Glass Fibers Frederick T. Wallenberger, James C. Watson, and Hong Li, PPG Industries, In. GLASS FIBERS are among the most versatile {industrial materials known today. They are read- ‘produced from raw materials, which are available in vitwally unlimited supply (Ref 1), All glass fibers described in this article are de- rived from compositions containing silica. They exhibit useful bulk properties such a8 hardness, transparency, resistance to chemical attack, sta- biligy, and inertness, as well as desirable fiber properties such as strength, flexibility, and stif= ress (Ref 2). Glass fibers ae used inthe manu- facture of structural composites, printed circuit ‘boards and a wide range of special-purpose prod ucts (Ref 3), Fiber Forming Processes. Glass melts are made by fusing (¢o-melting) silica with miner- als, which contain the oxides needed to form a given composition. The molten mass is rapidly ‘ooled to prevent crystallization end formed nto lass fibers by a process also known as fiberi- zation. ‘Nearly all continuous plas fibers are made by 4 direct draw process and formed by extruding ‘molten glass through a platinum alloy bushing that may contain up to several thousand individ ual orifices, each being 0.793 to 3.175 mm (0312 to 0.125 in) in diameter (Ref 1). While Still highly viscous, the resulting fibers are rap idly drawn to a fine diameter and solic. Typ- ical flber diameters range from 3 to 20 um (118. to 787 jin}, Individual filaments are combined into muttiflament strands, which ae pulled by ‘mechanical winders at velocities of up to 6m! 200 fs) and wound onto tubes ar forming packages. This is the only process that is de Scribed in detil subsequently inthe present ar- ticle ‘The marble melt process can be used to form special-purpose, for example, high-strength f= bers. In this process, the raw materials are smelted, and solid glass marbles, usualy 2 to 3 ‘em (08 to 1.2 in) in diameter, are formed from ‘the melt, The macbles are remelted (at the same (or ata different location) and formed ito glass fibers. Glass fibers can also be down drawn from the surface of solid preforms. Although this is the only process used for manufacturing optical ‘bers, which are not discussed in this Volume it is specialty process for manufacturing struc- tural glass fibers such as silica or quartz lass fibers. These and other specialty processes are highlighted wherever appropriate but not dis- cussed in full, Additonal details about fiber forming are provided in the section “Glass Melt- ing and Fiber Forming” inthis article ‘Sizes and Binders. lass filaments ae highly abrasive to each other (Ref 4). “Size” coatings ‘or binders ae therefore applied before the stand is gathered to minimize degradation of filament strength that would otherwise be caused by fl- ament not emit, boron into the environment during processing. As a result, a boron-free E-glass ‘rodict was recently introduced into the market by Fiberplas (Owens Coming Corp, Toledo, (OH) under the trademark Advantex. ‘Commercial boron-containing E-glass comes in two variants, One commercial variant i de~ fived from the quaternary, SiOALOs-C20- MgO (Ref 2,4, 6, 27), and the other is derived from the temary’SiO,-Al,O;-CaO phase dis (Ref 2, 4 6, 28), Commercial E-glasses fh the ternary SiOy-ALO,-CaO system contain {small amount (<0.6 wee) of MgO that is not ‘etiberately added but obtained as by-product {or amp) from other ingredients. On the other and, commercially available boron-free E- iBass is derived fom the quaterary SiO; B,0.-CuO-MgO phase diagram (Ref 2, 7, 8, 29). : ‘Table 2. Physical and mechanical properties of commercial glass fibers [ASTM standards for E-glass (Ref5) cover all thyee commercial E-glass variants, distinguish: Ing E glasses by end use, Compositions contain Ing 5 t 10 wi by weight of boron oxide are Conited for printed circuit board and aerospace ‘SPplicaions. Compositions containing 0 t0 10 We by weight of boron oxide are certified for {general applications. According to these st rds, E-glass compositions fr either ‘ype of sp- plication may also contain Oto 2 we alkali ox- Fae and 0 to 1 w% fivoride. The more recent ‘oron- fee E-glass variants may alsobe fluorine free. ‘Oxide Compositions. E-glases of any (ype are. general-purpose fibers because they offer {eeful strength at low cost. Table 1 presents the ‘oxide components and their ranges for the (8 {ypes of Ergliss fibers that are curently being Produced and used in composites. A range Piven foreach with regard to its oxide eompo- ents because each manufacturer, and even dif ferent manufacturing plants of the samme come Dang. may use slightly different compositions for “aig Se [thai emesona) Unsure geen SEN SES rie © + ‘© 7 = a a tt ‘Generar pare er Sect aiye amass maton wim mma imo asenss EmwieeE ge ee Sys garse hes irate msm ws Tm gS Dest ma Ss as De Sis ee ee ee ed Sm baa Sone SES ite io as cit ig Te ont Tie mage tute SS rim er ee, SS memes hie” RAS ong cae se conte “tox tora “Wet ata) sde um eto apt_atesns ener arpen OES Ger oan om suse me sg SR ASST tte sas Baoteegas 60 3 we meas 1S Sorico sr .at te? Speci prpse hes : eam 9 196 5 moose 4sssl sost GILT 4549 Dea 3 dis eae un te 38 Stier Botte Aas 86 1s Be on Gees tee Bena iss Siete 5 in uss gee tae (oT 3 oro eget atta cy 044 (0, So RE 7-181the same glass, These variations result mainly from differences in the avaiable glass batch (raw materials). Tight contol is maintained within @ iven production facility to optimize compos tional consistency and maximize production ef- ficiencies. * 'As shown in Table 1, commercial, boron-con- taining E-glass compositions (Ref 1, 2, 4,6, 12 24) differ substantially from boron-free E-glass ‘compositions. The silica content for commercial boron-contsining E-gasses ranges from 52t0 56 sw by weight, and for commercial boroa-free Epplasses from 59 to 61 we. The alumina con- tet generally ranges from 12015 9% forthese ‘oron-containing E-glasses and from 12 10 13.5 tie for these boron-free E-glasses. The calcia ‘content anges from 21 to 23 wie for these com- mercial boron-conaining E-plasses and from 22 1 23 wt for these boron-fee E-glases. For commercial, boron-contsining, erary or quaternary E-plasses, the magnesia content anges from 04 w% (camp only) t0 greater famounts if magnesia (dolomite) is deliberately ‘added. For commercial boron-ftee E-glasses, it ranges from 3.1 to 34 wi% (see Table 1). The ‘boron oxide content ranges ftom 5 to 65% for ‘commercial oron-contining E-plsses, anditis ‘zero forboron-fee E-gasses. The titanacontent ranges from 0.4 t0 0.6 w1% for commercial bo- roncontaining E-glasses. For borom-fiee E> ‘lassen, it ranges from 0.5 wa (Ref 8) to 15 ‘wt (Ref 7) (see also Table 1). Environmentally friendly E-glass melts are horon-free and fluorne-fee. However, the log 3 ‘ber forming or fiberization temperature (Tz) of ‘boron-fre E-glass melts may be as much 3s 100 to 110 °C (180 to 200 °F) higher than that of boron-containing E-glass melts (Fig. 1). The log 3 forming temperature is the temperature of & ‘melt ata reference viscosity of 100 Pa s (1000 ). In addition, the softening point of boron-ree E-plass is 60 t0 90°C (110 10 160 F) higher also than that of boron-containing E-glass. The higher process temperature requires more pro- cess energy, but the higher softening point fa- cllitates higher use temperatures. ‘Melt Properties. According to Table 2, the log 3 forming temperature, Ty. of boroa-conain- ing E-glasses ranges from 1140 to 1185°C (2085 to 2165). The liquidus temperature (7) isthe temperature below which solid (enstals) will form. It ranges form 1050 to 1064 °C (1920 to 1945 °F) The difference between forming and liquidus temperature (AT) ranges from 81 t0 90 °C (146 to 162 “F). In contrast, the log 3 fiber forming temperature of oron-fee E-glasses ranges from 1250 o 1264°C (2280 to 2307 °F), the liguidus temperature from 1146 to 1180°C (2095 t0 2155 “F), and the difference between forming and liguidus temperature (7) trom 86 to 104 °C (155 to 187 ‘F) (Ref 7-10). Finally the softening point of boron-containing, E- lasses ranges from 830 t0 860°C (1525 0 1580 “Py; that of boron-free E-glasses is about 916°C (1680 ‘Mechanical Properties. Table 2 also com- pares the mechanieal properties ofthe Doron-free and boron-contaning E-glasses. Elastic modulus (or fiber stiffness) of boron-free E-glasses is boat 5% higher than that of Poron-containing E-lasses, while pristine, virgin, or single-fle- meat tensile strength s said to be about the same for both types of E-plasses wien both are tested at room temperature (Ref 8, 9) Physical Properties. In addition, Table 2 ‘compares the physical properies of the boron- free and boron-containing E-glasses. Most im portantly, the corrosion resistance of boros-free Evglasses was found to be seven times higher than that of boron-containing E-glasses when tested at room temperature for 24 hin 109% sul Toric acid. It approaches that of ECR glass fibers (Ref 9,10). Boron-free E-glasses have a slightly higher ensity (2.62 g/em’) than boron-contaning E- islasses (2.55 plem), but the density of both f- ‘persis lower than that of ECR glass (2:66 %0 2.68 lem’), a corrosion-resistant special-purpose fer Boron-free E-plases have # higher refrac= tive index and linear expansion coefficient than boron containing E-glass fibers. The refractive Jndex ofboth E- glasses is lower than tat of ECR. sass. The linear expansion coefficient of ECR lass fibers is midway between that ofthe eo E-plasses. ‘Boron: fee E-glasses have slightly higher di- lectre constant (7.0) than boron-containing E- lasses (5.9 to 6.6) when measured at room tem~ perature and at @ frequency of 1 MHz, As a est, boron-containing, but not boron-fies, E- lass fibers are needed for electronic circuit boards and aerospace applications. On the other hand, boron-free and boron-containing E-plass fibers ere used in structural composites where the dielectric constant is of no concer. Composite ‘ad laminate uses of al las flbers are discussed {in other articles in this Volume. Special-Purpose Glass Fibers ‘Types. Special-pupose bers, which are of commercial significance in the market today, i ‘lude glass fibers with high corrosion resistance GECR-glass), high strength (S-, Re, and Te- lass), with low dielectric constants (D-g1s), high strength fibers, ad pure silica or quart - bers, which can be used at ultrahigh tempera- tues, These fibers wil be discussed in the fol- Jovting paragraphs, Others special-purpose fibers include A-plass, Cglas, hollow fibers, bicom- ponent fibers, and wilobal fiers. These speci glass fibers have recently been reviewed In detail (Ref 2). FECR-Glass. The corrosion resistance of glass fibers is determined by their chemical structure. Tt has already been noted in the preceding se=- tion on general-purpose glass fibers that boron free E-glas fibers derived from the quaternary SiO,-AL0,-CaO-MgO phase diagram have higher acid resistance than E-glass fibers that are derived from the temary Si0,-Al,0rC20 ‘phase diagram but have high boron levels. The ECR glass fibers offer enhanced long-term Glass Fibers / 29 cid resistance and short-term alkali resistance (Ref 27). “The addition of high levels of ZnO and TO; to the boron-free quaternary E-glass system fur ther enhances the corrosion resistance ofthe r- sulting ECR glass fibers while atthe same time reducing the log 3 forming temperature. The product and process advantage are obtained ata ost penalty. About 2% Za0 and two additonal percent TO, are required, and both materials are [Enovin tobe costly batch ingrediens '$Glass, R-Glass, and Te-Glas. The tensile strength of glass fibers is determined by the Structure connectivity ofthe silicate network, n0- tably, by the absence of alkali oxides, which are fot realy integrated into the structure. The Structure of boron oxide, bough being a part of the network, is weaker than that of silicon oxide, land therefore, boron oxide serves asa flux. Sev- ral high-strength glass fbers are kno, nclod- ing S-plass, Te-glass, and R-glass (Ref 2). All offer 10 to 15% higher stength than E-glass at oom temperature, but their real value is their ‘bility to ‘withstand higher in-use temperatures than E-glas, These fibers are used in military applications. Stingest quality-control proce- dds are necessary to meet military specific ’Splass and Te-lass are derivatives of the ter- nary SiOy-AL0;-CaO system, Reglass is a de- Bvative of the quaternary SiO;-Al,03-Ca0- MgO system, Seglass and S-2 glass fibers, @ roviuct variant, have the same glass composition (Ref 2) but different coatings. While intemal structural uniformity (high strength) is achieved With these boron-fee and alkali-free composi- ‘ons, their forming temperatures are higher than that of E-glass, Atainment of high in-use tem- peratures is 2 definite product advantage, but Tempore, ex 1002 2000_2200_2400_2600 sol ast oronroe E55 icc og pole T 20 | Borncontning Eales “os F100 72001900 Temperate, °C 000 7400 1500 Fig 1 Yc born toe ad bron30 / Constituent Materials higher melt temperatures, more process enetgy, and more costly bushing alloys are required. ica/Quartz Fibers. Glass fibers with n= creasing SiO, levels can be used in applications requiring increasingly high in-use temperatures. Highsilica fibers (05% SiO,) are amorphous sass fibers. They are obtained by acid leaching of borosilicate E-elass fabrics, which are, in tum, tsed as insulation blankets a temperatures up 10 1040 °C (1900 "F), Pure silica fiber (99% SiO;) are made by dry spinning from aqueous water ‘lass solutions. They are known by the trade- ame “Silfa” and mostly are used as yams, for ‘example, for wire insulation at temperatures up {0 1090 °C (1990 F).For details see Ref 2. They fre not used in composite applications and are therefore not shown in Table 2 Ultapure silica glass fibers or quart fibers (09.99% SiO), which are down-drawn from pre forms (Ref 2) in acontaineless process are also amorphous, despite the fat that the trivial name “quartz” or trade names Quartzel and Astro- ‘quartz would imply the presence of the hexag- ‘onal crystal strucure of quartz. Utrapure silica (quartz) fibers combine superior high-tempers- ture resistance with superior transparency 10 ul- teaviolet (UV) and longer wavelength radiation. For example, in a composite radome onthe nose of an airraf, they provect delicate radar equip meat from fying objects, lightning and static scharge (Ref 30) The purest of all commercial silen glass or quartz fibers (99.999% SiO) are ‘objained by dry-spinaing ofa reagent grade te- tracthylochosilicate sol-gel (Ref 2). “All ultrapure silica glass or quartz fibers are used in yarn and in composite applications and ‘are, therefore, shown in Table 2. Urapore and pure silica yarns and fabrics can be used at tem Derstures up to 1090 °C (1990 °F), high silica fabrics at up to 1040 °C (1900 “F), and S-glass, ‘Teeplass, and Reglass yarns and fabrics at up 0 815°C (1500°F) (or process and product details see Ref 2), D-Glass. The electrical properties of glass f- bers are determined by their volume resistivity, surface conductivity, dieletic constant and loss tangent (Ref 2), E-glass with its relatively high ielectric constant isthe major reinforcing fiber {or peited circuit board (PCB) laminates inthe sarket today, but miniaturization drives the in- dustry toward specialty fibers with lower dieleo- tric constants and lower deletrc oss tangents. ‘Several low D-plass variants are known. ll have very high BO; levels (20 to 26%) and, therefore, mack lower dielectie constants than E glass (4,10 to 3.56 versus 6 86 to 7.00) Those D-elass variants having low dielectric loss tan- ‘gens aswell (Ref 8) are said o offer the highest value in-use when used to reinforce PCB lami nates. Because of their high cost, however, any ‘Deplass version will remain a low volume spe- cialty fiber. The very high boron-oxide levels, ‘which are needed and in part emitted from the smelt, may require an entiely different specialty process (ee Ref 2 for details). or very different reasons, ultrapure silica - bers, hollow E-glass fibers, S-plss, and other high-temperature fibers have lower dielectric constants than solid E-gJass. They to, can and fare being used to reinfore printed circuit board (PCB) laminates. However, slic fbers have a Tow modulus and ate, therefore, less effective as reinforcing fibers. Hollow fibers, although ini- tally effective because of their low dielectric constant, lose thei dielectric properies if mois- ture can sep into the laminate structure. Glass Melting and Fiber Forming A glass is an amorphous solid obtained by cooling a mel (liquid phase) sufficiently fast that crystallization (éevitrfcation) cannot occur ‘When the melt is cooled slowly, crystallization can oceur a the liquidus temperature, T,, where trpstals and melt are in equilibrium, or below. Giass fibers are therefore obtained at high cool- ing rates. Chemically, a glass consists ofa silica network Orher oxides fciitate melting, homog- ‘nizing, moval of gaseous inclusions, and fiber {Formation at optimum temperatures. This section addresses the generic glass-melting and fiber forming process, including the viscosity versus temperasive profile that is required for general- purpose E-glass glass fibers and, more specif tally, for Eglass fibers containing 5 to 6% boron oxide (See Ref I for details). Depending on fiber diameter, opdimum fiber formation is achieved with melis having a vi cosity ranging from log 25 to log 3 P. The ge- erie melting and forming process that is T= Aired for boron-fiee E-glas isthe same as that required for boron-containing F-plas, but the viscositytemperatue profile differs. The relative forming temperatures can be deduced from the Fulcher curves shown in Fig, 1. They will be proportionately higher for boron free E-glass at ‘equal melt viscosities between log 2.510 log 3.0 This section does not address the glass melting and fiber forming processes required for the spe= -purpose glass fiers, chat is, ECR-gass, S- Furnace Fig, 2 Furnace for glas meting lass, ultapure silica fibers, and D-gass (see Ret 2). Batch Mixing and Melting. The glass melt- ing process begin withthe weighing and blend ing of selected raw materials. In moder flber ‘lass plans, this process is highly aviomated, ‘with computerized weighing units and enclosed ‘material transport systems. The individual com- ponents are weighed and delivered toa blending Station where the batch ingredients are thor ‘oughly mixed before being transported to the fumace Fiberglass fornaces generally are divided into three distinct sections (Fig. 2). Batch i delivered into the fumace section for melting, removal of, ‘gaseous inclusions, and homogenization. Then, ‘the molten glass flows into the refiner section, Where the temperature of the glass is lowered from 1370 °C (2500 °F) to about 1260 °C 2300 "The molten glass next goes t the forearth section located direedy above the flber-forming stations. The temperatures throughout this pro 08s are presribed by the viscosity characteris tics ofthe particular glass. In adition, the physi cal layout of the furnace can vary widely, depending onthe space constraints of the plant Fiberizing and Sizing. The conversion of molten glass inthe forehearth into coatinuous ‘lass fibers is basically an atemuation process (ig. 3). The molten glass flows through a plat- jnum-zhodium alloy bushing with a large num- ber of holes or tips (400 to 8000, in sypical pro {duction}. The bushing is heated electrically, and the heat is contolled very precisely to maintain ‘constant glass viscosity, The fibers are drawn down and cooled rapidly as they exit the bash- ing. ‘A sizing is then applied tothe surface of the fibers by passing them over an applicator that continually rotates through the sizing bath to ‘maintain a thin film through which the lass f- ments pas. I is tis step, in addition to the ‘original pass composition, which primarily dif- ferentiates one fiberglass product from another. sine Lia‘The components of the sizing impart strand in- tegrity, lubricity, resin compatibility, and adhe sion properties tothe final product, thus tailoring the fer properties to the specific end-use re ‘quirements. After applying the sizing tbe fla ments are gathered into a strand before ap- proaching the take-up device. If small bundles of filaments (split strands) ate needed, multiple aathering devices (often called shoes) are used. Fiber Diameters. The attenuation rate, and thorefore the final filament diameter, 8 con- sil tolled by the take-up deviee. Fiber diameter is also affected by bushing temperature, glass vis cosity, and the pressure head aver the bushing ‘The most widely used take-up device is the forming winder, which employs a rotating collet and a traverse mechanism to distribute the strand ina random manner as the forming package ‘grows in diameter. This facilitates sand re- ‘moval from the package in subsequent process ing steps, such as roving or chopping. The form- ing packages are dried and wansferred to the ve oy Uff *20ear emeing soe cone rere ee San use Cott it PtP oa LT pope sand Fig, 3. rivers forming process ee pecan Tata ent finding sro ccing SOY Bax Keene 38 Nuldond Toving winder ron pcg Cres peck tcom [Poe )——| Packaging Fig. 4 sukind ving proces erodction Glass Fibers / 31 specific fabrication area for conversion into the finished fiberglass roving, mat, chopped strand, (or other product. In recent years, processes have been devel- ‘oped to produce’nished roving or chopped products directly daring forming, thus leading to the term direct draw roving or direct chopped strand. Special winders end choppers designed to perform in the wet-forming environment sre used in these cases (Fig. 4). Yarn Nomenclature. Iti standard practice fn the fiberglass industry to refer to a specific filament diameter by a specific alphabet desig- natin, as listed in Table 3 Fine fers, which are used in textile applications, range from D ‘through G. One reason for using fine fibers isto provide enough flexibility o the yar to enable It to be processed in high-speed twisting and weaving operations. Conventional plastics rein- orcement, however uses filament diameters that range from G to T. Important Commercial Products Once the continuous glass fbers have been produced they must be converted into a suitable product form for their intended composite ap- lication, The major finished forms for Eglass fibers are continuous roving, woven roving, f- berplass mat, chopped strand, and yarns for tex- tile applications. Fiberglass roving is produced by collecting @ bundle of strands into a single large strand, which is wound into a stable, cylindrical pack- age. This is called a mulend roving process. ‘The process begins by placing a numberof oven- dried forming packages into a creel, The ends ae then gathered together under tension andcol- lected on a precision roving winder that has a constant traverse-to-winding ratio, and is called the waywind. This ratio has a significant effect on package stability, strand characteristics, and ease of payout in subsequent operations. The Yield (meter per kilogram, or yard per pound) of the finished roving is determined by the number of input ends and the yield ofthe input stand or slive. Final package weight and dimensions can bbe made to vary widely, depending upon the r- aquired end-use, Figure 4 shows the entire pro- Rovings are used in many applications. When used in aspray-up fabrication process, the roving is chopped with an ai powered gun that propels the chopped-plas strands to a mold while si- ‘multaneously applying resin and catalyst in the ‘compact ratio. This process is commonly used for bath tbs, shower stalls, and many marine applications. In another important process, the ‘production of sheet molding compound (SMC), the roving is chopped onto bed of formulated Polyester resin and compacted into a. sheet, Which thickens with time. This sheet is then placed in a press and molded into parts. Many fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) automotive body panels are made by this process32 / Constituent Materials Filament winding and pultruion are processes that use single-end rovings in continuous form. Applications include pipes, tanks, leaf springs, tnd many olher structural composites, In these ‘processes the roving is passed thrqugh 2 iguid resin bath and then shaped into a part by winding the resin-impregnated roving onto a mandrel or by pulling it through a heated die. Because of 2 property called catenary (the presence of some Strands that have a tendency to sag within abun: dle of strands), moltiend rovings sometimes do ‘ot process efficiently. Catenary is caused by un- ‘even tension inthe roving process that results in oor strand integrity. While providing desirable entanglement for transverse strength in pulirasion, the looser ends in the roving may eventually cause Toops and breakouts in close-tolerance orifices, making re inforced plastics processing difficult. Conse- ‘quently, the process of direct forming single-end rovings was developed by using very large bush- ings and a precision winder specially designed to operate in the severe forming environment No subsequent step other than dying is required. Single-end rovings have become the preferred product for many filament-winding and pulir sion applications. ‘Woven roving is produced by weaving fiber- lass rovings into a fabric form. This yields a coarse product that is used in many band lay-up fand panel molding processes to produce FRPS, Many weave configurations are available, de- pending on the requirements of the laminate. Plain or ewill weaves provide strength in both Giections, while a unidirectionally stitched or Jet fabri provides strength primarily in one dimension. Many novel fabrics are currently available, including biaxial, double-bias, and tr- axial weaves for special applications. Fiberglass mats may be produced as ether ccontinuous-orchopped-strand mats. A chopped- strand mat is formed by randomly depositing chopped fibers onto a belt or chain and binding them with a chemical binder, usually a thermo: plastic resin with a styrene solubility ranging Table 3 Filament diameter nomenclature ate ors aa O82 as0s 2 2558 tots e Shs 120 z eens 3530 F a0 Sos 6 Sato 30 H woth tows i nei ass x ear fess P tea Soa Q wos is g meals fos s hens $5.50 t ise soos vu pasa Ssi0 from low to high, depending on the application. For example, hand lay-up processes used 10 rmoderate corosion-esistant liners or boat hells require high solubility, whereas closed-mold processes sich as cold press or compression ‘molding require low solubility ¢o prevent wash- ing in the mold during curing. ‘Continuous-stand mt is formed in a similar smanner but without chopping, and, usually, less binder is required because of increased mechan- ical entanglement, which provides some inherent integrity. Continuous-seand mat may be used in closed mold processes and as a supplemental product in unidirectional processes such as pul- fmusion, where some transverse strength is 1e- ‘quired, A numberof specialty mats ar also pro- duced. Surfacing veil made with C-pass is used to make corrosion-rsistnt liners for pipes and tanks, Surfacing veils made from otber glass compositions are used fo provide a smooth fn- ished surface in some applications. Gass tissue is used in some vinyl flooring products Combinations of a mat and woven roving have been developed for specific products in re- cent years. In many lay-up processes the lami- nate i constructed from alternate layers of fi- berglass mat and woven roving. Fiberglass producers thus began t© provide products that ‘make this process more efficient. The appropri- ‘ate weights of berglass mat (asually chopped- Strand mat) and woven roving are either bound together with a chemical binder or mechanically kit or stitched together. This product ean then be used as a significant labor saver by the fab- catos, ‘Chopped strand products are produced by two major processes. In the frst process, dried forming packages are used asa glass source. A umber of strand ends are fed into a chopper, ‘which ehops them into the correct lengt, typi- cally 3.2 to 12.7 mm (¥ to } in). The product is then sereened to remove fuzz and contami- nation and boxed for shipment (Fig. 5). The se ‘ond process, used in recent years to produce ‘many chopped-sirand products, is the direct chop process. In this process, large bushings are sed informing, and the strands are chopped in ‘wet state directly after sizing is applied. The ‘wet, chopped sirands are then transported to an Wer forming pasa Forsir Ending ‘tying ted erating Fig, 5. choppedstand production sca where they are de, screened, and peck- aged. Te dns-chop process has provided the industry with wide variety of chopped rine forcement for compounding with esis ‘Chopped gs is widely ed a a enfrce- mentite jection molding indo. The glass ind retin may be dy bleed or exsion com Dounded in a preliminary sep before olin, Erie glassy be fed dct inthe molding Ichi withthe plat resin. Hundreds of it ferent pars for may appiions ae made in this mane Chopped las may aso be used as {reinforcement some thermosetting applica tions, suchas bulk molding compounds. ‘Mild fer ar reared by hammer milling chopped or saved contnaoes strand lass bs, followed by chemically sizing for some soci ‘pplistions and by serening (0 length Fee Tents typical vary rom paricultes to sreen pening. dimensions forthe reported nominal Iength (079 to 64mm, oto cin). ASCH, med fibers havea reasely ow pect aio length to diameter). They provide some ine Sreased sifness and dimendona stability plastics tut minimal strength. Their seis pie Inari in phenols, rescton injection molded trethaes,"oorocarons, and ping com Pounds Fiberglass paper isthe reinforcing element for fiberglas footing shingles. Chopped sands 6f 25 to 50 mm (Ito 2 im) length are usally ted in making Mergass paper ora tin fiber glass ma In ths process, chopped ibrar = eraed in water 0 form a date solution. The {ierglas stands famentize doing the mixing tnd dispenion proce. The soliton x pumped nt a continsously moving chan where most ofthe water is removed by actu, leaving be- find uniformly cst, thin fiberglass mat A binding resin s aed cnlne, followed by dang ant esrng. 0 frm the eres pape ‘Ths papers then combined with he appropiate resin pte to form rooting shine. Textile yarns are fnetiner sands of yar from the forming operation tit re st ed on the forming test provide sient itesty to undergo a tising operon. Twist provides tditonal integrity o yam before is subject tothe weaving procs pia wit consisting‘of up to one tum per inch. The twisting operation is shown in Fig 6. In many instances, heavier yams are needed for the weaving operation. This @ is normally accomplished by twisting together two or more single strands, followed by a plying ‘operation. Plying essentially involves reswisting the twisted stands in the opposite direction from the original twist. The two types of twist nore ‘mally used are known as S and Z, which indicate the direction in which the twisting is done. Usu- ally, two or more stands twisted together with fn § twist are plied with a Z twist in onder to give a balanced yarn. Thus, the yar properties, Such as strength, bundle diameter, and yield can te manipelated by the twisting and plying opers- tions ‘The yam nomenclature for fiberglass yarns ‘consists of both letters of the alphabet snd num= bers. For instance, in ECG 75 2/4 ‘The fist leer specifies the glass composi- tion, inthis cas, E-lass. ‘The second letter specifies the filament type (staple, continuous, texturized) (in the case, ‘of ECG 75 2/4, continuous) “The third leter specifies the filament diameter Gn tis case, G). ‘The next series of numbers represents the bs- sic strand yield in terms of Hy th ofthe yield (Gn this case, 75 means 7500 yt), ‘The fection represents the numberof strands twisted together (numerator) to form a single tend and the number of such ends plied to- gether (denominator to form the inl yarn. In the above case, 2/4 means two basic strands are twisted together to form a single fend, and four such ends are plied together {usually in the opposite direction) o form the final yarn, ey packs et peckoaes “Fepertre and rary ‘Srationng| wer focring —e Drving oven packs Compe Tosa Package sed sped Fig. 7 extwising Dice Glass Fibers / 33 “The product brochures from various weavers as well as to Ref 4 should be consulted for details ‘on commercially available fabrics. The Giass- Fibre Dictionary and Databook (Ref 14) should be consulted for even greater detail andlor fora summary of all commercially available yams Fiberglass Fabric. Fiberglass yams are con verted to fabri form by conventional weaving operations. Looms of various kinds are used in the industry, but the aie et loom isthe most pop- ula, The major characteristics ofa fabric include its style or weave pater, fabric count, and the constuction of warp yar and fil yarn. Together, these characteristics determine fabric properties stich as drapabiity and performance inthe final ‘composite. The fabric count identifies the num- ber of warp and fill yams per inch. Warp yarns rn parallel to the machine direction, and All yas are perpendicular. "There are basically four weave patterns: plain, basket, twill, and satin Plain weave i the sim plest form, in which one warp yar intelaces ver and under one fil yar. Basket weave has {0 or more warp yams interlacing over and n- der two of more fill yarns, Twill Weave has one ‘or more warp yams floating over at least wo fill ‘yams, Satin weave (crowfoot) consists of one ‘warp yamn interfacing over thre and under one fill yam to give an irregular pattern in the fabric. ‘The eight-hamess satin weave is a special case, in which one warp yarn inerlaces over seven and ‘under one il yarn to give an regular patter. In fabricating a composite par, the satin weave tives the best conformity fo complex contours, followed in descending order by twill, basket, and plain weaves TTexturized Yarn. Textrizing isa process in which the textile yam is subjected to an ai jet that impinges on its surface to make the yam “tty” (Fig. 7). The ait jet causes the surface filaments to break at random, giving the yarn @ balkier appearance, The extent to which tis oc- curs ean be controlled by the velocity of the air Jet andthe yam feed rate The texturizng process allows the resin-to-lass ratio to be increased in the final composite. One of the msjor applica: tions of texturized yams is as an asbestos re- placement Carded Glass Fibers. Carding is a process that makes a staple fiberglass yarn ftom contin ‘uous yam. The continuous yam is chopped into 38 to 50 mm (1.5 to 2.0 ia.) lengths, and then aligned in one direction in’a mat form. It is finaly converted to a staple yarn. The yarn pro- duced by this process can absorb much more resin than texturized yar. Carded glass fibers are also used as an asbestos replacement infric- tion applications, such as automotive brake lin- ings. REFERENCES. 1. KL, Loewelstein, The Manufacturing Technology of Continuous Glass Fibers, 3x revised ed, Elsevier, 1993 2, BT. Wallenberger, Structural Silicate and Silica Glass Fibers, in Advanced Inorganic34 / Constituent Materials Fibers Processes, Structures, Properties, Applications, FT. Wallenberger, Ed, Klu- WEE Academic Publishes, 1999, P 129- PT. 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Baden-Baden, Germany), 1-2 Oct 1997, p 1-10 ON, Mazurin, M.V. Sucltsina and. TP. Shyaiko-Shvaikovskaya, Viscosity of Silica, 14 15, 16. v. 18. Handbook of Glase Data, Pat A, Elsevier, 1983, p75 BF. Aubourg and W.W. Wolf, “Glass Fibers Glass Composition Research.” presented at Glass Division Meeting (Grossinget, NY), “American Ceramic Society, Oct 1984 J.C. Watson and N. Raghupathi, Glass Fi- ‘bers, in Composites, Vl 1, Engineered Ma terials Handbook, ASM lntertional, 1987, plo7-iit LE. Sta, Glase-Fibre Dictionary and Da- tabook, 2nd ed, Chapman & Hall, 1997 W.W. Wolf and S.L. Mikesell, Gass Fibers, Encyclopedia of Materials Science and En- ‘gineering, 1st Ealtion, 1986 Et Star, Carbon and High Performance Fibres, Directory and Databook, ed. 6, Chapman & Hal, 1995 “Standard Test Method for Density of Glass bby. Buoyancy." 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"Standard ‘Test Methods for D-C Resistance fr Conductance of Insulating Materials,” D 257, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM “Standard Test Method for Dielectric Bresk- down Voltage and Dielectric Strength of Solid Electrical Insulating Materials at Commercial Power Frequencies,” D_149, “Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM. 21 2, m8, 26. 2. 28, 2», 30. “standard Test Method for Softening Point of Glass,” C338, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM “Standard Test Method for Annealing Point and Stain Point of Glass by Fiber Elonga- tion,” € 336, Annual Book of ASTM Stan- dans, ASTM Standard Test Method for Annealing Point and Strain Point of Glass by Beam Bend- ing,” C598, Annual Book of ASTM Sion dards, ASTM “Standard Practice for Measuring Viscosity of Glass Above the Softening Point.” 965, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM 5. “Standard Practices for Measurement of Li- auidas Temperature of Glass by the Grad Gat Furnace Method,” C829, Annual Book (of ASTM Standards, ASTM “Standard Test Method for Cocfiicient of Linear ‘Thermal Expansion of Plastics,” D 696, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASIM STF, Dockum, Je, Fiberglass, in Handbook ‘of Reinforcement for Plastics, .V. Milewski fand HLS. Katz, Ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold ‘Company, New York, 1987, p 233-286 RA. Sehoenlavb, “Glass ‘Composiions,” US. Patent 2,234,961, 5 Dec, 1940 RL. Tiede and FY, Tooley, “Glass Com- position,” US, Patent 2,571,074, 23 Nov. 1948 LL. Clements, Composite Ragomes Protect ‘and Perform, High Performance Composite, ‘SaptemberiOctober 2000, p 44-47