Departure Procedures and Charts

 Instrument departure procedures (DPs) are used after takeoff to provide a transition between
the airport and the enroute structure
 IFR departure procedures (DPs) are only created for airports that have instrument approach
procedures (IAPs), At airports without IAPs, pilot is on own for obstacle clearance and departure
procedures.

IFR DP Climb Gradient: IFR departure design criteria assumes an initial aircraft climb of 200
ft/Nm after crossing the departure end of the runway (DER) at a height of at least 35ft referred to
as a climb gradient

 The slope, known as the obstacle clearance surface (OCS) starts at the DER at 35’ above the
ground and increases at 152ft/Nm, a 40:1 slope, until reaching the minimum IFR altitude or
entering the enroute structure.

IFR DP Safety Margin: This provides a 48ft/Nm safety margin called the required obstacle
clearance (ROC) and is a 24% safety margin rule

 Assessment area is generally limited to 25 NM from the airport in non-mountainous areas and
46 NM in designated mountainous areas; can be more
 Departure design must also include acquisition of positive course guidance within 10 NM of the
DER for straight departures and within 5 NM for departures requiring a turn.

When IFR Departure Procedure Not Required: If no obstacle penetrates the obstacle clearance
slope (OCS), and the aircraft may turn in any direction after takeoff, then no obstacle departure
procedures (ODPs) will be published called a diverse departure

 If penetration of the obstacle clearance slope (OCS) occurs, then a ODP must be created
 All RNAV ODPs will be graphic
 ODPs and SIDs assume normal aircraft performance, and all engines operating.
 Obstacles that are located within 1 NM of the departure end of runway (DER) and penetrate the
obstacle clearance slope (OCS) are referred to as “low, close-in obstacles”

Standard Instrument Departure

 SIDs can be either “Pilot Nav” or “Vector”

 Vector SIDs require ATC radar & pilot is expected to climb to 400 feet above departure end of
runway elevation before turning.
 ODPs and SIDs are not drawn to scale.
 RNAV SIDs are developed to help increase traffic flow, by creating routes that are not
dependent on ground navigation facilities
 RNAV SIDs fall into two categories:
o Type A (RNAV 2) - requires RNP 2.0. The procedure usually starts with a heading or
radar vectors to a fix within 15Nm of departure airport. RNAV system must be able to be
engaged within 2,000ft above the airport elevation.
 o Type B (RNAV 1) – requires RNP 1.0. The procedure starts with an RNAV leg close to the
DER. The RNAV system must be able to engage within 500ft above airport elevation.
Publicly distributed SIDs will be RNAV 1(type B).

Clearance Void Time: The time the ATC will wait after giving the final clearance at uncontrolled airfield,
if not airborne at a specific time.

Pilot who does not depart prior to the clearance void time must advise ATC as soon as possible of their
intentions. This time cannot exceed 30 minutes. Failure of an aircraft to contact ATC, within 30 minutes
after the clearance void time, will result in the aircraft being considered overdue and search and rescue
procedures initiated. Pilots who depart at or after their clearance void time are not afforded IFR
separation

Hold for Release: (this is for communication between two aerodromes). ATC may issue "hold for
release" instructions in a clearance to delay an aircraft's departure for traffic management reasons (i.e.,
weather, traffic volume, etc.).

When ATC states in the clearance, "hold for release," the pilot may not depart utilizing that IFR
clearance until a release time or additional instructions are issued by ATC. In addition, ATC will include
departure delay information in conjunction with "hold for release" instructions

The ATC instruction, "hold for release," applies to the IFR clearance and does not prevent the pilot from
departing under VFR. However, prior to takeoff the pilot should cancel the IFR flight plan and operate
the transponder on the appropriate VFR code. An IFR clearance may not be available after departure.

Release Time: is a departure restriction issued to a pilot by ATC, specifying the earliest time an aircraft
may depart

ATC will use "release times" in conjunction with traffic management procedures and/or to separate a
departing aircraft from other traffic.

Expect Departure Clearance Time (EDCT) - is the runway release time assigned to an aircraft included in
traffic management programs. Aircraft are expected to depart no earlier than 5 minutes before, and no
later than 5 minutes after the EDCT

IFR DP for Airports without IAP

 If airport has NO published IAP, it is pilot’s responsibility to create their own IFR departure
procedure
 Pilot must use VFR charts and determine the best course of action in terms of headings,
courses, and altitudes in order to takeoff and climb safely until reaching the IFR enroute
MORA, MOCA, MEA or ATC assigned altitude
 You must still have an IFR clearance before takeoff in IFR conditions.
 Terrain and obstacle avoidance and safe navigation are the pilot’s responsibility

RVV is Runway Visibility Value – the distance down the runway you can see unlighted objects or
unfocused lights of moderate intensity; reported in statute miles or fractions of miles

RVR is Runway Visual Range – is the distance down the runway you can see unlighted objects or
unfocused lights of moderate intensity.
Enroute Procedures & Charts
Enroute procedures is from the end of the IFR departure procedures, to the first fix in a standard
terminal arrival route (STAR), Or the point where ATC begins to radar vector the aircraft for an
instrument approach.

Four ways to navigate IFR:

1. Flying Victor airways, Q/T routes, or jet routes

2. Flying direct between ground-based navaids

3. Flying direct to waypoints via RNAV systems

4. Flying via radar vectors.

Victor Airways

• Depicted in black on aeronautical charts. Identified by a “V” (Victor) followed by the airway
number

• Victor airways are depicted on the IFR low altitude en route charts

• Even numbers are used for airways that generally go east/west (for example, V12)

• Odd numbers are used for airways that generally go north/south (for example, V493)

L/MF Airways

• L/MF airways (colored airways) are predicated solely on L/MF navigation aids. Depicted in
brown on aeronautical charts; identified by colour name and number (e.g., Amber One)

• Green and Red airways plotted east and west. Amber and Blue airways plotted north and south.

Jet Routes (High Altitude VHF airways)

• Jet routes are depicted in black on high altitude enroute charts and have a “J” preceding the jet
route number. Jet routes are depicted on the low altitude enroute charts by a green outline

• Jet routes are from FL 180 up to and including FL 450, above FL 450 all aircraft are expected to
navigate via direct.

Navigational gap is when course guidance gaps exists, referred to as a MEA (Minimum En route
Altitude) gap. NG may not exceed a specific distance that varies with altitude, from 0 NM at sea level to
a max of 65 NM at FL450. Where large gaps exist that require altitude changes, MEA “steps” are
established. Increments are not less than 2,000 feet below FL180 and not less than 4,000 feet at FL 180
and above.

IFR Intersections

• Intersections are defined by two navaids, or by a navaid and a DME distance

• All intersections can be used as reporting points

Computer Navigation Fix (Mileage Break Point) - When change in direction is NOT at an established
intersection, an “x” will be placed at the point where you must change VORs.

Minimum Enroute Altitude (MEA)

• Lowest altitude between radio fixes that guarantees both navigation reception and obstacle
clearance. MEAs is normally the lowest altitude you can use on an airway

• MEA along jet routes is 18,000 feet MSL, unless otherwise specified

Minimum Off-Route Altitudes (MORAs) provide obstruction clearance when flying outside of
established airways.

Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude (MOCA)

• Has the same terrain & obstruction clearance specifications as MEA & MORA, but only has
navigation coverage within 22 NM.

• Pilots are only allowed to operate below the MEA down to but not below the MOCA when
within 22 NM of the VOR station. All other times pilot must be at MEA or higher

• MOCAs are depicted on Jeppesen charts with a “T” behind the number. Example – 2400T

Minimum Crossing Altitude (MCA)

• Lowest altitude at certain fixes, at which the aircraft must cross when proceeding in the
direction of a higher minimum enroute IFR altitude.

• MCAs are established in all cases, where obstacles intervene to prevent pilots from maintaining
obstacle clearance during a normal climb, to a higher MEA after passing a point beyond which
the higher MEA applies.

• Standard for determining MCA is based upon the following climb gradients, and is computed
from the flight altitude:

• Sea level through 5,000 ft MSL - 150 feet per NM

• 5000 feet through 10,000 ft MSL - 120 ft per NM

• 10,000 feet MSL and over - 100 feet per NM.

Minimum Reception Altitude (MRA)

 Minimum altitude the navigation signal can be received for the route and for off-course NAVAID
facilities that determine a fix i.e. ensures reception of an off-course navaid that helps define a fix

 Is the lowest altitude at which an intersection can be determined.

Maximum Authorized Altitude (MAA)

 Highest altitude on, Federal airway, Jet route, RNAV low or high route Or other direct route for
which an MEA is designated at which adequate reception of navigation signals is assured
 Maximum Authorized Altitude keeps you from receiving more than one VOR station at a time
Radar Vectors outside of controlled airspace will be provided only on pilot request

RNAV direct operations can only take place when ATC has radar coverage of the area you are flying in

You must be in radar contact to operate RNAV direct. If radar fails, then you will need to revert to
airways navigation

Basic designators for ATS routes consist of a maximum of five, and in no case exceed six,
alpha/numeric characters in order to be usable by both ground and airborne automation systems

The designator indicates;

 Type of the route such as high/low altitude

 Specific airborne navigation equipment requirements such as RNAV, and the
 Aircraft type using the route primarily and exclusively

The basic route designator consists of one or two letter(s) followed by a number from 1 to 999.

Commonly used RNAV routes in the U.S. are depicted as: Q routes are for RNAV use from FL 180 up to
and including FL 450 and are shown on the high-altitude chart. T routes are for RNAV use below 18,000
feet and are shown on the low altitude chart.

RNAV routes will have the MEA depicted for RNAV / GPS equipped aircraft with a G after the MEA on
Jeppesen charts. Example: 3000G meaning 3,000 feet MSL MEA

You normally change frequencies midway between navaids, unless a changeover point is designated

You are required by regulation to report a loss of airplane navigational capability, unforecast or
hazardous weather conditions, and any other information relating to the safety of flight

If radar contact has been lost or radar service terminated, the FARs require you to provide ATC with
position reports over compulsory reporting points.

The compulsory reporting points on a direct route are those fixes that define the route

A standard position report includes your identification, current position, time, altitude, ETA over the
next reporting fix, the following reporting point, and any pertinent remarks

In a nonradar environment, you should report when you reach the final approach fix inbound on a
approach.

In addition, a report is necessary when it becomes apparent that an estimated time that you previously
submitted to ATC will be in error in excess of 3 minutes

Though you may request and be assigned any altitude in controlled airspace, most pilots file flight plan
altitudes that correspond to the hemispheric rule.
Principle of operation Primary Surveillance Radar
Radar provides accurate information about an object’s
1. Range 2. Bearing 3. Azimuth 4. Elevation
7 Components of PR System

 Transmitter, Receiver, Antenna, Display and Power Supply, duplexer and synchronizer.
#Range Resolution – the ability of the radar to differentiate two aircrafts very close to each
other.
#Bearing Resolution – the ability of the radar to identify two aircrafts very close to each other
in terms of bearing.

Surveillance Radar – Types and Characteristics

1) Area Control:
 Long range - up to 200 NM.
 Good weather penetration.
 Reasonable bearing and range resolution at long range.
 Comparatively slow renewal of information acceptable.
 Good high cover.
2) Terminal Area Control:

 Maximum range up to 100 NM.

 Good weather penetration.
 Good bearing and range resolution to max. range.
 Good renewal rate of information.
3) Approach Control:

 Comparatively short range - up to 40 NM.

 Ability to display or cancel weather returns at controller command, and to indicate
intensity of weather.
 Very good bearing and range resolution.
 Rapid rate of information renewal.
 Very good low cover.
4) Aerodrome Surface Movement Indicator (ASMI)

 Short range - max 5 NM.

 Very high bearing and range accuracy.
 Very rapid rate of information renewal.
  Absolute low cover - no high cover required.
 Adequate penetration of weather condition associated with poor visibility.
Factors affecting the choice of wavelength
1. RANGE – directly proportional (Longer ranges are easily achieved using longer
wavelengths.)
2. HIGH COVER – directly proportional (More lobes and better low cover at shorter
wavelengths.)
3. LOW COVER – directly proportional (Less lobes and poor low cover at longer
wavelength)
4. AERIAL SIZE – directly proportional (Longer waves require larger antenna)
5. WEATHER RETURNS – Inversely proportional (Weather returns are negligible at 10cm
and very significant at and below 3cm)
6. WEATHER PENETRATION – directly proportional (Rain drop quarter of wavelength is a
very good reflector.)
7. PULSE LENGTH – directly proportional
Other Characteristics
• PULSE RECURRENCE FREQUENCY (PRF) – is the major factor which determine s the radar
coverage (maximum range).
1 1 1 𝑐
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶𝑥 =
2 2 𝑓 2(𝑃𝑅𝐹)

• SCAN RATE AND BEAM WIDTH

 Dwelling Time – the period of time the target stays within the beam of the antenna.
 A minimum of 10 – 15 strike is required so as to get a clear picture on our screen.
 Number of strike is inversely proportional with scan rate and directly proportional with
beam width.
1. STRIKES PER SCAN
2. SCAN RATE
3. BEAM WIDTH
• PULSE LENGTH – when the PL is longer it will be good for long range, but the range
resolution will be less.
• RANGE RESOLUTION
Minimum theoretical Range – in order to be detected by the antenna a minimum of ½ pulse
length is required. If it is closer than this it will not be detected.
Moving Target Indication (MTI)

 Is a radar mode of operation that discriminates desired targets against clutter.

 MTI takes an advantage of the fact that the target moves with respect to stationary clutter.

Airborne Weather Radar (AWR) – It is a PRS that serves to detect thunderstorms and areas of strong
precipitation in clouds along the flight path. It is mainly used by the pilots to analyze the weather.

Disadvantages of PSR

1. Identification requires a lot of radio telephony

2. PSR provides no direct means of indicating an emergency, unlawful interference or radio failure
other than Radio telephony.
3. PSR normally do not indicate level and identification, only range and bearing is detected by
using PSR.
4. PSR is independent and non cooperative

Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)

Ethiopian International transponder code (2400 – 2477), Domestic (1300-1377).

Disadvantages of SSR

 Grabling
 Ring round
 FRUIT (False Reply Unsynchronized In Time)

ADS-B

 Message is systematically sent

 Content is not fixed
 No designated recipient
 Not so far from a real time surveillance means.
ADS-C

 Messages are sent in the context of a contract

 Messages are sent to one known recipient
 Far from a real time surveillance means
ADS-B – IN (Transmitter and Reciever)
ADS-B - OUT(Transmitter)
ADS-B Mode A – Address
ADS-B Mode C - Contact