥ ❙ ✐ ♥ ✭ ① ✮ ✬ ❧✐♥❡s ✱❭
✧ ✈ ❛ ❧ ♦ r ❡ s ✳ ❞❛t ✧ ✉s✐♥❣ ✶ ✿ ✸ t✐t❧❡ ✇✐t❤
✬ ❢ ✷ ✭ ① ✮ ✥❂✥❈♦s ✭ ✸ ∗ ① ✮ ✴ ✭ ①✰✶✮ ✬ ❧✐♥❡s
✇✇✇✳❣♥✉♣❧♦t✳✐♥❢♦
✇✇✇✳❣♥✉♣❧♦t✳✈t✳❡❞✉
t✶✻✇❡❜✳❧❛♥❧✳❣♦✈✴❑❛✇❛♥♦✴❣♥✉♣❧♦t✴✐♥❞❡①✲❡✳❤t♠❧
❉✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ❖r❞✐♥❛r✐❛s
✸✳✶✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥
▲♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ✐♥❣❡♥✐❡rí❛ s❡ ♠♦❞❡❧❛♥ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ✐♥✲
❝❧✉②❡♥ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ② s✉s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ s❡ ♠♦❞❡❧❛♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❝✉❛✲
❝✐♦♥❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s✱ ❧❛s ❝✉❛❧❡s ❞❡❜❡♥ r❡s♦❧✈❡rs❡ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ✜♥ ❞❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❧❛s r❡❧❛✲
❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ s✐✳ ❙✐ ❜✐❡♥ ❡♥ ♠✉❝❤♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❡s ❢á❝✐❧ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❧❛
s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❛♥❛❧ít✐❝❛✱ ❡♥ ♦tr♦s ❡s ♠✉② ❞✐❢í❝✐❧ ❤❛❧❧❛r❧❛✳ P❛r❛ ❡st❡ ú❧t✐♠♦ ❝❛s♦ ✉s❛r❡♠♦s
❧♦s ♠ét♦❞♦s ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✭❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❧♦s ♠ét♦❞♦s ♥✉♠ér✐❝♦s✮✳
▲♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ♦r❞✐♥❛r✐❛s ✭❊❉❖✮ s♦♥ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s
❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ❝✉❛❧❡s t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s s♦♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✉♥❛
s♦❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡✳ ❯♥❛ ❊❉❖ ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛ ❝♦♥ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ① ❞❡
♦r❞❡♥ ♥ ✭s✐❡♥❞♦ ♥ ❡❧ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠á①✐♠❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛✮ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✿
dy
y ′ = y (1) = dx
= f (x, y) ; a≤x≤b
y(x0 ) = y0
✹✾
❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✸✳ ❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ◆✉♠ér✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❊❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❉✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ❖r❞✐♥❛r✐❛s
◆✐♥❣ú♥ ♠ét♦❞♦ ♥✉♠ér✐❝♦ ❝♦♥❞✉❝❡ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❡❧ t✐♣♦ ② ❂ ❣✭①✮✱
❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❛ ✉♥❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❛♥❛❧ít✐❝❛ ❡♥ ❬❛✱❜❪✳
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦s ❞❡ ❊❉❖✲P❱■s ❞❡ ✶❡r✳ ♦r❞❡♥✿
y ′ (x) = 3 · x + 5
®
y(0) = 1
y ′ (x) = x · y + 1
®
y(0) = 0
( 1
y ′ (x) = 1+y 2
y(0) = 1
P❛r❛ ❧♦s ❞❡♠ás tér♠✐♥♦s s❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ y (1) = f (x, y) t❛♥t❛s ✈❡❝❡s ❝♦♠♦
s❡❛ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ ② s❡ ❡✈❛❧ú❛ ❡♥ x = 0✿
y (1) = 0 + 1
y (2) = 1 + y (1)
y (3) = y (2)
···
y = y (n−1)
(n)
h3 h4
y(h) = 1 + h + h2 + 3
+ 12
+ ERROR
x=ξ ❀ 0<ξ<h
❡♥ ❧✉❣❛r ❞❡ x = x0
y (5) (ξ)
ERROR = 5!
· h5 0<ξ<h
y ′′ (ξ)
y(x0 + h) = y(x0 ) + h · y ′ (x0 ) + h2 · 2
♦ s❡❛ O(h2 )✳
▲❛ s❡r✐❡ tr✉♥❝❛❞❛ s❡r✈✐rá ♣❛r❛ ❛♣r♦①✐♠❛r ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ②✭①✮✳ P❡r♦✱ ❞❛❞♦ q✉❡ s♦❧♦
✉s❛r❡♠♦s ❞♦s tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ s❡r✐❡✱ t♦♠❛r❡♠♦s ❡❧ r❡❝❛✉❞♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❡❣✐r ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ❤
s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦ ♣❛r❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❛❝❡♣t❛❜❧❡s✳
❊♥ ❧❛ ✜❣✉r❛ ✜❣✉r❛ ✸✳✷ s❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞✐s❝r❡t❛ ♦❜t❡♥✐❞❛ ♣♦r ♠❡❞✐♦
✶✮ ❊rr♦r ❧♦❝❛❧ ✭♦ ❡rr♦r ♣♦r ♣❛s♦ ❤✮✿ en+1 (h) = y(xn+1 ) − yn+1
❊st❡ ❡rr♦r✱ ✐❧✉str❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ✜❣✉r❛ ✸✳✸ ✭✐③q✉✐❡r❞❛✮✱ ♠✉❡str❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❞❡ yn+1
′
❢✉❡ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♥❞♦ yn = f (xn , yn )✳ ❊st♦ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ q✉❡ yn ❢✉❡ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❡①❛❝t♦✳
❈♦♠♦ s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐ó♥ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ y0 = y(x0 )✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ E1 (h) = e1 (h)✳
P❛r❛ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ n > 1✱ En+1 (h) t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ❡rr♦r ❛❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧ ♣♦rq✉❡ yn ❡s só❧♦ ✉♥❛
❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❛ y(xn )✳
y (2) (ξn )
y(xn + h) = y(xn ) + h · y (1) (xn ) + h2 ·
{z 2 }
| {z } | {z }
|
y(xn+1 ) yn+1 en+1 (h)
dx
= y ′ = f (x, y) ✭✸✳✶✮
dx
yn+1 = yn + a · k1 + a · k1
✭✸✳✷✮
k1 = h · f (xn , yn )
k2 = h · f (xn + α · h, yn + β · k1 )
▲♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s k1 ② k2 ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❡st✐♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✮ ❛
❧❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ❞❡❧ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❞❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ① ❛✈❛♥③❛ ✉♥❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛ ❤✳
fx fy
yn+1 = yn + h · fn + h2 · ( + · f) ✭✸✳✹✮
2 2
❆❤♦r❛ ❡s❝r✐❜✐♠♦s ✸✳✷ s✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ ❧❛s ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ k1 ② k2 ✿
❊❧ ú❧t✐♠♦ tér♠✐♥♦ ❞❡ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ✸✳✺✱ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ s❡❛ ❝♦♠♣❛r❛❜❧❡ ❛ ❧❛ ✸✳✹✱ ❡①♣❛♥✲
❞✐♠♦s ❢✭①✱②✮ ❡♥ s❡r✐❡ ❞❡ ❚❛②❧♦r ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ xn ❡ yn ✱ r❡❝♦r❞❛♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❢ ❡s ✉♥❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❞♦s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ r❡t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s s♦❧♦ ❧♦s tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❞❡✲
r✐✈❛❞❛✿
❊❧ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❞❡r❡❝❤♦ ❢ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✸✳✹ ② ✸✳✻ ② s✉s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ♣❛r❝✐❛❧❡s ❡stá♥
❡✈❛❧✉❛❞♦s ❡♥ xn ❡ yn ✳ P♦r ❧♦ t❛♥t♦✱ s✐ s❡ s✉st✐t✉②❡ ✸✳✻ ❡♥ ✸✳✺ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡✿
yn+1 = yn + a · h · fn + b · h · (f + α · h · fx + β · h · fy · f )n ✭✸✳✼✮
yn+1 = yn + (a + b) · h · fn + h2 · (α · b · fx + β · b · fy · f )n ✭✸✳✽✮
P❛r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✸✳✼ s❡❛ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✸✳✹ ❞❡❜❡ ❝✉♠♣❧✐rs❡ q✉❡✿
α+β =1
α · b = 12 ✭✸✳✾✮
β · b = 12
❈♦♠♦ só❧♦ t❡♥❡♠♦s tr❡s ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❝✉❛tr♦ ✐♥❝ó❣♥✐t❛s✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡❧❡❣✐r ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r
❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ ② ❣❡♥❡r❛r ❡❧ r❡st♦✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♠ét♦❞♦s ❞❡
s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♦r❞❡♥✳
ỹn+1 = yn + h · f (xn , yn )
✭✸✳✶✵✮
yn+1 = yn + h2 · [f (xn , yn ) + f (xn + h, ỹn+1 )]
ỹn+ 1 = yn + h2 · f (xn , yn )
2
✭✸✳✶✶✮
yn+1 = yn + h · f (xn + h2 , ỹn+ 1 )]
2
k1 = h · f (xn , yn )
k2 = h · f (xn + h2 , yn + k21 )
k3 = h · f (xn + h2 , yn + k22 )
✭✸✳✶✷✮
k4 = h · f (xn + h, yn + k3 )
yn+1 = yn + 61 · (k1 + 2 · k2 + 2 · k3 + k4 )
❊st❡ ♠ét♦❞♦ t✐❡♥❡✿ ❊rr♦r ❧♦❝❛❧ ❞❡❧ O(h5 ) ② ❊rr♦r ❣❧♦❜❛❧ ❞❡❧ O(h4 )✱ ❧♦ q✉❡
♠✉❡str❛ ❧❛ ♠❡❥♦r❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ♦❜t❡♥✐❞❛✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡rí❛ ❞❡ ❡s♣❡r❛r q✉❡ ❡sq✉❡♠❛s
❞❡ ❘✉♥❣❡✲❑✉tt❛ ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥ ♠ás ❛❧t♦ s❡rá♥ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ♠❡❥♦r❡s✳ ❊❢❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡
s❡ ❤❛♥ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛❞♦ ♠ét♦❞♦s ❞❡ ✺t♦✳ ② ✻t♦✳ ♦r❞❡♥✱ s✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡♥ ♠✉❝❤♦s ❝❛s♦s
❧❛ ❡①❛❝t✐t✉❞ ❛❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❧♦❣r❛❞❛ ♥♦ ❝♦♠♣❡♥s❛ ❡❧ ❡s❢✉❡r③♦ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ r❡q✉❡r✐❞♦✳
❊♥ ♦tr❛s ♣❛❧❛❜r❛s✱ ♥♦ ❤❛② ♠❡❥♦r❛ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛t✐✈❛ ❡♥ ❡✜❝✐❡♥❝✐❛ s♦❜r❡ ❡sq✉❡♠❛s ❞❡ ✹t♦✳
♦r❞❡♥✳
P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡✱ ❧❛ ✐♥❡st❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❡s ✉♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❛❝✉♠✉❧❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ ❡rr♦r ❧♦❝❛❧✱ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛
q✉❡ ❡❧ ❡rr♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝r❡❝❡ s✐♥ ❧í♠✐t❡ ❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ ♥♦s ❛❧❡❥❛♠♦s ❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r
✐♥✐❝✐❛❧✳
y′ = α · y ✭✸✳✶✸✮
k1 = α · h · yn
k2 = α · h · (yn + k21 ) = α · h · (1 + α·h
2
) · yn
k3 = α · h · (yn + 2 ) = α · h · (1 + 2 · (1 + α·h
k2 α·h
2
)) · yn
α·h α·h ✭✸✳✶✺✮
k4 = α · h · (yn + k3 ) = α · h · (1 + α · h · (1 + 2 · (1 + 2
))) · yn
P❛r❛ α=2 ✿
❊♥ ❡❧ ❣rá✜❝♦ ✈❡♠♦s y = y0 · e(−2·t) ② y = y0 · α ② s❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛ ❧❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦
❛✉♠❡♥t❛ t ♠❛s ❞❡ ✶✳✷✺
1
❊♥ ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ ✸✳✷ ✈❡♠♦s ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ y′ = −30 · y ✱ y0 = ②
3
1 −30·t
❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❛♥❛❧ít✐❝❛ ❡s y = · e ✳ ❈♦♠♣❛r❛♥❞♦ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣❛r❛ t = 1,5 ❝♦♥
3
❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ♣❛s♦ ❤✳
t 2 · e−2·t δ · yn
✵ ✷ ✷
0,25 1,211306 1,211353333
0,5 0,446259 0,454859
0,75 0,0099573 0,1244385
1 0,0134758 0,0414616
1,25 0,0011061 0,0417
1,5 5,50 · 10−5 0,0268852
1,75 1,66 · 10−6 0,0369671
2 3,04 · 10−8 0,5049
3 7,55 · 10−11 15,6526
❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ❧❛s ❞♦s ❡st✐♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡st✐♠❛r ❡❧ ❡rr♦r ❡♥ ❡❧
♠ét♦❞♦ ❞❡ ♠❡♥♦r ♦r❞❡♥✳
P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡❧ ♠ét♦❞♦ ❞❡ ❘❯◆●❊✲❑❯❚❚❆✲▼❊❘❙❖◆ ❤❛❝❡ ❧❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡
✉♥❛ ❡st✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥ ✺t♦✳ ② ✹t♦✳ ❨ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❘❯◆●❊✲❑❯❚❚❆✲❋❊❍▲❇❊❘●
s❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛♥ ✻ ❡✈❛❧✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ♣♦r ♣❛s♦ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛r ❡❧ ♥✉❡✈♦ ✈❛❧♦r ② ❛❞❡✲
♠ás ♦❜t❡♥❡r ✉♥❛ ❡st✐♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❡rr♦r✳
k1 = h · f (xn , yn )
k2 = h · f (xn + h4 , yn + k41 )
k3 = h · f (xn + 3·h
8
, yn + 3·k
32
1
+ 9·k
32
2
)
k4 12·h
= h · f (xn + 13 , yn + 2197 − 7200·k
1932·k1
2197
2
+ 7296·k
2197
3
)
439·k1 3680·k3 845·k4
k5 = h · f (xn + h), yn + 216 − 8 · k2 + 513 − 4104 )
✭✸✳✶✼✮
k6 = h · f (xn + h2 , yn − 8·k
27
1
+ 2 · k2 − 3544·k
2565
3
+ 1859·k
4104
4
− 11·k
40
5
)