MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Models of communication refers to the conceptual model used to explain the

human communication process. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude
Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories. Following the basic concept, communication
is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to
another (receiver).

 Shannon and Weaver. The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and
telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender, channel,
and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the
telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person.
Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a
telephone conversation, which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal. In
a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of
communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form
(as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This
common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and receiving
information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:
An information source, which produces a message. A transmitter, which encodes the message into
signals. A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission. A receiver, which 'decodes'
(reconstructs) the message from the signal. A destination, where the message arrives. Shannon and
Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory. The
technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted? The semantic problem: how
precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'? The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received
meaning affect behavior? Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating: It assumes
communicators are isolated individuals. No allowance for differing purposes. No allowance for differing
interpretations. No allowance for unequal power relations. No allowance for situational contexts.
 David Berlo. In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of
communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Sender-Message-Channel-
Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by
other scholars.
 Schramm. Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of
things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel
(through which medium), destination / receiver / target /decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur
Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both
desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts
that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts
may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the
abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that
are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such
as a corporation or group of beings). Communication can be seen as processes of information
transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules: Syntactic (formal properties of signs and
symbols), Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent). Therefore,
communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs
and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense
ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both
secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within
social interactions.
 Barnlund. In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (2008) proposed a transactional model of
communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are
 simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages. In a slightly more complex form a
sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the
constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the
determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a
passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes
separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act.
The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different
regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In
the presence of "communication noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and
decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One
problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and
decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a codebook, and
that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code
books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many
conceptual difficulties. Theories of coregulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic
continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold
Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they
choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie
1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves
out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called 'Space Binding'.
it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of
distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and 'Time Binding', through
the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation,
through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
 Psychology of communication. Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction
and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998,
the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on
psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound
increasingly dominate modern communication.
 Constructionist Model. There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that
authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This
is a progression from Lasswell’s attempt to define human communication through to this century and
revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication
is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and
historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style
for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman. Lanham chose to view
communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the
transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose
discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human
motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions
about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they
are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct
meaning deserves analysis. Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame
to understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the individual is that
he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more or less, any part that he is
likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the significance of expression. The truth in both
cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from
social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model.
Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great
scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars
have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory
remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy,
psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of
communication across disciplines. Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-
 15): Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message. Sender; the initiator and
encoder of a message. Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a
message. Decode; translates the senders spoken idea/message into something the receiver
understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience. Encode; puts the idea into
spoken language while putting their own meaning into the word/message. Channel; the medium through
which the message travels such as through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or
written communication (letters, email, text messages) Feedback; the receivers verbal and nonverbal
responses to a message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being
confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify the message (verbal). Message; the verbal and
nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.
 Linear Model. It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a
message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear model
assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback from
the receiver. For example; a letter, email, text message, lecture.
 Interactive Model. It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a
message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the
original sender. This model has added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way but a
two way process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity
geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of
your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous. For example – instant
messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the IM from
the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get
an answer.
 Transactional Model. It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in
transaction. Firstly, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver.
Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is
fluid/simultaneous. This is how most conversation are like. The transactional model also contains
ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how you interpret the data that you are given).
Where the ellipses meet is the most effect communication area because both communicators share the
same meaning of the message. For example – talking/listening to friends. While your friend is talking
you are constantly giving them feedback on what you think through your facial expression verbal
feedback without necessarily stopping your friend from talking.
 Communication cycle. The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Shannon and
Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories. The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio
and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender, channel, and
receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone
itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and
Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone
conversation, which they deemed noise. In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model
or standard view of communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent
in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder.
This common conception of communication simply views communication as a means of sending and
receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social
scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:
An information source, which produces a message. A transmitter, which encodes the message into
signals. A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission. A receiver, which 'decodes'
(reconstructs) the message from the signal. A destination, where the message arrives. Shannon and
Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory. The
technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted? The semantic problem: how
precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'? The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received
meaning affect behavior? Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating: It assumes
communicators are isolated individuals. No allowance for differing purposes. No allowance for differing
interpretations. No allowance for unequal power relations. No allowance for situational contexts.
 Communication noise. In any communication model, noise is interference with the decoding of
messages sent over a channel by an encoder. There are many examples of noise: Environmental
 Noise: Noise that physically disrupts communication, such as standing next to loud speakers at a party,
or the noise from a construction site next to a classroom making it difficult to hear the professor.

1. Physiological-Impairment Noise: Physical maladies that prevent effective communication,

such as actual deafness or blindness preventing messages from being received as they were intended.
2. Semantic Noise: Different interpretations of the meanings of certain words. For example,
the word "weed" can be interpreted as an undesirable plant in a yard, or as a euphemism for marijuana.
3. Syntactical Noise: Mistakes in grammar can disrupt communication, such as abrupt
changes in verb tense during a sentence.
4. Organizational Noise: Poorly structured communication can prevent the receiver from
accurate interpretation. For example, unclear and badly stated directions can make the receiver even
more lost.
5. Cultural Noise: Stereotypical assumptions can cause misunderstandings, such as
unintentionally offending a non-Christian person by wishing them a "Merry Christmas".
6. Psychological Noise: Certain attitudes can also make communication difficult. For
instance, great anger or sadness may cause someone to lose focus on the present moment. Disorders
such as Autism may also severely hamper effective communication.
Models of communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Shannon and Weaver's model of communication

Communication major dimensions scheme

Communication code scheme

Linear Communication Model

Interactional Model of Communication

Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication

Transactional Model of Communication

 Models of communication are conceptual models used to explain the
human communication process. The first major model for communication was developed in 1948
by Claude Elwood Shannon and published with an introduction by Warren Weaver for Bell
Laboratories.[1] Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and
receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).[2]
In 1960, David Berlo expanded the linear transmission model [3] with the Sender-Message-Channel-
Receiver(SMCR) Model of Communication. [4] Later, Wilbur Schramm introduced a model that
identified multiple variables in communication which includes the transmitter, encoding, media,
decoding, and receiver. [5]

Contents
[hide]

 1Dean-Faustine Model
 2Berlo
 3Schramm
 4Barnlund
 5Constructionist
 6Linear
 7Interactive/convergence
 8Communication theory framework
 9Ontology
 10Epistemology
 11Axiology
 12Some realms of communication and their theories
 13Notes
 14References

Dean-Faustine Model[edit]
Dean Dmitri and Faustine Vern were engineers that worked for Bell Telephone Labs in the United
States. Their goal was to make sure that the telephone cables and radio waves were working at the
maximum efficiency. Therefore, they developed the Dean–Faustine model which had an intention to
expand a mathematical theory of communication.[6] The Shannon–Weaver model was developed in
1949 which is referred as the 'mother of all models'.[7] The model is well accepted as a main initial
model for Communication Studies which has grown since then.[8]
As well, the Dean–Faustine model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone
technology. Their initial model consisted of four primary parts: sender, message, channel,
and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephonea person speaks into, the channel was the
telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone through which one can hear the person
on the other end of the line. Dean and Faustine also recognized that there may often be static or
background sounds that interfere with the process of the other partner in a telephone conversation;
they referred to this as noise. Certain types of background sounds can also indicate the absence of
a signal.[9]
The original model of Dean and Faustine has five elements: information source, transmitter, channel,
receiver, and destination. To illustrate the process of the communication the first step is the
information source where the information is stored. Next, in order to send the information, the
message is encoded into signals, so it can travel to its destination. After the message is encoded, it
goes through the channel which the signals are adapted for the transmission. In addition, the
channel carried the noise course which is any interference that might happen to lead to the signal
receive a different information from the source. After the channel, the message arrives in the
receiver step where the message reconstruct (decode) from the signal. Finally, the message arrives
at the destination.[10]
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of
communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form
(as spoken language) from an emissor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder.
According to this common communication-related conception, communication is viewed as a means
of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are its simplicity, generality, and
quantifiability. The mathematicians Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model on
the basis of the following elements:

 An information source, which produces a message.

 A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
 A channel, for which signals are adapted for transmission
 A receiver, which reconstructs the encoded message from a sequence of received signals and
decodes it.
 An information destination, where the message arrives.
Dean and Faustine argued that this concept entails three levels of problems for communication:

1. The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?

2. The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
3. The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler criticizes the transmission model in the following terms:[11]

 It assumes that communicators are isolated individuals.

 It makes no allowance for differing purposes.
 It makes no allowance for differing interpretations.
 It makes no allowance for unequal power relationships.

Berlo[edit]
In 1960, David Berlo expanded Dean and Faustine's 1949 linear model of communication and
created the Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) Model of Communication.[12] The SMCR
Model of Communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by
other scholars.
The Berlo's communication process is a simple application for communication of person-to-person
which include communication source, encoder, message, channel, decoder, and communication
receiver. [13] In addition, David Berlo presented some factors that influence the communication
process between two people. The factors include communication skills, awareness level, social
system, cultural system, and attitude.[14]
The Berlo's Model of Communication process starts at the source. This is the part where determine
the communication skills, attitude, knowledge, social system, and culture of the people involved in
the communication. After the message is developed which is elements in a set of symbols. [14] Then
the encoder step beginning. The encoder process is where the motor skills take place by speaking
or writing. [13] The message goes through the channel which carries the message by hearing, seeing,
touching, smelling, or tasting.[3] Then the decoder process takes place. In this process, the receiver
interpreter the message with her or him sensory skills. Finally, the communication receiver gets the
whole message understood.[13]
Schramm[edit]
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things
are communicated), source / emissor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel
(through which medium), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur
Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both
desired and undesired) on the target of the message.[15] Between parties, communication includes
acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These
acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on
the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form
make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or
being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels
of semiotic rules:

1. Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),

2. Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
3. Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a
common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense
ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both
secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within
social interactions.

Barnlund[edit]
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of
communication.[16] The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals
are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form, a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude
of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an
individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted.
Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to
another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance
of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal
filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the
intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of "noise" on the transmission channel (air,
in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not
achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the
processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something
that functions as a [code-book], and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not
identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere
represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process,
rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory
that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer
different possibilities for the shape and durability of society.[17][page needed] His famous example of this is
using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different
properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called 'Space Binding'. it made possible the
transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military
campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and 'Time Binding', through the
construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation,
through this media they can change and shape communication in their society.[17][page needed]

Constructionist[edit]
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider[example needed] that authors like
Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a
progression from Lasswell's attempt to define human communication through to this century and
revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of
communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from
the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in
communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS
model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and
sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote: "If words
matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric
analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style" (Lanham 10). This is saying that
rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to
transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand
communication. Goffman wrote: "What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn
enough pieces of expression to be able to 'fill in' and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely
to be given" (Goffman 73), highlighting the significance of expression.
The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction
of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for
the transmission model. Therefore, any look into communication theory should include the
possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Goffman that style and
performance is the whole process. lun
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that
scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events.[weasel words] Because
communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other
disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a
consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.[weasel words]
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):

 Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message.

 For example;
 physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly
heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else,
and someone talking really loudly near you.
 physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating
competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by
speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being
really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a cough.
 psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking
someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t
speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
 semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the
word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
 Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
 Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message
 Decode; translates the sender's spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands
by using their knowledge of language from personal experience.
 Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the
word/message.
 Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication
(radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages)
 Feedback; the receiver's verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for
understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a
question to clarify the message (verbal).
 Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the
sender which conveys an idea.
Humans act toward people or things on the basis of the meanings they assign to those people or
things. -"Language is the source of meaning". -Meaning arises out of the social interaction people
have with each other.
-Meaning is not inherent in objects but it is negotiated through the use of language, hence the term
symbolic interactionism. As human beings, we have the ability to name things. Symbols, including
names, are arbitrary signs. By talking with others, we ascribe meaning to words and develop a
universe of discourse A symbol is a stimulus that has a learned/shared meaning and a value for
people Significant symbols can be nonverbal as well as linguistic.
-Negative responses can consequently reduce a person to nothing. -Our expectations evoke
responses that confirm what we originally anticipated, resulting in a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Linear[edit]
This is a one-way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message
and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. In this model there is no feedback or
response which may allow for a continuous exchange of information (F.N.S. Palma, 1993).
The linear model was first introduced by Shannon & Weaver in 1949. In the linear communication
model, the message travels one direction from the start point to the endpoint. In other words, once
the sender sends the message to the receiver the communication process ends. Many
communications online use the linear communication model. For example, when you send an email,
post a blog, or share something on social media. However, the linear model does not explain many
other forms of communication including face-to-face conversation.[18]

Interactive/convergence[edit]
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver
and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This
model has added feedback, indicating that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It
also has "field of experience" which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location,
extent of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime.
Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
The Interactive Model.

 For example, – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original
sender has to wait for the IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session
where you just ask a question then you get an answer.

Communication theory framework[edit]

Main article: Theory of communication
Communication theory can be seen from one of the following viewpoints:

 Mechanistic: This view[who?] considers communication as a perfect transaction of a message from

the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
 Psychological: This view[who?] considers communication as the act of sending a message to a
receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
 Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view considers communication to be the
product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning. The Constructionist View can also be
defined as, how you say something determines what the message is. The Constructionist View
assumes that "truth" and "ideas" are constructed or invented through the social process of
communication. Robert T. Craig saw the Constructionist View or the constitutive view as it's
called in his article, as "…an ongoing process that symbolically forms and re-forms our personal
identities." (Craig, 125). The other view of communication, the Transmission Model, sees
communication as robotic and computer-like. The Transmission Model sees communication as a
way of sending or receiving messages and the perfection of that. But, the Constructionist View
sees communications as, "…in human life, info does not behave as simply as bits in an
electronic stream. In human life, information flow is far more like an electric current running from
one landmine to another" (Lanham, 7). The Constructionist View is a more realistic view of
communication[opinion]because it involves the interacting of human beings and the free sharing of
 thoughts and ideas. Daniel Chandler looks to prove that the Transmission Model is a lesser way
of communicating by saying "The transmission model is not merely a gross over-simplification
but a dangerously misleading representation of the nature of human communication" (Chandler,
2). Humans do not communicate simply as computers or robots so that's why it's essential to
truly understand the Constructionist View of Communication well. We do not simply send facts
and data to one another, but we take facts and data and they acquire meaning through the
process of communication, or through interaction with others.
 Systemic: This view[who?] considers communication to be the new messages created via "through-
put", or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels
through people.
 Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power and oppression of individuals
and social groups.[19]
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of
communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and
axiological framework imposed by the theorist.

Ontology[edit]
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, the theorist is examining. One must
consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on
whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social
constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside
of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that
everything outside of one's cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle
the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create
together.[unbalanced opinion?][neutrality is disputed]

Epistemology[edit]
Epistemology is an examination of the approaches and beliefs which inform particular modes of
study of phenomena and domains of expertise. In positivist approaches to epistemology, objective
knowledge is seen as the result of the empirical observation and perceptual experience. In the
history of science, empirical evidence collected by way of pragmatic-calculation and the scientific
method is believed to be the most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Such approaches are meant to
predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge,
typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and also interviews.
Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social
world.[citation needed]

Axiology[edit]
Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development.[20] Most
communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches.[citation needed] The first approach
recognizes that values will influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set
aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important
in this approach to prevent individual researchers' values from contaminating their findings and
interpretations.[21] The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any
stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from
inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values
contextualize, influence or skew their findings.[22] The third approach not only rejects the idea that
values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be
separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of
communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological
approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and
theory development.[23]

Some realms of communication and their theories[edit]

 message production: Constructivist Theory, Action Assembly Theory
 message processing: Elaboration Likelihood Model, Inoculation theory
 discourse and interaction: Speech Acts Theory, Coordinated Management of Meaning
 developing relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory, Social Penetration Theory, Predicted
Outcome Value Theory
 ongoing relationships: Relational Systems Theory, Relational Dialectics
 organizational: Structuration Theory, Unobtrusive and Concertive Control Theory
 small group: Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence Theory
 media processing and effects: Social Cognitive Theory, Uses and Gratifications Theory
 media and society: Agenda Setting, Information deficit model, Spiral of silence, Symbolic
Convergence Theory
 culture: Speech Codes Theory, Face-saving Theory
 making social worlds: Coordinated Management of Meaning, Symbolic Interactionism
 science communication: Gateway Belief Model
You are here: Home / Communication / Linear Model of Communication

Linear Model of Communication

In linear model, communication is considered one way process where sender is the only one who
sends message and receiver doesn’t give feedback or response. The message signal is encoded
and transmitted through channel in presence of noise. The sender is more prominent in linear
model of communication.

Linear model was founded by Shannon and Weaver which was later adapted by David Berlo into
his own model known as SMCR (Source, Message, Channel, Receiver) Model of
Communication.

Linear model is applied in mass communication like television, radio, etc. This model is not
applicable in general human communication as general human communication has to have
feedback and responses.
Components of Linear Communication

Linear model has defined set of components required for a communication to be established
where

 Sender is the person who sends a message after encoding.

 Encoding is the process of converting the message into codes compatible with the channel and
understandable for the receiver.
 Decoding is the process of changing the encoded message into understandable language by the
receiver.
 Message is the information sent by the sender to the receiver.
 Channel is the medium through which the message is sent.
 Receiver is the person who gets the message after decoding.
 Noise is the disruptions that are caused in the communication process in channel or in
understandability of the message.

Types of Linear Communications

Different types of communication models based on linear model of communication are:

Aristotle’s Model

Aristotle’s Model is a linear communication model which was made for public speaking. In
Aristotle’s model, the speaker sent message and the audience receive it. The model was made to
establish a propaganda. Learn more about, Aristotle Model of Communication.
Shannon Weaver Model

The Shannon Weaver Model of Communication is a mathematical model used for technical
communication or machine communication like telegraph and telephone. In Shannon Weaver’s
model, if the channel does not have distorting elements or noise producing elements, the
communication is successful. Learn more about Shannon Weaver Model of Communication.

Berlo’s SMCR Model

Berlo’s Model was made to understand general human communication. In Berlo’s Model,
communication depends on many factors: like communication skills, attitude, knowledge, socio-
cultural systems, the way in which the message has been sent, the content of the message, senses
of the receiver, etc. Learn more about, Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication

Criticisms of Linear Model

 The model assumes that communication has a particular beginning and an end, so it is not
continuous.
 There is no concept of feedback which makes it inapplicable to direct human communication and
only applicable to mass communication like newspaper, television, etc. There is no way to know if
the communication was effective or not.
 Human communication is mostly circular rather than linear as audience is also an active
participant.
 Communication may not happen in turns and more than one message can be sent at the same
time.
 The sender must have the ability to encode and the receiver must have the ability to decode.
 The model has become less relevant to electronic communication and internet where it’s not
clear who is the sender and who is the receiver.
OSGOOD- SCHRAMM MODEL OF
COMMUNICATION
in COMMUNICATION MODELS , INTERPERSONAL COMMUN ICATION

It is a Circular Model, so that communication is something circular in nature

Encoder – Who does encoding or Sends the message (message originates)

Decoder – Who receives the message
Interpreter – Person trying to understand (analyses, perceive) or interpret
Note: From the message starting to ending, there is an interpretation goes on. Based on
this interpretation only the message is received.
This model breaks the sender and receiver model it seems communication in a practical
way. It is not a traditional model.

It can happen within our self or two people; each person acts as both sender and
receiver and hence use interpretation. It is simultaneously take place e.g. encoding,
interpret and decoding.

Semantic noise is a concept introduced here it occurs when sender and receiver apply
different meaning to the same message. It happens mostly because of words and phrases
for e.g. Technical Language, So certain words and phrases will cause you to deviate from
the actual meaning of the communication.

Note: When semantic noise takes place decoding and interpretation becomes difficult
and people get deviated from the actual message.
Advantage of Osgood- Schramm model of communication
1. Dynamic model- Shows how a situation can change
 2. It shows why redundancy is an essential part
3. There is no separate sender and receiver, sender and receiver is the same person
4. Assume communication to be circular in nature
5. Feedback – central feature.
Disadvantage of Osgood- Schramm model of communication
This model does not talk about semantic noise and it assume the moment of encoding
and decoding.
1.2 The Communication Process

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Next

Learning Objectives

1. Identify and define the components of the transmission model of

communication.
2. Identify and define the components of the interaction model of
communication.
3. Identify and define the components of the transaction model of
communication.
4. Compare and contrast the three models of communication.
5. Use the transaction model of communication to analyze a recent
communication encounter.
Communication is a complex process, and it is difficult to determine where
or with whom a communication encounter starts and ends. Models of
communication simplify the process by providing a visual representation of
the various aspects of a communication encounter. Some models explain
communication in more detail than others, but even the most complex
model still doesn’t recreate what we experience in even a moment of a
communication encounter. Models still serve a valuable purpose for
students of communication because they allow us to see specific concepts
and steps within the process of communication, define communication, and
apply communication concepts. When you become aware of how
communication functions, you can think more deliberately through your
communication encounters, which can help you better prepare for future
communication and learn from your previous communication. The three
models of communication we will discuss are the transmission, interaction,
and transaction models.
Although these models of communication differ, they contain some
common elements. The first two models we will discuss, the transmission
model and the interaction model, include the following parts: participants,
messages, encoding, decoding, and channels. In communication models,
the participants are the senders and/or receivers of messages in a
communication encounter. The message is the verbal or nonverbal content
being conveyed from sender to receiver. For example, when you say
“Hello!” to your friend, you are sending a message of greeting that will be
received by your friend.

Although models of communication provide a useful blueprint to see how the communication
process works, they are not complex enough to capture what communication is like as it is
experienced.

Chris Searle – Blueprint – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

The internal cognitive process that allows participants to send, receive, and
understand messages is the encoding and decoding process. Encoding is
the process of turning thoughts into communication. As we will learn later,
the level of conscious thought that goes into encoding messages
varies. Decoding is the process of turning communication into thoughts.
For example, you may realize you’re hungry and encode the following
message to send to your roommate: “I’m hungry. Do you want to get pizza
tonight?” As your roommate receives the message, he decodes your
communication and turns it back into thoughts in order to make meaning
out of it. Of course, we don’t just communicate verbally—we have various
options, or channels for communication. Encoded messages are sent
through a channel, or a sensory route on which a message travels, to the
receiver for decoding. While communication can be sent and received using
any sensory route (sight, smell, touch, taste, or sound), most
communication occurs through visual (sight) and/or auditory (sound)
channels. If your roommate has headphones on and is engrossed in a video
game, you may need to get his attention by waving your hands before you
can ask him about dinner.

Transmission Model of Communication

The transmission model of communication describes communication as a
linear, one-way process in which a sender intentionally transmits a message
to a receiver (Ellis & McClintock, 1990). This model focuses on the sender
and message within a communication encounter. Although the receiver is
included in the model, this role is viewed as more of a target or end point
rather than part of an ongoing process. We are left to presume that the
receiver either successfully receives and understands the message or does
not. The scholars who designed this model extended on a linear model
proposed by Aristotle centuries before that included a speaker, message,
and hearer. They were also influenced by the advent and spread of new
communication technologies of the time such as telegraphy and radio, and
you can probably see these technical influences within the model (Shannon
& Weaver, 1949). Think of how a radio message is sent from a person in the
radio studio to you listening in your car. The sender is the radio announcer
who encodes a verbal message that is transmitted by a radio tower through
electromagnetic waves (the channel) and eventually reaches your (the
receiver’s) ears via an antenna and speakers in order to be decoded. The
radio announcer doesn’t really know if you receive his or her message or
not, but if the equipment is working and the channel is free of static, then
there is a good chance that the message was successfully received.
Figure 1.1 The Transmission Model of Communication
Since this model is sender and message focused, responsibility is put on the
sender to help ensure the message is successfully conveyed. This model
emphasizes clarity and effectiveness, but it also acknowledges that there are
barriers to effective communication. Noise is anything that interferes with a
message being sent between participants in a communication encounter.
Even if a speaker sends a clear message, noise may interfere with a message
being accurately received and decoded. The transmission model of
communication accounts for environmental and semantic
noise. Environmental noise is any physical noise present in a
communication encounter. Other people talking in a crowded diner could
interfere with your ability to transmit a message and have it successfully
decoded. While environmental noise interferes with the transmission of the
message, semantic noise refers to noise that occurs in the encoding and
decoding process when participants do not understand a symbol. To use a
technical example, FM antennae can’t decode AM radio signals and vice
versa. Likewise, most French speakers can’t decode Swedish and vice versa.
Semantic noise can also interfere in communication between people
speaking the same language because many words have multiple or
unfamiliar meanings.
Although the transmission model may seem simple or even underdeveloped
to us today, the creation of this model allowed scholars to examine the
communication process in new ways, which eventually led to more complex
models and theories of communication that we will discuss more later. This
model is not quite rich enough to capture dynamic face-to-face interactions,
but there are instances in which communication is one-way and linear,
especially computer-mediated communication (CMC). As the following
“Getting Plugged In” box explains, CMC is integrated into many aspects of
our lives now and has opened up new ways of communicating and brought
some new challenges. Think of text messaging for example. The
transmission model of communication is well suited for describing the act
of text messaging since the sender isn’t sure that the meaning was
effectively conveyed or that the message was received at all. Noise can also
interfere with the transmission of a text. If you use an abbreviation the
receiver doesn’t know or the phone autocorrects to something completely
different than you meant, then semantic noise has interfered with the
message transmission. I enjoy bargain hunting at thrift stores, so I just
recently sent a text to a friend asking if she wanted to go thrifting over the
weekend. After she replied with “What?!?” I reviewed my text and saw that
my “smart” phone had autocorrected thrifting to thrusting! You have likely
experienced similar problems with text messaging, and a quick Google
search for examples of text messages made funny or embarrassing by the
autocorrect feature proves that many others do, too.

“Getting Plugged In”

Computer-Mediated Communication
When the first computers were created around World War II and the first
e-mails exchanged in the early 1960s, we took the first steps toward a future
filled with computer-mediated communication (CMC) (Thurlow, Lengel, &
Tomic, 2004). Those early steps turned into huge strides in the late 1980s
and early 1990s when personal computers started becoming regular
features in offices, classrooms, and homes. I remember getting our first
home computer, a Tandy from Radio Shack, in the early 1990s and then
getting our first Internet connection at home in about 1995. I set up my first
e-mail account in 1996 and remember how novel and exciting it was to send
and receive e-mails. I wasn’t imagining a time when I would get dozens of
e-mails a day, much less be able to check them on my cell phone! Many of
you reading this book probably can’t remember a time without CMC. If
that’s the case, then you’re what some scholars have called “digital natives.”
When you take a moment to think about how, over the past twenty years,
CMC has changed the way we teach and learn, communicate at work, stay
in touch with friends, initiate romantic relationships, search for jobs,
manage our money, get our news, and participate in our democracy, it
really is amazing to think that all that used to take place without computers.
But the increasing use of CMC has also raised some questions and
concerns, even among those of you who are digital natives. Almost half of
the students in my latest communication research class wanted to do their
final research projects on something related to social media. Many of them
were interested in studying the effects of CMC on our personal lives and
relationships. This desire to study and question CMC may stem from an
anxiety that people have about the seeming loss or devaluing of face-to-face
(FtF) communication. Aside from concerns about the digital cocoons that
many of us find ourselves in, CMC has also raised concerns about privacy,
cyberbullying, and lack of civility in online interactions. We will continue to
explore many of these issues in the “Getting Plugged In” feature box
included in each chapter, but the following questions will help you begin to
see the influence that CMC has in your daily communication.
1. In a typical day, what types of CMC do you use?
2. What are some ways that CMC reduces stress in your life? What are
some ways that CMC increases stress in your life? Overall, do you think
CMC adds to or reduces your stress more?
3. Do you think we, as a society, have less value for FtF communication
than we used to? Why or why not?

Interaction Model of Communication

The interaction model of communication describes communication as a
process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and
generate meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within
physical and psychological contexts (Schramm, 1997). Rather than
illustrating communication as a linear, one-way process, the interaction
model incorporates feedback, which makes communication a more
interactive, two-way process. Feedback includes messages sent in response
to other messages. For example, your instructor may respond to a point you
raise during class discussion or you may point to the sofa when your
roommate asks you where the remote control is. The inclusion of a feedback
loop also leads to a more complex understanding of the roles of participants
in a communication encounter. Rather than having one sender, one
message, and one receiver, this model has two sender-receivers who
exchange messages. Each participant alternates roles as sender and receiver
in order to keep a communication encounter going. Although this seems
like a perceptible and deliberate process, we alternate between the roles of
sender and receiver very quickly and often without conscious thought.
The interaction model is also less message focused and more interaction
focused. While the transmission model focused on how a message was
transmitted and whether or not it was received, the interaction model is
more concerned with the communication process itself. In fact, this model
acknowledges that there are so many messages being sent at one time that
many of them may not even be received. Some messages are also
unintentionally sent. Therefore, communication isn’t judged effective or
ineffective in this model based on whether or not a single message was
successfully transmitted and received.
Figure 1.2 The Interaction Model of Communication

The interaction model takes physical and psychological context into

account. Physical contextincludes the environmental factors in a
communication encounter. The size, layout, temperature, and lighting of a
space influence our communication. Imagine the different physical contexts
in which job interviews take place and how that may affect your
communication. I have had job interviews on a sofa in a comfortable office,
sitting around a large conference table, and even once in an auditorium
where I was positioned on the stage facing about twenty potential
colleagues seated in the audience. I’ve also been walked around campus to
interview with various people in temperatures below zero degrees.
Although I was a little chilly when I got to each separate interview, it wasn’t
too difficult to warm up and go on with the interview. During a job
interview in Puerto Rico, however, walking around outside wearing a suit in
near 90 degree temperatures created a sweating situation that wasn’t
pleasant to try to communicate through. Whether it’s the size of the room,
the temperature, or other environmental factors, it’s important to consider
the role that physical context plays in our communication.
Psychological context includes the mental and emotional factors in a
communication encounter. Stress, anxiety, and emotions are just some
examples of psychological influences that can affect our communication. I
recently found out some troubling news a few hours before a big public
presentation. It was challenging to try to communicate because the
psychological noise triggered by the stressful news kept intruding into my
other thoughts. Seemingly positive psychological states, like experiencing
the emotion of love, can also affect communication. During the initial
stages of a romantic relationship individuals may be so “love struck” that
they don’t see incompatible personality traits or don’t negatively evaluate
behaviors they might otherwise find off-putting. Feedback and context help
make the interaction model a more useful illustration of the
communication process, but the transaction model views communication
as a powerful tool that shapes our realities beyond individual
communication encounters.

Transaction Model of Communication

As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for
more of the communication process. Many scholars view communication as
more than a process that is used to carry on conversations and convey
meaning. We don’t send messages like computers, and we don’t neatly
alternate between the roles of sender and receiver as an interaction unfolds.
We also can’t consciously decide to stop communicating, because
communication is more than sending and receiving messages. The
transaction model differs from the transmission and interaction models in
significant ways, including the conceptualization of communication, the
role of sender and receiver, and the role of context (Barnlund, 1970).
To review, each model incorporates a different understanding of what
communication is and what communication does. The transmission model
views communication as a thing, like an information packet, that is sent
from one place to another. From this view, communication is defined as
sending and receiving messages. The interaction model views
communication as an interaction in which a message is sent and then
followed by a reaction (feedback), which is then followed by another
reaction, and so on. From this view, communication is defined as producing
conversations and interactions within physical and psychological contexts.
The transaction model views communication as integrated into our social
realities in such a way that it helps us not only understand them but also
create and change them.
The transaction model of communication describes communication as a
process in which communicators generate social realities within social,
relational, and cultural contexts. In this model, we don’t just communicate
to exchange messages; we communicate to create relationships, form
intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with others in
dialogue to create communities. In short, we don’t communicate about our
realities; communication helps to construct our realities.
The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication
differ significantly from the other models. Instead of labeling participants
as senders and receivers, the people in a communication encounter are
referred to as communicators. Unlike the interaction model, which
suggests that participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, the
transaction model suggests that we are simultaneously senders and
receivers. For example, on a first date, as you send verbal messages about
your interests and background, your date reacts nonverbally. You don’t wait
until you are done sending your verbal message to start receiving and
decoding the nonverbal messages of your date. Instead, you are
simultaneously sending your verbal message and receiving your date’s
nonverbal messages. This is an important addition to the model because it
allows us to understand how we are able to adapt our communication—for
example, a verbal message—in the middle of sending it based on the
communication we are simultaneously receiving from our communication
partner.
Figure 1.3 The Transaction Model of Communication
The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of
context. The interaction model portrays context as physical and
psychological influences that enhance or impede communication. While
these contexts are important, they focus on message transmission and
reception. Since the transaction model of communication views
communication as a force that shapes our realities before and after specific
interactions occur, it must account for contextual influences outside of a
single interaction. To do this, the transaction model considers how social,
relational, and cultural contexts frame and influence our communication
encounters.
Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide
communication. As we are socialized into our various communities, we
learn rules and implicitly pick up on norms for communicating. Some
common rules that influence social contexts include don’t lie to people,
don’t interrupt people, don’t pass people in line, greet people when they
greet you, thank people when they pay you a compliment, and so on.
Parents and teachers often explicitly convey these rules to their children or
students. Rules may be stated over and over, and there may be punishment
for not following them.
Norms are social conventions that we pick up on through observation,
practice, and trial and error. We may not even know we are breaking a
social norm until we notice people looking at us strangely or someone
corrects or teases us. For example, as a new employee you may over- or
underdress for the company’s holiday party because you don’t know the
norm for formality. Although there probably isn’t a stated rule about how to
dress at the holiday party, you will notice your error without someone
having to point it out, and you will likely not deviate from the norm again in
order to save yourself any potential embarrassment. Even though breaking
social norms doesn’t result in the formal punishment that might be a
consequence of breaking a social rule, the social awkwardness we feel when
we violate social norms is usually enough to teach us that these norms are
powerful even though they aren’t made explicit like rules. Norms even have
the power to override social rules in some situations. To go back to the
examples of common social rules mentioned before, we may break the rule
about not lying if the lie is meant to save someone from feeling hurt. We
often interrupt close friends when we’re having an exciting conversation,
but we wouldn’t be as likely to interrupt a professor while they are
lecturing. Since norms and rules vary among people and cultures, relational
and cultural contexts are also included in the transaction model in order to
help us understand the multiple contexts that influence our
communication.
Relational context includes the previous interpersonal history and type of
relationship we have with a person. We communicate differently with
someone we just met versus someone we’ve known for a long time. Initial
interactions with people tend to be more highly scripted and governed by
established norms and rules, but when we have an established relational
context, we may be able to bend or break social norms and rules more
easily. For example, you would likely follow social norms of politeness and
attentiveness and might spend the whole day cleaning the house for the
first time you invite your new neighbors to visit. Once the neighbors are in
your house, you may also make them the center of your attention during
their visit. If you end up becoming friends with your neighbors and
establishing a relational context, you might not think as much about having
everything cleaned and prepared or even giving them your whole attention
during later visits. Since communication norms and rules also vary based
on the type of relationship people have, relationship type is also included in
relational context. For example, there are certain communication rules and
norms that apply to a supervisor-supervisee relationship that don’t apply to
a brother-sister relationship and vice versa. Just as social norms and
relational history influence how we communicate, so does culture.
Cultural context includes various aspects of identities such as race, gender,
nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability. We will learn
more about these identities in Chapter 2 “Communication and Perception”,
but for now it is important for us to understand that whether we are aware
of it or not, we all have multiple cultural identities that influence our
communication. Some people, especially those with identities that have
been historically marginalized, are regularly aware of how their cultural
identities influence their communication and influence how others
communicate with them. Conversely, people with identities that are
dominant or in the majority may rarely, if ever, think about the role their
cultural identities play in their communication.

Cultural context is influenced by numerous aspects of our identities and is not limited to race or
ethnicity.

Wikimedia Commons – public domain.

When cultural context comes to the forefront of a communication

encounter, it can be difficult to manage. Since intercultural communication
creates uncertainty, it can deter people from communicating across
cultures or lead people to view intercultural communication as negative.
But if you avoid communicating across cultural identities, you will likely
not get more comfortable or competent as a communicator. Difference, as
we will learn in Chapter 8 “Culture and Communication”, isn’t a bad thing.
In fact, intercultural communication has the potential to enrich various
aspects of our lives. In order to communicate well within various cultural
contexts, it is important to keep an open mind and avoid making
assumptions about others’ cultural identities. While you may be able to
identify some aspects of the cultural context within a communication
encounter, there may also be cultural influences that you can’t see. A
competent communicator shouldn’t assume to know all the cultural
contexts a person brings to an encounter, since not all cultural identities are
visible. As with the other contexts, it requires skill to adapt to shifting
contexts, and the best way to develop these skills is through practice and
reflection.

Key Takeaways

 Communication models are not complex enough to truly capture all that
takes place in a communication encounter, but they can help us
examine the various steps in the process in order to better understand
our communication and the communication of others.
 The transmission model of communication describes communication as
a one-way, linear process in which a sender encodes a message and
transmits it through a channel to a receiver who decodes it. The
transmission of the message many be disrupted by environmental or
semantic noise. This model is usually too simple to capture FtF
interactions but can be usefully applied to computer-mediated
communication.
 The interaction model of communication describes communication as a
two-way process in which participants alternate positions as sender and
receiver and generate meaning by sending and receiving feedback
within physical and psychological contexts. This model captures the
interactive aspects of communication but still doesn’t account for how
communication constructs our realities and is influenced by social and
cultural contexts.
 The transaction model of communication describes communication as a
process in which communicators generate social realities within social,
relational, and cultural contexts. This model includes participants who
are simultaneously senders and receivers and accounts for how
communication constructs our realities, relationships, and
communities.
Exercises

1. Getting integrated: How might knowing the various components of the

communication process help you in your academic life, your
professional life, and your civic life?
2. What communication situations does the transmission model best
represent? The interaction model? The transaction model?
3. Use the transaction model of communication to analyze a recent
communication encounter you had. Sketch out the communication
encounter and make sure to label each part of the model
(communicators; message; channel; feedback; and physical,
psychological, social, relational, and cultural contexts).

References
Barnlund, D. C., “A Transactional Model of Communication,”
in Foundations of Communication Theory, eds. Kenneth K. Sereno and C.
David Mortensen (New York, NY: Harper and Row, 1970), 83–92.
Ellis, R. and Ann McClintock, You Take My Meaning: Theory into Practice
in Human Communication (London: Edward Arnold, 1990), 71.
Schramm, W., The Beginnings of Communication Study in
America (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997).
Shannon, C. and Warren Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of
Communication (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1949), 16.
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