Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 791–800

www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

Evaluation of fatigue life of aluminum alloy wheels

under radial loads
a,*
P. Ramamurty Raju , B. Satyanarayana b, K. Ramji b, K. Suresh Babu a

a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sagi Rama Krishnam Raju Engineering College, Bhimavaram 534 204, Andhra Pradesh, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Andhra University, Vishakapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India

Received 12 November 2006; accepted 19 November 2006

Available online 17 January 2007

Abstract

This paper is concerned with generation of S–N curve for aluminum alloy (Al) A356.2-T6 and estimation of fatigue life
under radial fatigue load. The S–N curve is developed by conducting tests at different stress levels under constant ampli-
tude loading. Tests are conducted on alloy wheels for fatigue life evaluation under radial loads. Finite element analysis
(FEA) is carried out by simulating the test conditions to analyze stress distribution and fatigue life of the alloy wheels.
It is observed from analysis that the prediction of fatigue life using FEA is found to be in close agreement with the cor-
responding experimental observations. An attempt has been made by conducting parametric study to suggest a suitable
safety factor for reliable fatigue life prediction.
! 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: S–N curve; Radial fatigue load; Fatigue life; Safety factor; Finite element analysis

1. Introduction

In the fatigue life evaluation of aluminum wheel design, the commonly accepted procedure for passenger
car wheel manufacturing is to pass two durability tests, namely the radial fatigue test and cornering fatigue
test [1]. Since alloy wheels are designed for variation in style and have more complex shapes than regular
steel wheels, it is difficult to assess fatigue life by using analytical methods. In general, the newly designed
wheel is tested in laboratory for its life through an accelerated fatigue test before the actual production
starts. Based on these test results the wheel design is further modified for high strength and less weight,
if required. Grubisic and Fisher [2] have reported earlier in the literature that testing alone without the
aid of stress analysis will not yield the optimum wheel design. Hsu et al. [3] described a probability based
model for prediction of fatigue failure of aluminum disc wheels, which intended to better link the predic-
tion of life using simulation results with historical data. Finite element models of 20 aluminum wheels

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: 91 8816 225124.
E-mail address: pramamurthyraju@yahoo.com (P.R. Raju).

1350-6307/$ - see front matter ! 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.engfailanal.2006.11.028
792 P.R. Raju et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 791–800

Nomenclature

Su ultimate tensile strength

Sy yield strength
e elongation
HB hardness
K acceleration test factor
F maximum tyre load
Fr radial load

which are already physically tested were constructed to simulate dynamic radial fatigue test. Their mean
stress and stress amplitude during the fatigue loading cycles were calculated and plotted on a two dimen-
sional plane. For a new wheel the failure probability of dynamic radial fatigue test can be read directly
from this probability contour drawn from the test data. Gope [4] mentioned that a minimum of three spec-
imens are required to predict the fatigue life using the log normal distribution. To the best of authors’
knowledge the research work carried out in this area is limited.
The present work deals with estimating the fatigue life of aluminum alloy wheel by conducting the tests
under radial fatigue load and comparison of the same with that of finite element analysis. Fatigue life predic-
tion using the stress approach is mostly based on local stress, because it is not possible to determine nominal
stress for the individual critical areas. The necessary material data for fatigue life prediction with the stress
concept is the well known S–N curve. Therefore, S–N curves are required for each specimen which reflects
the stress condition in the critical area of the component. To find out the fatigue properties of the aluminum
alloy wheel material (A356.2-T6) for actual manufacturing conditions, fatigue test is conducted to generate S–
N curve for which 43 specimens are machined from the spokes of alloy wheels and are tested using rotating
bending fatigue test equipment.
There are different loading methodologies for simulation of radial fatigue test. The dynamic nature of the
tests is simulated using equivalent static load in the form of cyclic nature [5]. The results obtained by simula-
tion of tests are compared with actual wheel tests performed. Since fatigue characteristics of a material depend
upon several parameters from metallurgical aspects to manufacturing conditions, a safety factor should be
considered. It is generally expected that there should be difference between experimental and analytical results.
In order to correlate the experimental results with FEA, a parametric study is carried out by employing var-
ious safety factors and finally a reliable safety factor is suggested. Similarly the effect of loading angle along
circumferential direction for applying radial load is also analyzed by performing parametric studies and finally
a suitable angle is suggested.

2. Development of S–N curve

To find the fatigue properties of aluminum alloy A356.2-T6 for actual manufacturing conditions, a test
is carried out on specimens taken from the wheels. For all 43 identical specimens which are machined from
the spokes of alloy wheels [6], rotary bending fatigue test is conducted according to Standards [7]. The
schematic diagram of specimen geometry and dimensions are shown in Fig. 1. The wheels, from which
specimens are machined, are manufactured at low pressure die casting followed by T6 heat treatment
process.
Table 1 shows six different stress levels at which test is conducted and the corresponding number of spec-
imens that are tested at each level. The minimum number of specimens tested at each stress level is not less
than 5. Curve fitting is done for all the specimens. The responses obtained at each stress level are checked
for variation using lognormal distribution [4]. All the sets of responses at the six stress levels are found to
be above 95% confidence level with an acceptance error of 5%.
Fig. 2 shows the scattered points obtained from the rotary bending fatigue test. The S–N curve obtained
from the curve fitting of the experimental data for the A356.2-T6 is presented in Fig. 3.
 P.R. Raju et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 791–800 793

Fig. 1. Rotating bending fatigue test specimen (All dimensions are in mm).

Table 1
Stress levels and specimen distribution
S. No. Stress (MPa) No. of specimens tested
1 88 8
2 117 8
3 146 8
4 176 7
5 205 7
6 234 5

250

200
Stress, MPa

150

100

50

0
1.00E+04 1.00E+05 1.00E+06 1.00E+07
Cycles

Fig. 2. Scattered points at different stress levels.

3. Material properties and manufacturing process for cast aluminum wheels

One of the leading aluminum alloy for wheels in use today is AlSi7Mg, with the chemical composition
shown in Table 2.
The manufacturing of aluminum passenger car wheels is made up of low pressure die casting. The mol-
ten aluminum is kept in a gas tight heat insulated container from where it flows under mild pressure of
approximately 70–100 kPa via a standpipe to escape through vent-holes, the molten aluminum enters
the die without turbulence [8]. After solidification of the material in the die, the container is depressurized
and the molten contents of the standpipe flow back into the container. The wheel is then sent for
machining.
794 P.R. Raju et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 791–800

250

200

Stress MPa 150

100

50

0
1.00E+04 1.00E+05 1.00E+06 1.00E+07
Cycles

Fig. 3. S–N curve of A356.2 material.

Table 2
Chemical composition of AlSi7Mg (in %)
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Zn Ti
6.5–7.5 0.15 0.03 0.10 0.3–0.45 0.07 0.10–0.18

Mechanical properties: Following are the monotonic material data which were obtained from specimens
taken from finished wheels.

Ultimate tensile strength (Su): 250 MPa.

Yield strength (Sy): 230 MPa.
Elongation (e): 5%.
Hardness (HB): 90.

4. Radial fatigue test layout

A typical test setup according to standard [1] of the dynamic radial fatigue test is shown in the Fig. 4
equipped with a driven Rotatable drum. The drum axis is parallel to the axis of the test wheel which presents
a smooth surface wider than the section width of the loaded test tyre section width. The test wheel and tyre
provide loading normal to the surface of drum and in line radially with the center of test wheel and the drum.
The test wheel is fixed to the hub by nuts with a suitable torque specified by vehicle or wheel manufacturer.
The total weight of a car is balanced with a vertical reaction force from the road through the tyre. This load
constantly compresses the wheel radially. While the car is running, the radial load becomes a cyclic load with
the rotation of the wheel. Hence, the evaluation of wheel fatigue strength under radial load is an important
performance characteristic for structural integrity.
The wheel under test must complete the minimum number of test cycles prior to test termination. The test
shall be terminated by loss of inflation pressure through a fatigue crack or the inability of the wheel to sustain
the test load. There shall be no evidence of failure of the wheel as indicated, by propagation of crack existing
prior to test or by new visible cracks penetrating through a section. Failure of the tyre or other parts of the test
fixture does not require test termination but may result in damage to the wheel and test invalidation.
According to the standards [1], a wheel should maintain structural integrity without any cracks or plastic
deformation for more than 106 cycles under a radial load Fr, expressed by the following equation.
Fr ¼ F " K ð1Þ
where K is acceleration test factor (K = 2.2) and F is the maximum tyre load in N.
 P.R. Raju et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 791–800 795

Fig. 4. Layout of test setup of radial fatigue test.

Table 3
Radial fatigue test results
Sample Test results upto 1,000,000 cycles Test results upto 2,500,000 cycles
1 Passed Failed
2 Passed Failed
3 Passed Failed
4 Passed Failed
5 Passed Failed
6 Passed Failed
7 Passed Failed
8 Passed Failed
9 Passed Failed
10 Passed Failed

Ten wheels have been tested on radial fatigue testing machine and results are presented in Table 3. The test
is conducted in two stages. In the first stage, the wheel is inspected for first 106 cycles for visible cracks. If
cracks are found, the test will be stopped, else it will be continued for next 1,500,000 cycles. After
2,500,000 cycles again the wheel is examined and is said to have passed the test if no cracks are found.

5. Radial fatigue test (RFT) results

In the present tests, cracks started to initiate in between 1,050,000 and 1,300,000 cycles. All wheels are
found to have cracks after 2,500,000 cycles. All the 10 wheels that are tested failed under the radial fatigue
796 P.R. Raju et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 791–800

Fig. 5. Image showing cracks of failed wheel in RFT.

test. Fig. 5 shows the image of a failed wheel in radial fatigue testing. A visible crack can be seen in Fig. 5
starting from pocket edge fillet and propagating towards the other edge.

6. Finite element analysis

The process of generation of finite element model to simulate dynamic radial fatigue test is described in the
following sequel. Finite element modeling and analysis is carried out using a general purpose finite element
software ANSYS.
Element size of 5 mm is used for meshing the wheel model with 101,008 elements and 188,466 nodes. The
wheel is glued to the base through the pitch circle diameter and all the degrees of freedom of the mounting face
are constrained [9].
The test load of 33,630 N is applied as 18 discrete nodal point loads 10" apart over a span of 180" [5]. The
load is distributed as a cosine function with in a central angle of 90" in a circumferential direction. The appli-
cation of pressure on the rim is shown in Fig. 6.
Along the line of contact between the tyre and road, the pressure will be maximum at 0" and decreases as
the loading angle along circumferential direction increases and finally becomes zero at 90" [10]. The same is
applicable due to symmetry over the other 90" of circumference. Fig. 7 shows the application of pressure with
respect to the loading angle along circumferential direction over a span of 180".
Results obtained from strain gauge experiments [10] indicate that loading shape is in the form of a
cosine function about a central angle of 40" from either side of the point of contact with the ground. This
40" angle is developed from the contact patch geometry of the tyre. Indicating that when the tyre is loaded
there is flat at the point of contact with the ground, and the length of this patch is then converted to an

Fig. 6. Loading in the form of cosine function over 90".

 P.R. Raju et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 791–800 797

30000

25000

Pressure on rim in Pa
20000

15000

10000

5000

0
-100 -50 0 50 100
Circumferential Angle

Fig. 7. Pressure on rim vs. circumferential angle.

3.5E+06

3.0E+06
Fatigue life in cycles

2.5E+06 SF 1
SF 1.5
SF 2
2.0E+06 SF 2.5

1.5E+06

1.0E+06

5.0E+05

0.0E+00
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Load angle in degrees

Fig. 8. Load angle vs. fatigue life curves under variable safety factors.

angle swept by rim of the wheel. The analysis done using central angle of 40" did not prove to be accurate
and a method proposed assumes the area in contact with the rim spans half of the tyre or 90" symmetrical
about the point of loading.
Based upon these results, since the angle of application of load in circumferential direction to which actual
contact takes place cannot be decided exactly, analysis is carried out at different angles starting from 40" to 90"
and the results are compared with those of the actual durability test performed in earlier experiment. The sec-
ond step of analysis is carried out at different loading angle in circumferential direction starting from 0–40" to
0–90" with different safety factors 1, 1.5, 2 and 2.5.

7. Results and discussion

The results obtained for different loading cases are shown in Figs. 8 and 9 for different safety factors. The
variation of von Mises stress and life of the alloy wheel with respect to loading angle for different safety factors
is shown in Figs. 8 and 9.
798 P.R. Raju et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 791–800

450

400

350

von Mises stress in MPa

SF 1
SF 1.5
300 SF 2
SF 2.5
250

200

150

100

50

0
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Load angle in degrees

Fig. 9. Load angle vs. von Mises under variable safety factors.

From Fig. 8, it can be observed that for safety factor 1 and 40" circumferential loading, the life of the wheel
is 424,812 cycles. As the circumferential angle increases from 40" to 70", the life of the wheel increases to
3,277,860 cycles more and increases further up to 90" loading. From experimental results, the life of wheel lies
in between 1,050,000 and 1,300,000 cycles. The change in life of the wheel by varying circumferential angle
from 40" to 90" is much higher compared to experimental results.
For safety factor 1.5, it can be observed that the life of wheel at 40" circumferential loading is 62,050 cycles
and the life gradually increases to 3,277,860 cycles at 90". It can also be observed that for safety factor 1.5, the
life is more than the experimental results.
For safety factor 2, it can be observed that the life of the wheel is less than 10,000 cycles at 40" circumfer-
ential loading and the life gradually increased to 1,213,400 cycles at 90" loading. It can be observed that results
obtained from 90" circumferential loading with safety factor 2 are much closer to the experimental results.
For safety factor 2.5, the life of alloy wheel is less than 10,000 cycles at 40" circumferential loading and
447,400 cycles at 90" loading, which shows that the safety factor 2.5 gives life much lesser compared to cor-
responding experimental results.
Fig. 9 shows the variation of von Mises stress for different loadings and safety factors. From Fig. 9, it
can be observed that for safety factor 1, the von Mises stress at 40" circumferential loading is 156.3 MPa
and gradually decreases to 53.54 MPa at 90" circumferential loading. For safety factor1.5, von Mises
stress is 234.5 MPa at 40" circumferential loading and 80.2 MPa at 90" loading. For safety factor 2,
von Mises stress is 312.6 MPa at 40" circumferential loading and 107.8 MPa at 90" loading. The
fatigue life of A356.2-T6 at 109 MPa is 1,213,400, which is much closer to the experimental results.
For safety factor 2.5, the von Mises stress is 390 MPa at 40" circumferential loading and 133.8 MPa at
90" loading.

7.1. Test results under radial load along circumferential direction of 0–90" with safety factor 2

Fig. 10 shows maximum stress distribution at the spoke of the wheel when loaded radially over the span of
0–90" in circumferential direction symmetrically over the path of contact on both sides with a safety factor 2.
From Fig. 10, it can be observed that maximum stress location is at the ends of the spoke connecting to
mounting face and the value is 108.8 MPa.
Fig. 11 shows maximum and minimum distribution at the spoke of the wheel when loaded radially over
the span of 0–90" in circumferential direction symmetrically over the path of contact on both sides with a
safety factor 2. From Fig. 11, it can be observed that the minimum life of 1,213,400 cycles is at the spoke
pocket area. This minimum life area is considered to be the sensitive point with in the wheel where it is
more likely to fail.
 P.R. Raju et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 791–800 799

Fig. 10. Stress distribution plot showing max. and min. stress locations.

Fig. 11. Life distribution plot showing the locations of max. and min. life.

8. Conclusions

Development of S–N curve for aluminum alloy (Al) A356.2-T6 and fatigue life evaluation for wheels made
of alloy under radial fatigue load is presented. The S–N curve is developed by conducting tests at different
stress levels under constant amplitude loading. Finite element analysis is carried out by simulating the test con-
ditions to analyze stress distribution and fatigue life of the alloy wheels. An attempt has been made by con-
ducting parametric study to suggest a suitable safety factor for reliable fatigue life prediction. The following
conclusions are drawn based on the comparison of the results obtained from the tests and the FEA:

1. The location of crack initiation in both the laboratory test and FEA is found to be the same.
2. The S–N curve approach for predicting the fatigue life of alloy wheels by simulating static analysis with
cyclic loads is found to converge with experimental results.
800 P.R. Raju et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 791–800

3. The predicted fatigue life using FEA is found to be in close agreement with the corresponding experimental
observations
4. Safety factors for fatigue life and radial load are suggested by conducting extensive parametric studies.
5. The proposed safety factors will be useful for manufacturers/designers for reliable fatigue life prediction of
similar structural components subjected to radial fatigue load.

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