254 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines

For a maximum velocity V c, the pressure pc will attain its lower limit which is 8 m
below the atmospheric pressure. Therefore,
patm V2 p
– 8 + c = 1.4256 + atm
rg 2g rg
which gives V c = 13.6 m/s
Therefore, the maximum possible discharge becomes
Qmax = 13.6 ´ p(0.02)2/4 = 0.0043 m3/s
Pressure at the exit is atmospheric. Application of Bernoulli’s equation between
the vena contracta section and the exit section gives
patm p V2
+ 1.4256 = atm + 2 + 0.0720
rg rg 2g
Hence, V 2, the exit velocity = 5.15 m/s
Therefore, the diameter d2 at the exit is given by
(p d22/4) ¥ 5.15 = 0.0043
or d2 = 0.0326 m = 32.60 mm

SUMMARY
∑ Euler’s equation of motion describes the dynamics of inviscid flows.
Bernouilli’s equation explicates the fact that the sum total of flow energy,
kinetic energy and potential energy transmitted in a steady, constant density,
inviscid flow field remains conserved between points 1 and 2. In addition,
either of the following conditions needs to be satisfied for the Bernoulli’s
equation to remain applicable (i) points 1 and 2 are located on the same
streamline, or (ii) points 1 and 2 may be located anywhere in the flow field
(not necessarily on the same streamline) provided the flow is irrotational
r r r r
( x = — ¥ V = 0 ), or ( V ¥ x ) is perpendicular to the line element joining
points 1 and 2.
∑ Flows having only tangential velocities with streamlines as concentric circles
are known as plane circular vortex flows. A free vortex flow is an irrota-
tional vortex flow where the total mechanical energy of the fluid elements
remains same in the entire flow field and the tangential velocity is inversely
proportional to the radius of curvature. A forced vortex flow is a rotational
vortex flow where the tangential velocity is directly proportional to the ra-
dius of curvature. Pressure in vortex flows increases with an increase in ra-
dius of curvature. Spiral vortex flows are obtained as a result of superimpo-
sition of a plane circular vortex flow with a purely radial flow.
∑ The flow through a siphon takes place because of a difference in potential
head between the entrance and exit of the tube. The maximum height of a
siphon tube above the liquid level at atmospheric pressure is limited by the
minimum pressure inside the tube which is never allowed to fall below the
vapour pressure of the working liquid at the existing temperature, to avoid
vapour locking in the flow.
 Dynamics of Inviscid Flows: Fundamentals and Applications 255

∑ Venturimeter, orificemeter and flow nozzle are typical flowmeters which

measure the rate of flow of a fluid through a pipe by providing a coaxial area
contraction within the pipe, thus creating a pressure drop across the contrac-
tion. The flow rate is measured by determining the velocity of flow at the
constricted section in terms of the pressure drop by the application of
Bernoulli’s equation. The pressure drop is recorded experimentally. A
venturimeter is a short pipe consisting of two conical parts with a short uni-
form cross section, in between, known as throat. An orificementer is a thin
circular plate with a sharp-edged concentric circular hole in it. A flow nozzle
is a short conical tube providing only a convergent passage to the flow. In a
comparison between the three flowmeters, a venturimeter is the most accu-
rate but the most expensive, while the orificemeter is the least expensive but
the least accurate. The flow nozzle falls in between these two.
∑ The static pressure in a fluid is the thermodynamic pressure defining the
state of fluid and becomes equal to the negative of the arithmetic average of
the normal stresses at a point (mechanical pressure) in case of a real and
Stokesian fluid. The stagnation pressure at a point in a fluid flow is the pres-
sure which could result if the fluid were brought to rest isentropically. The
difference between the stagnation and static pressure is the pressure equiva-

lence of the velocity head ( 1 rV 2 ) and is known as dynamic pressure. An

2
instrument which contains tubes to record the stagnation and static pres-
sures in a flow to finally determine the flow velocity and flow rate is known
as a Pitot static tube.
∑ An orifice is a small aperture through which a fluid passes. Liquid contained
in a tank is usually discharged through a small orifice at its side. A drowned
or submerged orifice is one which does not discharge into the open atmo-
sphere, but discharges into a liquid of the same kind. The discharge through
an orifice is increased by fitting a short length of pipe to the outside known
as the external mouthpiece. The discharge rate is increased due to a decrease
in the pressure at the vena contracta within the mouthpiece, resulting in an
increase in the effective head causing the flow.

EXERCISES
4.1 Choose the correct answer:
(i) Euler’s equation of motion
(a) is a statement of energy balance
(b) is a preliminary step to derive Bernoulli’s equation
(c) statement of conservation of momentum for a real fluid
(d) statement of conservation of momentum for an incompressible flow
(e) statement of conservation of momentum for the flow of an inviscid
(ii) From the following statements, choose the correct one related to
Bernoulli’s equation