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Advances in Engineering Software

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Modelling and strength evaluation of masonry bridges using terrestrial

photogrammetry and finite elements
M.E. Stavroulaki a,∗, B. Riveiro b, G.A. Drosopoulos c, M. Solla b, P. Koutsianitis c,
G.E. Stavroulakis c
a
Technical University of Crete, School of Architecture, Applied Mechanics Laboratory, GR-73100 Chania, Greece
b
University of Vigo, School of Industrial Engineering, Department of Engineering Materials, Applied Mechanics and Construction ES-36208 Vigo, Spain
c
Technical University of Crete, School of Production Engineering and Management, GR-73100 Chania, Greece

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Several numerical models are presented in this article, for the study of the ultimate behaviour of a real
Available online xxx stone arch bridge. For the exact representation of the geometry an integral and comprehensive survey
involving Terrestrial Photogrammetry and Ground Penetrating Radar is in order to provide a realistic 3D
Keywords:
Nondestructive evaluation geometric model for the subsequent mechanical analysis of the bridge. The accuracy of the photogram-
Photogrammetry metric method permitted detecting cracks in different areas and the GPR completed the geometric model
Finite element analysis with information of hidden parts such as backfill, arch ring thickness, etc. Finite element analysis models,
Damage mechanics incorporating damage, elastoplasticity and contact, are then developed. Comparison between these mod-
Ground penetrating radar els is considered in a single arch of the structure. The classical four hinges mechanism appears in the
3D modelling arch. A model of the whole structure, where the arch and the fill are taken into account, is finally devel-
oped. Results show how damage is developed in the body of the arch, for loadings that include forces, or
vertical and transverse displacements in the supports.
© 2016 Civil-Comp Ltd. and Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
New photogrammetry techniques allow us measure structures
of complex shapes and create accurate models for further struc-
tural analysis. Within this paper we report on an application of
this technique on a model structure, the Cernadela Bridge in Spain.
The purpose of this paper is twofold. First practical difficulties aris-
ing during the mentioned operation will be briefly discussed and
practical structural analysis and evaluation tasks related to a ma-
sonry bridge will be presented. Furthermore open questions and
the needs for further development of the involved techniques will
be identified and listed.
Some first related results have already been published in [1].
In the present article, new information regarding terrestrial pho-
togrammetry is given and details for obtaining the geometry
of the fill over the arch are presented. That leads to an im-
proved and more accurate model, including information from the
∗
Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 2821028364.
E-mail addresses: mstavr@mred.tuc.gr, mestavr@gmail.com (M.E. Stavroulaki),
belenriveiro@uvigo.es (B. Riveiro), gdrosopoulos@isc.tuc.gr (G.A. Drosopoulos),
merchisolla@uvigo.es (M. Solla), panoskout@gmail.com (P. Koutsianitis),
gestavr@dpem.tuc.gr (G.E. Stavroulakis).
interior of the structure, which stands for the simulation of the
whole structure.
A significant number of masonry arch bridges in Europe still
survive and some of them are still being used, therefore a de-
tailed analysis of these monuments is of great interest. Masonry
arches consist of stone blocks and the mortar joints. Blocks have
high strength in compression and low strength in tension while
mortar has generally low strength. Other mechanical properties
(like Young’s modulus) are also different between the constitu-
tive materials of these structures. Consequently, a great num-
ber of theories have been developed in the past, in order to
capture this variation in the mechanical properties of masonry
arches.
In this framework continuums as well as discontinuous (dis-
crete) models are used and finite element analysis with commer-
cial packages or limit analysis schemes are adopted. The distinc-
tion between continuum and discrete models is given later in this
study.
Sophisticated homogenisation, as well as multi-scale methods
have been proposed for the investigation of the behaviour of ma-
sonry structures. In [2] a method combining structural analysis and
homogenisation is proposed for the study of masonry. A third ma-
terial which is a mixture of the bricks and mortar is introduced
and a multi-scale scheme is developed to investigate failure of the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.advengsoft.2015.12.007
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Please cite this article as: M.E. Stavroulaki et al., Modelling and strength evaluation of masonry bridges using terrestrial photogrammetry
and finite elements, Advances in Engineering Software (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.advengsoft.2015.12.007
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masonry interfaces. A mortar constitutive law, which takes into
account the coupling of the damage and friction phenomena oc-
curring during the loading history, is proposed in [3]. An effective
non-linear homogenisation procedure, based on the transformation
field analysis and the finite element method, is then proposed. In
[4] and [5] a computational homogenisation approach is used to
depict localisation phenomena in masonry structures.
A lot of efforts towards establishing numerical methods for the
investigation of masonry structures in a structural level, have been
also appeared. A simple and quick procedure for the assessment
of the seismic vulnerability of masonry compounds, based on the
calibration on the basis of numerical analyses performed at dif-
ferent urban scale levels, has been proposed in [6]. A three di-
mensional computational model, based on the Discrete Element
Method (DEM) was proposed in [7]. It was used to investigate the
effect of the angle of skew on the load carrying capacity of sev-
eral single span stone masonry arches. In [8] the usage of non-
linear beam elements with fibre cross-section has been proposed
for modelling the ultimate behaviour of multi-span masonry arch
bridges. The interaction among the spans and the non-linear ma-
terial behaviour can be described with low computational effort.
Vibration measurements have been used in [9] to investigate dam-
age in masonry structures at an early stage. For this purpose, an
approach based on dynamic damage identification methods, has
been proposed. In [10] the static structural behaviour and the dy-
namic properties of an old masonry church have been investigated
using non-linear finite element analysis with proper constitutive
assumptions. The seismic vulnerability has been also evaluated us-
ing a pushover method.
From another point of view, limit analysis tools in the frame-
work of constraint optimisation have been proposed. In [11] the
collapse load of discrete rigid block systems with frictional con-
tact interfaces was computed, as a special constrained optimisation
problem (the so-called mathematical problem under equilibrium
constraints, MPEC). In [12] the limit analysis problem was formu-
lated as an optimisation problem and a solution which involved
the use of a genetic algorithm was suggested. A discontinuous up-
per bound limit analysis approach with sequential linear program-
ming and mesh adaptation has been proposed in [13] for the inves-
tigation of the behaviour of masonry double curvature structures.
The resulting combination of techniques allows us evaluate the
structural health of an existing complex masonry structure by
taking into account geometric data of high precision, mechanical
models of adequate complexity and elements of inverse analysis.
Further information, like material data from the interior of the
structure, is taken into account.
Consequently, the goal of this article is first to point out the
interface between photogrammetry and structural analysis. To ob-
tain a more realistic output of the structural behaviour, informa-
tion taken from photogrammetry regarding damage of the arch
(cracks) is taken into account. Second, several continuum damage
and discrete models are used, in order to offer the analyst a holistic
insight concerning the tools which may be used for the structural
evaluation of masonry arches.
2. 3D modelling of Cernadela Bridge
In this article, a structural evaluation of a masonry bridge
in Spain, the Cernadela Bridge is considered. The creation of a
realistic geometric model involved several complementary non-
destructive surveys. Overall, the methodology to create the geo-
metric model to be used in the subsequent structural analysis com-
prises the following data:
- 3D model of the bridge; this model was created using pho-
togrammetry due to the necessity of obtaining the external 3D
Please cite this article as: M.E. Stavroulaki et al., Modelling and strength evaluation of masonry bridges using terrestrial photogrammetry
and finite elements, Advances in Engineering Software (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.advengsoft.2015.12.007
[m5G;January 12, 2016;16:0]
geometry the bridge. This was achieved by restitution of the
contours of each individual ashlar. This model has a double pur-
pose: to provide information of the external envelope of the
bridge to serve as a basis for the FEM mesh and to visually
identify cracks in the masonry walls. Cracks can be visually de-
tected when the joint between two ashlars is wider than the
surrounding joints.
- Cracks model; from the previous 3D model, those joints per-
pendicular to masonry courses, identified as cracks were saved
as a different point cloud where points were delineated using
polylines.
- Complementary geometric data of inner parts of the bridge pro-
vided by a Ground Penetrating Radar prospection. By georrefer-
encing the GPR data to the coordinate system defined for the
photogrammetric survey, it was possible to add information of
the nonvisible elements of the bridge such as average thickness
of spandrel walls, thickness of arch ring and pavement, compo-
sition of backfill, etc.
According to these models the methodology for the creation of
a realistic geometric model of Cernadela Bridge was divided in two
phases:
- Integral field survey collecting both, photogrammetric GPR data
and subsequent data processing to create the three models re-
lated above.
- Creation of an accurate and detailed geometric model integrat-
ing cracks and the characteristics provided by GPR.
This section aims to summarise the different surveys conducted
in the Cernadela bridge: photogrammetric and GPR surveys. Finally
the methodology that permits integrating all the geometric models
in a single FEM mesh is presented.
2.1. Field works: photogrammetry and ground penetrating radar
surveys
Terrestrial photogrammetry has been reported as a good can-
didate for the performance of accurate geometric surveys of his-
torical structures due to high level of accuracy and detail provided
by the technique. Close range photogrammetry was deeply stud-
ied and evolved during last decade in many different fields and
particularly in architecture and civil engineering [14, 15], but its
application to the study of historical structures is not a question
solved a priori. Historical elements have singularities (complex and
large geometry, they are heritage elements that require nonde-
structive evaluation, etc.), which demand the development of spe-
cific methodologies in order to achieve its complete metric survey.
To complete the information provided by photogrammetry,
which exclusively refers to visible information, ground penetrat-
ing radar (GPR) is proposed. GPR is a geophysical method that has
been established as one of the most recommended non-destructive
methods for routine sub-surface inspections. The technique has
proven its suitability for providing high image quality results of the
interior of the structures, and from the mid-1970s there have been
published numerous studies applied to many aspects related to
civil engineering field. Regarding the evaluation of masonry struc-
tures, the GPR technology has demonstrated its potential to doc-
ument and measure different inner structural characteristics, such
as the dimensioning of wall thicknesses, the detection of internal
faults like voids and cracks, as well as pathologies in construction,
and also to locate hidden structures and former geometries [16,
17].
2.1.1. Photogrammetric survey and data processing
Photogrammetry is defined as a method that allows the geom-
etry of objects to be reconstructed from images, where the object
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has previously impressed. This is possible through the establish-
ment of geometrical relationships between objects coordinates (in
3D space) and image coordinates (in 2D space) into a perspec-
tive system, governed by the collinearity condition that establishes
that, at the time of exposure, a point in the object space, the per-
spective centre and the image coordinates of the point all lie in
common straight line [18].
In essence, two main steps are involved in the solution of that
process. First, the parameters that define the perspective system
that produces the impression of images are required, which are
achievable through the camera calibration. Then, relative orienta-
tion consists of the determination of the relative position and ori-
entation of those perspective systems (cameras) involved in the
photogrammetric model, to be finally transformed to the global co-
ordinate system once scale factor of the model is known.
Photogrammetric data acquisition: an SLR digital camera man-
ufactured by Canon, model EOS 10D, mounted with a 20 mm
Nikkor lens was used for image recording. Camera calibration val-
ues, which are very important for a reliable application, can be
seen in [18]. Another factor is related to the PSP, and consequently,
to the distance between camera and bridge’s surface. During the
image acquisition the surveyors tried to maintain operational dis-
tance with values around 15 m. According to camera parameters
the expected PSP would have a value of 5 mm.
Working under the operational distances mentioned, the field
of view (FOV) of the camera does not cover the whole structure.
Because of this reason the survey of the structure had to be split
in smaller models, being each model composed of three images
taken from different points of view.
The photogrammetric survey of Cernadela Bridge was based on
the principles of convergent photogrammetry where images main-
tain optimal convergence angles between main directions of cam-
eras of 90°. In this sense, 32 individual models were required to
complete the 3D modelling of the whole structure’s envelope.
Artificial targets were distributed in all around the bridge sur-
face so the coordinates of the minimum number of control points
in object space could be collected by topographic equipment. A
total of 100 control points were measured by means of a To-
tal Station Leica TCR1102. The topographic measurements were
subsequently introduced into the photogrammetric workstation to
achieve the absolute orientation. This procedure guarantee not only
to have the 3D model scaled and levelled, but also to control accu-
racy of final 3D model by comparing with the truth data provided
by total station.
Also, the position of target marks for the GPR survey where
identified manually in the photogrammetric model to guarantee
the registration of the internal profiles on the model envelope
(bridge surface).
Photogrammetric data processing: the images collected in the
field and the coordinates of control points measured by total sta-
tion were downloaded to the photogrammetric workstation Pho-
tomodeler Pro®. The route followed in this application was the
following: 1) Import of images corresponding to each indepen-
dent model. Each model was composed of 3 or 4 convergent im-
ages with optimal convergent angles of 90°. 2) Inner orientation.
The geometry of the perspective system used for the impression
of images was reconstructed through the information of camera
calibration. 3) External orientation. The relative orientation was
performed for each independent model by identifying 6 common
points in the homologous images that defined each model. The in-
formation of these points in image space allowed solving the rela-
tive position between cameras and also those points in the model
space (neither scale nor absolute orientation yet). The 32 3D mod-
els orientated in this step belong to different coordinate systems,
and consequently all need to be joined together in order to create
the 3D model of the whole structure. This was done by marking
Please cite this article as: M.E. Stavroulaki et al., Modelling and strength evaluation of masonry bridges using terrestrial photogrammetry
and finite elements, Advances in Engineering Software (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.advengsoft.2015.12.007
[m5G;January 12, 2016;16:0]
3
and transferring common points (at least 3) in the overlapping ar-
eas between adjacent models. After this, a relative model of the
whole structure was formed; 4) Absolute orientation. After refer-
ring corresponding control points in both topographic data and rel-
ative model data, the 3D model of Cernadela Bridge in the global
coordinate system was completed. 5) Restitution. Once all the im-
ages were externally oriented the next step consisted of restitution
of all those points that represent the geometry of the elements re-
quired for the subsequent structural analysis of the bridge.
2.1.2. Complementary geometric data provided by GPR
As presented in the previous paragraphs, GPR was used as a
complementary source of data to have information of those non-
visible areas of the bridge. Particularly, information of zonifica-
tion of backfill, pavement and ring stone thickness, etc. was esti-
mated. The trajectory of the GPR antennas was accurately marked
by means of artificial targets in order to register the path followed
by the GPR into the same coordinate systems used for the pho-
togrammetric model. This operation was performed at the path-
way of the bridge. Additionally, different grids were marked also
using artificial targets into one of the vaults to provide a more ac-
curate measure of arch thickness and so have an estimation of the
error of estimating arch thickness from the survey made from the
path, and finally, grids were also marked into the pillars where the
configuration 4 of GPR, that is presented in the next sections, was
applied.
GPR survey: the GPR data were collected using a RAMAC/GPR
system from MALÅ Geoscience. Three different frequencies and ac-
quisition parameters were selected depending on the application
and the data required. The configuration 1 in Table 1, using a cen-
tral frequency of 250 MHz, was selected to map the filling in the
interior of the whole structure, as well as to determine the paving
thicknesses. Additionally, a 500 MHz antenna (configuration 2) was
chosen to improve imaging resolution. Thus, the paving level was
better recognised and more accurate measurements of thickness
could be obtained. The configuration 3 was carried out to provide
the ring stone thicknesses. This data acquisition was performed in
the longitudinal direction to the bridge structure, through the en-
tire vault intrados surface; while both configurations 1 and 2 were
conducted along the pathway of the bridge in the longitudinal di-
rection. Finally, the configuration 4, in which the GPR profiles were
gathered in the vertical direction through the accessible wall piers
of the bridge, allowed for a proper assessment of the presence
of filling or solid granite (ashlar) inside the structure. To measure
the profile lengths, and for trace-interval distance calculation, an
odometer wheel (encoder) attached to the antenna was used.
GPR data processing: all of the collected profiles were filtered
before interpretation to correct the down shifting of the signal
caused by air-ground interface and to amplify the received sig-
nal as well as to reduce clutter and unwanted noise in the raw
data (both low- and high-frequency noise in the temporal and spa-
tial directions). The objective was to enhance the extraction of
information from the received signals and to produce a subsur-
face image that includes all of the features and/or targets of inter-
est, which simplifies the interpretation of the GPR data. Moreover,
topographic corrections provided by the photogrammetric model
were applied to the profiles acquired through the vault intrados
surface. Migration filtering was also applied to the GPR data gath-
ered through the wall piers in order to mitigate the diffraction hy-
perbolae produced by the heterogeneous filling and irregular ash-
lar, as well as joints between ashlars, which allowed for a better
recognition of layering and more appropriate estimation of depths
(or thicknesses). The data were processed with the ReflexW soft-
ware [19].
Thicknesses values were determined from Eq. (1). This value
is coincident with the distance travelled by the wave (d), and it
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Table 1
Survey parameters assumed for GPR data acquisition by considering four different configurations based
on the data results desired.

Configuration Frequency (MHz) Trace-interval (cm) Time windows (ns) Samples/trace

1 250 5 220 566

2 500 2 100 677
3 800 1 55 554
4 500 3 100 710

Fig. 1. (a) 3D wireframe model of the whole structure of Cernadela Bridge. (b) Detailed model of second vault of the bridge with camera position and intersection rays of
some points. (c) Cracks measured in in the spandrel walls between arches 4 and 5. (d) 3D solid model created from the integration of GPR and cracks in the photogrammetry-
derived model.

is obtained by knowing the radar-wave velocity of propagation in 2.2.1. Basic 3D model

medium (v), and the travel-time distance (twt) to and from the
layer. For calculations, average radar-wave velocities of 11.0 and
12.0 cm ns−1 were assumed for filling materials and granitic ash-
lar, respectively [17,20].
twt
d=v
2
2.2. Creation of geometric models: 3D solid model and cracks model
The previous non-destructive surveys provided the necessary
information to create the geometric basis for the FEM analysis.
Once that information is available, the next step consisted in its
optimal integration and exploitation. In that sense, the method-
ology for the creation of the geometric models involved: first, to
have a basic 3D model of the bridge envelope; second, to add infor-
mation of non-visible parts such as backfill characterisation, arch
ring thickness along the vault, etc.; and finally, to add the cracks
identified during the photogrammetric restitution of ashlars to the
integral model of the bridge.
After the restitution of points defining the contours of all the
masonry blocks, the 3D model of Cernadela Bridge is composed of
more than 25 thousands points with averaged precisions for XYZ
components of (0.007; 0.008; 0.005) giving a RMSE of 12 mm. This
data comprises the 3D point cloud of the bridge. Fig. 1a shows the
(1) 3D wireframe model of Cernadela Bridge where all the ashlars con-
tours. Fig. 1b represents camera configuration for the reconstruc-
tion of second vault of the bridge with intersection rays from dif-
ferent cameras.
Characterisation of inner parts of the 3D model: before the cre-
ation of the FEM mesh, the information extracted from the GPR
survey was used to update the geometric model. After having the
GPR profiles geometrically aligned to the coordinate system of the
general 3D model, it was possible to complete the general model
with the information interpreted in the GPR data.
In general, the results obtained from the GPR data allowed ob-
taining inner geometrical characterisation that was previously un-
known, namely: ring stone and paving thicknesses profiles, as well
as the zonification of filling and solid granitic ashlar in the interior

Please cite this article as: M.E. Stavroulaki et al., Modelling and strength evaluation of masonry bridges using terrestrial photogrammetry
and finite elements, Advances in Engineering Software (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.advengsoft.2015.12.007
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M.E. Stavroulaki et al. / Advances in Engineering Software 000 (2016) 1–13 5

Fig. 2. Geometrical data obtained from GPR. a) 250 MHz data showing the zonification of filling in the interior of the bridge, and paving thicknesses profile. b) 500 MHz
data interpreting the paving–fill interface in detail, and the arch ring corresponding to the first arch from the left side upstream. c) 800 MHz data obtained through the
intrados surface of the vault, which allowed identifying the ring stone thicknesses profile with more accuracy.

of the bridge (Fig. 2). The 250 MHz data collected along the path-
way of the bridge was useful to obtain (Eq. (1)) the paving thick-
nesses profile (Fig. 2a). This interpretation was validated with the
detailed results produced by the 500 MHz data achieved through
pathway (Fig. 2b). Although the ring stone thicknesses can be ap-
preciate from the 250 MHz data, and more pronounced from the
500 MHz data, the radargram generated when acquiring data with
the 800 MHz antenna through the internal intrados of the vault
provided the ring stone profile with more resolution and, subse-
quently, more accurate thicknesses values (Fig. 2c).
In terms of inner constructive materials, the 250 MHz data
recorded through pathway shown those areas containing more het-
erogeneous filling in the interior of the structure (Fig. 2a). Addi-
tionally, a 500 MHz GPR survey was carried out along the sur-
face of the accessible wall piers, which demonstrated that such
structural components are composed by solid ashlar until approxi-
mately 1 m height (Fig. 3).
Creation of the 3D solid model: in order to integrate this
model into the procedures of structural analysis, the initial point
cloud and the information provided by the GPR have to be post-
processed together in order to create a 3D solid model before cre-
ating the FEM mesh. This process performed in two steps using
Geomagic Spark software: first, the point cloud was converted into
a surface model through a triangulation process, and later, it was
converted into a solid model. The next step involved the partition
of the global 3D model with according to the characterisation pro-
vided by GPR, and so, vaults and backfill were isolated before cre-
ating the FEM mesh.
Introduction of crack information: due to the accuracy of the
photogrammetric model, cracks were visually identified during the
restitution of ashlars. The delineation of cracks was exported as
an independently layer to Geomagic Spark, where it was used as
the pattern to create the partitions of the 3D solid model. Since,
there is only evidence of cracks in the intrados of some vaults,
the cracks were used to cut the vaults longitudinally according to
the cracks pattern. Evidence of cracking was also measured in one
of the spandrel walls (Fig. 1c), however this cracks are caused by
an out of plane deformation, which provoked a general opening
of masonry pieces. Even these cracks were documented, they were
not used to cut the 3D model because out of plane deformations
were not included in the further structural analysis considered in
this work.
Finally, the integral geometric model created was exported to
STEP format (Standard for the Exchange of Product Data) to be im-
ported in the FEM software, Marc and Abaqus, for the work pre-
sented in this article.
3. Structural finite element analysis
3.1. Creation of cad model and finite elements
The geometry models initially developed from photogramme-
try are mainly consisted of point clouds and lines. For this reason,
they are imported into appropriate computer aided design soft-
ware with specialised surface processing tools, which are used for
the creation of complex surfaces, solids and sets of parts. This im-
proved version of the geometry model is finally imported into clas-
sical finite element analysis packages for the structural assessment
of the bridge. Marc and Abaqus have been used in this article,
respectively.
3.2. Finite element analysis: interface modelling versus continuous
damage mechanics
The computational models which have been developed in the
past can be roughly divided into two large categories: (a) discrete
models and (b) continuum models.

Please cite this article as: M.E. Stavroulaki et al., Modelling and strength evaluation of masonry bridges using terrestrial photogrammetry
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Fig. 3. 800 MHz GPR data gathered through the wall pier among the two first arches at the left margin from upstream. The layering of solid ashlar in depth is interpreted,
as well as the interface between ashlar and filling in height.

In a discrete model formulation the structure is divided into

large discrete deformable parts connected with interfaces. The be-
haviour of the contact surface in each interface is described by a
unilateral law, possibly with friction, while the discrete elements
are assumed to behave elastically. Detailed discontinuous finite el-
ement model incorporating principles taken from non-smooth me-
chanics like unilateral contact and friction, have been presented
among others in [18,21–23].
From another point of view, the mechanical behaviour of con-
tinuum models is described by a nonlinear constitutive law, where
either the masonry is assumed to consist of a single material and
its behaviour is described by an inelastic theory (for instance an
appropriately modified damage model) [24], or the different me-
chanical behaviour between stone and mortar and the anisotropy Fig. 4. Uniaxial stress–strain law of the smeared crack damage model.
induced by them are taken into account on the basis of a ho-
mogenisation theory [25].
Experience accumulated from the discontinuous modelling ap-
proach, indicated the fact that consideration of potential cracks as
macroscopic interfaces, although is a quite realistic method for the
representation of the mechanical behaviour, however requires the
handling of difficult numerical schemes, in case the method is ex-
panded to large, complex structures with more complicated pat-
tern of interfaces. Moreover, the computational cost towards this
effort would be significant for a large scale structure, for instance
a three-dimensional model of a multi-ring stone arch bridge. For
these reasons, a first attempt for a correlation between the discrete
macroscopic approach described above and a continuous damage
Fig. 5. Failure surfaces of the smeared crack damage model.
model, was made by the authors of this study in [26].
In the next sections of the article, both continuum damage
models and discrete models are used for the determination of the
which in comparison with available predictions from other meth-
ultimate behaviour of the arches of the Cernadela stone bridge. An
ods gives us confidence that prediction of collapse corresponds to
elastoplastic law is applied to the fill.
real collapse and not to numerical failure.
3.3. Ultimate behaviour and collapse prediction It is noted that in the framework of the present work, non-
linear, incremental finite element analysis is used to depict dam-
When a stone arch bridge is close to failure, a small increase age, among others, in a real and complex masonry arch bridge.
of the loading which is applied to the arch causes a significantly From another point of view, one of the most common procedures
increased vertical displacement of it. The structure then reaches which can be used to evaluate the collapse mechanism and the ul-
its ultimate strength and the analysis is terminated. Thus, in the timate load is related to limit analysis (see for instance [11–13]).
framework of finite element analysis as the load is increased, dam-
age arises and expanding in the body of the arch, while the force– 3.3.1. Smeared crack damage model for the arches
displacement diagram tends to become horizontal, indicating that In this article two similar continuum models have been used for
the structure is close to collapse. This point, which is characterised the structural analysis of the arches of the structure. The first one,
with at least one zero eigenvalue of the tangential stiffness matrix, a smeared crack damage model, with uniaxial tensile and compres-
is at the end of a path of stable mechanical equilibrium which in sive behaviour shown in Fig. 4, allows for the simulation of brittle
fact has been obtained with a monotonic application of the load- materials, like concrete and masonry.
ing. The numerical tools can proceed further, following branches According to this model, cracking is assumed to occur when the
of unstable solutions in analogy to post-buckling effects, using for stress reaches a critical failure surface, given by the relationship
example tools like arc-length techniques. A careful path-following, between the equivalent pressure stress, p, and the Mises equivalent
incremental-iterative solution procedure is followed in this paper, deviatoric stress q, as it is illustrated in Fig. 5.

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Fig. 6. Stress–displacement law of the smeared crack damage model representing
tension softening.
Fig. 7. An alternative continuum model: stress–strain behaviour of the masonry.
In the framework of this model, no individual “macro” cracks
are developed. On the contrary, the constitutive calculations are
performed independently at each integration point of the finite el-
ement model, thus the presence of cracks affects the stress and
material stiffness associated with each integration point. In addi-
tion, the compressive response of the material is modelled by an
elastic-plastic theory using a simple form of yield surface written
in terms of the equivalent pressure stress p, and the Mises equiv-
alent deviatoric stress q (Fig. 5). The post-failure behaviour of the
damaged material is modelled with a tension stiffening law and
the stress–displacement diagram shown in Fig. 6.
3.3.2. An alternative damage model for the arches
A slightly different continuum model is also used in the present
study. According to this model, the inelastic material behaviour of
masonry is also simulated by a cracking constitutive law for brit-
tle materials. The damage is considered to be homogeneous within
an element even if the length of individual cracks is much smaller
than the element size. In addition, damage is described by micro-
cracks oriented along mutually perpendicular planes. These cracks
are developed in the undamaged material when a maximum prin-
cipal stress criterion is satisfied. Similar to the previously men-
tioned damage model, the presence of cracks affects the stress and
material stiffness associated with each integration point.
A tension softening model is considered for the stress and a
shear softening/retention law is used for the shear components of
stress. The crack model is described by the critical cracking stress
σ cr , the tension-softening modulus Es and the crushing strain
εcrush (Fig. 7). The shear retention factor is used to define the resid-
ual shear stiffness for a cracked integration point in a cracking
analysis. This reduced shear modulus will have effect when the
normal stress across a crack becomes compressive.
3.3.3. Discrete model for the arches
For the verification of the results obtained by the usage of con-
tinuum models, a discrete model is also developed for a single arch
of the structure. The model consists of unilateral contact interfaces
standing for potential cracks, distributed in the body of the arch.
Along these interfaces, unilateral contact and frictional effects are
considered.
Please cite this article as: M.E. Stavroulaki et al., Modelling and strength evaluation of masonry bridges using terrestrial photogrammetry
and finite elements, Advances in Engineering Software (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.advengsoft.2015.12.007
[m5G;January 12, 2016;16:0]
7
The basic unilateral contact law is described by the set of in-
equalities (1), (2) and by the complementarity relation (3):
h = u − g ≤ 0 ==> h ≤ 0 (2)
n
−t ≥ 0 (3)
t n (u − g ) = 0 (4)
Inequality (2) represents the non-penetration relation. Inequal-
ity (3) implements the requirement that only compressive stresses
(contact pressures) are allowed in each contact interface. Eq. (4)
is the complementarity relation which states that either separa-
tion with zero contact stress occurs or contact is realised with
possibly non-zero contact stress. For a discretised structure the
previous relations are written for every point of a unilateral
interface.
The behaviour in the tangential direction is defined by a static
version of the Coulomb friction law. In particular, two contacting
surfaces start sliding when the shear stress in the interface reaches
a critical value equal to:
t t = τcr = ±μ|tn | (5)
where tt and tn are the shear stress and the contact pressure
at a given point of the contacting surfaces respectively and μ is
the friction coefficient. There are two possible directions of sliding
along an interface, so tt can be positive or negative depending on
that direction. Furthermore, there is no sliding if |tt | < μ|tn | (stick
conditions).
The Lagrange multiplier method is used to incorporate in the
equilibrium equations, the unilateral contact – friction equations.
Finally, an alternative approach of a unilateral contact interface
with a non-zero tensile resistance is adopted in this study.
3.4. Two- and three-dimensional models
Several finite element models have been developed, for the sim-
ulation of the Cernadela Bridge. Four of them are used for the sim-
ulation of a single arch of the structure and a fifth one for the in-
vestigation of the behaviour of the whole bridge. In particular, two
2d models are developed with the two mentioned damage laws,
one 3d model is also developed with the smeared crack damage
model in a single arch and one 2d discrete model is developed for
the same arch. Within the first four models, a parametric investiga-
tion of the tensile strength of the masonry and of the width of the
arch has been considered. Finally, the proper material parameters
have been chosen for implementation on the whole structure.
In particular, the first smeared crack concrete finite element
model is used for the simulation of the second arch (Arch 2) of the
Cernadela Bridge in two dimensions, Fig. 8. The main dimensions
of the bridge are given below [27]:
- Length of spans (right to left, downstream view): 3.58 m,
6.56 m, 10.01 m, 11.14 m, 10.30 m.
- Rise of arches (right to left, downstream view): 1.79 m, 3.77 m,
5.22 m, 5.80 m, 4.75 m.
The model consists of quadrilateral, four-node, plane stress ele-
ments with two translational degrees of freedom per node. A typ-
ical value for the length of each finite element is 0.03 m. A total
number of 4725 elements are used. In Fig. 9a the mesh of the arch
is shown.
For the implementation of the alternative damage model, the
mesh shown in Fig. 10 is used. The model consists of quadrilateral,
four-node, plane stress elements with two translational degrees of
freedom per node. A total number of 4351 elements are used. The
same mesh has been used in the framework of the model with
contact interfaces.
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Fig. 8. Geometry of the Cernadela Bridge – the simulated single arch.

Fig. 9. Mesh of the simulated single arch (a) two dimensional and (b) three dimensional model.

brick finite elements with three translational degrees of freedom

per node, are used for the mesh of the model. A number of 231,693
finite elements have been used. The influence of loading in some
of the arches or the movement of abutments on the ultimate be-
haviour of the structure, are investigated. It is noted that the whole
structure was also simulated in [20], with a linear finite element
analysis model.

4. Inverse analysis and parameter identification

Let us consider that a structure has suffered from a destructive

Fig. 10. Mesh of the simulated single arch – two dimensional model of Marc.
A fourth, three dimensional finite element model has been de-
veloped, for the study of the same arch of the bridge, in three
dimensions. The width of the arch is considered equal to 0.5 m.
Three dimensional hexahedral finite elements with three transla-
tional degrees of freedom per node have been used. The total num-
ber of them is equal to 73,520, Fig. 9b. The smeared crack concrete
model is used for the investigation of the damage in this model. In
the described models, loading conditions include self-weight and a
concentrated load at the quarter span of the bridge.
In [27] the same arch of the structure was simulated with a
discontinuous finite element model, as well as with Ring 2.0 limit
analysis software [28]. In both models, a discrete modelling ap-
proach was considered, contrary to the present study where con-
tinuum damage models are mainly used. Consequently, comparison
between the results obtained from the continuum and discrete ap-
proach will be considered for this arch of the bridge. Thus, the ul-
timate (limit) load and the collapse mechanism received from both
approaches will be examined. This procedure is used for the vali-
dation of the parameters of the used damage models.
Finally, a three dimensional, continuum, finite element model
is developed, for the whole geometry of the bridge, Fig. 11. For the
investigation of the ultimate behaviour of the arch, the smeared
crack concrete model has been used. For the fill, a classical Mohr–
Coulomb elastoplastic law has been chosen. Three dimensional,
loading in the past. Usually small or larger deformations and dam-
ages or cracks remain after this experience. Using photogrammetry
we can accurately measure the current state of the structure. On
the other hand we can use the starting shape of the structure, if
available from drawings or estimates, and established mechanical
models in order to create loading and prediction scenarios on the
computer. Comparison of the predictions of these scenarios with
the measured state will allow us saying which one most proba-
bly occurred in the given structure. From the mathematical point
of view we formulate and solve a parameter estimation (identifica-
tion) problem, or inverse problem, in order to adjust the parame-
ters of the mechanical model so that existing damage or deforma-
tion patterns are reproduced with the highest accuracy [29]. We
can solve this problem by combining a parameterised mechanical
model with an optimisation algorithm, or use this formulation in
order to detect, at least, the existence of some defect within the
structure. The information of the surface measurements can be ex-
tended by either additional measurements or focused post process-
ing of data in order to find surface defects or cracks or by adding
information from the interior of the structure, by using for exam-
ple geophysical prospection or other suitable techniques.
In this section, results related to the mechanical behaviour of
the Cernadela Bridge will be presented. For this reason, the men-
tioned models have been used in the framework of finite element
analysis. Within the first smeared crack damage model, Young’s
modulus has been considered equal to 23 GPa, Poisson’ s ratio 0.2
and density 2000 kg/m3 . The tensile strength of the structure is
considered equal to 0.5 MPa. Large displacement effects are ne-
glected while the arch is considered to be fixed to the ground.
Newton–Raphson incremental iterative procedure has been used
for the solution of the non-linear problem.

Please cite this article as: M.E. Stavroulaki et al., Modelling and strength evaluation of masonry bridges using terrestrial photogrammetry
and finite elements, Advances in Engineering Software (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.advengsoft.2015.12.007
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Fig. 11. Mesh of the whole Cernadela Bridge.

Fig. 12. Collapse mechanism obtained from the continuum finite element models (a) two dimensional and (b) three dimensional model.

Fig. 13. Collapse mechanism obtained from the discrete, two dimensional finite element model (a) separation stress = 0.25 MPa and (b) separation stress = 0.00 MPa.

By using the alternative finite element continuum model
the material parameters are considered as follows: Young’s
modulus, E = 23 GPa, Poisson’s ration 0.2, density 2000 kg/m3 ,
critical cracking stress, σ cr = 0.25 MPa, tension-softening modulus,
Es = 2.5 GPa, crushing strain, ε crush = 0.003 and the shear reten-
tion factor equal to 1.0 (Fig. 7).
For the two dimensional discrete model, first, no tension
strength is considered. Then, a low strength of tension equal to
0.25 MPa is used.
4.1. Parametric analysis of the single arch of the structure
Results obtained from the study of the second arch of the Cer-
nadela Bridge will be presented in this section. For this reason,
continuum damage and discrete models have been developed in
two and three dimensions, respectively. The collapse mode and the
failure load received from these models, are compared with the
corresponding results obtained from a discrete modelling approach
presented in [27], in the same arch.
The failure mode which arises from the damage models is
the four hinges collapse mechanism, Fig. 12(a) and (b). The same
mechanism is received from the discontinuous finite element
model presented in [27]. A similar collapse mechanism is also ob-
tained from the discrete model formulation which is used in this
article. Small differences about the location of the two hinges (at
the left side) which are presented are related with the value of
separation force, as it is shown in Fig. 13.
In addition, the influence of the arch width is examined for
the two dimensional model considering values equal to 0.5 m
and 1.0 m. The corresponding results are found at the force–
displacement diagrams shown in Figs. 14 and 15. In Fig. 16 are
summarised the force–displacement diagrams, obtained from the
damage models used in this article and the discrete models pre-
sented in [27]. According to these, the failure loads received from
the damage models are found between the corresponding values
of the discrete, three dimensional finite element model and the
limit analysis model with the Ring software, presented in [27]. As
the load is increased, the inclination of the diagrams change and

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Fig. 14. Force–displacement diagrams for the second arch of the Cernadela Bridge
(width of the arch 0.50 m). Fig. 15. Force–displacement diagrams for the second arch of the Cernadela Bridge
(width of the arch 1.00 m).

the diagrams tend to become horizontal, indicating that the struc-

ture is close to collapse. At the same time, the four hinges collapse
mechanism appears.

4.2. Study of the whole bridge with the damage model

In this section the mechanical behaviour of the whole Cer-

nadela Bridge is under investigation. The same structure was con-
sidered as a unity in [1], thus no distinction between the arch and
the fill was taken into account. In the present study, a model in
which the arch–fill interaction is taken into account is developed,
meaning that a different material law is applied to each of them.
A Mohr–Coulomb elastoplastic material law is adopted to sim-
ulate failure of the fill. In this framework, an angle of internal fric-
tion equal to 42 degrees and a cohesion equal to 0.5 MPa are cho-
sen. The elasticity modulus of the fill is initially taken equal to
15 GPa. Then, a short parametric investigation of the influence of
the material properties of the fill on the behaviour of the structure
is presented. The interaction between arch and fill is simulated by
a tie constraint, thus a condition which does not permit neither
sliding nor opening in the interface. At the end of this section, a
model with some pre-existing cracks, as they obtained from Pho-
togrammetry (Fig. 1d), is presented.
The smeared crack damage model, which was previously pre-
sented, is used for the investigation of the failure of the arch. The
Young’s modulus has been considered equal to 23 GPa, Poisson’s
ratio 0.2 and density 2000 kg/m3 . The same density and Poisson’s
ratio are taken also for the fill. The tensile strength of the arch
is considered equal to 0.5 MPa. Large displacement effects are ne-
glected and the arch is considered to be fixed to the ground. The
Newton–Raphson incremental iterative procedure has been used
for the solution of the non-linear problem.
The results which are presented in the following lines, demon-
strate failure on the structure in case movement of abutments or
a static, traffic load is applied to the bridge. In [20] a similar in-
vestigation was conducted by a linear finite element model, on the
same masonry arch. In [30] the influence of the movement of abut-
ments on the collapse mechanism of two dimensional stone arches
was investigated, by developing discrete finite element models.
Concerning the loading of the structure, three loading steps
have been developed. In the first step the dead load of the bridge
is considered, while in the second step a uniformly distributed
load of 3 kN/m3 is applied to the structure. In the third step a
Fig. 16. Summary of the force–displacement diagrams for the second arch of the
Cernadela Bridge (width of the arch 0.5 m).
concentrate load or a movement of abutments is applied to the
bridge.
When a vertical displacement is applied to the fourth abut-
ment of the structure, damage arises in the fourth and the fifth
arch according to Fig. 17. Similarly, principle stresses of the linear
model presented in [20] become maximum in the same areas of
the fourth and fifth arch. In addition, Fig. 18 shows the damage
of the fourth arch, in case a traffic, static load is applied to it. A
close image is obtained by the linear model in [20], for the same
loading. In Fig. 19 the failure of the fill for the same case is given.
A comment related to the ultimate behaviour of the structure
can be made, in case the traffic load of the fourth arch is accompa-
nied with a transverse displacement of the fourth abutment (in a
direction vertical to the longitudinal axis of the bridge). According
to the upstream view shown in Fig. 20 the damage in this case is
expanded to the area of the spandrel walls of the fourth and fifth
arch, contrary to Fig. 18 where damage arises almost exclusively in
the middle of the fourth arch. In addition, damage has been ex-
panded to the fourth abutment, according to downstream view of
Fig. 21. This demonstrates that the behaviour of the structure is
significantly influenced in case a transverse loading is applied to
it, for instance after an earthquake.

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Fig. 17. Damage on the fourth and fifth arch for a vertical displacement of the fourth abutment.

Fig. 18. Damage of the arch for a traffic load in the fourth arch.

Fig. 19. Damage of the fill for a traffic load in the fourth arch.

Fig. 20. Damage for a traffic load in the fourth arch and a transverse movement in the fourth abutment – upstream view.

Fig. 21. Damage for a traffic load in the fourth arch and a transverse movement in the fourth abutment – downstream view.

Please cite this article as: M.E. Stavroulaki et al., Modelling and strength evaluation of masonry bridges using terrestrial photogrammetry
and finite elements, Advances in Engineering Software (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.advengsoft.2015.12.007
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Fig. 22. Crack opening on the fifth arch for a vertical displacement of the fourth abutment – Fill Young’s modulus = 23 GPa.

Fig. 23. Crack opening on the fifth arch for a vertical displacement of the fourth abutment – Fill Young’s modulus = 8 GPa.

The mentioned model is finally enhanced by taking into ac-

count pre-existing cracks, as they were obtained from the Pho-
togrammetry (Fig. 1d). By taking into account the current state of
damage and deformation, the estimation of the real structural be-
haviour and strength of the arch can be more realistic and accu-
rate.
To simulate the cracks, a unilateral contact law has been ap-
plied to the cracked surfaces. Thus, zero tensile resistance is given
in each interface. In addition, three parametric simulations of the
fill have been taken into account. First, the initial Young’s modu-
lus of the fill (15 GPa) and a vertical displacement of the fourth
abutment are considered. Then, the Young’s modulus is considered
equal to 8 GPa and 23 GPa, respectively. The goal of this inves-
tigation is to examine the mechanical behaviour of the structure
with the cracks as well as to understand the influence of the fill’s
Young’s modulus on the behaviour of the structure. Fig. 24. Crack opening – abutment’s vertical displacement diagram for a variation
According to the output, the bigger elasticity modulus of the of the elasticity modulus of the fill.
fill results in bigger crack openings (Fig. 22), in comparison with
the case with smaller elasticity modulus (Fig. 23), for the same
value of movement of the abutment. This shows that the proper- Additionally, the diagrams shown in Fig. 24 indicate non-linear
ties of the fill may influence the ultimate behaviour of the cracked response as well as bigger crack openings for bigger Young’s mod-
structure. ulus of the fill.

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and finite elements, Advances in Engineering Software (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.advengsoft.2015.12.007
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5. Conclusions
In the present study terrestrial photogrammetry is used for ge-
ometry reconstruction of a real masonry arch bridge located in
Spain, the metric model is used for subsequent implementation
in structural assessment tasks. Terrestrial photogrammetry signif-
icantly contributes to the accurate geometric representation of his-
torical structures with milimetric precision. It is important to note
some limitations on the use of the photogrammetric method. Al-
though the high level of detail recorded, this may be not enough
for detection of movement or subtle displacements of masonry
blocks. The main advantage of such surveying method is based
on the accuracy reached for the positioning of real masonry el-
ements that will subsequently support the accurate geometric
characterisation during the finite elements based model of the
whole structure. The exact geometry obtained from this method
is then used for the investigation of the ultimate behaviour of the
structure.
In particular, several two and three dimensional, non-linear
models have been developed. To depict the limit load and the col-
lapse mechanism of the structure, continuum damage models have
been used and compared with discrete approaches conducted in
the present as well as in older studies.
According to the results, the classical four hinges mechanism
arises from the structural analysis of the bridge. Moreover, the in-
fluence of parameters such us the width of the structure and the
tensile strength of the material in the force–displacement diagrams
is shown.
The simulation of the whole structure demonstrates that a pos-
sible out of plane movement of abutments will cause significant
damage to the bridge. Finally, useful results are obtained when
the existing cracks of the structure are incorporated in the simula-
tion. Values of crack opening and the pattern of hinges which are
activated are received after simulation. Additionally, the variation
of the elasticity modulus of the fill may significantly influence the
values of crack opening in the structure.
Acknowledgements
The work of Dr. Georgios Drosopoulos is being supported
by a research project implemented within the framework of
the Action «Supporting Postdoctoral Researchers» of the Opera-
tional Program "Education and Lifelong Learning" (Action’s Bene-
ficiary: General Secretariat for Research and Technology), and co-
financed by the European Social Fund (ESF) and the Greek State.
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