ROCK AND SOIL TESTS

FOR ENGINEERING
PURPOSE

Compile by Ayush Joshi and Sudarshon Sapkota

2018 July
CONTENTS
BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................................................... 4
1. IN SITU TESTS .......................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 ROCK TESTS ................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2.2 Schmidt rebound test (Ernest Schmidt, 1948) ................................................................................ 4
1.2.3 Permeability test ..................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.4 Cyclic Plate Load test (Rigid Plate Method) .................................................................................... 6
1.2.5 Hydraulic fracturing (HF) test ............................................................................................................. 6
1.2.6 Hardness test .......................................................................................................................................... 7
1.3 SOIL TESTS....................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.3.2 Pocket penetration test ........................................................................................................................ 7
1.3.3 Standard penetration test..................................................................................................................... 8
2 LABORATORY TESTS............................................................................................................................................ 9
2.2 ROCK TESTS ................................................................................................................................................... 9
2.2.2 Unit weight test ...................................................................................................................................... 9
2.2.3 Index tests ................................................................................................................................................ 9
2.2.4 Uniaxial Compressive strength test ................................................................................................. 11
2.2.5 Unconfined compressive strength test ........................................................................................... 11
2.2.6 Specific gravity test .............................................................................................................................. 11
2.2.7 Petrography test ................................................................................................................................... 12
2.2.8 Direct shear test .................................................................................................................................. 12
2.2.9 Tri axial shear test ............................................................................................................................... 12
2.2.10 Point Load test ...................................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.11 Los Angles abrasion test ..................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.12 Impact test ............................................................................................................................................. 13
2.2.13 Crushing value test .............................................................................................................................. 14
2.2.14 Water content test .............................................................................................................................. 14
2.2.15 Alkali reactivity test ............................................................................................................................. 15
2.2.16 Dynamic modulus test ........................................................................................................................ 15
2.2.17 Tensile strength (Brazilian test) ........................................................................................................ 15
2.2.18 Soundness test ...................................................................................................................................... 16
2.2.19 PSD/ Gradation and classification ..................................................................................................... 16
2.2.20 Flakiness index ...................................................................................................................................... 16
 2.2.21 10% fine test .......................................................................................................................................... 17
2.2.22 Petrography test ................................................................................................................................... 17
2.2.23 Swelling pressure test ......................................................................................................................... 17
2.2.24 X-ray diffraction test ........................................................................................................................... 17
2.3 SOIL TEST ....................................................................................................................................................... 18
2.3.2 Relative density test............................................................................................................................. 18
2.3.3 Natural moisture content test .......................................................................................................... 18
2.3.4 Grain size distribution test ................................................................................................................ 18
2.3.5 Sieve test ................................................................................................................................................ 19
2.3.6 Hydrometer test .................................................................................................................................. 19
2.3.7 Liquid and plasticity test (Atterberg test) ...................................................................................... 19
2.3.8 Plasticity test.......................................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.9 Liquid test............................................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.10 Organic content test ........................................................................................................................... 20
2.3.11 Unconfined compressive test ............................................................................................................ 20
2.3.12 Direct shear test .................................................................................................................................. 21
2.3.13 Permeability test ................................................................................................................................... 21
2.3.14 Consolidation test ................................................................................................................................ 21
2.3.15 Tri axial shear test ............................................................................................................................... 21
2.3.16 Swelling test ........................................................................................................................................... 22
2.3.17 Mica Content test ................................................................................................................................ 22
2.3.18 Compaction test ................................................................................................................................... 22
2.3.19 California Bearing ratio test............................................................................................................... 22
BACKGROUND
Testing of rocks and soil in sites of construction or excavation are vital to understand the
necessary precautions or adjustments required. Tests help determine variables such as
permeability, elasticity, porosity, rock strength, etc. By understanding the intact rock, rock mass
and soil engineering properties appropriate decisions can be made before hand which makes
the proper testing of rocks and soils essential. The tests of rock and soil are performed in two
ways (methods). The methods of rock and soil tests are as follows.

1. In situ tests
2. Lab tests

1. IN SITU TESTS
In situ tests are tests that are conducted on site. These tests are quicker, have a large sample
size and generally inexpensive. Since in situ tests large volumes of rock and soil it gives a better
representation of the area but the data is only limited to the equipment at hand during testing.
Though you get a better idea on the lithology of the area the interpretations made from in situ
testing are generally vague or approximations and require further lab testing.

 Rock test
 Soil test

1.2 ROCK TESTS

1.2.2 Schmidt rebound test (Ernest Schmidt, 1948)

The Schmidt rebound test is used to measure the elastic properties, hardness and
penetration resistance of a rock. This test is carried out using a ‘Schmidt hammer’ which
was developed by Swiss engineer Ernest Schmidt in 1948. The Schmidt hammer strikes
the rock with a defined energy and measure the rebound of the spring loaded mass. The
force with which the mass rebounds is proportional to the total energy absorbed by the
impact surface. While conducting this test the hammer must be placed 90˚ from the
rock surface vertical from the ground. The value obtained from this test rage form 10 –
100.

Limitations:
This test must be conducted in a flat rock face as irregularities in the rock can affect the
value obtained. Factors such as impact surface moisture, presence of cleavage slips,
porous cavities, local anomalies, orientation of test surface and degree of test surface
weathering.
 1.2.3 Permeability test
The permeability test allows us to deduce the bulk permeability of an area. High
permeability will allow fluids to move rapidly through rocks. Permeability is affected by
the pressure in a rock and can be calculated using the following equation. There two
permeability tests are;
 Constant head test (CHT)
This test is carried out by measuring loss of water by pouring/pumping water in a
hole. Coefficient of permeability k from constant head test is calculated by using the
following equation

𝑄
𝑘= ×𝐻
𝐹
Where,
k – Permeability (cm/s)
F – Intake factor
2 × 3.14 × 𝐿
𝐹=
1
𝐿 𝐿 2 2
𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑒 ((𝐷 ) + (1 + ( ) ) )
𝑑

D – Diameter of hole in cm
L – Test length in cm
H – Constant head in cm
Q – Constant rate of flow in cm3/sec

 Water pressure test (Lugeon test)

The water pressure test is carried out by using a single packer in the drill hole. The
water flow is confined between the packer and the bottom of the test section. This
test is usually carried out at intervals of 3m or 5m. The Lugeon value is determined
by the following equation.
10 × 𝑄
𝐿𝑢 =
𝑃×𝐿
Where,
Lu- Lugeon value
Q – Quantity of water injected in liter/min
P - Effective pressure in kg/cm2

𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜 + 0.1(𝐻1 − 𝐻2)

Po- Pressure at pressure gauge in kg/cm2

 H1 – Hydrostatic heads in meter between the pressure gauge and the ground level

H2 – Hydrostatic heads in the meter between the ground level and the center of test
section or between the ground level and the water table whichever is smaller.

L – Length of test section in meter

Limitations:
Older rocks tend to have higher porosities so the age of the rocks may need to be
accounted to minimize error.

1.2.4 Cyclic Plate Load test (Rigid Plate Method)

The Cyclic Plate load test is used for determining the ultimate load carrying capacity of
soil/rock and the maximum settlement under an applied load. The plate load test
consists of loading a steel plate placed at the foundation level and recording the
settlements corresponding to each load increment. The load applied is gradually
increased till the plate starts to sink at a rapid rate. The total value of load on the plate
in such a stage divided by the area of the steel plate gives the value of the ultimate
bearing capacity of soil. The ultimate bearing capacity is divided by suitable factor of
safety (which ranges from 2 to 3) to arrive at the value of safe load capacity of soil

1.2.5 Hydraulic fracturing (HF) test

Hydraulic fracturing is a technique for measuring in situ stresses in boreholes. Hydraulic
fracturing is conducted with a robust double packer system on short borehole intervals
which are free of natural fractures (Haimson and Fairhurst, 1967). Following the inflation
of the packers, the interval is pressurized until an axial fracture is induced. The interval
is shut-in shortly after the breakdown pressure is reached and the pressure decline is
monitored. The fracture is then subjected to several reopening and draining cycles by
injecting small fluid volumes (typically 5 - 15 l). The objective is to define the pressure at
which the walls of the fracture are just supported by a fluid cushion. This pressure
represents the rock stress component normal to the plane of the fracture, and is
variously referred to as 'closure pressure' or 'jacking pressure'. The minimum and
maximum principal stress can be deduced using the following equations.
𝜎3 = 𝑃𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑡−𝑖𝑛

 𝜎3 - minimum principal stress

 Pshut-in- Shut in pressure
𝜎1 = 3𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃𝑟𝑜 − 𝑃𝑜

 𝜎1 - Maximum principal stress

  Ps – Measured average shut in pressure
 Pro- Pressure recorded at first re opening of the fracture
 Po- Formation pore pressure

Limitations:
The sample must be free from preexisting fractures as it could affect the end value
obtained from this test.

1.2.6 Hardness test

The hardness test measures the degree of resistance to being scratched of a rock
from a scale from 1-10. This test is conducted by placing a sharp point of one
specimen on an unmarked surface of another specimen and attempting to produce a
scratch. If the hardness of one specimen is known the relative hardness of the other
unknown specimen can be deduced.

Table 1-1 Mohs relative hardness scale

1.3 SOIL TESTS

1.3.2 Pocket penetration test

The Pocket penetration test is used to check visual classification of soils. This test is
conducted using a pocket penetrometer, which determines the consistency, shear
strength and approximate unconfined shear strength of soils in tons/sq ft or kg/sq cm. It
can be used to verify whether excavation side walls require shoring.
Limitations:
Readings obtained from this test have a very small sample size and could give misleading
results. The area of testing might not always represent the soil lithology of the site

1.3.3 Standard penetration test

The standard penetration test is a dynamic penetration test which is used to gather
geotechnical engineering properties of soil. It is easy to conduct and inexpensive. This
test helps indicate the relative density of granular deposits in undisturbed soils. To
conduct this test a thick walled sample tube is driven into the ground at the bottom of a
borehole using a slide hammer. The sample tube is driven into the ground with
increments of 150mm up to 450mm and the number of blows required is recorded.

Limitations:
For this test to provide accurate results the soil in the area of testing must be
undisturbed. The recovered sample is also highly disturbed making in unsuitable for
measuring properties of the in situ soil structure. This test is also unsuitable for soft
soils as the driving the tube in on itself disturbs the sample.
2 LABORATORY TESTS
Unlike In situ tests laboratory tests require samples to be recovered from the site and
transported to a laboratory. Laboratory tests give accurate and detailed information as long as
the sample of rock or soil is undisturbed. The sample size is very small so the test might not
always represent the entire site.

2.2 ROCK TESTS

2.2.2 Unit weight test

The unit weight, otherwise known as the specific weight, is the total weight of a
substance in a single unit of volume. Unit weight test is commonly used to evaluate the
degree of compaction of rock sample. This test helps determine the density of rock
which can be used to deduce other values such as volume

2.2.3 Index tests

 Bulk density
This test is used to determine the density of a sample or rocks taking by taking
mass, volume, porosity, permeability, absorption rates, pore sizes etc. The four
methods of the bulk density tests are the (1) caliper; (2) instantaneous water
immersion, (3) wax immersion, and (4) wax-shrink wrap immersion. Out of
these methods the wax immersion method is the most accurate as the wax can
displace the air from most pores from the rock sample to give an accurate
density value.

 Water content at saturation

The moisture content can be expressed with respect to the sample's dry weight
as a percentage using the following formula
𝑚𝑤𝑒𝑡 − 𝑚𝑑𝑟𝑦
𝑢𝑛 =
𝑚𝑑𝑟𝑦
m - Mass
Other methods that determine water content of a sample include
chemical titrations (for example the Karl Fischer titration), determining mass loss
on heating (perhaps in the presence of an inert gas), or after freeze drying. From
the Annual Book of ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)
Standards, the total evaporable moisture content in Aggregate (C 566) can be
calculated with the formula:
 𝑊−𝐷
𝑝=
𝑊
p – Fraction of total evaporate moisture content of sample
W – Mass of the original sample
D – Mass of dried sample

 Specific gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a
reference substance. The reference substance for liquids is nearly
always water at its densest (at 4 °C or 39.2 °F. Nonetheless, the temperature
and pressure must be specified for both the sample and the reference. Pressure
is nearly always 1 atm. True specific gravity can be expressed mathematically
using the following formula
𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑆𝐺𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 =
𝜌𝐻2 𝑂
𝜌 sample – Density of sample
𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 – Density of water

Or,
𝑊𝑣, 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑆𝐺𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 =
𝑊𝑣, 𝐻2 𝑂
Wv – Weight obtained in vacuum

 Porosity
Porosity or void fraction is a measure of the void spaces in a material, and is
a fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume. This can be represented
by the following equation.
𝑉𝑣
∅=
𝑉𝑇
Vv- Volume of void space
Vt – Total volume of material
The porosity of a rock, or sedimentary layer, is an important consideration when
attempting to evaluate the potential volume of water. A value for porosity can
alternatively be calculated from the bulk density, saturating fluid
density and particle density using the following equation:
𝜌𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 𝜌𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘
∅=
𝜌𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜌 – density
 2.2.4 Uniaxial Compressive strength test
To determine the uniaxial compressive strength of a cylindrical intact rock specimen the
load rate is kept constant using a servo hydraulic control unit. The four main factors
that affect the test results are; Friction between plate and the end of surface, specimen
geometry, rate of loading and water content. The load is steadily increased until the
rock sample fails to support the load. The load amount required for failure is then
recorded. The UCS can be deducted using the following general formula;
𝑃
𝜎𝑐 =
𝐴

P – Failure load
A – Specimen cross sectional area

2.2.5 Unconfined compressive strength test

This test is the most popular method of soil shear testing. It is the fastest and cheapest
method of measuring shear strength. For this test the dimensions of a roughly cylindrical
sample is measure then uniaxial stress conditions are continuously applied. This test
helps determine the stresses and strains a rock sample can withstand.

Limitations:
This test is only applicable for materials that will stand unsupported and that have fairly
low permeability. This test also underestimates in situ strength because the sampling
inevitably causes a remolding disturbance which reduces the effective stress the rock
can withstand compared to field conditions.

2.2.6 Specific gravity test

The specific gravity test helps determine the ratio of the density of a sample to the
density of a reference substance. Specific gravity is the mass of a sample in relationship
to its weight (which in turn Is determined by the density). To conduct this test a sample
of rock of known size is put into a volume of water. The displaced water is measured.
This data can then be used in the following formula
𝑊𝑣. 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑆𝐺𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 =
𝑊𝑣. 𝐻2 𝑂
 Wv – weight obtained in vacuum

Limitations:
If the rock sample is porous/permeable it can cause errors in the test as the volume of
water displaced will not be accurate.
 2.2.7 Petrography test
The petrography test is used to determine the mineralogical and chemical characteristics
of a rock sample with the help of microscopes. The use of microscopes help better
analyze fine grained samples and can give a better understanding on the physical
characteristics of the rocks and its composition.

Limitations:
This test relies of observation from a microscope only so the accuracy of the test would
depend on the testers and his ability to analyze a sample through careful observation.
Human error is the largest uncertainty in this test.

2.2.8 Direct shear test

The direct shear test is used to measure the shear strength properties of a sample. This
test is performed on three or four specimens from a relatively undisturbed sample. A
specimen is placed in a shear box which has two stacked rings to hold the sample; the
contact between the two rings is at approximately the mid-height of the sample.
A confining stress is applied vertically to the specimen, and the upper ring is pulled
laterally until the sample fails, or through a specified strain. The load applied and the
strain induced is recorded at frequent intervals to determine a stress–strain curve for
each confining stress

2.2.9 Tri axial shear test

A tri axial shear test is used to measure the mechanical properties of deformable solids.
In a tri axial shear test, stress is applied to a sample of the material being tested in a way
which results in stresses along one axis being different from the stresses in
perpendicular directions. The specimen is subjected to an all-round fluid pressure in the
cell, consolidation is allowed to take place if appropriate, and then the axial stress is
gradually increased by the application of compressive load through the ram until failure
of the specimen takes place, usually on a diagonal plane. This test is conducted several
times to produce accurate stresses and strain values.

Limitations:
If the rock sample has pores and can absorb the fluid in the apparatus the error must be
accounted for. The apparatus is also bulky and costly especially if the rock sample is very
hard.
 2.2.10 Point Load test
The PLT is an efficient method to determine intact rock strength properties from drill
core samples and is an alternative to the uniaxial compressive strength test as it can
provide similar data at a lower cost. This test involves the compressing of a rock sample
between conical steel platens until failure occurs. The apparatus for this test consists of
a rigid frame, two point load platens, a hydraulically activated ram with pressure gauge
and a device for measuring the distance between the loading points.

2.2.11 Los Angles abrasion test

The Los Angeles (L.A.) abrasion test is a common test method used to indicate
aggregate toughness and abrasion characteristics The Los Angeles test is used to
measure the degradation of mineral aggregates of standard grading by abrasion, attrition,
impact, grinding, etc. To produce the abrasive action by use of standard steel balls which
when mixed with the aggregate and rotated in a drum for specific number of revolution
cause impact on aggregate. The percentage age wear due to rubbing with steel balls is
determined and is known as abrasion value. This percentage age loss is determined by
calculating the difference between the retained material and the original sample weight.

Limitations:
The L.A. Abrasion test is an empirical test; it is not directly related to field performance
of aggregates. Field observations generally do not show a good relationship between
L.A. abrasion values and field performance. L.A. abrasion loss is unable to predict field
performance for some types of aggregates such as slag and some limestones.

2.2.12 Impact test

The impact strength index test or impact test was first discovered by Protodyakonov to
put forward an idea about rock’s strength properties, cuttability and brittleness. In this
test a 100 gm sample of rock in put in a cylinder and a plunger is dropped from a height
of 65cm onto the sample. The plunger weighs 2.4kg and is dropped 20 times in the
cylinder and the crushed sample is collected and is sieved through a 0.5mm sieve. The
sample is collected and filled ina volumeter and the height in the volumeter is measured.
The Protodyakonov impact strength index (PSI) is deduced using the following formula:
20 × 𝑛
𝑃𝑆𝐼 =
ℎ
 n – number of blows
 height in the volumeter
 2.2.13 Crushing value test
Crushing value test is used to measure the degree of failure of a sample(aggregates) is
by crushing under compressive stress. The aggregate crushing value provides a relative
measure of resistance to crushing under gradually applied crushing load. The test
consists of subjecting the specimen of aggregate to a compression test under standard
load conditions .Dry aggregates passing through 12.5 mm sieves and retained 10 mm
sieves are filled in a cylindrical measure of 11.5 mm diameter and 18 cm height in three
layers. Each layer is tampered 25 times with at standard tamping rod. The test sample is
weighed and placed in the test cylinder in three layers each layer being tampered again.
The specimen is subjected to a compressive load of 40 tonnes gradually applied at the
rate of 4 tonnes per minute. Then crushed aggregates are then sieved through 2.36 mm
sieve and weight of passing material is expressed as percentage of the weight of the total
sample which is the aggregate crushing value. This can be represented using the
following equation:
𝑊1
𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = × 100
𝑊2
 W1 – Percentage of the weight of the total sample
 W2 – weight of passing material

2.2.14 Water content test

This test is used to determine the moisture content of a rock sample. To conduct this
test 10 lumps of rock each having either a mass of 50g or a minimum dimension of ten
times the maximum rain size is placed in a container. The sample is dried to to a
constant mass at a temperature of 105˚. The sample is allowed to cool for 30 minutes
and the new mass is measured. The empirical value of water content in percentage can
be represented with the following equation:
𝐵−𝐶
× 100
𝐶−𝐴
 B – Mass of sample plus container
 A – Mass on container
 C – New mass of sample plus container

2.2.15 Alkali reactivity test

Alkali reactivity test is used to determine the reactivity of some aggregates. There are
two types of alkali reactivity tests; the alkali-silica reaction and the alkali-carbonate
reaction. The alkali carbonate reaction occurs with dolomitic limestone aggregates of a
specific mineralogy and microstructure. The alkali carbonate reaction is typically a more
aggressive reaction and occurs earlier in the life of the structure. The alkali silica
reaction occurs with certain forms of silica minerals in aggregates that react in a high
alkaline medium. The expansion caused by alkaline conditions could affect the
dimensional stability of structures.

2.2.16 Dynamic modulus test

Dynamic modulus test I done to measure the ratio of stress to strain under vibratory
conditions. The test can be applied in a uniaxial (triaxial) condition in either
compression or tension. In this test a repeated load at varying frequencies is applied to a
test specimen over a relatively short period of time and the specimen’s recoverable
strain and permanent deformation is measured.

2.2.17 Tensile strength (Brazilian test)

In this test a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure. The data from this
test can be used to determine the young’s modulus, poisson’s ratio, yield strength and
strain hardening characteristics. The tensile strength of a rock also determines the rock
deformability, rock crushing and blasting results. In the Brazilian test, a disc shape
specimen of the rock is loaded by two opposing normal strip loads at the disc periphery.
The specimen diameter shall preferably be not less than NX core size (54 mm), or at
least 10 times the average grain size. The thickness/diameter ratio should be 0.5 to
0.6.The load is continuously increased at a constant rate until failure of the sample
occurs within few minutes. The loading rate depending on the material and may from 10
to 50 kN/min. At the failure, the tensile strength of the rock is calculated using the
following equation:
 2𝑃
𝜎𝑡 =
𝜋𝐷𝐿
 P – Applied load
 D – Diameter of sample
 L – Thickness of sample

2.2.18 Soundness test

The Soundness test is used to determine the resistance of aggregates to disintegrate by
saturated solution of sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate. Though this test is
relatively easy to conduct it is time consuming. In this test the sample is immersed in a
sodium sulphate solution for 24 hours then dried in an oven and cooled. This process is
repeated for 10 complete cycles and the retained weight of sample is measured. The
percentage loss can be determined by using the following equation:
𝑊𝑜 − 𝑊1
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = ( ) × 100
𝑊0
 Wo – initial weight of sample
 W1 – final retained weight on sample after 10 cycles

2.2.19 PSD/ Gradation and classification

Soil gradation is a classification of a coarse grained soil that ranks the soil based on
the different particles sizes contained in the soil. The determination of soil gradation
is important as it is an indicator for other properties such as compressibility, shear
strength, and hydraulic conductivity. The soil gradation is determined by analyzing
the results of a sieve analysis or a hydrometer analysis test.

2.2.20 Flakiness index

Flakiness index is the percentage by weight of particles in it, whose least dimension
is less than three fifths of its mean dimension Aggregate particles are classified as
flaky when they have a thickness of less than 0.6 of their mean sieve size. The
flakiness index of an aggregate sample is found by separating the flaky particles and
expressing their mass as a percentage of the mass of the sample tested. Determining
the flakiness index is important as flaky aggregates are undesirable during
construction as they cause weakness.
2.2.21 10% fine test
Ten percent fines value is a measure of the resistance of aggregate crushing
subjected to loading and it is applicable to both weak and strong aggregate. Fine
aggregates are defined as those passing 2.36mm sieve. This test is very similar to
Aggregate Crushing Test in which a standard force 400kN is applied and fines
material expressed as a percentage of the original mass is the aggregate crushing
value.

2.2.22 Petrography test

Petrographic testing is the use of microscopes to examine samples of rock or
concrete to determine their mineralogical and chemical characteristics. Samples for
petrographic examination can be taken from lump samples or cores. They are
impregnated with resin. Suitable surfaces (either polished or thin sections) are
prepared by sawing, lapping and polishing. The samples are examined through a
petrological (geological polarizing) microscope, using either reflected or transmitted
light. The lighting may be normal, ultra-violet or polarized. This test can determine
parameters such as type, proportions, grading, shape, degree of hydration, depth of
carbonation, etc.

2.2.23 Swelling pressure test

Depending on the mineralogical composition of rocks, they can be prone to swelling,
i.e. to adsorb water, which either increases their volume or, in the case of
deformation constriction, causes an external pressure. The swelling process can also
induce significant reduction of shear strength and stiffness of the rock. In tunneling,
swelling rock can cause big deformations usually in the form of invert heave or
excessive stress on the lining, thus leading to severe damages. Out of many methods
available to determine the swell pressure in the laboratory, odometer method is
popular because of its simplicity

2.2.24 X-ray diffraction test

Powder XRD provides detailed information on the crystallographic structure and
physical properties of rock samples. The sample is irradiated with a beam of
monochromatic x-rays over a variable incident angle range. Interaction with atoms
in the sample results in diffracted x-rays when the Bragg equation is satisfied.
Resulting spectra are characteristic of chemical composition and phase. The
technique uniquely provides phase identification (e.g. graphite or diamond), along
with phase quantification, % crystallinity, crystallite size and unit cell size.
2.3 SOIL TEST

2.3.2 Relative density test

The relative density test measures the ratios of a cohesion less soil in its loosest state
and existing natural state to the difference between its void ratio in this loosest and
densest states. Relative density is usually measured in sandy deposits. This test helps
determine how far the sand under investigation is capable of further densification
beyond its natural state. Determination of relative density is helpful in compaction of
coarse grained soils and in evaluating safe bearing capacity in case of sandy soils. To
conduct this test a sample is placed in a mould and the volume and weight is measured.
Next distilled water is poured until the mould overflows. A glass plate is slid over the
top and the weight of the water filling the mould is measured. Using the values obtained
from this test the relative density can be deducted using the following formula.
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑠 − 𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛

 emax – void ratio of coarse grained soil in its loosest state

 emin – void ratio of coarse grained soil in this densest state
 e – void ratio of coarse grained soil in this natural existing state in field

2.3.3 Natural moisture content test

Natural moisture content test of soil gives an idea on the state of soil in the field and is
essential for understanding soil mechanics. It is the ratio of the weight of water to the
weight of solids in a given mass of soil. For this test the weight of container, weight of
container + undisturbed soil sample and weight of dried soil + weight of container is
measured. The sample is dried by leaving the sample in an oven until a constant weight is
achieved. After finding the values the water content percentage can be determined using
the following formula.

𝑊2 − 𝑊3
𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 % =
𝑊3 − 𝑊1
W1 – Weight of container
W2 – Weight of undisturbed soil + container
W3 – Weight of dried soil + container

2.3.4 Grain size distribution test

Grain size distribution test is used for classification of soils and for predicting the
movement of water in soil. This test is performed to determine the percentage of
different grain sizes contained within a soil. The mechanical or sieve analysis is
performed to determine the distribution of the coarser, larger-sized particles, and the
hydrometer method is used to determine the distribution of the finer particles.

2.3.5 Sieve test

For the sieve test the weight of each sieve and the dry soil sample is measured. Next
the soil sample is placed on top of the sieve and the sieve is placed in a mechanical
shaker for 10 minutes. The weight of each sieve is measured again along with the
retained soil.

2.3.6 Hydrometer test

For the hydrometer test a soil sample is mixed with a dispersing agent and distilled
water then is thoroughly mixed. Then a hydrometer is used several times in different
time intervals and the readings are recorded.

2.3.7 Liquid and plasticity test (Atterberg test)

Liquid and plasticity tests are tests used for the classification of soils. Also known as the
Atterberg test, this test is primarily used to distinguish between silts and clays as soils
behave differently depending on its water content.

2.3.8 Plasticity test

The plastic limit (PL) is determined by rolling out a thread of the fine portion of a soil on
a flat, non-porous surface. The procedure is defined in ASTM Standard D 4318. The
plastic limit is defined as the moisture content where the thread breaks apart at a
diameter of 3.2 mm (about 1/8 inch). A soil is considered non-plastic if a thread cannot
be rolled out down to 3.2 mm at any moisture possible.

2.3.9 Liquid test

The liquid limit (LL) is conceptually defined as the water content at which the behavior
of a clayey soil changes from plastic to liquid. Soil is placed into casagrande cup and a
groove is made down its center with a standardized tool of 2 millimetres (0.079 in)
width. The cup is repeatedly dropped 10 mm onto a hard rubber base at a rate of 120
blows per minute, during which the groove closes up gradually as a result of the impact.
The number of blows for the groove to close is recorded. The moisture content at
which it takes 25 drops of the cup to cause the groove to close over a distance of 12.7
millimetres (0.50 in) is defined as the liquid limit
 2.3.10 Organic content test
The organic content test is used to determine the percentage of organic material in a
soil sample. Organic matter influences many of the physical, chemical and biological
properties of soils. Some of the properties influenced by organic matter include soil
structure, soil compressibility and shear strength. In addition, it also affects the water
holding capacity, nutrient contributions, biological activity, and water and air infiltration
rates. To find the organic content of a sample you need to find the mass of dry soil and
mass of ashed soil (which can be found out my heating a soil sample in an oven). These
values can be used to determine the mass of organic matter and organic content.
𝑀𝑜
𝑂𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ( ) × 100
𝑀𝐷

𝑀𝑂 = 𝑀𝐷 − 𝑀𝐴

Mo= mass of organic matter

Md= mass of dry soil
MA= mass of ashed soil

2.3.11 Unconfined compressive test

The unconfined compressive test measures the load per unit area at which a cylindrical
sample of cohesive soil falls in compression. In this test there is no confining pressure
and the cylindrical soil sample is loaded axially by a compressive force until a failure
takes place. The unconfined compressive test can be defined as the ratio of failure load
to the cross sectional area of the soil sample and is represented by the following
equation.
𝑃
𝑞=
𝐴𝐶

q – unconfined compressive strength

P – Failure load
AC – Corrected area at failure
Where,
𝐴𝑜
𝐴𝑐 =
1−𝑒
Ao – Initial area
e – Strain
Limitations:
This test cannot be conducted on coarse grained soils such as sands and gravels as they
cannot stand without lateral support.

2.3.12 Direct shear test

The direct shear test is used to determine the shear strength/ the greatest stress it can
sustain of both cohesive as well as non-cohesive soils. The test equipment consists of a
metal box in which the soil sample is placed. This box is split horizontally into two
halves. Next a vertical force (normal stress) is applied through a metal platen. Shear
force is applied by moving one half of the box relative to the other to cause failure in
the soil specimen. The data from this is then used to determine the direct shear.

2.3.13 Permeability test

The permeability test is used to determine the the soil’s ability to permit water to flow
through its pores and voids. This is important as it helps us determine the rate of
settlement of saturated soils under load, the stability of slopes and retaining structures
and for the design planning on construction projects.

2.3.14 Consolidation test

Soil consolidation testing is used to predict the ability of a certain soil to bear a load
safely. In this test a static load is applied to piston that transmits the force to the soil
sample contained within the test cell. Water is introduced and kept to the pressure
expected for the construction site and this pressure is sensed and controlled by a
pressure transducer. The force of the load is sensed by a series of strain gage load cells
and the movement of the sample as it compacts is measured.

2.3.15 Tri axial shear test

The tri axial shear test is used to measure the mechanical properties of soil. This is
widely used and is suitable for all types of soils. A cylindrical specimen, generally having a
length to diameter ratio of 2, is used in the test and is stressed under conditions of axial
symmetry. The specimen is subjected to an all-round fluid pressure in the cell,
consolidation is allowed to take place if appropriate, and then the axial stress is gradually
increased by the application of compressive load through the ram until failure of the
specimen takes place, usually on a diagonal plane.
2.3.16 Swelling test
This test is used to measure the increase in volume of soil, without any external
constrains when submerged in water. The value from this test is used to calculate a
value known as the ‘free swell index’. For this test two dry soil samples are placed in
glass container. One is submerged in distilled water and the other in kerosene, next
the sample is left for 24hours and their volumes are measured. Once the two
volumes are measured the free swell index is calculated using the following formula.

𝑉𝑑 − 𝑉𝑘
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥(%) = × 100
𝑉𝑘
Vd – Volume of soil submerged in water
Vk – Volume of soil submerged in kerosene

2.3.17 Mica Content test

Sand equivalent test and methylene blue (MB) test are used to test the presence of
micas in an aggregate rock sample. Both methods showed susceptibility to mica
content and gave strong correlation in terms of mica content. The result of the MB
test can be explained by the schistose structure of mica particles and the ability of
mica to absorb liquids. Another important explanation is the increased reaction
surface of mica particles, which leads to an increase in the total reaction surface of
the sample. The receptiveness of the sand equivalent test to mica content could be
caused by the ability of mica to stay in suspension due to its flake-shaped grains.

2.3.18 Compaction test

The compaction test is a method of experimentally determining the optimal
moisture content at which a given soil type will become most dense and achieve its
maximum dry density. In this test a soil sample of known moisture content is placed
into a cylindrical mold and the is compacted into the mold to a certain amount of
equal layers, each receiving a number of blows from a standard weighted hammer at
a specified height. This process is repeated for various moisture contents and the
dry densities are determined for each. The values obtained from the test are then
plotted in a curve and the maximum dry densities are finally obtained from the peak
point of the compaction curve and its corresponding moisture content.

2.3.19 California Bearing ratio test

The California bearing ratio is a penetration test for the evaluation of the mechanical
strength of soils. This test is carried out on natural and compacted soils in water
soaked or unsoaked conditions and the results obtained are compared with the
curves of standard test to get an idea of the soil strength. The basic CBR test
involves applying load to a small penetration piston at a rate of 1.3 mm on a sample
of soil (0.05″) per minute and recording the total load at penetrations ranging from
0.64 mm (0.025 in.) up to 7.62 mm (0.300 in.)