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L Lqwurgxflöq do Fäofxor :
4 Orv Qýphurv Uhdohv <
414 Lqwurgxfflöq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <
415 D{lrpdv gh Fxhusr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <
41514 Hvwuxfwxud gh Juxsr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 44
41515 D{lrpdv gh U frpr Fxhusr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 47
41516 Srwhqfldv Hqwhudv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 54
41517 Frqmxqwr uhvwulfflöq | frqmxqwr vroxflöq gh xqd hfxdflöq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 55
41518 Uhvroxflöq gh sureohpdv gh sodqwhr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 57
416 D{lrpdv gh Rughq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 67
41614 Udð} q0ìvlpd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6<
41615 s Vlvwhpdv gh Hfxdflrqhv qr Olqhdohv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 78
41616 5 hv luudflrqdo 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 84
41617 Lqhfxdflrqhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8:
41618 Od hfxdflöq gh vhjxqgr judgr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 96
41619 Ydoru devroxwr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :4
417 D{lrpd gho Vxsuhpr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ;5
418 Hmhuflflrv Sursxhvwrv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ;<
41814 Hvwuxfwxudv gh Juxsr | Fxhusr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ;<
41815 Sureohpdv gh Sodqwhr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <3
41816 Hmhuflflrv gh Vlvwhpdv gh Hfxdflrqhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <5
41817 Hmhuflflrv Dfhufd gh orv D{lrpdv gh Rughq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <5
5 Ixqflrqhv <:
514 Lqwurgxfflöq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <:
515 Grplqlr | Uhfruulgr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <;
516 Uhsuhvhqwdflöq Juäfd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 437
51614 Udðfhv phgldqwh juäfdv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 44:
517 Dsolfdflrqhv gh Ixqflrqhv/ Prghodflöq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 455
51714 Surjudpdflöq Olqhdo 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 466
518 Dojheud gh Ixqflrqhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 46;
51814 Frpsrvlflöq gh ixqflrqhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 474
51815 Ixqflrqhv Fuhflhqwhv | Ghfuhflhqwhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 478
519 Odv ixqflrqhv H{srqhqfldohv | Orjduðwplfdv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 48:
51: Hmhuflflrv Sursxhvwrv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4:7
51:14 Hmhuflflrv gh Grplqlr | Uhfruulgr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4:7
51:15 Hmhuflflrv gh Juäfd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4:8
51:16 Hmhuflflrv gh Prghodflöq Pdwhpäwlfd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4:9
51:17 Hmhuflflrv gh Frpsxhvwd gh ixqflrqhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4:<
51:18 Hmhuflflrv gh Orjdulwprv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4;3
6
7 FRQWHQWV
6 Vxfhvlöq 4;8
614 Frqfhswrv Eävlfrv | Hmhpsorv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4;8
615 Vxfhvlrqhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4;:
616 Oðplwh gh xqd Vxfhvlöq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4<4
617 Fäofxor gh oðplwhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4<:
618 Hmhuflflrv Sursxhvwrv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 547
8 Ghulydgd 5:8
814 Ghulydgd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5:8
81414 Hmhpsorv gh ixqflrqhv ghulydeohv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5:9
81415 Dojheud gh Ghulydgdv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5;5
81416 Uhjod gh od Fdghqd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5;9
81417 Ghulydgd gh xqd ixqflöq Lqyhuvd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 634
815 Ghulydgd gh Rughq Vxshulru 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 636
816 Ixqflrqhv ghqlgdv lpsoðflwdphqwh 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 639
817 Uhjod gh O*Krslwdo 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 64<
818 Dsolfdflrqhv gh od Ghulydgd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 659
81814 Dsolfdflrqhv Jhrpìwulfdv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 659
81815 Dsolfdflrqhv Iðvlfdv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 65:
81816 Ud}öq gh Fdpelr/ wdvd gh yduldflöq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 65<
819 Pä{lpr | Pðqlpr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 675
81914 Whvw gh od Sulphud Ghulydgd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 67<
81915 Whruhpd gho ydoru phglr | Urooh 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 683
81: Frqfdylgdg 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 693
81:14 Whvw gh od Vhjxqgd Ghulydgd= 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 69:
81:15 Oðplwh Lqqlwr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 69<
81:16 Dvðqwrwdv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6:4
81:17 Rwudv dvðqwrwdv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6:9
D Uhodflrqhv 6;8
D14 Uhodflrqhv Eävlfdv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6;:
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33 @ 3
or txh kdfh xqd frqwudglfflöq frq 3 9@ 33
Vh ghmdq frpr hmhuflflr sdud ho ohfwru odv ghprvwudflrqhv gh odv sduwhv +ll,/ +lll, | +ly, gh od sursrvlflöq1
Revhuydflöq= Hv lpsruwdqwh dfodudu txh ho pìwrgr gho devxugr hv px| ýwlo sdud ghprvwudu sursrvlflrqhv
gho wlsr
s,t +418,
Ho pìwrgr frqvlvwh hq vxsrqhu txh vh fxpsoh od qhjdflöq gh 418
+s , t,>
Hmhpsor 9
Vl s5 hv sdu/ hqwrqfhv s hv sdu1 +41:,
Revhuyh txh od sursrvlflöq hq 41: hv gho wlsr u , v grqgh u @= s hv sdu | od sursrvlflöq v hv v @= s
5 5
hv sdu1
'G
5 Xvduhprv ho vðperor % sdud lqglfdu txh od sursrvlflöq d od l}txlhugd gh ìo hvwä ghqlgd sru od h{suhvlöq d vx ghuhfkd1
Dtxð u 'Gs2 hv sdu vljqlfd txh od sursrvlflöq u vh ghqh frpr od sursrvlflöq s2 hv sdu1
49 FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
Ghprvwudflöq= Vxsrqjdprv or frqwudulr/ hv ghflu/ s5 hv sdu | s qr hv sdu1 Frpr s qr hv sdu s gheh vhu
lpsdu> oxhjr h{lvwh n 5 ] wdo txh
s @ 5n . 4
shur
s5 @ +5n . 4,+5n . 4,
@ +5n . 4,5n . +5n . 4, 4
@ 7n5 . 5n . 5n . 4
@ 7n5 . 7n . 4
@ 5+5n5 . 5n, . 4
oxhjr s5 @ 5n3 . 4 frq n3 @ 5n5 . 5n 5 ] gh grqgh s5 hv lpsdu> or txh frqwudglfh ho vxsxhvwr txh s5 hv sdu1
Hq frqvhfxhqfld
Vl s5 hv sdu/ hqwrqfhv s hv sdu
Hmhpsor :
Qrwdflöq=
d4 lqglfd ho lqyhuvr pxowlsolfdwlyr gho qýphur uhdo qr qxor d1
Frq orv d{lrpdv gh fxhusr ghprvwuduhprv dojxqdv surslhgdghv eävlfdv gh U1
Ghprvwudflöq= l, Frpr d | e vrq qýphurv uhdohv/ d . e wdpelìq hv xq qýphur uhdo1 Dvð/ sru d{lrpd/
hvwh ýowlpr wlhqh vx lqyhuvr dglwlyr txh hv +d . e,/ sru or wdqwr
+d . e, . ++d . e,, @ 3
Sru rwud sduwh/ sru frqpxwdwlylgdg/ dvrfldwlylgdg/ d{lrpd gho lqyhuvr | d{lrpd gho qhxwur whqhprv txh
Sru or wdqwr
+d . e, . +d, . +e, @ 3
hvwd ýowlpd ljxdogdg qrv glfh txh wdpelìq +d, . +e, hv lqyhuvr gh +d . e,1 Gh hvwd irupd/ sru xqlflgdg
gho lqyhuvr dglwlyr/ vh wlhqh txh
+d . e, @ +d, . +e,
ll, Sru d{lrpd gho lqyhuvr dglwlyr h{lvwh +d, 5 U | +d, 5 U | qrwhprv txh
+d, . d @ d . +d, @ 3
4151 D[LRPDV GH FXHUSR 4:
|
++d,, . +d, @ +d, . ++d,, @ 3
ljxdogdghv txh qrv glfhq txh wdqwr d frpr +d, vrq lqyhuvrv dglwlyrv gh +d,> hq frqvhfxhqfld/ sru
xqlflgdg gho lqyhuvr dglwlyr
d @ +d,
Dqäorjdphqwh vh ghpxhvwudq +lll, | +ly, fdpeldqgr vxpd sru pxowlsolfdflöq | qdwxudophqwh fdpeldqgr
od qrwdflöq gh lqyhuvr dglwlyr d lqyhuvr pxowlsolfdwlyr1
y, Sxhvwr txh sru d{lrpd gho qhxwur dglwlyr
3@3.3
e 3 @ e +3 . 3, @ e 3 . e 3
oxhjr
e3@e3.e3
Vxpdqgr d dperv plhpeurv gh od hfxdflöq BB ho lqyhuvr dglwlyr gho qýphur uhdo e3/ dvrfldqgr ghelgdphqwh/
| sru od surslhgdg gho qhxwur h lqyhuvr dglwlyr vh wlhqh txh
oxhjr
e3@3
yl, Od ghprvwudflöq frqvlvwh hq suredu txh +de, | +d,e vrq lqyhuvrv dglwlyrv gho plvpr qýphur=
Fodudphqwh srghprv yhu txh +de, hv ho lqyhuvr gh +de, oxhjr
de . ++de,, @ 3
Sru rwur odgr sru od surslhgdg gh glvwulexwlylgdg/ d{lrpd gho lqyhuvr dglwlyr | sru BB whqhprv txh
de . +d,e @ +d . +d,,e
@ 3e
@ 3
oxhjr
de . +d,e @ 3
ljxdogdg txh qrv glfh txh +d,e wdpelìq hv lqyhuvr gh de/ dvð/ sru xqlflgdg gho lqyhuvr gh de vh wlhqh txh
+de, @ +d,e
+de, @ +ed,
@ +e,d
@ d+e,
sru or wdqwr
+de, @ d+e,
4; FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
Frurodulr 418
l, +4,+4, @ 4
+4,+4, @ 4
d . +e, @ = d e
4
d4 @ > d 9@ 3
d
d
de4 @ > e 9@ 3 +41;,
e
Hmhpsor ; Fxdqgr dqrwdprv
4
{5 7
hvwdprv kdeodqgr gho lqyhuvr pxowlsolfdwlyr gh {5 71 Gh hvwd irupd/ {547 vhuðd xq qýphur uhdo vl | vöor
vl {5 7 9@ 3> hv ghflu/ vl { 9@ 5 | { 9@ 5/ dvðod ljxdogdg
4
@ +{5 7,4
{5 7
hvwä ghqlgd hq U vl | vöor vl { 5 U i5> 5j+hq rwur fdvr dpedv h{suhvlrqhv fduhfhq gh vhqwlgr,1
Dghpäv= d f df
@ +de4 ,+fg4 , @ dfe4 g4 @ df+eg,4 @
e g eg
Odv surslhgdghv dqwhulruhv wlhqhq od yhqwdmd gh txh qrv shuplwhq wudedmdu frq h{suhvlrqhv päv vlpsol0
fdgdv
Vxefrqmxqwrv Qrwdeohv
Dojxqrv vxefrqmxqwrv qrwdeohv gh U txh phqflrqdprv do sulqflslr gho fdsðwxor vrq
Ho frqmxqwr gh orv qýphurv Qdwxudohv1
] @ iq = q 5 Qj
L@ UT
hvwh ýowlpr oodpdgr ho frqmxqwr gh orv qýphurv Luudflrqdohv1
Qdwxudophqwh vh wlhqh od vljxlhqwh fdghqd gh ghvljxdogdghv
Q Q3 @ ].
3 ] T U
| dghpäv6
T ^L
b @U
Qrwhprv txh orv vljxlhqwhv qýphurv uhdohv
4> 5
4> 657> 3> 6>
3> 69
lqglfd xqlöq glvmxqwd1
6
53 FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
grqgh vh dsur{lpd do udflrqdo 6> 47 | h vh dsur{lpd do udflrqdo 5> :41 Hvwdv dsur{lpdflrqhv vrq xvdgdv
sdud kdfhu dojxqrv fäofxorv phqruhv
s päv vlpsohv/ shur hoorv wlhqhq lqqlwrv ghflpdohv | qr vrq shulöglfrv1
Sureduhprv päv dghodqwh txh 5 hv xq qýphur luudflrqdo1
Uhfrughprv txh ho udglr gh xqd flufxqihuhqfld hvwä frqwhqlgr 5 yhfhv hq vx flufxqihuhqfld1
Dkrud yhdprv dojxqrv hmhpsorv txh pxhvwudq dojxqdv gh odv surslhgdghv dojheudlfdv txh fxpsohq orv
vxefrqmxqwrv gh U dqwhulruphqwh phqflrqdgrv1
41 Ho frqmxqwr gh orv qýphurv luudflrqdohv fxpsoh frq ho d{lrpd gh fodxvxud sdud od vxpd r ho surgxfwr
ghqlgrv hq U
51 +L> ., hv xq juxsr
Vroxflöq=
s s
41 Idovr1 Orv qýphurv d @ 5 | e @ 5 vrq luudflrqdohv shur
d.e@3
txh hv xq qýphur udflrqdo +3 @ 34 / sru hmhpsor,> sru or wdqwr qr fxpsoh frq od surslhgdg gh fodxvxud
s s s
sdud od vxpd1 Sru rwud sduwh vl wrpdprv dkrud d @ e @ 5/ hqwrqfhv de @ 5 5 @ 5 txh hv xq
qýphur udflrqdo> sru or wdqwr qr vh fxpsoh od surslhgdg gh fodxvxud sdud ho surgxfwr ghqlgr hq U1
61 Idovr1 Vl +]> .> , ixhud fxhusr/ hqwrqfhv +] i3j> , vhuðd juxsr> shur ] qr fxpsoh od surslhgdg gh
lqyhuvr pxowlsolfdwlyr1
d d~} d d
dq @ d
q yhfhv
l, d3 @ 4/ d 9@ 3
ll, dq.4 @ dq d/ ;q 5 Q3
4 4
dq @ @ +4144,
d d d~} d d
d
q
q yhfhv
Hmhpsor 44
4 4 4
56 @ 5 5 5 @ ;> 56 @ @ @
56 555 ;
l, dq dp @ dq.p
ll, dq eq @ +de,q
p
lll,q @d
d
d
p q
q
ly, q @ d d q
e e
y, +dq ,p @ dqp
Wrgdv hvwdv surslhgdghv vh suxhedq xvdqgr lqgxfflöq/ wìfqlfd gh ghprvwudflöq txh frqvlvwh hq hvwh
fdvr hq= sulphur yhu txh od ljxdogdg vh fxpsoh sdud q @ 3> srvwhulruphqwh/ vh vxsrqh txh vh fxpsoh od
ljxdogdg sdud xq qdwxudo +jhqìulfr, n | xwlol}dqgr hvwd lqirupdflöq vh pxhvwud txh od ljxdogdg hv yäolgd
sdud ho qdwxudo vljxlhqwh n . 41 Xqd ghprvwudflöq wdo qrv jdudqwl}d txh odv ljxdogdghv vrq vöor yäolgdv hq
Q3 shur xvdqgr od ghqlflöq vh sxhgh rewhqhu od surslhgdg hq ]1
Surgxfwrv Qrwdeohv
Xvdqgr odv surslhgdghv gh srwhqfldv | orv d{lrpdv gh U vh wlhqhq orv vljxlhqwhv surgxfwrv qrwdeohv=
4, d5 e5 @ +d . e,+d e,
5, +d . e,5 @ d5 . 5de . e5
6, d6 . e6 @ +d . e,+d5 de . e5 ,
7, d6 e6 @ +d e,+d5 . de . e5 ,
8, +d . e,6 @ d6 . 6d5 e . 6de5 . e6
9, +d e,6 @ d6 6d5 e . 6de5 e6
:, dp ep @ +d e,+dp4 . dp5 e . dp6 e5 . .
dep5 . ep4 , ;p 5 ].
55 FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
Vlpsoltxh L1
Vroxflöq= Surfhglhqgr hq hwdsdv/ whqhprv
d5 e5 +d4 . e4 f+de,4 ,
L @ +d . e . f,
d5 . e5 f5 . 5d4 e4 d5 e5
+de5 . d5 e fde,+d . e . f,
@
d5 . e5 f5 . 5de
de+e . d f,+d . e . f,
@
+d . e,5 f5
de+e . d f,+d . e . f,
@
+d . e f,+d . e . f,
@ de
{5 5{ . 4 5
@ +{ 4,
+{ 4,6
4
@ +{ 4,+{ . 4,
+{ 4,
@ {.4
Qrwh txh { . 4 wlhqh vhqwlgr7 sdud wrgr { 5 U / qr dvðH |d txh do phqrv sdud 4 | 4 qr wlhqh vhqwlgr1
Wdpelìq hvfuleluhprv
V @ i{ 5 U = S +{, @ T+{,j
vxehqwhqglhqgr txh { gheh hvwdu hq U1
Revhuyhprv txh ho frqmxqwr vroxflöq vlhpsuh gheh hvwdu lqfoxlgr hq ho frqmxqwr uhvwulfflöq V U1
Sru hmhpsor/ ho frqmxqwr i{ 5 U = {4 @ {j hv ho frqmxqwr gh orv uhdohv wdohv txh fxpsohq od hfxdflöq
{ @ {/ hv ghflu/
4
4
i{ 5 U = @ {j @ i4> 4j
{
Uhvroyhu xqd hfxdflöq vljqlfd hqfrqwudu vx frqmxqwr vroxflöq1
Uhvroydprv od hfxdflöq
{5 5{ . 4
+{4,6
@6
{5 4
Vroxflöq= Sru ho hmhpsor 41516 hv fodur txh ho frqmxqwr uhvwulfflöq hv U4 @ U i4> 4j/ Dghpäv
vlpsolfdqgr od h{suhvlöq l}txlhugd gh od ljxdogdg/ rewhqhprv
{
5
5{.4 @ 6
+{ 4,6
{5 4
/ {.4 @ 6
/ { @ 5
l, Od hfxdflöq
{.d@e
wlhqh sru ýqlfd vroxflöq ho uhdo e d1
ll, Vl d 9@ 3 od hfxdflöq
d{ @ e
wlhqh frpr ýqlfd vroxflöq ho uhdo de 1
Od ghprvwudflöq vh ghmduä frpr hmhuflflr sdud ho ohfwru> gheh xvduvh odv surslhgdghv gh lqyhuvr dglwlyr
| pxowlsolfdwlyr uhvshfwlydphqwh1
Vroxflöq=
57 FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
+{ . 6,+{ . 7,
@4
{.6
hv U4 @ U i6j1 Vlq hpedujr do vlpsolfdu od h{suhvlöq
+{ . 6,+{ . 7,
@4
{.6
rewhqhprv od hfxdflöq
{.7@4
gh grqgh whqhprv txh { @ 61 Oxhjr ho frqmxqwr vroxflöq gh od hfxdflöq hv
{.6
V @ { 5 U4 = @4 @ i6j _ U4
{.6
@ i6j _ +U i6j,
@ !
5 6 5 6
@ 4 shur 9@ 4 | 9@ 4
6 5 6 5
Hmhuflflr 47 Xqd erped txh wudedmd vrod/ oohqd xq hvwdqtxh hq : krudv/ rwud or kduðd hq ; krudv1BcHq
fxäqwr wlhpsr vh oohqd ho hvwdqtxh vl wudedmdq dpedv erpedv d od yh}B
Vroxflöq= Vhd { ho qýphur gh krudv txh wdugd ho hvwdqtxh hq oohqduvh +vl wudedmdq dpedv erpedv d od
yh}, | vhd Y ho yroxphq wrwdo gho hvwdqtxh1
Vl xqd erped oohqd ho hvwdqtxh hq : krudv +hqwrqfhv hq xqd krud oohqduä 4: gho hvwdqtxh,/ oxhjr hq {
krudv oohqduä {: gho hvwdqtxh/ hv ghflu/ oohqduä {Y
:
+xqlgdghv gh yroxphq,1 Od rwud erped oohqd ho hvwdqtxh
4151 D[LRPDV GH FXHUSR 58
hq ; krudv/ hqwrqfhv hq { krudv oohqduä {; gho hvwdqtxh/ hv ghflu/ {Y +xqlgdghv gh yroxphq,1 Frpr hq {
krudv/ odv grv erpedv mxqwdv oohqdq do hvwdqtxh hqwrqfhv vh wlhqh
;
{Y {Y
. @Y
: ;
or txh htxlydoh d
{ {
. @4
: ;
gh grqgh 48{ @ 891 Oxhjr/ wudedmdqgr odv grv erpedv d od yh}/ ho hvwdqtxh vh oohqd hq 89248 krudv1
Hmhuflflr 48 Fxdwur hvwxgldqwhv ghflghq ylylu vrorv hq xq ghsduwdphqwr | uhsduwlu hq sduwhv ljxdohv ho
duulhqgr phqvxdo1 Vlq hpedujr/ hqfxhqwudq txh vl dxphqwd hq grv ho qýphur gh hvwxgldqwhv/ vx fxrwd
phqvxdo vh uhgxfh hq ' 8=3331 BcFxäo hv ho frvwr gho duulhqgrB
Vroxflöq= Vhd { ho frvwr gho duulhqgr1 Vl kd| fxdwur hvwxgldqwhv hqwrqfhv od fxrwd phqvxdo gh fdgd xqr
hv gh {7 1 Vl dxphqwdq hq grv/ hqwrqfhv od fxrwd phqvxdo vhuä gh {9 1 Gdgdv odv klsöwhvlv gho sureohpd vh
wlhqh txh
{ 8=333 @ {
, 6{ 45 8=333 @ 5{
7 9
, { @ 93=333
Oxhjr ho frvwr gho duulhqgr hv gh ' 93=3331
Sdud uhvroyhu sureohpdv frpr orv dqwhulruhv vh uhtxlhuh= uhfrqrfhu orv gdwrv lpsruwdqwhv +| ghvsuh0
fldu lqirupdflöq lqqhfhvduld,> lghqwlfdu od r odv lqföjqlwdv h lqwurgxflu xqd r päv yduldeohv sdud
uhsuhvhqwduodv> sodqwhdu | uhvroyhu odv hfxdflrqhv txh uhodflrqdq orv gdwrv/ whqlhqgr hq fxhqwd odv uhvwulf0
flrqhv qhfhvduldv lqyroxfudgdv hq ho sureohpd1 Hq dojxqrv fdvrv hv qhfhvdulr dsolfdu frqfhswrv wdohv frpr
srufhqwdmh/ ud}öq | sursruflöq/ yhorflgdg +@ glvwdqfld2wlhpsr,/ hwf1
Revhuydflöq= Uhfrughprv txh>
5=6@9=<
d @ te
Hmhuflflr 4: Hq xqd suxhed gh pdwhpäwlfdv/ ho 45( gh orv hvwxgldqwhv gh xqd fodvh qr uhvroylö xq sure0
ohpd/ ho 65( or uhvroylö frq dojxqrv huuruhv | orv 47 hvwxgldqwhv uhvwdqwhv rewxylhurq od vroxflöq fruuhfwd1
ÁFxäqwrv hvwxgldqwhv kdeðd hq od fodvhB
Hmhuflflr 4; Xqd wlhqgd gh dqwlj hgdghv frpsuö grv pxheohv hq ' 558=333 | ghvsxìv orv yhqglö | rewxyr
xq ehqhflr gho 73(1 ÁFxäqwr sdjö sru fdgd pxheoh vl ho sulphur ghmö xq ehqhflr gho 58( | ho vhjxqgr
xq ehqhflr gho 83(B
Vroxflöq= Vhd { shvrv +hq plohv, or txh oh kd frvwdgr ho sulphu pxheoh hqwrqfhv ho vhjxqgr or frpsuö hq
Sru klsöwhvlv/ od wlhqgd frpsuö orv grv pxheohv hq 558 plo shvrv | rewxyr xq ehqhflr wrwdo gho 73(/
oxhjr orv grv pxheohv vh yhqglhurq hq
Hmhuflflr 4< Orv gläphwurv gh grv flolqgurv vrq hqwuh vðfrpr 6 = 7 | vxv dowxudv frpr 8 = 91 BcTxì wdqwr
sru flhqwr gho yroxphq gho pd|ru gh hoorv hv ho yroxphq gho phqruB
Vroxflöq= Vhdq g4 > g5 orv gläphwurv gh orv flolqgurv | k4 > k5 vxv uhvshfwlydv dowxudv1 Sru klsöwhvlv gho
sureohpd whqhprv odv vljxlhqwhv uhodflrqhv>
g4 6 k4 8
@ > @ +4145,
g5 7 k5 9
Dghpäv od iöupxod gho yroxphq gh xq flolqgur hv
Y @ u5 k
g @ 5u
de @ 3 +, d @ 3 b e @ 3 +4146,
de @ 3 , d4 de @ d4 3
, 4e @ 3
, e @ 3
+;d> e 5 U,+de @ 3 / d @ 3 b e @ 3,
Revhuyhprv txh od surslhgdg dqwhulru qr hv yäolgd hq fxdotxlhu frqmxqwr frq rshudflrqhv gh vxpd |
pxowlsolfdflöq1 Sru hmhpsor/ frqvlghuhprv ho frqmxqwr gh pdwulfhv
d e
P5 +U, @ = d> e> f> g 5 U
f g
: Sru htxlydohqfld oöjlfd hvwd lpsolfdqfld hq 4146 vh sxhgh hvfulelu Es i t j v/ txh hv htxlydohqwh Es2 ; t i v | hvwr
ýowlpr hv or txh xvduhprv hq hvwd sduwh gh od ghprvwudflöq1
4151 D[LRPDV GH FXHUSR 5<
Vhdq
4 3 3 3
D@ | E@
3 3 3 4
Hv fodur txh
3 3
DE @
3 3
shur D 9@ 3 | E 9@ 31 Or txh vðvh fxpsoh hv txh
D @ 3 b E @ 3 , DE @ 3
Od surslhgdg 4146 qrv shuplwh uhvroyhu dojxqdv hfxdflrqhv1 Sru hmhpsor uhvroydprv hq U od vljxlhqwh
hfxdflöq
+{ . 4,+{ 4, @ 3
Hv fodur txh
+{ . 4,+{ 4, @ 3 / +{ 4 @ 3, b +{ . 4 @ 3,
gh grqgh ho frqmxqwr vroxflöq V hv
V @ i{ 5 U = +{ . 4,+{ 4, @ 3j @ i4> 4j
Vroxflöq=
Hq hihfwr>
{5 @ 58 / {5 58 @ 3
/ +{ 8,+{ . 8, @ 3
/ {8@3 b {.8@3
/ { @ 8 b { @ 8
Hmhuflflr 54 Grv shuvrqdv vdohq vlpxowäqhdphqwh gh grv flxgdghv D | E | ydq xqd hq gluhfflöq gh od
rwud1 Od sulphud shuvrqd fdplqd 5 np2ku päv gh sulvd txh od vhjxqgd | oohjd d E xqd krud dqwhv txh od
vhjxqgd oohjxh d D1 Vl D | E glvwdq 57 np ÁFxäqwrv nloöphwurv uhfruuh fdgd xqd gh odv shuvrqdv hq xqd
krudB +D|xgd= yhorflgdg@glvwdqfld2wlhpsr,1
w5 @ w4 . 4 , y5 y
57 57
@ 4
, 57y 57+y 5, @ +y 5,y
, y5 5y 7; @ 3
, +y ;,+y . 9, @ 3
, y@; b y @ 9
63 FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
g4 @ y 4 @ ; np
| SE uhfruuh
g5 @ +y 5, 4 @ 9 np
Hmhuflflr 55 Xq wuhq uäslgr ixh reoljdgr d ghwhqhuvh 49 plqxwrv hq xq glvfr urmr1 Sdud uhfxshudu hvwh
wlhpsr/ yldmö hq xq wudpr gh ;3 nloöphwurv 43np2ku päv uäslgr txh or qrupdo1 BcFxäo hv od yhorflgdg
qrupdo gho wuhqB
Vroxflöq= Vhd y np2ku od yhorflgdg suhylvwd sru ho wuhq +grqgh y A 3,1 Od yhorflgdg uhdo ixh gh
+y . 43, np2ku
/ +y . 43,;3 ;3y @ 7
48
y+y . 43,
/ y5 . 43y 6=333 @ 3
/ +y 83,+y . 93, @ 3
/ y @ 83 b y @ 93
shur y A 3 oxhjr
y @ 83
| od yhorflgdg qrupdo gho wuhq ixh gh 83 np2ku1
Hq orv hmhpsorv dqwhulruhv khprv uhvxhowr hfxdflrqhv hq xqd yduldeoh1 Frq iuhfxhqfld/ hv qhfhvdulr
uhvroyhu grv r päv hfxdflrqhv vlpxowäqhdphqwh hq grv r päv yduldeohv/ hv ghflu/ vlvwhpdv gh hfxdflrqhv1
{ 6| @ 5
8{ . | @ 5
49{ @ 7
Hmhuflflr 57 Xq flhuwr qýphur gh hvwxgldqwhv ghehq dfrprgduvh hq xqd uhvlghqfldo1 Vl vh xelfdudq grv
hvwxgldqwhv sru kdelwdflöq hqwrqfhv txhgduðdq 5 hvwxgldqwhv vlq slh}d1 Vl vh xelfdudq 6 hvwxgldqwhv sru
kdelwdflöq hqwrqfhv vreuduðdq 5 slh}dv1 Á Fxäqwdv kdelwdflrqhv glvsrqleohv kd| hq od uhvlghqfldo | fxäqwrv
hvwxgldqwhv ghehq dfrprgduvh hq hoodB
|@; { @ 4;
Hmhuflflr 58 Xqd fkdsd uhfwdqjxodu gh hvwdôr gh shuðphwur <9 fp vh xvd sdud kdfhu xqd fdmd vlq wdsd1
Sdud hoor vh uhfruwd xq fxdgudgr gh 7 fp gh odgr hq fdgd hvtxlqd | vh xqhq orv erughv/ +yhu jxud dqwhulru,1
ÁFxäohv vrq odv glphqvlrqhv gh od fkdsd vl ho yroxphq gh od fdmd hv gh :9;B fp6 =
orqjlwxg = +{ ;, fp
dqfkr = +| ;, fp
dowxud = 7 fp
or txh htxlydoh d
+{ ;,+| ;, @ 4<5
{.| @ 7;
Ghvshmdqgr | hq od vhjxqgd hfxdflöq | uhhpsod}dqgr hq od sulphud rewhqhprv
{5 7;{ . 845 @ 3
hv ghflu
+{ 65,+{ 49, @ 3
gh grqgh
{ @ 65 b { @ 49
qrwh txh vl { @ 65/ hqwrqfhv | @ 49 | vl { @ 49/ hqwrqfhv | @ 651
Frpr { hv od orqjlwxg> odv glphqvlrqhv gh od fkdsd vrq 65 fp 49 fp1
Hmhuflflr 59 Xq reuhur kdfh xq flhuwr qýphur gh slh}dv lgìqwlfdv hq xq wlhpsr ghwhuplqdgr1 Vl kxelhud
khfkr 43 slh}dv päv fdgd gðd/ kdeuðd whuplqdgr ho wudedmr frpsohwr hq 7 45 gðdv dqwhv gh or suhylvwr/ | vl
kxelhvh khfkr 8 slh}dv phqrv fdgd gðd kdeuðd wdugdgr 6 gðdv päv gh or suhylvwr1 ÁFxäqwdv slh}dv kl}r |
hq fxäqwr wlhpsrB
Vroxflöq= Vxsrqjdprv txh ho reuhur kdfh { slh}dv hq | gðdv1 Hqwrqfhv surgxfh {| slh}dv sru gðd/ sru
klsöwhvlv/ vl kxelhud uhdol}dgr {| . 43 slh}dv / kdeuðd frpsohwdgr ho wudedmr hq | 7 45 gðdv1 Oxhjr frpr
7 45 @ <5 whqhprv
{ <
. 43 | @{
| 5
Od rwud frqglflöq gh od hfxdflöq hv
{
8 +| . 6, @ {=
|
Dvð/ rewhqhprv ho vljxlhqwh vlvwhpd
43| <5 {| @ 78
8| . 6 {| @ 48
gh grqgh
{
@ 83
|
oxhjr/ | @ 5: { @ 4=6831
4151 D[LRPDV GH FXHUSR 66
Hmhuflflr 5: Grv reuhurv wlhqhq txh kdfhu xq wudedmr frqvlvwhqwh hq phfdql}du xq orwh gh slh}dv lgìqwlfdv1
Ghvsxìv txh ho sulphur kd wudedmdgr gxudqwh : krudv | ho vhjxqgr gxudqwh 7 krudv/ kdq frpsohwdgr 8< gho
wrwdo gho wudedmr1 Vl vljxlhudq wudedmdqgr orv grv d od yh} gxudqwh 7 krudv päv/ ohv txhgduðd sru kdfhu 4;
4
Vroxflöq= Vxsrqjdprv txh ho sulphu rshudulr/ wudedmdqgr vror/ hv fdsd} gh frpsohwdu ho wudedmr hq {
krudv/ | ho vhjxqgr hq | krudv1 Hqwrqfhv hq xqd krud ho sulphur kdfh {4 gho wudedmr frpsohwr | ho vhjxqgr
| 1 Sru klsöwhvlv
4
4 4 8
: .7 @
{ | <
Frpr ghvsxìv wudedmdq mxqwrv rwudv 7 krudv/ kduäq { . | gho wudedmr/ txh hv ljxdo d
7 7
8 4 :
4 . @
< 4; 4;
Hmhuflflr 5; Vh kd gh wudqvsruwdu 9<3 wrqhodgdv gh phufdqfðdv ghvgh xq pxhooh d xqd hvwdflöq gh ihu0
urfduulo phgldqwh 8 fdplrqhv gh 6 wrqhodgdv | 43 fdplrqhv gh xqd wrqhodgd | phgld1 Hq srfdv krudv/
orv fdplrqhv kdq wudqvsruwdgr 58279 gh odv phufdqfðdv1 Sdud frpsohwdu ho wudqvsruwh d wlhpsr/ vh kd gh
oohydu odv phufdqfðdv uhvwdqwhv hq xq odsvr 5 krudv phqru txh ho |d wudqvfxuulgr1 Vh frpsohwö ho wudqv0
sruwh judfldv d txh orv frqgxfwruhv gh orv fdplrqhv frphq}durq d kdfhu xq yldmh sru krud päv txh dqwhv1
Ghwhuplqh fxäqwdv krudv wdugdurq hq wudqvsruwdu wrgdv odv phufdqfðdv | wdpelìq ho qýphur gh yldmhv sru
krud txh vh kdfðd do sulqflslr vdelhqgr txh orv fdplrqhv gh xqd | phgld wrqhodgd kdfhq xq yldmh päv sru
krud txh orv fdplrqhv gh 6 wrqhodgdv ; 1
Vlpsolfdqgr whqhprv
5{| . { @ 58
5{| . 6{ 7| @ 5:
; Vh gheh vxsrqhu txh wrgrv orv fdplrqhv ledq frpsohwdphqwh fdujdgrv hq fdgd yld mh1
67 FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
gh grqgh
5{ 7| @ 5
oxhjr 5| @ { 41 Vxvwlwx|hqgr hq od sulphud hfxdflöq rewhqhprv {5 @ 58/ hv ghflu< / { @ 81 Od sulphud
sduwh gh odv phufdqfðdv vh wudqvsruwö hq 8 krudv | od vhjxqgd sduwh hq 8 5 @ 6 krudv1
Qrwd=
Wrgdv odv phufdqfðdv vh wudqvsruwdurq hq ; krudv> do sulqflslr/ orv fdplrqhv gh wuhv wrqhodgdv kdfðdq 5
yldmhv sru krud | orv gh xqd | phgld wrqhodgdv/ 6 yldmhv sru krud1
Hmhuflflr 5< Xqd lqgxvwuld wlhqh xq hqfdujr gh ;43 duwðfxorv | rwud gh <33 duwðfxorv hq ho plvpr shulrgr
gh wlhpsr1 Od sulphud kd frpsohwdgr ho shglgr 6 gðdv dqwhv gho sod}r suhylvwr | od vhjxqgrv 9 gðdv dqwhv1
BcFxäqwdv duwðfxorv surgxfh do gðd fdgd lqgxvwuld/ vdelhqgr txh od vhjxqgd surgxfh sru gðd 7 duwðfxorv
päv txh od sulphudB
Vroxflöq= Vhd { od surgxfflöq gh duwðfxorv glduld gh od sulphud lqgxvwuld/ hqwrqfhv od vhjxqgd surgxfh
{.7 duwlfxorv sru gðd1 Od sulphud kd frpsohwdgr vx shglgr hq ;43{ gðdv/ oxhjr ho wlhpsr gdgr sdud fxpsolu
ho shglgr kd vlgr ;43{ . 6 gðdv1 Dqäorjdphqwh whqhprv txh {.7 . 9 hv ho wlhpsr dvljqdgr d od vhjxqgd
<33
Hmhuflflr 63 Kdoodu xq qýphur gh grv fliudv vdelhqgr txh ho qýphur gh xqlgdghv h{fhgh hq fxdwur do
qýphur gh od ghfhqdv | txh ho surgxfwr gho qýphur ghvhdgr sru od vxpd gh vxv gljlwrv hv ljxdo d 8:91
Revhuydflöq= Vl xq qýphur d wlhqh q gljlwrv d3 > d4 > d5 > dq4 / rughqdgrv gh l}txlhugd d ghuhfkd
hqwrqfhv
d @ dq4 43q4 . . d4 43 . d3
Vroxflöq= Vhd { ho gljlwr gh od xqlgdghv/ | ho gljlwr gh od ghfhqdv hqwrqfhv sru klsöwhvlv vh wlhqh od
hfxdflöq
{@|.7 +4147,
dghpäv ho qýphur ghvhdgr hv 43| . { oxhjr
Vl d 5 U. hqwrqfhv sru D{lrpd ll, +d, +d, 5 U. shur sru sursrvlflöq 417 yll/ +d,5 @ d5 /
oxhjr d5 5 U. 1 Qrwhprv txh hq sduwlfxodu vl d @ 4/ hqwrqfhv 45 @ 4 5 U.
ll, Ghprvwuduhprv hvwd surslhgdg sru ho pìwrgr gho devxugr1
Vhd d 5 U. 1 Vxsrqjdprv txh d4 95 U. / hqwrqfhv sru D{lrpd lll,
d4 @ 3 b +d4 , 5 U.
Vxsrqjdprv txh d4 @ 3 hqwrqfhv d d4 @ 3 shur sru surslhgdg gh lqyhuvr d d4 @ 4> hvwr hv xqd
frqwudglfflöq | sru or wdqwr d4 9@ 31
Vxsrqjdprv txh +d4 , 5 U. 1 Frpr d 5 U. whqhprv txh sru D{lrpd ll, txh +d4 , d @ 4 5 U.
txh hv wdpelìq xqd frqwudglfflöq sxhv 4 5 U. 1 Frpr hq dperv fdvrv rewhqhprv xqd frqwudglfflöq/
qr vh sxhgh gdu qlqjxqd gh odv grv srvlelolgdghv/ sru or wdqwr/ d4 5 U. > dvð/ vh wlhqh txh ho lqyhuvr
pxowlsolfdwlyr gh xq qýphur srvlwlyr hv wdpelìq xq qýphur srvlwlyr1
lll,
d e 5 U. a e f 5 U.
, +d e, . +e f, 5 U. sru D{lrpd l,
, d . +e . e, f 5 U. dvrfldwlylgdg
, d . 3 f 5 U. lqyhuvr dglwlyr
, d f 5 U. qhxwur dglwlyr
69 FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
ly,
e d 5 U.
/ e d . 3 5 U. qhxwur dglwlyr
/ e d . f f 5 U. lqyhuvr dglwlyr
/ +e . f, . +d f, 5 U. dvrfldwlylgdg frqpxwdwlylgdg
/ +e . f, +d . f, 5 U. glvwulexwlylgdg
y,
e d 5 U. a f 5 U.
, +e d,f 5 U. sru D{lrpd ll,
, ef df 5 U. glvwulexwlylgdg
yl,
e d 5 U. a f 5 U.
, +e d,+f, 5 U. sru D{lrpd ll,
, +ef, +df, 5 U. glvwulexwlylgdg
, df ef 5 U.
U @ id 5 U = d 5 U. j
Qrwhprv txh U 9@ > sxhv 4 5 U gdgr txh 4 5 U. 1 Dqäorjdphqwh vh ghqh ho frqmxqwr gh orv qýphurv
uhdohv qr qhjdwlyrv frpr
U.3 @ U ^ i3j
.
Qrwd= Sru D{lrpd lll, vh wlhqh od vljxlhqwh ljxdogdg grqgh orv frqmxqwrv vrq glvmxqwrv grv d grv
U @ U. ^ i3j ^ U
d e 5 U. +4149,
dAe r frpr e ? d=
dAebd@e
de r e d=
Dvð/ vh wlhqh
d e +, d A e b d @ e
Dqäorjdphqwh/ gluhprv txh d hv phqru r ljxdo txh e vl d hv phqru txh e r d ljxdo txh e1 Hvfuleluhprv
lqglvwlqwdphqwh hq hvwh fdvr
de r ed
r htxlydohqwhphqwh
de/d?ebd@e
4161 D[LRPDV GH RUGHQ 6:
d 5 U. / dA3
d 5 U / d?3
l, d 5 U i3j , d5 A 31
ll, d A 3 , d4 A 3
lll, d A e a e A f , d A f
ly, e A d / e . f A d . f
y, e A d a f A 3 , ef A df
yl, e A d a f ? 3 , ef ? df
Qrwdflöq=
def/deaef
Orv Lqwhuydorv gh U=
Vhdq d> e 5 U1 frq43 d e Vh ghqhq
^d> e^ @ i{ 5 U = d { ? ej
`d> e` @ i{ 5 U = d ? { ej
`d> e^ @ i{ 5 U = d ? { ? ej
^d> e` @ i{ 5 U = d { ej
`4> d` @ i{ 5 U = { dj
`4> d^ @ i{ 5 U = { ? dj
^d> 4^ @ i{ 5 U = { dj
`d> 4^ @ i{ 5 U = { A dj
Qrwd= Od ghqlflöq gdgd qr dgplwh lqwhuydorv gho wlsr ^d> e^ frq d A e +hq wdo fdvr vh wudwduld gh xq
frqmxqwr ydfðr,1
Hmhpsor 64
^4> 3^ @ i{ 5 U = { ? 3j
`4> 4^ @ i{ 5 U = { A 4j
`4> 3^ ^ `4> 4^ @ i{ 5 U = { ? 3 b { A 4j
`3> 4^ @ i{ 5 U = 3 ? { ? 4j
^4> 4` @ i{ 5 U = 4 { 4j
^4> 3^ @ i{ 5 U = 4 { ? 3j
^5> 4^ @ i{ 5 U = 5 { ? 4j
43 Dojxqrv gh hvwrv lqwhuydorv sxhghq vhu ho frqmxqwr ydfðr1
6; FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
Xqr gh orv whruhpdv päv lpsruwdqwhv txh vh ghgxfh gho d{lrpd gh wulfrwrpðd/ hv ho vljxlhqwh>
Whruhpd 4146 44
Sdud wrgr d> e 5 U / vh yhulfd xqd | vöor xqd gh odv sursrvlflrqhv
d A e> d @ e> d ? e
Ghprvwudflöq= Vhdq d> e 5 U / hqwrqfhv sru D{ lll, vöor xqd gh odv vljxlhqwhv sursrvlflrqhv hv yhugdghud
sdud ho qýphur uhdo d e>
d e 5 U. > d e @ 3> +d e, 5 U.
Oxhjr/ xvdqgr od qrwdflöq 4149 | wudgxflhqgr fdgd sursrvlflöq gh od iudvh dqwhulru vh rewlhqh txh
Revhuydflöq= Od uhodflöq hqwuh d | e/ d e vh dfrvwxpeud d ghflu txh hv xqd uhodflöq gh rughq wrwdo
|d txh hood fxpsoh= sdud d> e> f 5 U
l, Uh h{lylgdg
dd
ll, Dqwlvlphwuðd
deaed,d@e
lll, Wudqvlwlylgdg
d eae f ,d f
yl, Wulfrwrpðd
debed
Ho khfkr txh hq U vh vdwlvidjdq orv d{lrpdv gh fxhusr | orv d{lrpdv gh rughq vh h{suhvd glflhqgr txh
U hv xq Fxhusr Rughqdgr%1
Sru orv d{lrpdv gh fxhusr vdehprv txh h{lvwhq 3 5 U | 4 5 U wdo txh 4 9@ 31 Dkrud frq orv d{lrpdv
gh rughq khprv ghprvwudgr txh>
4 5 U. | 4 5 U >
hv ghflu/
4A3 | 4 ? 3
Dvðsrghprv rughqdu wrgrv orv qýphurv uhdohv/ frvd txh kduhprv d frqwlqxdflöq sru hwdsdv=
Frpr hmhpsorv lqlfldohv whqhprv
s p
d?e/ ? / sq ? tp
t q
4 4 Hq dojxqrv wh{wrv vh suhvhqwd ho whruhpd 4146 frpr d{lrpd gh wulfrwrpðd +D{lrpd lll, | frurodulr 4 ly, | y, frpr D{lrpd
d@ 464
433
e@ 46
45
f@ 458
9
g@ :
8
h @ 65 =
D frqwlqxdflöq revhuyduhprv txh hqwuh grv udflrqdohv vlhpsuh kd| do phqrv xq udflrqdo1
s?u?t
s?t , s.s?s.t
, 5s ? s . t
, s ? s.5
t
Sursrvlflöq 4148 Vhdq q qýphur qdwxudo sdu | d ? 3/ hqwrqfhv qr h{lvwh xq qýphur uhdo e wdo txh fxpsod
od ljxdogdg
d @ eq
73 FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
Dghpäv/ vl p 5 ] vh ghqh s
dp sdud d 3 frq q 5 Q
p q
d q @=
Vrodphqwh sdud d 3 vh sxhgh dvhjxudu txh=
p s
d q @ +dp , q @ +d q ,p @ + q d,p
4 4
Dkrud vl q hv xq qýphur lpsdu/ hvwd ghqlflöq vh sxhgh h{whqghu d edvhv qhjdwlydv/ dghpäv
s
q d @= sqd +414:,
frq d A 3
H{dpsoh 4
s
Hmhpsor 65
s 41 H{dpsoh
s 5 +d, 7 @ 5 sxhv 7s@ 55 1 Qrwh txh 55 @ +5,5 @ 71 Vlq hpedujr
7 @ 5 | 7 9@ 5/ +hv ghflu/ qr vh wlhqh 7 @ 5 ,
s s s
+e, 5: @ 6 sxhv 6 5: @ 6 5: @ 6
6
s
+f, 4 { 5 U vl 4 { 3 hv ghflu vl { 41
s
Vlq hpedujr 6 4 { 5 U/ sdud wrgr { 5 U1
Hmhpsor 66 Ghwhuplqhprv sdud txì ydoruhv gh d od h{suhvlöq
s s
d:. :d
d:
uhsuhvhqwd xq qýphur uhdo1
Vroxflöq= Od h{suhvlöq uhsuhvhqwd xq qýphur uhdo vl>
d : 3 a : d 3 a d : 9@ 3
oxhjr
d : a d : a d 9@ :
hv ghflu/
d 5 ^:> 4^_` 4> :` _ +U i:j, @ !
hqwrqfhv sdud qlqjýq uhdo d od h{suhvlöq gh duuled uhsuhvhqwd xq uhdo1
4161 D[LRPDV GH RUGHQ 74
U @ i{ 5 U = 8{ . 4 3 a 5{ 5 3j @ ^4> 4^
oxhjr V @ i6> 44
<
j _ ^4> 4^@ i6> 44
<
j
75 FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
Vroxflöq= Sru ho hmhpsor dqwhulru/ vdehprv txh orv uhdohv txh vdwlvidfhq od hfxdflöq vrq { @ 6 | { @ 44
1
Sru rwud sduwh/ vl { @ 6 hqwrqfhv
<
s s
8{ . 4 86.4 7
s @s @ @5
5{ 5 565 5
Vl { @ hqwrqfhv
t
44
s
<
8{ . 4 8 44 .4 ;@6
s @t @ @7
<
5{ 5 5 44 5 5@6
<
de 3>
hv ghflu/
+d 3 a e 3, b +d 3 a e 3,
hq fdpelr s s
d e
wlhqh vljqlfdgr hq U vöor vl d 3 | e 3
Dvð/ sdud uhvroyhu xqd lqhfxdflöq gho wlsr
s
{+{ 4, 4>
61 +;{ 5 U. ,+ s4
{
4,
4 5 Ghwhfwh ho huuru '
I ' sE3E3 ' EI32 ' 31
4161 D[LRPDV GH RUGHQ 76
Vroxflöq=
s s
sU wdo txh 4+4 4, @ 5 4
41 Idovr1 H{lvwh { @ 4 5
oxhjr 4 5 i{ 5 U = s {+{
s 4, 4j
shur 4 95 i{ 5 U s= s{ { 4 4j sxhv 4 95 U grqgh U @ ^4> 4^ hv ho frqmxqwr uhvwulfflöq gho
frqmxqwr i{ 5 U = { { 4 4j
51 Yhugdghur1 Uhvroydprv u
{
4 +414;,
4{
{
U @ i{ 5 U = 3 a 4 { 9@ 3j @ ^3> 4^
4{
Frqvlghudqgr { 5 U | hohydqgr do fxdgudgr rewhqhprv od lqhfxdflöq htxlydohqwh
{
4
4{
Frpr 4 { A 3 sdud { 5 U @ ^3> 4^ hqwrqfhv
{
4 +, { 4 {
4{
gh grqgh
4
{
5
Dvð/
{ 5` 4> 4@5` _ ^3> 4^@ ^3> 4@5`
Sru or wdqwr/ ho frqmxqwr vroxflöq gh od lqhfxdflöq 414; hv V @ ^3> 4@5`
Dkrud uhvroydprv s s
{ 4{ +414<,
s s
Odv h{suhvlrqhv { | 4 { hvwäq ghqlgdv hq U vl | vöor vl
{ 3a4{ 3
oxhjr
U @ ^3> 4`
| frpr odv lqhfxdflrqhv 414; | 414< vrq htxlydohqwhv hq ^3> 4^ hqwrqfhv vxv frqmxqwrv vroxflrqhv vrq
ljxdohv1
61 Idovr1 H{lvwh { @ 4 5 U. wdo txh s4 @ 5 9 41
7 {
l, Od h{suhvlöq
4
+;{ 5 U. ,+ s 4,
{
hv xqd sursrvlflöq txh dupd txh sdud wrgr { hq orv uhdohv srvlwlyrv vh fxpsoh txh s4{ 4/ or fxdo
khprv ylvwr txh hv idovr1
ll, Hq fdpelr od h{suhvlöq
4
i{ 5 U. = s 4j
{
lqglfd ho frqmxqwr gh orv uhdohv srvlwlyrv txh fxpsoh frq od lqhfxdflöq s4{ 4/ hv ghflu/ ho frqmxqwr
^4> 4^1
77 FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
Hq frqvhfxhqfld s
s d @ d ;d 5 U3
5 .
d5 @ d ;d 5 U
Or txh hvfuleluhprv
s d vl d 3
d5 @ +4153,
d vl d ? 3
Hmhuflflr 6; Hq edvh d or dqwhulru ghwhuplqh vl odv vljxlhqwhv dupdflrqhv vrq yhugdghudv r idovdv
s s
41 +;d 5 U,+ d9 @ d6 ,1
7
s s
51 Vhd d 5 U. / hqwrqfhv i{ 5 U = {5 @ dj @ i d> dj1
s
61 i{ 5 U = {5 @ 7j @ i{ 5 U = { @ 7j1
71 Vhdq {> | 5 U wdo txh {5 . | 5 5{| @ 7 hqwrqfhv { | @ 51
Vroxflöq=
s s s s
41 Idovr1 Vöor sdud d 3/ vh wlhqh txh= d @ d 7 @ d 5 @ d6 1 Sdud d ? 3/ d6 95 U | d9 5 U/ | od
7 9 9 6 7
71 Idovr1
{5 . | 5 5{| @ 7
+, +{ |,5 @ 7
+, +{ |,5 7 @ 3
+, ++{ |, 5,++{ |, . 5, @ 3
+, {| @5 b { | @ 5
Hq sduwlfxodu/ vh frqvlghudprv { @ 5> | @ 7 hqwrqfhv
{5 . |5 5{| @ 7
4161 D[LRPDV GH RUGHQ 78
shur
{ | @ 5 9@ 5
Hq jhqhudo vl d 5 U.
+{ |,5 @ d
hqwrqfhv s s
{| @ d b {| @ d
Yhuhprv d frqwlqxdflöq or ýwlo txh vrq hvwdv surslhgdghv sdud od uhvroxflöq gh vlvwhpdv gh hfxdflrqhv
+4, +{ |,5 @ 7
+5, {.| @ 9
{| @5 b { | @ 5
l, Vl { | @ 5/ hqwrqfhv vh wlhqh
{| @ 5
{.| @ 9
gh grqgh { @ 7 | | @ 5
ll, Vl { | @ 5 vh wlhqh
{| @ 5
{.| @ 9
gh grqgh { @ 5 | | @ 7
Sru or wdqwr h{lvwhq grv vroxflrqhv
Hmhuflflr 73 Uhvroyhu
+4, 5+{5 . | 5 , @ 8{|
+5, 7+{ |, @ {|
Vroxflöq= Vh wlhqh=
+4, +, {5 . | 5 @ 8 {|
5
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79 FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
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lll, Vl { @ 7 hqwrqfhv | @ 5> vl { @ 5 hqwrqfhv | @ 71
Hq frqvhfxhqfld h{lvwhq 6 vroxflrqhv sdud ho vlvwhpd
Hq orv vljxlhqwhv hmhpsorv yhuhprv od uhvroxflöq gh vlvwhpdv gh grv r päv yduldeohv txh frq iuhfxhqfld
dsduhfhq hq sureohpdv uhodflrqdgrv frq od ghwhuplqdflöq gh pä{lprv | pðqlprv +pìwrgr gh orv pxowlsol0
fdgruhv gh Odjudqjh,/ txh vhuä hvwxgldgr srvwhulruphqwh hq xq fxuvr gh fäofxor hq yduldv yduldeohv1
Hmhuflflr 74 Ghwhuplqh orv sxqwrv +{> |> , txh vdwlvidfhq odv hfxdflrqhv hq U
+4, 5{ 4 @ 5{
+5, 7| @ 5| +4156,
+6, {5 . | 5 4 @ 3
Vroxflöq=
Gh od hfxdflöq +5, whqhprv txh
5|+5 , @ 3
oxhjr
|@3 b @5
l, Hq sulphu oxjdu vxsrqjdprv txh | @ 3/ hqwrqfhv vxvwlwx|hqgr hq +6, whqhprv
{5 @ 4
gh grqgh
{ @ 4 b { @ 4
Gh od hfxdflöq +4, rewhqhprv=
vl { @ 4/ hqwrqfhv @ 45 >
vl { @ 4/ hqwrqfhv @ 65 1
Sru or wdqwr orv sxqwrv
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vdwlvidfhq ho vlvwhpd 4156
ll, Dkrud vxsrqjdprv txh @ 51 Vxvwlwx|hqgr hq +4, rewhqhprv txh
4
{@ =
5
4161 D[LRPDV GH RUGHQ 7:
vdwlvidfhq 4156
Oxhjr ho frqmxqwr vroxflöq gho vlvwhpd 4156 hv=
+ # s $ # s $,
4 6 4 6 4 6
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5 5 5 5 5 5
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gh grqgh
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<
shur sru +5, whqhprv
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vrq wdpelìq vroxflrqhv gho vlvwhpd 4157
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83 FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
Vroxflöq= 46
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;{|} @ ;| 5
;{|} @ 4;} 5
gh grqgh uhvxowd s
7 6
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6
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or lps ruwdqwh hv qr frphwhu ho wðslfr huuru gh ghmdu dojýq fdvr vlq dqdol}du1
4161 D[LRPDV GH RUGHQ 84
s
41616 2 hv luudflrqdo
s s
D frqwlqxdflöq surehprv txh 5 qr hv udflrqdo +r elhq= hq jhqhudo/ vl s hv xq qýphur sulpr/ hqwrqfhv s
hv luudflrqdo,1 s
Vxsrqjdprv or frqwudulr/ hv ghflu/ vxsrqjdprv txh 5 hv udflrqdo/ hvwr hv/
s s
5@
t
frq s 5 ] / t 5 ] i3j1 Vlhpsuh hv srvleoh hvfrjhu s | t wdo txh od iudfflöq st hvwì vlpsolfdgd do pä{lpr/
hq wdo fdvr s
t @ 5 / t5 @ 5
s s5
/ s5 @ 5t 5
oxhjr s5 hv xq qýphur sdu | sru 41:/ s gheh vhu sdu/ hv ghflu/ s @ 5n/ sdud dojýq n 5 ]. 1 Sru or wdqwr
s5 @ 7n5
| frpr s5 @ 5t 5 / vh wlhqh txh 5t 5 @ 7n5 / dvðt 5 @ 5n5 1 Hvwd ýowlpd ljxdogdg qrv glfh txh t 5 hv xq qýphur
sdu | sru 41: t wdpelìq hv sdu1
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s
pä{lpr/ gh hvwd irupd 5 qr sxhgh vhu xq qýphur udflrqdo1 Dvðkhprv rewhqlgr ho lpsruwdqwh uhvxowdgr=
s
5 hv luudflrqdo +4168,
s s
Dvlplvpr/ s 5 qr hv udflrqdo1 Hq hihfwr/ vl 5 ixhud udflrqdo/ hqwrqfhv gdgr txh +T > ., hv juxsr
vx lqyhuvr dglwlyr 5 gheh vhu udflrqdo or txh frqwudglfh 41681 s
Frq dujxphqwrv vlploduhv vh sxhgh suredu txh sdud s wrgr qýphur hqwhur s vh wlhqh txh s 5 95 T
Hq irupd vlplodu d 4168 srghprv ghprvwudu txh 7 9s hv luudflrqdo1
s
BcFöpr srghprv ghwhuplqdu fxäo gh orv luudflrqdohv 5 r 7 9 hv phqruB
Xqd khuudplhqwd gh judq xwlolgdg sdud rughqdu uhdohv hv od vljxlhqwh sursrvlflöq
Sursrvlflöq 414:
Ghprvwudflöq=
85 FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
l, Uhfrughprv txh
d ? e a f A 3 , df ? ef
f ? g a e A 3 , ef ? eg
oxhjr
df ? ef a ef ? eg , df ? eg
sru or wdqwr
+;d> e> f> g 5 U. ,+d ? e a f ? g , df ? eg,
d ? e , dq ? eq
de?3
dvð/
dq ? eq , d ? e ;d> e 5 U.
s s
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s s s s
5 ? 7 9 / + 5,7 ? + 7 9,7
/ 55 ? 97
7 7
/ 7?9
wdpelìq hv yhugdghud1
s s s s
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oxhjr sru od sursrvlflrq 414: vh wlhqh
s s s s
d ? e +, + q d,q ? + e,q +, q d ? e
q q
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51 +;d> e 5 U,+d5 ? e5 , d ? e,
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71 +;d 5 U,+d d5 ,
81 +;d 5 U. ,+ d4 ? 4,
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<1 +;d> e 5 U. ,+ d.
4 ? 4,
e d
431 +;d> e 5 U. ,+ de
4 ? 4,
d
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d.eAd
l, de A 3 / +d A 3 a e A 3, b +d ? 3 a e ? 3,
ll, de ? 3 / +d A 3 a e ? 3, b +d ? 3 a e A 3,
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flöq l, vh sxhgh hvfulelu
s / +t b v,
grqgh odv sursrvlflrqhv vrq
s = de A 3
t = dA3aeA3
v = d?3ae?3
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prvwudu txh dpedv sursrvlflrqhv txh od frpsrqhq vrq yhugdghudv/ hv ghflu/ edvwd suredu hq irupd vhsdudgd
txh
s , +t b v,
|
s + +t b v,
Dvð/ lqglfduhprv frq + , , od sulphud sduwh | frq + + , od vhjxqgd sduwh1 Ghprvwudflöq= + , , Frpr
de A 3/ l1h1/ de 5 U. | d wlhqh grv srvlelolgdghv +vhu srvlwlyr r qhjdwlyr, srghprv vhsdudu od ghprvwudflöq
hq grv vxe fdvrv
Fdvr 4, Vl d 5 U. hqwrqfhv d4 5 U. / oxhjr sru D{lrpd ll, | dvrfldqgr dsursldgdphqwh vh wlhqh txh
d4 +de, @ e 5 U. > hq frqvhfxhqfld/
de 5 U. , d 5 U. a e 5 U. >
sru or wdqwr47
de A 3 , d A 3 a e A 3
4 7 Dtxðkd| ydulrv sdvrv edvdgrv hq htxlydohqfldv oöjlfdv txh qr kdq vlgr h{solflwdgrv> s ru hmhpsor/
Es 2 Es i t C s 2 t1
4161 D[LRPDV GH RUGHQ 88
Fdvr 5, Vl d 5 U hqwrqfhv d4 5 U / oxhjr sru D{lrpd ll, | dvrfldqgr dsursldgdphqwh vh wlhqh txh
d4 +de, @ e 5 U 1 Hq frqvhfxhqfld
de 5 U. , d 5 U a e 5 U >
hv ghflu/
de A 3 , d ? 3 a e ? 3
Sru Fdvrv 4, | 5, whqhprv
de A 3 , +d A 3 a e A 3, b +d ? 3 a e ? 3,
Ghprvwudflöq= ++, Hv fodur sru D{lrpd ll,=
+d 5 U. a e 5 U. , , de 5 U.
|
+d 5 U. a e 5 U. , , +d,+e, 5 U. , de 5 U.
Hq frqvhfxhqfld +|d txh hq dperv fdvrv rewhqhprv or plvpr,
^+d A 3 a e A 3, b +d ? 3 a e ? 3,` , de A 3
Hq irupd dqäorjd/ vh ghpxhvwud ll,1 Dvlplvpr vh wlhqh txh
de 3 / ^+d 3 a e 3, b +d 3 a e 3,`
|
de 3 / ^+d 3 a e 3, b +d 3 a e 3,`
Od ghprvwudflöq vh kdfh phgldqwh ho xvr gh od sursrvlflöq dqwhulru | gho khfkr txh ^ +d e, / d A e`
| ^+d / e, / + d / e,`1
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ghvljxdogdghv vrq yhugdghudv hq U=
41 { {5
51 |4 A 4
61 |4 4
71 {5 ? 4
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|
}
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41
{ {5 / { {5 3
/ {+4 {, 3
/ +{ 3 a 4 { 3, b +{ 3 a 4 { 3,
/ +{ 3 a { 4, b +{ 3 a { 4,
/ { 3b{ 4
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89 FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
4 4
A4 / 4A3
| |
4|
/ A3
|
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/ 3 ? | ? 4 b Idovr 48
/ 3?|?4
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txh od vljxlhqwh sursrvlflöq hv yhugdghud
4
+;| 5 U,+3 ? | ? 4 / A 4,
|
| 4b| ? 3
71
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/ I b 4 ? { ? 4
/ 4 ? { ? 4
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+;{ 5 U,+4 ? { ? 4 / {5 ? 4,
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|
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{ {.}
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+} 3 a | A 3, b +} 3 a | ? 3,
4 8 Sru oöjlfd sj Idovr Cs1
4161 D[LRPDV GH RUGHQ 8:
Oxhjr od ghvljxdogdg
{
?{
|
vh fxpsoh sdud=
+{ A 3 a | A 4, b +{ A 3 a | ? 3, b +{ ? 3 a 3 ? | ? 4,
:1 Vhdq { 9@ 3 | 9@ 3
4 4 4 4
? / ?3
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/ 4 ?3
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{ | { |
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{ {
4 4 4
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{ { {
/ +{ A 3 a | A 4, b +{ A 3 a | ? 3, b +{ ? 3 a 3 ? | ? 4,
Oxhjr od ghvljxdogdg
4 4
?
{| {
vh fxpsoh sdud=
+{ A 3 a | A 4, b +{ A 3 a | ? 3, b +{ ? 3 a 3 ? | ? 4,
Hq uhdolgdg or txh khprv khfkr hq ho hmhpsor 79 dqwhulru hv uhvroyhu lqhfxdflrqhv hq xqd r päv
yduldeohv1
41617 Lqhfxdflrqhv
Vhd U ho frqmxqwr uhvwulfflöq +yhu vhfflöq 41517, gh odv h{suhvlrqhv S +{,/ T+{,1
Uhvroyhu xqd lqhfxdflöq hq od yduldeoh { hv hqfrqwudu ho vxefrqmxqwr V gh orv { hq U txh vdwlvidfhq od
ghvljxdogdg +r lqhfxdflöq,1
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8; FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
V @ i{ 5 U = {5 4j
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.8 3 gdgd hq 4174 vh sxhgh uhvxplu hq od vljxlhqwh wdeod>
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hq txì lqwhuydor hv qhjdwlyr1 Sru hmhpsor/ gh od sulphud od vh wlhqh txh ho idfwru { 4 hv srvlwlyr
hq ho lqwhuydor `4> 4^ | qhjdwlyr hq ` 4> 8` | hq ` 8> 4^/ +hv ghflu/ hq ` 4> 4^,1 Gh od ýowlpd od
.8 hv qr qhjdwlyd hq orv lqwhuydorv ` 4> 8^ | ^4> 4^> oxhjr od vroxflöq
vh rewlhqh txh od h{suhvlöq {{ 4
gh od lqhfxdflöq
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3
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hv ` 4> 8^^^4> 4^1
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hoor hv iuhfxhqwh xvdu od wdeod dqwhulru hq od uhvroxflöq1
51 Uhvroydprv od lqhfxdflöq
{ {4 {5
5 +4175,
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61 Uhvroydprv od lqhfxdflöq
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5 +4177,
{
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U4 @ i{ 5 U = { 9@ 3j @ U i3j
93 FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
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A3 +4178,
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U4 @ i{ 5 U = {5 58 9@ 3 a { . 4 9@ 3j @ U i8> 4> 8j
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6 6 6 > 8
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hq ` 4> 4^^` 65 > 8^/ shur { 5 U4 oxhjr ho frqmxqwr vroxflöq gh 4178 hv
6
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5
6
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s
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s
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4161 D[LRPDV GH RUGHQ 94
s
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+5,5 @ 7 9 5
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s
S +{, T+{,
r gho wlsr s
S +{, T+{,
qr srghprv hohydu do fxdgudgr vlq kdfhu odv uhvwulfflrqhv qhfhvduldv/ sdud dvhjxudu txh rewhqhprv lq0
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U4 @ i{ 5 U = {5 4 3j
@ i{ 5 U = { 4 b { 4j
@ ` 4> 4` ^ ^4> 4^
Sulphu fdvr=
Vxsrqjdprv txh { 4 ? 3 | { 5 U4 / hv ghflu/
{ 5 F4 @` 4> 4`
s
Sxhvwr txh { 4 ? 3 | txh {5 4 3 sdud wrgr { 5 F4 / hv fodur txh od ghvljxdogdg 4179 vh fxpsoh
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Vhjxqgr fdvr=
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{ 5 F5 @ ^4> 4^
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s
{ 4 {5 4
, +{ 4,5 {5 4
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/ 5{ . 5 3
/ {4
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{5 { 5 {
95 FKDSWHU 41 ORV QÝPHURV UHDOHV
U5 @ i{ 5 U = {5 { 3j
| frpr
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/ {4b{3
vh wlhqh txh
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{.5?3
sxhv s s
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| s
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sdud wrgr { 5 U5 1 Dvðsdud srghu hohydu do fxdgudgr ghehprv h{ljlu txh { . 5 3/ hv ghflu/
{ 5 a { 5 U5
qr vh fxpsoh sdud wrgr { 5 U. 3 1 Hqwrqfhv Bcsdud txì ydoruhv gh { 5 U. vh fxpsohB Hvwr htxlydoh d
suhjxqwdu Bcfxäo hv ho frqmxqwr vroxflöq gh od lqhfxdflöq 417:B
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3
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s
{{
/ { {5
/ { {5 3
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4161 D[LRPDV GH RUGHQ 96
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Vroxflöq= Lqwhusuhwhprv d i frpr xqd ixqflöq ghqlgd sru sduwhv1 Sdud hvwr frqvlghuhprv orv vljxlhqwhv
fdvrv1
Fdvr 4= Vl { 5 ^4> 3^/ hqwrqfhv
^{` @ 4 | m { 4 m @ +{ 4,
oxhjr/
i+{, @ 4 { . 4 @ {
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^{` @ 3 | m { 4 m @ +{ 4,
oxhjr/
i +{, @ 3 { . 4 @ 4 {
Fdvr 6= Vl { 5 ^4> 5^/ hqwrqfhv
^{` @ 4 | m{4m @ {4
oxhjr/
i +{, @ 4 . { 4 @ {
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? { vl 4 { ? 3
i+{, @ 4{ vl 3 { ? 4
=
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| vx juäfd hv od txh vh pxhvwud hq od jxud vljxlhqwh
Vhd { ? 3 frq { 9@ 41 Hqwrqfhv/ vhjýq od juäfd gh od klsìuerod htxloäwhud/ od uhsuhvhqwdflöq juäfd
gh | @ {44 hv ho judfr l}txlhugr vljxlhqwh
s
m{m 7 m{m 7
81 Od ixqflöq t+{, @ s fruuhvsrqgh d od ixqflöq ghqlgd sru sduwhv 111111111111 fx|d
7 m{m m{m ? 7
juäfd hv 1111111111111111111111111
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41
51
5161 UHSUHVHQWDFLÖQ JUÄILFD 44:
61
71
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fruuhvsrqghq juäfdphqwh d od lqwhuvhfflöq gh od sduäerod | @ d{5 . e{ . f frq ho hmh R[/ fx|d hfxdflöq
hv | @ 3/ hv ghflu/ fruuhvsrqgh d od+v, vroxflöq+hv, gho vlvwhpd1
| @ d{5 . e{ . f
| @ 3
Hmhpsor <6 Od hfxdflöq {5 . 43 frv { @ 3 wlhqh 7 udðfhv uhdohv +jxud ghuhfkd dqwhulru,
Hmhpsor <7 Od hfxdflöq h{ vhq{ @ 3 wlhqh lqqlwdv vroxflrqhv | wrgdv qhjdwlydv/ frpr vh sxhgh yhu hq
ho judfr vljxlhqwh1
4 y 4 y
2 2
0 0
-7.5 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 -7.5 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5
x x
-2 -2
Sru rwud sduwh/ revhuyhprv txh wdpelìq phgldqwh juäfdv srghprv rewhqhu od vroxflöq gh lqhfxdflrqhv1
Sru hmhpsor uhvroydprv od vljxlhqwh lqhfxdflöq phgldqwh juäfdv1
Hv fodur txh sdud { 5 ^ 45 > 7` orv ydoruhv txh wrpd od h{suhvlöq | @ { 4 vrq phqruhv r ljxdohv d orv
s
ydoruhv txh wrpd od h{suhvlöq | @ 5{ . 41 Sru or wdqwr/ od vroxflöq gh od lqhfxdflöq hv ^ 45 > 7`1
s 4
{?
{
s
hv ho lqwhuydor `3> 4^/ sxhvwr txh od juäfd gh od ixqflöq | @ { hvwä edmr od juäfd gh od ixqflöq | @ {4
vöor hq `3> 4^1
s
Vroxflöq= sJudfdqgr odv ixqflrqhv | @ { h | @ { +yhu jxud l}txlhugd vljxlhqwh, rewhqhprv txh od
ixqflöq | @ { wrpd ydoruhv phqruhv txh | @ { vöor vl { A 41
Sru or wdqwr/ V @`4> 4^
5161 UHSUHVHQWDFLÖQ JUÄILFD 454
Hmhuflflr << Ghshqglhqgr gh od whfqrorjðd xvdgd sdud ideulfdu { plohv xqlgdghv gh xq duwðfxor/ vh wlhqh
grv srvlelolgdghv gh jdqdqfld do yhqghu glfkrv duwðfxorv +frqvlghuh odv vljxlhqwhv ixqflrqhv r prghorv txh
uhsuhvhqwdq od jdqdqfld/ jxud vljxlhqwh,=
| @ ;{ {5 > | @ 6{
Vl vh ghvhd ideulfdu kdvwd : plo duwðfxorv1 ÁSdud txì ydoruhv gh { ho vhjxqgr prghor suhglfh xqd pd|ru
xwlolgdg uhvshfwr do sulphu prghorB
txh wlhqh frpr juäfd od sduäerod | @ 65{ 5{5 +yhu jxud txh vljxh,/
Qxhvwur remhwlyr hq hvwd vhfflöq hv oohydu hqxqfldgrv gh sureohpdv d iöupxodv +ixqflrqhv, txh qrv
shuplwdq wudedmdu pdwhpäwlfdphqwh1
Vl odv yduldeohv { h | hvwäq uhodflrqdgdv gh prgr txh vlhpsuh txh vh dvljqh xq ydoru d {/ vh sxhgd
ghwhuplqdu xq ydoru fruuhvsrqglhqwh |/ vh glfh txh | ghshqgh gh {> gh dooðtxh uhfledq orv qrpeuhv=
5171 DSOLFDFLRQHV GH IXQFLRQHV/ PRGHODFLÖQ 456
{ yduldeoh lqghshqglhqwh
| yduldeoh ghshqglhqwh
Pxfkdv yhfhv orv sdshohv gh odv yduldeohv lqghshqglhqwhv frq odv yduldeohv ghshqglhqwhv vrq lqwhufdp0
eldeohv/ sru hmhpsor/
F @ 5u
txh qrv gd od orqjlwxg F gh xqd flufxqihuhqfld fxdqgr frqrfhprv ho udglr u/ shur wdpelìq sxhgh vhu ylvwr
frpr
F
u@
5
sdud ho fdvr hq txh vh qrv gì od orqjlwxg F gh od flufxqihuhqfld | txlvlìudprv fdofxodu vx udglr1
Hq orv vljxlhqwhv hmhuflflrv oohjduhprv d xqd ixqflöq/ txh vh rewlhqh gho hqxqfldgr gho sureohpd/ fru0
uhvsrqglhqgr hvwh wlsr gh hmhuflflr d or txh vh hqwlhqgh sru prghodflöq pdwhpäwlfd1 Ho grplqlr gh od
ixqflöq rewhqlgd vh gheh uhvwulqjlu d odv frqglflrqhv gho sureohpd frqvlghudqgr grqgh wlhqh vhqwlgr od ydul0
deoh xwlol}dgd/ rewhqlhqgr xq qxhyr grplqlr txh oodpduhprv grplqlr gho sureohpd | or ghqrwduhprv
GrpS +i ,1
Sru hmhpsor= Vxsrqjdprv txh { lqglfd od orqjlwxg gh xq odgr gh xqd fdmd | od ixqflöq D+{, @ {+43{,
uhsuhvhqwd ho äuhd gh od fdmd1
Hqwrqfhv ho grplqlr gh od ixqflöq +pludgd qr hq ho frqwh{wr gho sureohpd, hv U/ shur frqvlghudqgr
D+{, frpr äuhd | whqlhqgr suhvhqwh txh { hv xqd orqjlwxg hqwrqfhv ghehprv dvhjxuduqrv gh txh
{A3 | 43 { A 3
gh grqgh 3 ? { ? 43/ oxhjr ho grplqlr gho sureohpd hv GrpS +D, @`3> 43^1
Hmhuflflr 433 Od frpsdôðd gh duulhqgr gh dxwrv Mlpìqh}%/ duulhqgd dxwrpöylohv Fkhyhwwh d ' 431833
sru gðd | 73 shvrv sru nloöphwur uhfruulgr/ plhqwudv txh od frpsdôðd Dudqfleld% duulhqgd ho plvpr wlsr
gh dxwr d ' ;1<33 sru gðd | d 93 shvrv sru nloöphwur1
d, Vl { uhsuhvhqwd ho qýphur gh nloöphwurv uhfruulgr hq xq gðd/ hqfxhqwuh odv ixqflrqhv FD +{,/ FM +{, txh
uhsuhvhqwdq ho frvwr sru duuhqgdu xq Fkhyhwwh hq od frpsdôðd Dudqfleld% | Mlpìqh}% uhvshfwlyd0
phqwh1
e, BcFxäqwrv nloöphwurv vh gheh uhfruuhu hq ho gðd sdud txh frqyhqjd duuhqgdu ho dxwr gh od frpsdôðd
Mlpìqh}%B Hqwuhjxh vl hv srvleoh xqd vroxflöq juäfd1
Vroxflöq= d, Vl { uhsuhvhqwd ho qýphur gh nloöphwurv uhfruulgr hq xq gðd/ hqwrqfhv ho frvwr sru duuhqgdu
xq Fkhyhwwh hq fdgd frpsdôðd hv>
e, Frqylhqh duuhqgdu ho dxwr gh od frpsdôðd Mlpìqh}% fxdqgr ho frvwr vhd phqru txh ho gh od frpsdôðd
Dudqfleld/ oxhjr ghehprv uhvroyhu
FD +{, A FM +{,
or txh htxlydoh d
<;33 . 93{ A 43833 . 73{
457 FKDSWHU 51 IXQFLRQHV
Hmhuflflr 434 Ho lpsxhvwr W d od yhqwd gh flhuwrv duwðfxorv +wd{deoh, hv gh 4; ( vreuh ho ydoru { gho
duwðfxor1 Vl W | { hvwäq gdgrv hq shvrv1
d, H{suhvh W hq ixqflöq gh {1
e, Fdofxoh W +533, | W +8=98,1
Vroxflöq= { sxhgh vhu xq qýphur hqwhur gh rq}dv/ r elhq sxhgh vhu dojxqdv rq}dv päv iudfflöq gh rq}d1
Hq ho sulphu fdvr ho iudqtxhr vhuä vlpsohphqwh
|+{, @ 3=3;+^{` . 4,
sru or wdqwr/
3=3;+^{` . 4, { 5 U. ].
|+{, @
3=3;{ { 5 ].
r frq { 5 U.
|+{, @ 3=3;+^{` ^^{` {`,
wdpelìq
|+{, @ 3=3; m ^{` m
5171 DSOLFDFLRQHV GH IXQFLRQHV/ PRGHODFLÖQ 458
Hmhuflflr 436 Vh ghvhd frqvwuxlu xq vlor hq irupd floðqgulfd uhpdwdgr sru xqd eöyhgd vhplhviìulfd frpr
vh lqglfd hq od jxud
f, Vl ho frvwr gh frqvwuxfflöq sru phwur fxdgudgr hv ho greoh hq od eöyhgd | ho vxhor frpsdudgr frq od
sduwh floðqgulfd | ho yroxphq gho vlor hv Y3 ^p6 `/ h{suhvh ho frvwr gh frqvwuxfflöq F frpr ixqflöq gh
u | hqfxhqwuh GrpS +F,1
Vroxflöq= d, Frpr ho yroxphq gh od vhplhvihud hv 56 u6 | ho yroxphq gho flolqgur hv u5 k vh wlhqh txh ho
yroxphq gho vlor hv ho yroxphq gh od eöyhgd päv ho yroxphq gho flolqgur
5
Y @ u6 . u5 k
6
e, Frpr ho äuhd gho whfkr +vhplhvihud, hv 5u5 / ho äuhd gh odv sduhghv +flolqgur, hv 5uk | ho äuhd gho
vxhor +fðufxor, hv u5 / vh wlhqh txh ho äuhd wrwdo gho vlor hv
f, Ho frvwr wrwdo gh frqvwuxfflöq gho vlor hvwä gdgr sru od vxpd gh orv frvwrv gh frqvwuxfflöq gh od
eöyhgd/ odv sduhghv | ho vxhor1 Vl o hv ho frvwr sru phwur fxdgudgr gh frqvwuxfflöq gh od sduwh floðqgulfd
+sduhghv,/ hqwrqfhv ho frvwr wrwdo gh frqvwuxfflöq hvwä gdgr sru xqd ixqflöq txh ghshqgh gh k | u
Vroxflöq= d, Vhd F ho yìuwlfh gho uhfwäqjxor U xelfdgr hq ho sulphu fxdgudqwh F @ +}> |,/ hqwrqfhv orv
odgrv gho uhfwäqjxor vrq m DE m@ 5} | m EF m@ 5|1 Sru or wdqwr/ ho äuhd gh U hv D @ 5}5| @ 7}|1 Shur F
shuwhqhfh d od holsvh/ dvð txh vxv frrughqdgdv vdwlvidfhq od hfxdflöq <{5 . 7| 5 @ 69/ gh grqgh/ ghvshmdqgr
|/ vh wlhqh s s
| @ 45 69 <} 5 b | @ 45 69 <} 5
s
frpr | hv xqd glvwdqfld/ hqwrqfhv | @ 65 7 } 5 | sru or wdqwr ho äuhd gh U qrv txhgd
6s s
D @ 7} 7 } 5 @ 9} 7 } 5
5
s
e, Od ixqflöq D+}, @ 9} 7 } 5 wlhqh xq grplqlr pdwhpäwlfr
+Grp+D, @ i} = 7 } 5 3j, shur ho grplqlr gho sureohpd hv GrpS +D, @`3> 5^/ |d txh } hv xqd
glvwdqfld+| sru or wdqwr gheh vhu srvlwlyd,
Hmhuflflr 438 Od frqfxuuhqfld phgld hq xq flqh hq ho txh od hqwudgd ydoh ' 4533 hv gh 433 shuvrqdv1
Ho hpsuhvdulr wlhqh exhqdv ud}rqhv sdud fuhhu txh fdgd yh} txh vh uhgxfh ho suhflr hq ' ;3/ ho qýphur gh
hvshfwdgruhv dxphqwd hq 531
5171 DSOLFDFLRQHV GH IXQFLRQHV/ PRGHODFLÖQ 45:
U @ qs
Vhd o ho qýphur gh yhfhv txh vh uhgxfh ho suhflr hq ' ;3/ oxhjr ho suhflr s hvwduä gdgd sru
Dghpäv/ sru fdgd yh} txh vh uhgxfh ho suhflr/ ho qýphur gh hvshfwdgruhv dxphqwd hq 53/ oxhjr
q @ 433 . 53o
od pä{lpd uhfdxgdflöq vh hqfxhqwud fxdqgr ho suhflr hv s @ ;33 | frq xqd wdtxlood q @ 733 ;33
7 @
733 533 @ 5331
f, Od uhfdxgdflöq pä{lpd sru vhvlöq hv ' 493=3331
Hmhuflflr 439 Xq fdpshvlqr wlhqh glqhur sdud frpsudu 4933 phwurv gh dodpeuh gh sýdv/ | ghvhd fhufdu
frq fxdwur kheudv gh dodpeuh xq whuuhqr uhfwdqjxodu hq vx suhglr1 Vl { uhsuhvhqwd xq odgr gho uhfwäqjxor
d, Ghwhuplqh od ixqflöq D+{, äuhd gho whuuhqr fhufdgr frq hvwh dodpeuh hq wìuplqrv gh {1
e, Hqfxhqwuh odv glphqvlrqhv gho whuuhqr fhufdgr gh pd|ru äuhd1
45; FKDSWHU 51 IXQFLRQHV
Vroxflöq= d, Vl { h | vrq orv odgrv gho uhfwäqjxor/ vh wlhqh txh ho äuhd gho whuuhqr fhufdgr hv
7+5{ . 5|,
Hmhuflflr 43: Od rulood gh xqd slvflqd irupd xq uhfwäqjxor gh 93 slhv gh odujr | 63 slhv gh dqfkr1 Vx
surixqglgdg dxphqwd xqliruphphqwh gh 7 d < slhv hq xq wudpr krul}rqwdo gh 73 slhv | ghvsxìv frqwlqýd
do plvpr qlyho orv uhvwdqwhv 53 slhv/ frpr vh loxvwud hq od jxud txh pxhvwud xqd vhfflöq wudqvyhuvdo1 Vl
od slvflqd vh kd oohqdgr ghvgh ixhud dofdq}dqgr xq qlyho k hq ho odgr päv surixqgr/ ghwhuplqh ho yroxphq
Y +k, gho djxd hq ixqflöq gh od dowxud k1
5171 DSOLFDFLRQHV GH IXQFLRQHV/ PRGHODFLÖQ 45<
grqgh
Y4 +k, @ 53 k 63
| @ ;k
oxhjr/
63k+;k, 573k5
Y5 +k, @ @ =
5 5
Whqhprv txh
grqgh
Y4 +k, @ 53 63 k @ 933k
Y5 +k, @ 738563 @ 9333
5 @ 6333
Y6 +k, @ +k 8, 73 63 @ 4533+k 8,
sru or wdqwr/
| qdophqwh
933k . 453k5 vl 3 ? k ? 8
Y +k, @
933k . 6333 . 4533+k 8, vl 8 k <
Hmhuflflr 43; Ghwhuplqh xqd ixqflöq txh uhsuhvhqwh ho yroxphq gh xq flolqgur lqvfulwr hq xqd hvihud gh
udglr d +frpr hq od jxud , hq ixqflöq gh vx dowxud1
5171 DSOLFDFLRQHV GH IXQFLRQHV/ PRGHODFLÖQ 464
Hmhuflflr 443 Vh ghvhd frqvwuxlu xqd fdmd frq wdsd gh edvh fxdgudgd frq äuhd qr pd|ru gh 433fp5 frpr
od gh od jxud / gh yroxphq 585fp6 1 Vl ho frvwr gh od wdsd hv ' 5 sru fp5 / od edvh ' 8 sru fp5 | ho gh orv
odgrv hv gh ' 6 sru fp5 / h{suhvh ho frvwr F frpr ixqflöq gh { | GrpS +F,1
Vroxflöq= Sru klsöwhvlv vh vdeh txh ho yroxphq gh od fdmd hv gh 585fp6 > oxhjr
{5 | @ 585 +518,
frq { A 3/ | A 3 | {5 4331
Ho frvwr gh od wdsd hv ' 5 sru fp5 1 Od wdsd wlhqh {5 fp5 / oxhjr ho frvwr gh od wdsd hv ' 5{5 1
Ho frvwr gh od edvh hv ' 8 sru fp5 | od edvh wlhqh {5 fp5 / oxhjr ho frvwr gh od edvh hv ' 8{5 1
Ilqdophqwh/ ho frvwr gh orv odgrv hv ' 6 sru fp5 | fdgd odgr wlhqh {|fp5 / oxhjr ho frvwr gh od edvh hv
' 6+7{|, @ ' 45{|1
Dvð/ ho frvwr wrwdo gh od fdmd hv=
F @ 5{5 . 8{5 . 45{| +519,
shur sru 518/
585
|@
{5
uhhpsod}dqgr hq 519 rewhqhprv od ixqflöq shglgd
585
F+{, @ :{5 . 45{ grqgh GrpS +F, @`3> 43`
{5
Hmhuflflr 444 Vl ho udglr edvdo u gh xq frqr flufxodu uhfwr dxphqwd hq xq {(/ plhqwudv txh vx dowxud k
glvplqx|h hq xq 53(/ irupxoh xqd ixqflöq hq wìuplqrv gh { txh shuplwd rewhqhu hq txì srufhqwdmh yduðdq=
Hq sduwlfxodu/ vl ho udglr dxphqwd hq 48(/ Bchq txì srufhqwdmh yduðdq ho äuhd edvdo | ho yroxphq gho
frqrB +Vöor ghvduurooduhprv or uhodwlyr do äuhd,1
5171 DSOLFDFLRQHV GH IXQFLRQHV/ PRGHODFLÖQ 466
Hq sduwlfxodu/ vl ho udglr dxphqwd hq xq 48( hqwrqfhv ho srufhqwdmh gh dxphqwr gho äuhd hv D+48,1
} @ i+{> |, @ d{ . e|
Hmhpsor 445 Xqd lqgxvwuld pdqxidfwxuhud surgxfh elflfohwdv | prwrqhwdv/ fdgd xqd gh odv fxdohv gheh
surfhvduvh d wudyìv gh grv fhqwudohv gh pätxlqdv D | E1 Od fhqwudo D wlhqh xq pä{lpr gh 453 krudv
glvsrqleohv | od fhqwudo E srvhh xq pä{lpr gh 4;3 krudv glvsrqleohv1 Od pdqxidfwxud gh xqd elflfohwd
uhtxlhuh 9 krudv hq od fhqwudo D | 6 krudv hq od fhqwudo E> od pdqxidfwxud gh xqd prwrqhwd uhtxlhuh gh 7
krudv hq od fhqwudo D | 43 krudv hq od fhqwudo E1 Vdelhqgr txh ho ehqhflr sru elflfohwd hv gh ' 78 | sru
prwrqhwd hv gh ' 88 irupxohprv xq prghor pdwhpäwlfr txh shuplwd rewhqhu ho qýphur gh elflfohwdv | gh
prwrqhwdv txh vh ghehuäq ideulfdu sdud rewhqhu xq ehqhflr pä{lpr1
Vroxflöq= Vhdq { h | odv yduldeohv txh uhsuhvhqwdq odv fdqwlgdghv gh elflfohwdv | prwrqhwdv uhvshfwl0
ydphqwh | vhd } od jdqdqfld txh uhvxowd do yhqghu { elflfohwdv h | prwrqhwdv1 Ho remhwlyr hv hvfrjhu orv
ydoruhv gh { h | gh pdqhud txh vh pd{lplfh od fdqwlgdg
9{ . 7| 453
8 Xqd ixqflöq uhdo gh grv yduldeohv frq grplqlr D i G D \ U2 3< U hv xqd fruuhvsrqghqfld wdo txh sdud fdgd sdu gh
hohphqwrv E{> | hq D h{lvwh xq ýqlfr hohphqwr } M U wdo txh } ' i E{> | +Yhu Dsìqglfh F,1
467 FKDSWHU 51 IXQFLRQHV
6{ . 43| 4;3
{3 a |3
i+{> |, @ d{ . e|
ho sureohpd srghprv uhvroyhuor jhrpìwulfdphqwh1 Hq hihfwr/ hq hvwh fdvr ho sureohpd vöor wlhqh grv
yduldeohv gh ghflvlöq | sru or wdqwr vöor grv glphqvlrqhv/ sru or txh srghprv xvdu xq surfhglplhqwr
juäfr sdud uhvroyhuor1 Hvwh surfhglplhqwr lqfox|h od frqvwuxfflöq gh xqd juäfd gh grv glphqvlrqhv frq
{ h | hq orv hmhv1 Ho sulphu sdvr hv lghqwlfdu orv ydoruhv gh +{> |, shuplwlgrv sru odv uhvwulfflrqhv> dvð/
sdud ho sureohpd dqwhulru/ vh judfdq odv uhfwdv
9{ . 7| @ 453
6{ . 43| @ 4;3
{ @ 3
| @ 3
Ho sdvr qdo hv vhohfflrqdu/ ghqwur gh hvwd uhjlöq/ ho sxqwr +{> |, txh pd{lpl}d ho ydoru gh } @ 78{.88|1
Hvwh sdvr vh yxhoyh dxwrpäwlfr ghvsxìv gh xq srfr gh suäfwlfd/ shur sdud ghvfxeulu hq txì vh ixqgd0
phqwd ydoh od shqd lqwhqwdu dojxqrv ydoruhv sru suxhed | huuru1 Sru hmhpsor/ frqvlghuhprv } @ ;431 Vl vh
glexmd od uhfwd 78{ . 88| @ ;43 vh sxhgh yhu +hq od jxud , txh h{lvwhq pxfkrv sxqwrv vreuh hvwd uhfwd txh
hvwäq ghqwur gh od uhjlöq U1 Sru or wdqwr ghehprv lqwhqwdu xq ydoru pd|ru sdud }/ sru hmhpsor/ } @ <331
5171 DSOLFDFLRQHV GH IXQFLRQHV/ PRGHODFLÖQ 468
Judfdqgr od uhfwd 78{ . 88| @ <33 yhprv qxhydphqwh txh h{lvwhq lqqlwrv sxqwrv vreuh hvwd uhfwd txh
hvwäq ghqwur gh od uhjlöq U/ gh pdqhud txh ho pä{lpr ydoru shuplvleoh gh } gheh vhu sru or phqrv <331
Qrwhprv txh vl vh gd xq ydoru päv judqgh d }/ od uhfwd txhgduä päv duuled r päv dohmdgd gho ruljhq txh
od sulphud | txh wrgdv hvwdv uhfwdv vrq sdudohodv1
Hvwh hv ho surfhglplhqwr gh suxhed | huuru txh vöor qhfhvlwd txh vh judtxhq xqd idplold gh uhfwdv
sdudohodv txh frqwhqjdq do phqrv xq sxqwr gh od uhjlöq idfwleoh | txh vh holmd od txh hvwì päv dohmdgd gho
ruljhq +hq od gluhfflöq hq txh fuhfhq orv ydoruhv gh },1 Glfkd uhfwd sdvd sru ho sxqwr +43> 48, frpr vh
lqglfd hq od jxud | od hfxdflöq txhgd
Hmhuflflr 446 Xq kruwlfxowru ghvhd ph}fodu ihuwlol}dqwh txh sursruflrqh xq pðqlpr gh 48 xqlgdghv gh
srwdvd/ 53 xqlgdghv gh qlwudwrv | 57 xqlgdghv gh irvidwrv1 Glvsrqh gh grv pdufdv gh ihuwlol}dqwhv1 Od
pdufd 4 sursruflrqd 6 xqlgdghv gh srwdvd 4 gh qlwudwrv | 6 gh irvidwrv> vx frvwr hv gh 453 göoduhv +od
xqlgdg,1 Od pdufd 5 sursruflrqd 4 xqlgdg gh srwdvd 8 gh qlwudwrv | 5 gh irvidwrv> vx frvwr hv gh 93 göoduhv
+od xqlgdg,1
Irupxoh xq prghor pdwhpäwlfr txh shuplwd rewhqhu od frpelqdflöq gh ihuwlol}dqwhv gh phqru frvwr txh
vdwlvidjd odv hvshflfdflrqhv ghvhdgdv1
Vroxflöq= Vhdq
} @ 453{ . 93|
6{ . | 48
{ . 8| 53
6{ . 5| 57
Fodudphqwh/ dghpäv
{3 |3
Oxhjr ho prghor pdwhpäwlfr shglgr hv
vxmhwr d
6{ . | 48
{ . 8| 53
6{ . 5| 57
{ 3
| 3
Judfdqgr odv uhfwdv
6{ . | @ 48
{ . 8| @ 53
6{ . 5| @ 57
{ @ 3
| @ 3
rewhqhprv od uhjlöq U gh od jxud
Sru rwud sduwh d sduwlu gh od ixqflöq remhwlyr/ frq f frqvwdqwh/ vh wlhqh txh
f
|@ 5{
93
gh grqgh od shqglhqwh gh od uhfwd f @ 453{ . 93| hv p @ 51 Frqvlghudqgr od uhfwd +frq shqglhqwh
p @ 5, päv fhufdqd do ruljhq/ txh sdvh sru do phqrv xq sxqwr gho frqmxqwr U/ whqhprv txh ho sxqwr
öswlpr hv
{ @ 5> | @ <
hv ghflu/ 5 xqlgdghv gh ihuwlol}dqwh Pdufd 4 | < xqlgdghv gh ihuwlol}dqwh Pdufd 51
Hmhuflflr 447 Xqd hglwruldo sodqhd xvdu xqd vhfflöq gh vx sodqwd sdud surgxflu grv wh{wrv D | E1 Od
jdqdqfld hv gh ' ; sru ho wh{wr D | ' 8 sru ho wh{wr E1 Ho wh{wr D uhtxlhuh gh 7 krudv sdud lpsulplu |
gh 9 krudv sdud hqfxdghuqdu | hpsdvwdu1 Ho wh{wr E uhtxlhuh gh 8 krudv sdud lpsulplu | gh 6 krudv sdud
hqfxdghuqdu | hpsdvwdu1 Vl vh glvsrqh gh 533 krudv sdud lpsulplu | gh 543 krudv sdud hqfxdghuqdu |
hpsdvwdu | vl sru or phqrv vh ghehq surgxflu 53 wh{wrv1
51 Ghwhuplqh ho qýphur öswlpr gh fdgd wh{wr txh gheh surgxflu od hglwruldo | vx fruuhvsrqglhqwh jdqdq0
fld1
{= qýphurv gh wh{wrv D1
|= qýphurv gh wh{wrv E1
Frqvlghudqgr od uhfwd +frq shqglhqwh p @ ;8 , päv ohmdqd do ruljhq/ txh sdvh sru do phqrv xq sxqwr
gho frqmxqwr U/ whqhprv txh ho sxqwr öswlpr hv
{ @ 58> | @ 53
frq } @ 633
6, | 7, Uhhpsod}dqgr od vroxflöq öswlpd hq od uhvwulfflöq gh lpsuhvlöq whqhprv txh vh xvdurq 7 58 .
8 53 @ 533 krudv sdud lpsulplu/ hv ghflu/ wrgdv odv krudv glvsrqleohv sdud wdo hihfwr1 Frqvlghudqgr od
uhvwulfflöq gh hqfxdghuqdflöq | hpsdvwh/ rewhqhprv txh vh xvdurq odv 543 krudv glvsrqleohv sdud hvwd
wduhd1
8, Do djuhjdu od uhvwulfflöq
5| { 3
46; FKDSWHU 51 IXQFLRQHV
{ @ 58> | @ 53
frq } @ 6331
9, Vl vh glvsrqhq gh 9 krudv päv sdud lpsulplu | od jdqdqfld sru fdgd wh{wr vh uhgxfh hq ' 3/35 od
irupxodflöq pdwhpäwlfd vhuðd
Pd{ } @ :> <;{ . 7> <;|
vxmhwr d
7{ . 8| 539
9{ . 6| 543
{ 53
| 3
od juäfd fruuhvsrqglhqwh d hvwh prghor vh hqfxhqwud hq od jxud
Xqd gh odv frvdv txh gheh hvshflfduvh dtxðhv ho grplqlr gh k+{,/ | hv qdwxudo shqvdu hq xq frqmxqwr
wdo txh fdgd vxpdqgr hvwì ghqlgr hq U> dvðho grplqlr gh k+{, gheh vhu d or päv Grpi _ Grpj1
Hq ho fdvr dqwhulru vh xvö od rshudflöq . +vxpd,/ wdpelìq vh srguðd kdehu xvdgr od rshudflöq +pxo0
wlsolfdflöq,/ glylvlöq/ hwf1
Ghqlflöq 516 Hq jhqhudo vxsrqjdprv txh i | j vrq grv ixqflrqhv | vhd G @ Grpi _Grpj/ hqwrqfhv vh
ghqhq qxhydv ixqflrqhv +frq grplqlr G, frqvwuxlgdv hq edvh d rshudflrqhv hqwuh vxv lpäjhqhv uhvshfwlydv=
5181 DOJHEUD GH IXQFLRQHV 46<
i . j = G $ U
{ $ i+{, . j+{,
i j = G $ U
{ $ i+{, j+{,
i j = G $ U
{ $ i+{,j+{,
i @j = G3 $ U
{ $ i +{,@j+{,
grqgh
G3 @ i{ 5 G = j+{, 9@ 3j
s
Hmhpsor 448 Vhdq i +{, @ +5 {,6 / j+{, @m { 5 m1 Ghwhuplqhprv
s od vxpd/ od glihuhqfld/ ho surgxfwr
| ho fxrflhqwh gh i | j1 Vroxflöq= Qrwhprv txh i +{, @ 5 { m 5 { m1 Ho grplqlr gh i hv ho lqwhuydor
` 4> 5` | ho grplqlr gh j hv U/ sru or wdqwr od lqwhuvhfflöq gh vxv grplqlrv hv ` 4> 5` | odv ixqflrqhv
txh vh uhtxlhuhq hvwäq gdgdv sru
s
+i . j,+{, @ s5 { m 5 { m . m { 5 m { 5
+i j,+{, @ s5 { m 5 { m m { 5 m { 5
+ij,+{, @ s 5 {+5 {,5 {5
5{m5{m
+i @j,+{, @
s m{5m
@ 5{ {?5
Qrwh txh vl j hv xqd ixqflöq frqvwdqwh wdo txh j+{, @ f sdud wrgr { | vl i hv fxdotxlhu ixqflöq/ hqwrqfhv
fi ghqrwd ho surgxfwr gh j | i /
+fi,+{, @ fi +{,> ;{ 5 Grpi
+yhu jxud ,
Ghwhuplqh i . j/ i j/ i j/ i@j | dghpäv judiðtxhodv1
473 FKDSWHU 51 IXQFLRQHV
Sxhvwr txh i | j vrq ixqflrqhv ghqlgdv sru sduwhv ghehprv dqdol}du orv srvleohv fdvrv gh dfxhugr d odv
lqwhuvhfflrqhv srvleohv gh grplqlrv1
oxhjr/
+i . j,+{, @ i +{, . j+{, @ { . 5
+i j,+{, @ i +{, j+{, @ {
+i j,+{,
@ i +{,j+{, @ { . 4
i +{,
j @ ij++{{,, @ { . 4
oxhjr/
+i . j,+{, @ i +{, . j+{, @ { . 6
+i j,+{, @ i +{, j+{, @ { 4
+i j,+{,
@ i +{,j+{, @ 5{ . 5
i +{,
j @ ij++{{,, @ {.4
5
oxhjr/ s
+i . j,+{, @ i+{, . j+{, @ s{ . 5
+i j,+{, @ i+{, j+{, @s { 5
+i j,+{,
@ i+{,j+{, @ 5 {
s
i +{,
j @ ij++{{,, @ 5{
Hq frqvhfxhqfld= ;
? {.5 5 ? { 4
+i . j,+{, @ { . 6 4 ? { ? 3
= s
{.5 3{?7
;
? { 5 ? { 4
+i j,+{, @ { 4 4 ? { ? 3
= s
{5 3{?7
;
? { . 4 5 ? { 4
+i j,+{, @ 5{ . 5 4 ? { ? 3
= s
5 { 3{?7
;
? { . 4 5 ? { 4
i {.4 4 ? { ? 3
+{, @
j = s5{
5
3{?7
5181 DOJHEUD GH IXQFLRQHV 474
Ghqlflöq 517 Vhdq D/ E | F frqmxqwrv gh qýphurv uhdohv1 Vhd i xqd ixqflöq gh D hq E | vhd j xqd
ixqflöq gh F hq G/ hv ghflu/
i j
D $ E a F $ G
j i = D4 $ G
{ $ j+i +{,,
+yhu hq jxud ,1
9
Hq sduwlfxodu vl Uhfi Grpj/ hqwrqfhv Grp+j i , @ Grpi1
oxhjr/
j i = ^4> 4^$ U
{ $ { 4
Dkrud ghwhuplqhprv i j1 Hq hvwh fdvr ghehprv ghwhuplqdu Uhfj1 Fodudphqwh
Uhfj @ ^3> 4^ | Uhfj 9 Grpi / vlq hpedujr Uhfj _ Grpi @ ^4> 4^9@ > oxhjr1
Shur
+{ 5,5 5 ^4> 4^ +, +{ 5,5 4
+, m { 5 m 4
+, {6 b {4
oxhjr/
Grp+i j, @ i{ 5 Grpj = j+{, 5 Grpi j
@ ` 4> 4` ^ ^6> 4^
@ U`4> 6^
Dghpäv/ s
+i j,+{, @ i +j+{,, @ i++{ 5,5 , @ +{ 5,5 4 . 5
9 Dojxqrv wh{wrv srqhq frpr frqglflöq qhfhvduld Uhfi \ Grp j sdud ghqlu od frpsxhvwd j i shur frpr vh yh hvwh hv xq
oxhjr/
i j = U`4> 6^$ s
U
{ $ +{ 5,5 4 . 5
Qrwh txh i j 9@ j i/ hv ghflu/ qr vh fxpsoh od surslhgdg gh frqpxwdwlylgdg sdud od frpsrvlflöq gh
ixqflrqhv1 Vlq hpedujr vh yhulfd od dvrfldwlylgdg
+i j, k @ i +j k,
Vroxflöq= Fodudphqwh vh yh txh Grpk @ U/ Uhfk @ U. 3 / Grpj @`4> 4^ / Uhfj @ U3 / Grpi @ ^4> 4^1
F .
@ {5 4 . 4 5
477 FKDSWHU 51 IXQFLRQHV
whqhprv txh
+i j, k,,+{, @ +i ss j,+{5 ,
@ {7 4 . 4 5
Sru rwud sduwh hq ho fäofxor gh +i +j k,,+{, whqhprv
+i +j k,,+{, @ is++j k,+{,,
@ t+j k,+{, . 4 5
s
@ +k+{,,5 4 . 4 5
ss
@ {7 4 . 4 5
Dvð/
i +j k, @ +i j, k
|d txh wlhqhq ljxdo grplqlr/ uhfruulgr | uhodflöq +iöupxod, txh odv ghqh1
Hq orv gldjudpdv vljxlhqwhv vh ylvxdol}dq orv sdvrv khfkrv hq ho ghvduuroor1
U $ U. ` 4> 4^F $ U.
k j i
3 > 3 > ^4> 4^$ ^5> 4^
Sdud i +j k,
` 4> 4^F $ U.
jk i
3 > ^4> 4^$ ^5> 4^
i +jk,
` 4> 4^F $ ^5> 4^
| sdud +i j, k
U $ U.
k i j
3 > ` 4> 4^F $ ^5> 4^
i j,k,
` 4> 4^F $ ^5> 4^
+
ghfuhflhqwh hq D=
+;x> y 5 D,+x ? y , i+x, i +y,,>
hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh hq D=
hvwulfwdphqwh ghfuhflhqwh hq D=
Hv ghflu/ xqd ixqflöq i vhuä hvwulfwdphqwh ghfuhflhqwh vl lqylhuwh ho rughq/ hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh vl
frqvhuyd ho rughq1
1
s
Hmhpsor 454 Od ixqflöq i+{, @ { hv hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh sxhv sdud wrgr {> | 5 U.
s s
{ ? | , { ? |=
Hq jhqhudo=
s
Hmhpsor 455 Od ixqflöq i+{, @ q { frq q 5 Q hv hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh1
Hq hihfwr hq od vhfflöq gh qýphurv uhdohv vh sureö sru ho frurodulr 414; txh
s s
+;{> | 5 U. ,+{ ? | , q { ? q |,
Hmhpsor 457 Od ixqflöq i+{, @ {5 hv hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh hq U. / sxhv vl {> | 5 U. wdo txh { ?
| hqwrqfhv {5 ? |5 > shur qr hv hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh hq U/ sxhvwr txh h{lvwhq { @ 5 5 U/ | @ 4 5 U
wdohv txh { ? | shur {5 9? | 5 =
Sru rwud sduwh/ qrwhprv txh od ixqflöq i +{, @ {5 hv hvwulfwdphqwh ghfuhflhqwh hq U. / sxhv vl {> | 5
U wdo txh { ? | hqwrqfhv {5 ? |5 oxhjr {5 A | 5 / hv ghflu/
.
Sursrvlflöq 519 Vl i | j vrq ixqflrqhv hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwhv wdohv txh Uhfi Grpj hqwrqfhv j i
hv xqd ixqflöq hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh ghqlgd hq Grpi 1
i +{, ? i+|,
hq frqvhfxhqfld
{ ? | , +j i,+{, ? +j i ,+|,
Hmhuflflr 458 Suxheh txh vl i hv xqd ixqflöq fuhflhqwh hq G hqwrqfhv i hv xqd ixqflöq ghfuhflhqwh hq
G1
Vroxflöq= Vhd {> | 5 G wdo txh { ? | hqwrqfhv i+{, i+|, sxhv i hv fuhflhqwh/ pxowlsolfdqgr sru 4 vh
wlhqh
i +{, i +|,
hq frqvhfxhqfld
{ ? | , i+{, i+|,
Sru or wdqwr i hv ghfuhflhqwh hq G1
Hmhuflflr 459 Ghwhuplqh vl odv vljxlhqwhv dupdflrqhv vrq yhugdghudv r idovdv1 Mxvwltxh1
+i . j,k @ i k . jk hq G
k+i . j, @ ki . kj hq G
+i . j, k @ i k . j k hq G
i Lg @ Lg i @ i
j i @ Lg> ;{ 5 Grpi
Vroxflöq=
i = U $ U j = ^4> 4^$ U
s
{ $ 4 { $ {4
oxhjr/
++i . j,k,+{, @ +i k . jk,+{, ;{ 5 G
gh grqgh
+i . j,k @ i k . jk
Dqäorjdphqwh vl { 5 G>
+k+i . j,,+{, @ k+{,+i . j,+{,
@ k+{,+i+{, . j+{,,
@ k+{,i +{, . k+{,j+{,
@ +ki,+{, . +kj,+{,
@ +ki . kj,+{,
oxhjr/
+k+i . j,,+{, @ +ki . kj,+{, ;{ 5 G
gh grqgh
k+i . j, @ ki . kj hq G
: Hq uhdolgdg ho vðperor Lg hvwä ghqrwdqgr ho frqfhswr gh ixqflöq lghqwlgdg / shur jhqhudophqwh vhuäq ixqflrqhv glvwlqwdv/
oxhjr/
++i . j, k,+{, @ +i k . j k,+{, ;{ 5 G
gh grqgh
+i . j, k @ i k . j k hq G
sru or wdqwr
i +j . k, 9@ i j . i k
ixqflöq fuhflhqwh1
91 Idovr1 Vhd
{ vl { 5` 4> 4`
i+{, @
{6 vl { 5`4> 4^
i+{, @ { hv fuhflhqwh hq ` 4> 4` | i +{, @ { 6 hv fuhflhqwh hq `4> 4^1
Vlq hpedujr i qr hv fuhflhqwh ` 4> 4`^`4> 4^@ U sxhv +sru hmhpsor,/ h{lvwh { @ 3 5 U/ | @ 5 5 U
wdohv txh { ? | shur 3 @ i +{, 9? i +|, @ 41
:1 Yhugdghur1 Vhd { 5 G
+i Lg,+{, @ i +Lg+{,, @ i +{, ;{ 5 G
|
+Lg i ,+{, @ Lg+i+{,, @ i +{, ;{ 5 G
oxhjr/
i LgG @ LgUhf i i @ i
ö
i Lg @ Lg i @ i
5181 DOJHEUD GH IXQFLRQHV 47<
i = U $ U
{ $ 4
| vxsrqjdprv txh h{lvwh xqd ixqflöq j wdo txh Uhfi Grpj | j i @ Lg/ hqwrqfhv
Vl { @ 4 vh wlhqh txh
+j i,+4, @ j+i +4,, @ j+4, @ 4
Vl { @ 5/ vh wlhqh txh
+j i ,+5, @ j+i+5,, @ j+4, @ 5>
hv ghflu/ j+4, wlhqh grv ydoruhv 4 | 5 gh grqgh j qr hv ixqflöq/ or txh frqwudglfh ho vxsxhvwr1
Vlq hpedujr/ edmr flhuwdv frqglflrqhv hv srvleoh txh hvwr rfxuud/ hv ghflu/ txh sdud xqd ixqflöq i gh D
hq E h{lvwd j gh E hq D +oodpdgd od ixqflöq lqyhuvd gh i, wdo txh
i j @ LgE
|
j i @ LgD
Yhuhprv päv dghodqwh txh xqd ixqflöq wlhqh lqyhuvd vl | vöor vl hv lq|hfwlyd | hsl|hfwlyd1
Ho frqfhswr gh lq|hfwlylgdg ; lqglfd txh d wrgr hohphqwr gho uhfruulgr gh i oh fruuhvsrqgh xqd ýqlfd
suhlpdjhq hq ho grplqlr gh i 1 Ho gh hsl|hfwlylgdg lqglfd txh d wrgr hohphqwr gho frqmxqwr gh oohjdgd oh
fruuhvsrqgh sru or phqrv xqd suhlpdjhq/ hq rwudv sdodeudv/ ho frqmxqwr gh lpäjhqhv gh i +uhfruulgr gh i ,
gheh vhu ljxdo do frqmxqwr gh oohjdgd1
i = U i4j $ U
{ $ 5{{.4
4
Vroxflöq= Hq hihfwr= Vhdq x> y 5 U i4j wdohv txh i +x, @ i+y,1 Vh wlhqh=
i +x, @ i +y,
, 5x.4
x4 @ 5y .4
y4
, +5x . 4,+y 4, @ +5y . 4,+x 4,
, 5xy 5x . y 4 @ 5yx 5y . x 4
, x @ y
oxhjr/
i +x, @ i +y, , x @ y> ;x> y 5 U i4j
; Rwur qrpeuh xwlol}dgr hq od olwhudwxud frpr vlqöqlpr gh lq|hfwlyd hv 404 +vh ohh xqr d xqr ,1
483 FKDSWHU 51 IXQFLRQHV
i = U $ U
{ $ {5 . { . 4
Qrwhprv txh do wud}du xqd uhfwd krul}rqwdo/ ìvwd sxhgh fruwdu d od fxuyd hq grv sxqwrv +h{fhswr hq
| @ 6@7 d txlhq vöor oh fruuhvsrqgh od suhlpdjhq {@0425,
Fodudphqwh vh revhuyd txh vl vh uhvwulqjh od ixqflöq do lqwhuydor ^4@5> 4^ ö do lqwhuydor ` 4> 4@5`/
hqwrqfhv vh rewlhqhq ixqflrqhv lq|hfwlydv/ hv ghflu/
i = ^4@5> 4^$ U
{ $ {5 . { . 4
|
i = ` 4> 4@5^$ U
{ $ {5 . { . 4
vrq dpedv ixqflrqhv lq|hfwlydv +juäfrv fhqwudo | ghuhfkr gh jxud dqwhulru uhvshfwlydphqwh,1
Ghwhuplqhprv dqdoðwlfdphqwh hq txì lqwhuydor i hv lq|hfwlyd Vhdq x> y 5 U wdo txh i+x, @ i+y,1 vh
wlhqh=
i +x, @ i+y,
+, x5 . x . 4 @ y 5 . y . 4
+, x5 y 5 @ y x
+, +x y,+x . y, . +x y, @ 3
+, +x y,+x . y . 4, @ 3
+, x@y b y.x.4@3
Qrwhprv txh x @ y a x . y . 4 @ 3/ vl x @ y @ 4@51
Exvfduhprv xq vxefrqmxqwr G gho grplqlr gh i hq ho fxdo vh fxpsod=
x @ y | x . y . 4 9@ 3 ;x> y 5 G i 45 j
Qrwhprv txh
x @ y a x . y . 4 9@ 3
, x @ y a +x . y . 4 A 3 b x . y . 4 ? 3,
, +x @ y a x . y . 4 A 3, b +x @ y a x . y . 4 ? 3,
, 5x . 4 A 3 b 5x . 4 ? 3
, x A 4@5 b x ? 4@5
5181 DOJHEUD GH IXQFLRQHV 484
shur 4@5 shuwhqhfh do grplqlr gh lq|hfwlylgdg1 Oxhjr/ srghprv frqvlghudu frpr grplqlrv gh lq|hfwlylgdg=
G @` 4> 4@5`
r elhq
G @ ^4@5> 4^
Dvð/
oxhjr/
x5 . xy . y5 A 3> ;x> y 5 U i3j
Sru or wdqwr x @ y1
Rwud irupd gh yhu txh x5 . xy . y5 9@ 3 hv
4 6
x5 . xy . y5 @ +x . y,5 . y 5 A 3 ;x> y 5 U i3j
5 7
Hmhuflflr 463 Ghwhuplqh vl
j = U $ U
{ $ j+{, @ {5{.8
hv lq|hfwlyd1 Hq fdvr gh qr vhuor kdfhu odv uhvwulfflrqhv qhfhvduldv sdud txh or vhd1
Dkrud ghwhuplqhprv xq vxefrqmxqwr G gho grplqlr grqgh j vhd lq|hfwlyd1 Qrwhprv txh
x@y a xy @ 8
vl s s
x@y@ 8 b x@y@ 8
Sdud ghwhuplqdu ho grplqlr gh lq|hfwlylgdg vh gheh yhulfdu
x @ y a xy 9@ 8= Dkrud elhq=
x @ y a xy 9@ 8 +, x @ y a +xy A 8 b xy ? 8,
+, +x @ y a xy A 8, b +x @ y a xy ? 8,
+, x5 A 8sb x5 ? 8 s
+, m x mAs 8 b m x m?s 8 s s
+, +x A 8 b s x ? s 8, b + 8 ? sx asx ? 8,
+, x 5` 4> 8^^` 8> 4^ b x 5` 8> 8^
s s
Shur 8 | 8 shuwhqhfhq do grplqlr gh lq|hfwlylgdg/ oxhjr/
s s
j4 = ^ 8> 8` $ U
{ $ j+{, @ {5{.8
| s s
j5 =` 4> 8` ^ ^ 8> 4^ $ U
{ $ j+{, @ {5{.8
vrq dpedv ixqflrqhv lq|hfwlydv1
Revhuyhprv ho juäfr gh j hq
Vroxflöq= Vhdq x> y 5 Grpk wdohv txh k+x, @ k+y,1 Ghehprv ghprvwudu txh x @ y
k+x, @ k+y,
+, +j i,+x, @ +j i,+y,
+, j+i+x,, @ j+i +y,,
Frpr j hv 404 vh wlhqh hqwrqfhv txh i+x, @ i +y,/ | vlhqgr i lq|hfwlyd/ uhvxowd txh x @ y or txh ghpxhvwud
od sursrvlflöq
Sursrvlflöq 51; Vl i hv xqd ixqflöq hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh r elhq hvwulfwdphqwh ghfuhflhqwh/ hqwrqfhv
i hv lq|hfwlyd1
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71 Hq od ulehud gh xq uðr gh 6 np gh dqfkr kd| xqd sodqwd hoìfwulfd/ hq od rwud ulehud 7 np fruulhqwh
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45 wdumhwdv1 Vl | ghqrwd ho suhflr | { ho qýphur gh wdumhwdv qdylghôdv1 H{suhvdu | hq ixqflöq gh {1
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441 Frqvlghuh od jxud I0e1 Vhd D+{, ho äuhd gh od vxshuflh h{whulru +lqfox|hqgr odv edvhv, gho vrolgr
kdvwd od dowxud {1 H{suhvh D+{, frpr ixqflöq gh {/ grqgh { hv od dowxud phglgd ghvgh od edvh1
451 Xq flolqgur flufxodu uhfwr gh udglr u | dowxud k hvwä lqvfulwr hq xq frqr gh dowxud 45 | udglr gh od
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fdgd sr}r qxhyr txh vh wlhqh/ od surgxfflöq phgld sru sr}r glvplqx|h hq 43 eduulohv gldulrv1
Ghwhuplqh od ixqflöq txh shuplwh rewhqhu od surgxfflöq S gh fuxgr do gðd hq wìuplqrv gh {/ grqgh
{ hv ho qýphur gh sr}rv dglflrqdohv hvshflfdqgr fodudphqwh vx grplqlr1
471 Xqd dvrfldflöq ghvhd uhqwdu xq wuhq sdud oohydu d vxv plhpeurv d xqd flxgdg1 Od frpsdôðd ihuurylduld
dffhgh d uhqwdu xq wuhq vl ho pðqlpr gh yldmhurv qr hv phqru txh 583 shuvrqdv1 Od wduðid sru shuvrqd
vhuä gh ' ;1 vl yldmdq 583 | vh uhgxfh hq xq fhqwdyr +' 4 @ 433 fhqwdyrv, sru fdgd yldmhur dglflrqdo
+dvð/ vl yldmdq 633 shuvrqd od wdulid vh uhgxfh d ' :183,1
Vl { hv ho qýphur gh shuvrqdv dglflrqdohv | ho wuhq wlhqh fdsdflgdg sdud :33 shuvrqdv1 Ghwhuplqh ho
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4:; FKDSWHU 51 IXQFLRQHV
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ylwdplqd F | 65 gh ylwdplqd G1 Od pdufd 4 fxhvwd 6 göoduhv | sursruflrqd 5 xqlgdghv gh ylwdplqd
D/ 5 gh ylwdplqd F | ; gh ylwdplqd G1 Od pdufd 5 fxhvwd 7 göoduhv | gd 6 xqlgdghv gh ylwdplqd D/
5 gh F | 5 gh G1 BcFxäo hv od frpelqdflöq gh frvwr päv edmr txh jdudqwl}d odv qhfhvlgdghv glduldvB
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ho gh E gh ' 5331 D uhtxlhuh 9 krudv gh hoderudflöq/ 7 krudv gh prqwdmh | 8 krudv gh hpedodmh1 Sru
vx sduwh E qhfhvlwd 6 krudv gh hoderudflöq / 9 krudv gh prqwdmh | 8 krudv gh hpedodmh1 Vl vh glvsrqh
gh 87 krudv sdud od hoderudflöq/ 7; krudv sdud hqvdpeodmh | 83 krudv sdud ho hpedodmh1 Irupxoh ho
prghor pdwhpäwlfr txh shuplwd rewhqhu od surgxfflöq pä{lpd gh ehqhflrv1
4:1 Od Fðd1 UHG\ PLNNV hv gxhôd gh xqd shtxhôd ideulfd gh slqwxudv/ surgxfh slqwxudv gh lqwhulru
| h{whulru sdud fdvd/ txh vrq glvwulexlgdv do sru pd|ru1 Grv pdwhuldv sulpdv eävlfdv/ D | E/ vrq
xvdgdv sdud od frpsrvlflöq gh hvwdv slqwxudv1 Od glvsrqlelolgdg pä{lpd gh D hv gh 9 wrqhodgdv do
gðd> | od gh E hv gh ; wrqhodgdv1 Orv uhtxhulplhqwrv gldulrv gh slqwxud gh lqwhulru | h{whulru hvwäq
uhvxplgdv hq od vljxlhqwh wdeod
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gho qlôr/ sdud txh fxdqgr fxpsod 59 dôrv glvsrqjd gh xq fdslwdo gh ' 51333133310 Ho lqwhuìv txh
sdjd ho edqfr hv gho ; ( dqxdo BcTxì fdqwlgdg gheh ghsrvlwdu ho sdguhB
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uhfwd/ od frrughqdgd { gh hvwh fruwh qrv lqglfd jhrpìwulfdphqwh od srvlflöq gh i+{3 , hq ho hmh { +Grpi,/
xelfdflöq txh qhfhvlwdprv srvwhulruphqwh sdud fdofxodu i +i+{3 ,,1 Hvwh surfhvr vh sxhgh uhshwlu yduldv
yhfhv | dvð vh sxhgh frqrfhu do ydoru d txh wlhqgh i +i + +i +{3 ,, ,,1 Ho surfhvr frqvlvwh hq yldmdu
ghvgh od sduäerod d od uhfwd | @ {/ sdudohodphqwh do hmh {/ +fxdqgr oohjd d od uhfwd | @ {, vh yldmd ghvgh
hvh sxqwr gh fruwh d od sduäerod/ shur dkrud sdudohodphqwh do hmh |1
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whqhprv txh ho ydoru uhvxowdqwh gh hvwh surfhvr hv 3/ d glihuhqfld gho juäfr ghuhfkr gh od jxud dqwhulru
txh qrv pxhvwud txh ho plvpr surfhvr uhdol}dgr d xq sxqwr {3 A 4/ wlhqgh d xq ydoru lqqlwdphqwh judqgh1
Yhd Xg1 txh rfxuuh hq rwud fdvrv wdohv frpr {3 5` 4> 3^> {3 ? 4> {3 @ 4/ hwf1
Ho surfhvr dqwhulru vh sxhgh ghvfulelu phgldqwh xqd ixqflöq gh Q hq U
{ = Q $ U
q $ {+q, @ {q
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grqgh q lqglfd odv yhfhv txh vh kd dsolfdgr od ixqflöq i+{, | {q lqglfd od uhvxowdqwh/ hv ghflu/
{4 @ i+{3 ,
{5 @ i+i+{3 ,, @ i 5 +{3 ,
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5
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judtxh | @ { h | @ vhq+{,1 Uhfxhugh txh 4 ? 5 ,1
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Ghqlflöq 614 Xqd vxfhvlöq gh qýphurv uhdohv4 hv xqd ixqflöq fx|r grplqlr hv ho frqmxqwr gh orv
qýphurv qdwxudohv r vxefrqmxqwr G gh Q gh od irupd G @ ^d> 4^_Q | vx uhfruulgr hv xq vxefrqmxqwr
gh orv uhdohv1
Vh hvfuleh> { = Q $ U r { = G $ U
q $ {+q, @ {q q $ {+q, @ {q
Uhfrughprv txh xqd ixqflöq hv hq sduwlfxodu xqd uhodflöq> dvð xqd vxfhvlöq { hv xq vxefrqmxqwr gh
Q U/ hv ghflu/ od vxfhvlöq { hv ho frqmxqwr
+{q ,4
q@4 > i{q j4
q@4 > +{q ,q4 > i{q jq4 >
r h{wuhpdqgr od vlpsolfdflöq vh dqrwd vlpsohphqwh +{q ,> i{q j
4 4
Hmhpsor 48; +{q ,4 q@4 @ 5q q@4 /
Revhuydflöq= Qr vh gheh frqixqglu xqd vxfhvlöq frq vx uhfruulgr1 Hq ho fdvr gh od vxfhvlöq +{q , @ +4,q /
hv ghflu/ od vxfhvlöq 4> 4> 4> 4> 4> 4> wlhqh frpr uhfruulgr ho frqmxqwr i4> 4j @ Uhf+{,1 Xqd vxfhvlöq
vlhpsuh wlhqh lqqlwrv wìuplqrv/ ho txlqwr wìuplqr gh hvwd hv 04/ ho ghflpr wìuplqr hv 41
Ghqlflöq 615 Gluhprv txh xqd vxfhvlöq +{q , hv dfrwdgd vl vx uhfruulgr hv xq frqmxqwr dfrwdgr/ l1h1/
Ghqlflöq 616 Gluhprv txh xqd vxfhvlöq +{q , hv fuhflhqwh vl hood frpr ixqflöq hv fuhflhqwh/ hv ghflu/
{4 {5 {6 {7
Gluhprv txh xqd vxfhvlöq +{q , hv prqöwrqd vl | vöor vl hv fuhflhqwh r elhq ghfuhflhqwh
Ghqlflöq 617 Vhd +nq ,4 q@4 xqd vxfhvlöq hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh gh qýphurv qdwxudohv | vhd +{q ,q@4 xqd
4
vxfhvlöq duelwuduld gh qýphurv uhdohv/ od frpsxhvwd { n/ hv ghflu/ +{nq ,q@4 hv oodpdgd vxevxfhvlöq gh
4
+{q ,4
q@4
Hmhpsor 48< Od vxfhvlöq + q4 , hv dfrwdgd sxhv h{lvwh n @ 4 5 U wdo txh sdud wrgr q 5 Q vh wlhqh> m q4 m 41
Sru rwud sduwh + q4 , hv hvwulfwdphqwh ghfuhflhqwh+prqöwrqd,1 Hq hihfwr=
Hv fodur txh sdud wrgr q 5 Q> q ? q . 4 hqwrqfhv sru surslhgdg gh orv qýphurv uhdohv vh wlhqh
4 4
A
q q.4
oxhjr ;q 5 Q > {q A {q.4
Hmhpsor 493 Od vxfhvlöq +q,4 q@4 qr hv dfrwdgd sxhv qr h{lvwh n hq U wdo txh mqm N +Uhfrugdu txh ho
frqmxqwr gh orv qýphurv qdwxudohv Q qr hv dfrwdgr,1
Vlq hpedujr hv fodur txh +q, hv hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh/ sxhv
;q 5 Q > q ? q . 4
Hmhpsor 494 +{q ,4 q@4 @ + q.4 ,q@4 hv xqd vxfhvlöq dfrwdgd +4 hv xqd frwd vxshulru, | prqöwrqd/ +hvwulf0
q 4
wdphqwh fuhflhqwh,1
Hmhpsor 495 +{q ,4 q@4 @ + q.6 ,q@4 hv xqd vxfhvlöq qr dfrwdgd vxshulruphqwh vöor lqihulruphqwh/ {q hv
q5 4
hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh1
Hmhpsor 496 +{q , @ + +54,q , hv xqd vxfhvlöq dfrwdgd/ qr hv prqöwrqd | wlhqh d + 494q5 ,4
q@4 frpr vxe0
q
vxfhvlöq |d txh od vxfhvlöq gh qýphurv qdwxudohv +;q ,q@4 hv hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh1 Frqvlghudqgr od
5 4
vxfhvlöq +6q,4
q@4 vh wlhqh txh + 9q ,q@4 wdpelìq hv xqd vxevxfhvlöq gh {q 1
+4,
6q
4
Hmhuflflr 497 Ghwhuplqh vl odv vljxlhqwhv dupdflrqhv vrq yhugdghudv r idovdv1 Mxvwltxh1
s
71 Od vxfhvlöq +q, hv xqd vxevxfhvlöq gh + q,1
Vroxflöq=
Revhuydflöq= Revhuydu txh xqd vxfhvlöq +|q , hv xqd vxevxfhvlöq gh xqd vxfhvlöq +{q , vl +|q , hvwäq
lqfoxlgrv5 hq orv wìuplqrv gh od vxfhvlöq +{q , | dghpäv h{lvwh xqd vxfhvlöq +nq , gh qdwxudohv fuhflhqwh wdo
txh +{ n,+q, @ |q 1
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Hmhpsor 498 Vl u 5 `3> 4^ hqwrqfhv od vxfhvlöq +{q , @ +uq , hv dfrwdgd | hvwulfwdphqwh ghfuhflhqwh1
Ghprvwudflöq= Vhd u 5`3> 4^ | q 5 Q1 Frpr u A 3 hqwrqfhv uq A 3/ oxhjr +uq , hvwä dfrwdgd lqihulruphqwh
sru 31 Rfxsdqgr ho khfkr txh od ixqflöq h{srqhqfldo h{su hv hvwulfwdphqwh ghfuhflhqwh vh wlhqh txh=
q A 3 , uq ? u3
q ? q . 4 , uq.4 ? uq
uq n ;q 5 Q
shur
uq n +, uq uorju +n,
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q orju n ;q 5 Q
gh grqgh orju +n, hv frwd vxshulru gho frqmxqwr gh orv qýphurv qdwxudohv/ or fxdo hv xqd frqwudglfflöq +sxhv
Q qr hv dfrwdgr,1
Revhuydflöq= Rwud irupd gh suredu txh +uq , qr hv dfrwdgr +vl u A 4, hv od vljxlhqwh=
Frpr d vh sxhgh hvfulelu d @ 4 . k frq k A 3/ whqhprv sru ho ghvduuroor gho elqrplr txh=
dq @ +4 . k,q @ 4 . qk . . qkq4 . kq
| frpr wrgrv orv vxpdqgrv vrq srvlwlyrv rewhqhprv od ghvljxdogdg gh Ehuqrxool
dq A 4 . qk > ;q
4 4 4 4 4 4 5q4.4 4
{q @ 4 . . . . .. q @ @ 5+4 q.4 , ? 5
5 7 ; 49 5 4 54
5
txlìq hv dfrwdgd sru 5/ hv ghflu/ m{q m ? 5 sdud wrgr q1
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4 4 4 4
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fdgd vxpdqgr/ txh ho idfwru txh dfrpsdôd n4$ hv phqru txh 4/ dvð frpsdudqgr vxpdqgr sru vxpdqgr frq
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|q ? {q ;q 5 Q
| frpr +{q ,4q@4 hv dfrwdgr/ vh wlhqh txh +|q ,q@4 hv wdpelìq dfrwdgd1
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4
s
Hmhpsor 4:3 Od vxfhvlöq +}q ,4 q@4 @ q hv ghfuhflhqwh d sduwlu gh xq q3 dsursldgr | fodudphqwh hv
q
dfrwdgd lqihulruphqwh sru fhur/ wdpelìq vh sxhgh yhu txh hv dfrwdgd vxshulruphqwh frpsdudqgrod frq
+|q ,4
q@4
6 Qr fdpeld od ghqlflöq vl vh wrpd Q ö Qf hq od ghqlflöq gh vxfhvlöq
6161 OÐPLWH GH XQD VXFHVLÖQ 4<4
dq @ q4 vh dfhufd d 3
eq @ + 45 ,q . 4 vh dfhufd d 4
fq @ +4,q vh dfhufd d 4 | d 04
Sq
gq @ l@3
4
5l
vh dfhufd d 5
hq @ q6 vh dfhufd d lqqlwr
Ghqlflöq 618 Vhd s 5 U1 Xqd yhflqgdg r yhflqgdg delhuwd gho sxqwr s hv vlpsohphqwh xq frqmxqwr/
txh frqwlhqh d s/ gho wlsr
Ys>% @ i{ 5 Um m{ sm ? %j > grqgh % 5 U. =
Ghvduuroodqgr od lqhfxdflöq txh ghqh d Ys>% whqhprv txh od yhqflgdg Ys>% hv ho lqwhuydor delhuwr txh
wlhqh frpr fhqwur7 d s/ hv ghflu/
Ys>% @`s %> s . %^
Hmhpsor 4:4 Vl s @ 5/ vrq yhflqgdghv gh 5/ orv lqwhuydorv `4/ 6^> `41</ 514^> `41<<<<</ 5133334^ | hq
jhqhudo `5 %> 5 . %^ uhsuhvhqwd wrgdv odv yhflqgdghv gh 5/ edvwd wrpdu % 5 U. 1 Hq ho sulphu hmhpsor % @ 4/
ghvsxhv % @ 3=4 | hq ho ýowlpr % @ 3=333341
Hvwd ýowlpd yhflqgdg fruuhvsrqgh do wlsr gh yhqflgdghv txh xvduhprv1 Od lghd hv wrpdu % shtxhôr
+vxshu shtxhôr,
Ghqlflöq 619 Vhd O 5 U | +{q ,4 q@4 xqd vxfhvlöq gh qýphurv uhdohv/ gluhprv txh {q frqyhujh d O
fxdqgr q wlhqgh d lqqlwr r txh ho oðplwh gh {q hv O/ fxdqgr q wlhqgh d lqqlwr r vlpsohphqwh {q
frqyhujh d O vl vh wlhqh txh sdud fxdotxlhu yhflqgdg gh O> YO>% / txh vh wrph +hv ghflu/ dýq txh % vhd
vxshu shtxhôr%, vlhpsuh txhgduä vöor xqd fdqwlgdg qlwd gh wìuplqrv gh od vxfhvlöq ixhud gh od yhflqgdg
YO>% +| sru or wdqwr wrgrv orv rwurv lqqlwrv wìuplqrv txhgdq dghqwur,1
Qrwdflöq=
olp { @ O ö olp {q @ O ö {q $ O
q$4 q 4 q$4
Hq rwudv sdodeudv> olpq$4 {q @ O vl sdud wrgd yhflqgdg gh O/ YO>% / h{lvwh Q 5 Q wdo txh d sduwlu gh
Q +hv ghflu/ sdud q A Q , orv wìuplqrv {q shuwhqhfh d YO>%
Hq ho fdvr gh vxfhflrqhv fuhflhqwhv r ghfuhflhqwhv vh dqrwd
{q ( O {q ) O
q$4 q$4
Sdud srghu wudedmdu frq od ghqlflöq dqwhulru oohyhprv hvdv iudvhv d xq ohqjxdmh päv irupdo
Frpr od yhflqgdg YO>% hvwä ghwhuplqdgd sru %/ ghflu/ fxdotxlhu yhflqgdg htxlydoh d ghflu ;%> % A 31
7 Vh sxhgh ghqlu yhflqgdg gh s frpr lqwhuydor delhuwr txh frqwlhqh d s/ qr vlhqgr qhfhvduldphqwh ho sxqwr s ho fhqwur gh
Iljxud Q
Xqd fdqwlgdg qlwd gh wìuplqrv txhgdq dixhud%> +yhu jxud Q,> vxsrqjdprv txh {q4 > {q5 > {q6 > > {qn
frq q4 ? q5 ? q6 ? q7 ? ? qn vrq orv wìuplqrv rughqdgrv txh txhgduäq ixhud gh YO>% / hqwrqfhv or
txh rfxuuh hv txh orv wìuplqrv vljxlhqwhv gh {qn / hv ghflu/ {qn .4 > {qn .5 > {qn .6 > hwf1 wrgrv hvwäq hq ho
lqwhulru gh od yhflqgdg YO>% 1
Dvð whqhprv txh kd| xq ðqglfh/ +hq hvwh fdvr qn , wdo txh vl wrpdprv xq wìuplqr {q frq ðqglfh q pd|ru
txh hvh qn / hvwh wìuplqr shuwhqhfh d YO> %
Hv qdwxudo shqvdu txh vl % A od fdqwlgdg gh wìuplqrv gh od vxfhvlöq txh txhgdq dixhud gh YO> hv
pd|ru/ suredeohphqwh/ d od fdqwlgdg gh wìuplqrv txh txhgdq ixhud gh YO> % / sru or wdqwr ho ðqglfh qn
phqflrqdgr dqwhulruphqwh/ d sduwlu gho fxdo wrgrv orv wìuplqrv gh od vxfhvlöq txhgd hq YO> hv pd|ru txh
ho rewhqlgr sru YO> % 1 Hvwr qrv loxvwud od ghshqghqfld gho qn gh od yhqflgdg YO> % lqglfdqgr hvwr sru qn + %,1
Uhvxplhqgr wrgr or dqwhulru qrv txhgd=
; %> % A 3 <Q + %, 5 Q wdo txh vl q A Q + %, vh wlhqh {q 5 YO> %
r htxlydohqwhphqwh=
olp { @ O +, ; % A 3 <Q 5 Q wdo txh vl q A Q , m{q Om ? %
q$4 q
Ghqlflöq 61: Xqd vxfhvlöq txh wlhqh oðplwh vh glfh frqyhujhqwh | hq fdvr frqwudulr/hv ghflu/ vl qr
wlhqh oðplwh/ vh glfh glyhujhqwh
Hmhpsor 4:5 Od vxfhvlöq frqvwdqwh +f, hv frqyhujhqwh d f/ sxhv olpq$4 f @ f
Od vxfhvlöq +5q , hv glyhujhqwh/ sxhv qr h{lvwh olpq$4 5q / |d txh sru ho hmhpsor dqwhulru whqhprv txh
hv fuhflhqwh | qr dfrwdgd1
Hmhpsor 4:6 Uhfrughprv od surslhgdg Dutxlphgldqd txh vdwlvidfhq orv qýphurv uhdohv1
4
; % A 3 <Q 5 Q wdo txh 3 ? ? %=
Q
Frq hvwd surslhgdg vh sxhgh suredu txh od vxfhvlöq +{q ,4 q@4 @ + 5q . 4,q@4 hv frqyhujhqwh |d txh
4 4
olpq$4 {q @ 41 Sdud suredu hvwd ýowlpd ljxdogdg ghehprv wrpdu % A 3 duelwudulr +|d txh hv ; % A 3, |
sdud hvh qýphur uhdo ghehprv hqfrqwudu xq Q wdo txh vl q A Q vh whqjd txh
4
m{q 4m ? %> or txh htxlydoh d % ? ? %
5q
frpr 54q A 3/ ghehprv suhrfxsduqrv gh suredu txh 3 ? 54q ? % shur frpr 54q ? q4 / vl orjudprv suredu txh
3 ? q4 ? % d sduwlu gh xq Q +hv ghflu/ vl q A Q , rewhqhprv od ghvljxdogdg exvfdgd
6161 OÐPLWH GH XQD VXFHVLÖQ 4<6
3 ? 54q ? q4 ? Q4 ? %
Dvð
; % A 3 <Q 5 Q wdo txh vl q A Q> % ? 54q ? %
txh hv htxlydohqwh8 d
; % A 3 <Q 5 Q +q A Q , m{q 4m ? %,
Dqäorjdphqwh vh suxhed txh olpq$4 qk
4
@ 3/ vl k 5 U i3j1
Hmhpsor 4:7
olp uq @ 3 frq 3 ? u ? 4
q$4
\d txh 3 ? u ? 4> 4u A 4> sru or wdqwr h{lvwh k A 3 wdo txh 4u @ 4 . k/ oxhjr whqhprv
4
@ +4 . k,q @ 4 . qk . . kq qk
uq
Dvð/
4 4
uq @
4 . qk . . kq qk
Frpr olpq$4 qk
4
@ 3 vh wlhqh txh
4
; % A 3 <Q wdo txh q A Q , 3 ? ? %
qk
Gh hvwd irupd
4
; % A 3 <Q +ho plvpr dqwhulru, wdo txh q A Q , muq 3m ? ? %
qk
Hmhpsor 4:8 Ghpxhvwuh
5q 8
olp @5
q$4 q . 4
Ghprvwudflöq= Whqhprv txh ghprvwudu txh
5q 8
+;% A 3,+<Q 5 Q,+;q 5 Q,+q A Q , 5 ? %,
q.4
Dqwhv gh frphq}du frq od ghprvwudflöq ghwhuplqhprv xq uhdo dsursldgr do fxdo dsolfduoh od surslhgdg
dutxlphgldqd1
Qrwhprv txh
5q 8 5q 8 5q 5 : : :
q.4 5@
@
q . 4 @ q . 4 ? q +614,
q.4
Gdgr % A 3/ txhuhprv suredu txh h{lvwh xq qdwxudo Q wdo txh sdud fxdotxlhu q 5 Q frq q A Q / vh
whqjd txh
5q 8
q.4 4 ?%
+615,
8 Qrwh txh % hv duelwudulr/ s hur vh slhqvd vlhpsuh txh hv s htxhôr/ % ' vhuðd px| judqgh
4<7 FKDSWHU 61 VXFHVLÖQ
Hv fodur sru +614, txh= vl h{lvwh Q wdo txh q: ? % sdud q A Q / whqguhprv od ghvljxdogdg +615,1 Sru or
wdqwr exvtxhprv wdo Q1
Revhuyhprv txh q: ? % htxlydoh d :% ? q1 Hqwrqfhv gdgr % A 3/ frqvlghuhprv ho uhdo :% | xvdqgr od
surslhgdg Dutxlphgldqd ghprvwuduhprv +BB,1
Ghprvwudflöq= Vhd % A 3/ hqwrqfhv sru surslhgdg Dutxlphgldqd h{lvwh Q 5 Q wdo txh Q A :% 1
Vhd q 5 Q wdo txh q A Q / shur Q A :% / oxhjr q A :% / or txh htxlydoh d q: ? % shur
: : 5q 8 :
? |
5 @
q.4 q q.4 q.4
8
sru or wdqwr 5qq.4 5 ? q: ? %= Dvð/ khprv suredgr +BB,1
Hmhpsor 4:: Od vxfhvlöq +{q ,4 q@4 @ ++4, ,q@4 glyhujh |d txh vl wrpdprv od yhflqgdg Y4> 47 /hv ghflu/
q4
O @ 4 | % @ 7 / ghmd lqqlwrv wìuplqrv gh od vxfhvlöq ixhud gh hood +orv wìuplqrv frq ðqglfh q lpsdu,> or
plvpr rfxuuh frq Y4> 47 yhu jxud QQ
4
Iljxud QQ
6161 OÐPLWH GH XQD VXFHVLÖQ 4<8
Frq hvwh plvpr hmhpsor yhprv od qhfhvlgdg gh ghprvwudu txh ho oðplwh gh xqd vxfhvlöq hv ýqlfr sru
hvr xvdprv ho% | qr orv%1
Ghprvwudflöq= Surfhghuhprv sru ho devxugr/ hvwr vljqlfd txh vxsrqguhprv txh d 9@ e | oohjduhprv d
xqd frqwudglfflöq1
Hvhqfldophqwh kduhprv or plvpr txh hq ho hmhpsor dqwhulru1 Frpr d 9@ e vh wlhqh txh ho qýphur
mdem 9@ 3 | srvlwlyr1 \d txh olp { @ d/ sdud % @ mdem h{lvwh xq Q 5 Q wdo txh vl q A Q> { 5 Y >
q q d> %
sru rwud sduwh vh wlhqh txh olp {q @ e/ dvð sdud ho plvpr % h{lvwh xq P 5 Q wdo txh q A P> {q 5 Ye> % 1
7 7
Qrwh txh Yd> % _ Ye> % @ ! +frpr hq od jxudQQ frq d @ 4 | e @ 4,/ shur vl wrpdprv q wdo txh
q A Q a q A P vh wlhqh txh {q 5 Yd> % a {q 5 Ye> % / hv ghflu/ {q 5 Yd> % _ Ye> % / dvð Yd> % _ Ye> % 9@ !/ or
fxdo qrv oohyd d xqd frqwudglfflöq1
Hvwh whruhpd hv px| ýwlo sdud prvwudu txh xqd vxfhvlöq hv glyhujhqwh/ sru hmhpsor
Whruhpd 61< Vl od vxfhvlöq +{q , frqyhujh d O hqwrqfhv wrgd vxevxfhvlöq gh hood wdpelìq frqyhujh d O1
4 n4 n5 n6 nq frq q nq
; % A 3 <Q 5 Q = q A Q , {q 5 YO> %
oxhjr
; % A 3 <Q 5 Q = nq A q A Q , {nq 5 YO> %
Dvð
olp { @ O
n$4 nq
Or txh glfh ho frurodulr hv txh sdud hvwxgldu od frqyhujhqfld gh xqd vxfhvlöq qr lpsruwd or txh rfxuud
frq orv sulphurv wìuplqrv +orv n sulphurv wìuplqrv,
Dsolfduhprv ho whruhpd dqwhulru/ hq irupd gluhfwd/ sdud rewhqhu ho oð plwh gh vxfhvlrqhv hq orv hmhpsorv
txh vljxhq
Revhuydflöq= Xqd frqvhfxhqfld gho whruhpd hv txh vl xqd vxfhvlöq wlhqh grv vxevxfhvlrqhv frqyhujhqwhv
d oðplwhv glvwlqwrv/ hqwrqfhv od vxfhvlöq lqlfldo qr wlhqh oðplwh |d txh vh frqwudglfh od xqlflgdg gho oðplwh
Dqäorjdphqwh vh wlhqh
Hmhpsor 4;5 Od vxfhvlöq ++4,q , qr frqyhujh sxhv h{lvwhq odv vxevxfhvlrqhv +{5q , @ +4, | +{5q.4 , @
+4, txh frqyhujhq d 4 | 4 uhvshfwlydphqwh1
Revhuyh txh vl +{nq , $ O qr vh wlhqh qhfhvduldphqwh txh +{q , $ O1 Hvwr vh sxhgh ylvxdol}du frq
q@4 @ +vhq+ 5 ,,q@4 1 Od vxevxfhvlöq +{5q ,q@4 frqyhujh d 3 shur +{q ,q@4 glyhujh1
+{q ,4 q 4 4 4
Dvð srghprv qrwdu txh ho whruhpd dqwhulru hv gh od irupd s , t | qr s +, t1 Xq whruhpd gho plvpr
wlsr hv ho vljxlhqwh1
Ghprvwudflöq= Vhd +{q ,4 q@4 frqyhujhqwh d O/ sdud % @ 4 h{lvwh Q 5 Q wdo txh vl q A Q vh wlhqh txh
{q 5 YO>4 +hv ghflu/ O 4 ? {q ? O . 4,1
Vhdq
@ pd{i{4 > {5 > {6 > > {Q 4 > {Q > O . 4j
|
@ plqi{4 > {5 > {6 > > {Q 4 > {Q > O 4j
dvð sdud wrgr q 4 vh wlhqh {q 5 ^> ` sru or wdqwr ho frqmxqwr i{q = q 5 Qj hv dfrwdgr vxshulruphqwh
q@4 hv dfrwdgd1
sru h lqihulruphqwh sru sru or wdqwr +{q ,4
Ho vljxlhqwh hmhpsor pxhvwud/ txh ho whruhpd 6144 hv vöor gh od irupd s , t1
Hmhpsor 4;6 Vhd +{q ,4 q@4 @ +frv + ; , . 7 ,q@4 od vxfhvlöq +{q ,q@4 hv dfrwdgd +dfrwdgd vxshulru0
+4, 4 4
q
q
phqwh sru 7 h lqihulrphqwh sru 7 , shur qr hv frqyhujhqwh1
8 8
Hmhpsor 4;9 Xq hmhpsor grqgh vh sxhgh xwlol}du hvwh ýowlpr whruhpd hv hq od vxfhvlöq
4 q{
i}q j @ i +frv + 5 ,,j
q q . 53
grqgh { hv mr1
Hvwd vxfhvlöq wlhqh frpr idfwruhv d odv vxfhvlrqhv i{q j @ i q4 j | i|q j @ ifrv + q5q{ ,j txh vdwlvidfhq
odv klsöwhvlv gho whruhpd/ dvð txh }q $ 31
.53
Dsduhqwhphqwh hvwh ýowlpr whruhpd hv vöor dsolfdeoh sdud fäofxor gh oðplwhv txh vhdq fhur/ shur qr hv
dvð sru od vljxlhqwh sursrvlflöq1
Sursrvlflöq 6147
olp { @ O +, olp +{q O, @ 3
q$4 q q$4
Hmhpsor 4;; Vl d 5 `3> 4^ hqwrqfhv olpq$4 +4 . d . . dq , @ 44 d
Ghprvwudflöq= Frpr 4 . d . . dq @ 44dd
q.4
4 dq.4 4
olp + ,@3
q$4 4 d 4d
Shur
4 dq.4 4 dq.4 4
@ @ dq.4 + ,
4d 4d 4d 4d
| frpr
4
olp dq.4 @ 3 | + , hv xqd vxfhvlöq dfrwdgd/
q$4 4d
vh wlhqh
4 dq.4 4
olp + ,@3
q$4 4 d 4d
txh hv htxlydohqwh d
4
olp +4 . d . d5 . . dq , @
q$4 4d
Whruhpd 6148 +Dojheud gh Oðplwhv, Vhdq d> e 5 U1 Vl olpq {q @ d | olpq |q @ e1 Hqwrqfhv
Vl elhq hv flhuwr txh ho whruhpd vh uhhuh d ljxdogdghv/ gheh whqhuvh hq phqwh txh ho whruhpd wdpelìq
kdeod gh od frqyhujhqfld gh odv vxfhvlrqhv +{q . |q ,4 q@4 > +{q |q ,q@4 / hwf/ hv ghflu/ ho whruhpd vh uhhuh d od
4
h{lvwhqfld gh orv oðplwhv sxhvwrv d od l}txlhugd gh odv ljxdogdghv | dghpäv vh uhhuh do ydoru txh frqyhujhq1
Ghprvwudflöq= +4, Oðplwh gh od vxpd1 Frpr {q $ d hv ghflu/
q A Q , m{q dm ? %d a m|q em ? %e =
Sru rwud sduwh m{q . |q +d . e,m @ m+{q d, . +|q e,m m{q dm . m|q em1 Dvð vh wlhqh/ sru or
dqwhulru/ txh vl q A Q
m{q . |q +d . e,m ? %d . %e @ %
Sru or wdqwr/ ; % A 3 <Q 5 Q wdo txh q A Q , m{q . |q +d . e,m ? %=
+5, Oðplwh gho surgxfwr1 Sdud prvwudu 5 xvduhprv whruhpd | sursrvlflöq dqwhulru/ dvð frpr od ljxdogdg
{q |q de @ {q |q {q e . {q e de
@ {q +|q e, . +{q d,e
{q d e{q d|q 4
@ @ +e|q d{q ,
|q e e|q e|q
Revhuyhprv txh sdud fdofxodu hvwh oðplwh/ qr srghprv xvdu gluhfwdphqwh od sduwh +6, gho whruhpd
dqwhulru sxhv qr h{lvwhq orv oðplwhv olpq$4 8q5 . q | olpq$4 q5 . 51 +Hq hvwh fdvr whqhprv txh
olpq$4 8q5 . q @ 4 | olpq$4 q5 . 5 @ 4 shur 4 95 U1
Hq jhqhudo/ vh sxhgh ghprvwudu xvdqgr ho dojheud gh oðplwhv txh=
dn qn . dn4 qn4 . . d3 dn
4, olp @
q$4 en qn . en4 qn4 . . e3 en
dn qn . dn4 qn4 . . d3 3 vl o A n
5, olp @
q$4 eo qo . eo4 qo4 . . e3 qr h{lvwh vl o ? n
q 5 r
Hmhpsor 4<3 Od vxfhvlöq qq6 .4 .5
frqyhujh d 31
Vroxflöq=
q5 . 4 q5 . 4 4@q6
olp 6 @ olp 6
q$4 q . 4 q$4 q . 5 4@q6
4@q . 4@q6
@ olp
q$4 4 . 5@q6
olpq$4 +4@q . 4@q6 , 3
@ @ @3
olpq$4 +4 . 5@q ,
6
4
Gdgr txh olpq$4 q5 .4 h{lvwh +sru hmhpsor dqwhulru, hqwrqfhv sru dojheud gh oðplwhv/
q6 .5 .4
q6 . 5 q5 . 4
olp 5 h{lvwh
q$4 q . 4 q6 . 5
|
q6 . 5 q5 . 4 q6 . 5 q5 . 4
olp 5 6 @ olp 5 olp 6 @O3@3
q$4 q . 4 q . 5 q$4 q . 4 q$4 q . 5
Dvð
q6 . 5 q5 . 4
olp 5 +617,
q$4 q . 4 q6 . 5
Sru rwud sduwh/ hv fodur txh/
q6 . 5 q5 . 4
olp 5 @ olp 4 @ 4 +618,
q$4 q . 4 q6 . 5 q$4
Dvð sru +617, | +618, | sru od xqlflgdg gho oð plwh vh wlhqh txh 3 @ 4 or txh hv xqd frqwudglfflöq1 Od
frqwudglfflöq vh surgxmr do vxsrqhu txh h{lvwðd ho oðplwh/ sru or wdqwr olpq$4 qq5 .5 qr h{lvwh1
6
Fdofxodu
.4
+7,q . 8q
O @ olp
q$4 +7,q.4 . 5+8,q
Vroxflöq=
+ 87 ,q . 4
O @ olp
q$4 +7,+ 87 ,q . 5
6171 FÄOFXOR GH OÐPLWHV 534
+ 7 ,q . 4 olpq$4 ++ 87 ,q . 4, 4
O @ olp 87 q @ @
q$4 + 8 , . 5 olpq$4 +7,+ 87 ,q . 5 5
Sursrvlflöq 6149 +Pdqwhqflöq gho vljqr gho oðplwh hq xqd vxfhvlöq , Vl olpq {q @ O/ frq O 5
U. vh wlhqh txh h{lvwh Q 5 Q wdo txh vl q A Q hqwrqfhv {q 5 U.
; % A 3 <Q 5 Q
wdo txh
q A Q , {q 5 YO> % =
Dvð wrpdqgr xq % elhq sduwlfxodu % @ 7 A 3 vh wlhqh txh <Q 5 Q wdo txh {q 5 +O %> O . %, sru or
O
wdqwr vl q A Q vh wlhqh
6O O
3? @ O @ O % ? {q
7 7
Ghprvwudflöq= Frpr {q $ O/ vh wlhqh txh sdud %4 A 3 h{lvwh Q4 5 Q wdo txh m{q Om ? %4 / sdud
wrgr q A Q4 1
Frpr |q $ O +, ; %5 A 3 <Q5 5 Q wdo txh vl q A Q5 hqwrqfhv m|q Om ? %5 /
sru or wdqwr wrpdqgr Q @ pd{iQ4 > Q5 j vh wlhqh vlpxowdqhdphqwh txh vl q A Q
O %4 ? {q ? O . %4 a O %5 ? |q ? O . %5 a {q }q |q
O %4 ? {q }q |q ? O . %5 vl q A Q
Wrpdqgr %4 @ %5 @ % +lqlfldophqwh, vh wlhqh txh <Q wdo txh vl q A Q hqwrqfhv m}q Om ? %1 frqfoxvlöq
txh qrv glfh txh
}q $ O
vhqq
olp @3
q$4 q
Hq jhqhudo/ vh wlhqh>
535 FKDSWHU 61 VXFHVLÖQ
Vroxflöq= Vl i{q j hv xqd vxfhvlöq dfrwdgd hqwrqfhv h{lvwh N 5 U. wdo txh/ m{q m n> ;q 5 Q
oxhjr>
n {q n ;q 5 Q
or txh lpsolfd
n {q n
;q 5 Q
q q q
Frpr olpq$4 qn @ 3 | olpq$4 q @ 3/ sru whruhpd gho dfrwdplhqwr vh wlhqh hqwrqfhv txh olpq$4 q @
n {q
3
Fdofxodu
q . vhq +q,
O @ olp
q$4 q +4,q
Vroxflöq=
4 . vhqq+q,
O @ olp
q$4 4 +4,q
q
shur sdud wrgr q 5 Q
q . frv +q,
olp
q$4 6q
Vroxflöq=
5 5q q 5q 5
+ ,q @ q @ + ,q ;q 5 Q
6 6 6q 6q 6
| olpq$4 + 56 ,q @ 3/ hqwrqfhv sru ho whruhpd gho dfrwdplhqwr
q
olp @ 3=
q$4 6q
Sru rwud sduwh
4 frv q 4
q q
6 6 6
dghpäv olpq$4 + 46 ,q @ 3
Oxhjr sru whruhpd gho dfrwdplhqwr
frv q
olp @3
q$4 6q
Hq frqvhfxhqfld/ sru äojheud gh oðplwhv
q . frv q q frv q
olp @ olp q . olp @3
q$4 6q q $4 6 q $4 6q
6171 FÄOFXOR GH OÐPLWHV 536
s s
Hmhpsor 4<8 Fdofxodu olpq$4 {q grqgh {q @ q q . 41
Vroxflöq= s s
s s q. q.4 4
{q @ + q q . 4, s s @s s
q. q.4 q. q.4
oxhjr
4 4
olp { @ olp s s @ olp s s
q$4 q q$4 q . q . 4 q$4 q . q . 4
shur
4 4
3 s s s
q. q.4 q
| olpq$4 s4q @ 3/ oxhjr sru whruhpd gho dfrwdplhqwr
4
olp s s @3
q$4 q . q . 4
s s
| sru frqvljxlhqwh olpq$4 q q . 4 @ 31
Vroxflöq= Frqvlghuhprv 3 ? u ? 4
Vhd k @ 4u 4
Sdud q 5/ vh wlhqh
q+q . 4, 5 q+q . 4, 5
+4 . k,q @ 4 . qk . k . . kq k
5 5
Oxhjr
q q 5q
3 ? quq @ @
+4 . k,q q+q 4,@5 q+q 4,
shur
5q 5
olp @ olp @3
q$4 q+q 4, q$4 q 4
Sru whruhpd gho dfrwdplhqwr
Hmhpsor 4<:
olp quq @ 3
q$4
5, Vhd 4 ? u 3
Sdud wrgr q 5 Q/ vh wlhqh
mumq uq mumq
Frpr olpq$4 qmumq @ 3 sxhv 3 mum ? 4 hqwrqfhv sru whruhpd gho dfrwdplhqwr vh wlhqh olpq$4 quq @ 31
O5 olp {s @ O4
s$4
sru or wdqwr
O5 O4
Dvð/ odv vxfhvlrqhv +{q ,4
q | +|q ,4
frqyhujhq dpedv do plvpr ydoru/ oodpdgr h +Xvdqgr od fäofxodgrud
q
| fxdotxlhud gh odv vxfhvlrqhv dqwhulruhv ylvxdolfh txh h @ 5=:4;5;4;===,
@4 @4
Revhuydflöq=
n
olp +4 . ,q @ hn
q$4 q
Mxvwlfduhprv vöor hq sduwh9 hvwd revhuydflöq1 Vl n @ 4s > s 5 Q/ od vxfhvlöq vh sxhgh yhu frpr xqd
vxevxfhvlöq gh {p @ +4 . p , |d txh
4 p
n q 4 q 4 sq n
+4 . , @ +4 . , @ ++4 . , , >
q sq sq
grqgh p @ sq | frq d|xgd gho whruhpd 61< srghprv rewhqhu od revhuydflöq
e, olpq$4 5q6 q
8q.7
Vroxflöq=
q
q+4 4 , q
d, olpq$4 qq4
.4
@ olpq$4 q+4. q4 ,
q
@
olp 4 q
q$4 +4 q ,
q$4
4 q
olp +4.
q,
4
@ hh4
@ h5
e, olpq$4 q6 q @ olp 5q+4
6 , q
q$4 8q+4. 857qq ,
5
8q.7
+4
6 q
@ olpq$4 + 58 ,q olpqq$4 5q ,
olp
$4 +4. 7 ,q
8q
6
@ 3 h 75
h8
@ 3=
s s
dvð Os
5
@ 45 +O5 . d,1 Sru or wdqwr O5 @ d dvð
s O @ d ö O @ d/ shur frpr od vxfhvlöq hv srvlwlyd
O @ d1 Qrwh txh= dýq qr vdehprv s vl {q $ d/ wrgr vh edvö hq od frqyhujhqfld gh {q 1 Sru rwud sduwh vl
{4 kxelhvh vlgr qhjdwlyr {q $ d
s
Hmhpsor 534 Vhd {q @ q d> d 5 U. 1 Srghprv yhu txh {q frqyhujh/ |d txh vl=
d, d A 4 hqwrqfhv {q hv ghfuhflhqwh | dfrwdgd lqihulruphqwh r elhq vl
e, d 5 `3> 4^ hqwrqfhv
s {q hv fuhflhqwh | dfrwdgd
s vxshulruphqwh1
Sru or wdqwr q d frqyhujh/
s
hv ghflu/ olpq$4 q d @ O h{lvwh
s
Vl d A 4 O @ lqii q d = q 5 Qj | vl 3 ? d ? 4/ O @ vxsi q d = q 5 Qj=
Sru yhu txh hq dperv fdvrv O @ 4/ fodudphqwh vh yh txh O 9@ 31
s
Frpr {q @ q d @ d q wlhqh frpr vxevxfhvlöq d q+q.4, sru whruhpd 61< whqhprv txh
4 4
s
O @ olp d @ olp d q+q.4,
4
q
q$4 q$4
shur
dq
4
d q+q.4, @ dq d q.4 @
4 4 4
d q.4
4
oxhjr
olpq d q O
4
O @ olp d q+q.4, @ @ @4
4
q$4 olpq d q
4
.4 O
Dvð/ O @ 4
Sru or wdqwr s
olp q
d@4 ;d 5 U.
q$4
s
Hmhpsor 535 Fdofxodu olpq$4 q q1
s
Vroxflöq= Vdehprv txh |q @ q q irupd xqd vxfhvlöq ghfuhflhqwh +d sduwlu gho whufhu wìuplqr, | dfrwdgd
lqihulruphqwh> sru or wdqwr frqyhujh1 s
Vhd O @ olpq$4 |q / fodudphqwh O 4/ frpr 5q 5q hv xqd vxevxfhvlöq gh |q vh wlhqh txh vx oðplwh
wdpelìq hv O
Sru or wdqwr whqhprv
s 4 s sq s
O5 @ olp + 5q,5 @ olp +5q, q @ olp 5 q q q @ olp 5 q q @ 4 O
5q 4
q$4 q6
539 FKDSWHU 61 VXFHVLÖQ
Vroxflöq= u u
5 5 s
olp ;. 6 @ olp +; . 6 , @ ; @ 5
6 6 6
q$4 q q$4 q
Vroxflöq= Frpr u
4 4
4 4. 4. q5
q
q q
Sxhvwr txh olpq$4 4 @ olpq$4 +4 . q4 , @ 4/ hqwrqfhv sru whruhpd gh1 dfrwdplhqwr
u
4
olp 4. @4
q
q$4 q
Vroxflöq=
s
q7 . 6q . 5 q5 6q . 5
olp @ olp s 7
q$4 q . q$ q$4 + q . 6q . 5 . q5 ,+q . q$,
shur/
6q . 5 6q . 5
3? s ?s
+ q . 6q . 5 . q ,+q . q$,
7 5
q . 6q . 5 . q5
7
dghpäv
olp s 7
6q . 5
t q . q5
6 5
@ olp @3
q$4 q . 6q . 5 . q5 q$4
4 . q66 . q57 . 4
Oðplwhv Ixqgdphqwdohv
41 olpq$4 f @ f> f5U
51 olpq$4 qk
4
@ 3> k5U
61 olpq$4 qs@t
4
@ 3> s 5 ]> t 5 ]
71 olpq$4 uq @ 3> vl mum ? 4
81 olpq$4 vhqqkq @ 3> k5U
s
91 olpq$4 q d @ 4> d 5 U.
s
:1 olpq$4 q q @ 4>
q
;1 olpq$4 4 . q4 @ h>
q
<1 olpq$4 4 . qn @ hn > n 5 U
431 olpq$4 +4 . 4 . 4
5$
. . q4$ , @ h
. 4
6$
441 olpq$4 +4 . u . u5 . . uq , @ 4 4
u > vl mum ? 4
;
? 3 > vl t A s
451 olpq$4 dt qt @ vl t @ s
dsq
s ds
= dt
glyhujh vl t ? s
Rwur oðplwh ixqgdphqwdo txh ghprvwuduhprv päv dghodqwh xvdqgr ho whruhpd gh hqodfh hv
n
olp q vhq+ , @ n n5U
q$4 q
Hmhuflflr 539 Fdofxodu s
q frv+q, 5 vhq+6@q,
olp .
6
q.7 q q5 6
q5
frpr olpq$4 s6 q5
4
@ 3/ hqwrqfhv sru whruhpd gh dfrwdplhqwr
s
q
olp @3
6
q$4 q . 7
| frpr od vxfhvlöq +frv q, hv dfrwdgd hqwrqfhv sru ho whruhpd gho fhur dqltxlod
olp d @ 3
q$4 q
Sru rwud sduwh/ dsolfdqgr ho oðplwh ixqgdphqwdo
olp q vhq+n@q, @ n
q$4
rewhqhprv txh olpq$4 5 vhq+6 4@q
@q, @ 5 olp
q$4 q vhq+6@q, @ 5 6 @ 9 oxhjr olpq$4 eq @ 9 | dsolfdqgr ho
dojheud gh oðplwhv/ vh wlhqh
olp d . eq @ 3 . 9 @ 9
q$4 q
53; FKDSWHU 61 VXFHVLÖQ
Hmhuflflr 53: Ghpxhvwuh txh vl olp {q h{lvwh | olp |q qr h{lvwh hqwrqfhv olp {q . |q qr h{lvwh
Vroxflöq= +Sru ho pìwrgr gho devxugr, Vxsrqjdprv txh olp {q . |q h{lvwh1
Gdgr txh olp {q h{lvwh hqwrqfhv sru dojheud gh oðplwhv>
olp+{q . |q , {q h{lvwh
hv ghflu
olp |q h{lvwh
or txh frqwudglfh ho khfkr txh olp |q qr h{lvwh1
Hmhuflflr 53; Ghwhuplqh vl ho vljxlhqwh oðplwh h{lvwh>
6q q6 . 5
olp s .
q$4 7 q7 . 8 q5 . 4
6q 6q 6
olp { @ olp s @ olp s @ olp s @6
q$4 q q$4 7 q7 . 8 q$4 q 7 4 . 8@q7 q$4 7 4 . 8@q7
oxhjr h{lvwh olpq$4 {q 1
Vlq hpedujr sru hmhpsor 4;< olpq$4 |q qr h{lvwh sru frqvljxlhqwh dsolfdqgr ho hmhuflflr dqwhulru
whqhprv txh ho oðplwh gdgr qr h{lvwh1
Hmhuflflr 53< Ghwhuplqh { 5 U i3j wdo txh olpq$4 dqdq.4 ? 4 grqgh/ dq @ qq${q 1
q
Vroxflöq=
dq.4 +q . 4,${q.4 qq m{mqq
@
dq +q . 4,q.4 q${q @ +q . 4,q
hqwrqfhv
dq.4
@ olp m{mq
q
olp
q$4 dq q$4 +q . 4,q
q
q
@ m{m olp
q$4 q . 4
q
4
@ m{m olp
q$4 4 . 4@q
4 4
@ m{m olp @ m{m
q$4 +4 . 4@q,q h
gh grqgh
dq.4 4
olp ? 4 +, m{m ?4
q$4 dq h
+, m{m ? h a { 9@ 3
+, h ? { ? h a { 9@ 3
+, { 5` h> h^i3j
Hmhuflflr 543 Ghwhuplqh sdud txì ydoruhv gh { hq U i3j ho oðplwh
:
dq.4
olp
q$4 dq
hv phqru txh 4/ vlhqgr dq @ q45 +{ . 4,q
: Hvwd wìfqlfd hv xvdgd hq or txh vxhoh oodpduvh lqwhuydorv | udglrv gh frqyhujhqfld gh vhulhv gh s rwhqfldv1
6171 FÄOFXOR GH OÐPLWHV 53<
oxhjr
q5 m{ . 4m
olpq$4 dqdq.4 @ olpq$4 +q.4, 5
@ m{ . 4m olpq$4 q5 .5
q5
q.4
@ m{ . 4m 4
Sru or wdqwr
Hmhuflflr 544
olpq$4 dqdq.4 ? 4 +, m{ . 4m ? 4 a { 9@ 4
+, 4 ? { . 4 ? 4 a { 9@ 4
+, 5 ? { ? 3 a { 9@ 4
+, { 5` 5> 3^i4j
71 Od vxfhvlöq hv dfrwdgd
+ 5,
q
q .7q
5
Vroxflöq=
dq
olp @3
q$4 q5
Hq hihfwr>
q .7q
5
+5,q +4,q
olp q @ olp @3
q$4 5 . 7 q q$4 4 . 5q
Sru whruhpd/ wrgd vxfhvlöq frqyhujhqwh hv dfrwdgd
81 Idovr1 Vhd dq @
q / od vxfhvlöq idq j hv frqyhujhqwh shur qr hv prqöwrqd1
+ 4,
q
Vroxflöq=
+4@q,5 . +5@q,5 . +6@q,5 . . +q@q,5 @ q45 . q5 5 . q6 5 . . qq5
5 5 5
@
5 5
4.5 .6 . q5
.
q5
shur
q+q . 4,+5q . 4,
4 . 55 . 65 . . q5 @
9
+hvwd ýowlpd ljxdogdg vh sxhgh ghprvwudu sru lqgxfflöq,
Oxhjr
@ olpq$4 5q .6 q5 .q
6
9q6
@ 4
6
4 . 8 . 85 . 86 . . 8q4
O @ olp
q$4 8q . q
Vroxflöq=
Od vxpd 4.8.85 .86 . .8q4 fruuhvsrqgh d xqd vxpd gh xqd surjuhvlöq jhrpìwulfd gh q wìuplqrv
| ud}öq u @ 8/ oxhjr
4 8q
4 . 8 . 85 . 86 . . 8q4 @
48
Sru or wdqwr
48
O @ olpq$4 7+8
q
q .q,
@ olpq$4 ++4 @8q ,4
7,+4.q@8q ,
Vroxflöq=
4 4 4 4
dq @ . . .. 5
q5 . 4 q5 . 5 q5 . 6 q .q
Sxhvwr txh q5 . n q5 . 4> ;n 5 Q/ hqwrqfhv
4 4
5 > ;n 5 Q
q5 . n q .4
Sru or wdqwr/
q
3 dq
q .45
6171 FÄOFXOR GH OÐPLWHV 544
olp d @ 3
q$4 q
dvð od vxfhvlöq idq j frqyhujh1
Hmhuflflr 549 Vh ghqh od vxfhvlöq gh qýphurv uhdohv srvlwlyrv +{q , frpr vljxh
s
{4 @ 4 {q.4 @ 6{q > ;q 5 Q
Vroxflöq= Sdud fdofxodu hvwh oðplwh/ ghehprv dqdol}du sdud orv glvwlqwrv ydoruhv gh {1
Fdvr 41 Vl m{m ? 4 hqwrqfhv olpq$4 {5q @ 3 oxhjr/ sru äojheud gh oðplwhv1
{5q 4
olp 5q @4
q$4 { . 4
545 FKDSWHU 61 VXFHVLÖQ
Hmhuflflr 54; ;
Ghwhuplqdu d 5 U gh prgr txh
+q . 4,d
O @ olp h{lvwh
q$4 +5q5 . d, 67
Vroxflöq=
qd +4. q4 ,d
O @ olpq$4 d 6
+q5 +5. 5 ,, 7
d q4 d
q +4. q ,
@ olpq$4 6 6
q 5 +5. qd5 , 7
4 d
@ olpq$4 qd6@5 q,
+4.
d 6
+5. 7
q5 ,
Hmhuflflr 54<
+4 . q4 , 5 4
6
O @ olp @ 6 @ 5 7
6
q$4 +5 . 6 5 , 67 5
5q
7
; Hvwh sureohpd | ho dqwhulru fruuhvs rqgh d or txh vh oodpd fäofxor gho oðplwh sxqwxdo gh ixqflrqhv/ hq hvwh fdvr i Ed
6171 FÄOFXOR GH OÐPLWHV 546
Fdofxodu
[
q
4
olp
q$4 n+n . 4,
n@4
Vroxflöq=
4 4 4
@
n+n . 4, n n.4
oxhjr dsolfdqgr od surslhgdg whohvfrslfd vh rewlhqh>
[
q
4 [q
4 4 4
@ @4
n+n . 4, n n.4 q.4
n@4 n@4
Dvð/
[
q
4 4
olp @ olp 4 @43@4
q$4 n+n . 4, q$4 q.4
n.4
Hmhuflflr 553 Fdofxodu
[
q
olp dun > vl mum ? 4
q$4
n@f
Vroxflöq=
[
q
dun @ duf . duf.4 . . duq
n@f
hvwd vxpdwruld fruuhvsrqgh d od vxpd gh xqd surjuhvlöq jhrpìwulfd/ oxhjr
[
q
duf +4 uqf.4 ,
dun @
4u
n@f
duf duq.4
@
4u 4u
oxhjr sru dojheud gh oðplwhv | gdgr txh olpq$4 uq @ 3/ vh wlhqh
[q
duf duq.4
olp dun @ olp olp
q$4 q$4 4 u q$4 4 u
n@f
duf
@ 3
4u
sru or wdqwr
[
q
duf
olp duq @ =
q$4 4u
n@f
Ghqlflöq 6153 +Oðplwh lqqlwr, Gluhprv txh xqd vxfhvlöq +{q ,4 q@4 wlhqgh d lqqlwr vl sdud wrgr uhdo
srvlwlyr N judqgh/ h{lvwh +qxhydphqwh, Q 5 Q wdo txh vl q A Q vh wlhqhq txh {q A N1
{q $ .4 ö wdpelìq olp {q @ .4
q$4
q$4
Dqäorjdphqwh whqhprv txh {q $ 4 hv htxlydohqwh d ghflu
q$4
;N 5 U. <Q 5 Q wdo txh vl q A Q , {q ? N
Or sulphur txh ghehprv qrwdu hv txh .4 | 4 qr vrq qýphurv uhdohv/ sru or wdqwr qr vh sxhgh
rfxsdu äojheud gh oðplwh gh hvwh wlsr
547 FKDSWHU 61 VXFHVLÖQ
txh d phglgd txh q fuhfh lqghqlgdphqwh odv lpdjhqhv orje q wdpelìq fuhfh lqghqlgdphqwh vlq hp0
edujr/ vl 3 ? e ? 4/ odv lpdjhqhv orje q ghfuhfhq lqghqlgdphqwh1
:= olpq$4 +s5,6q.frv
q q ;= olpq$4 5q.vhq +4@q,
8.q
6 vhq.7qm
<= olpq$4 qqm.5 +7, .8
q q
43= olpq$4 +
s s s 7,q.4 .8q
s s q q ,
46= olpq$4 6 q . 4 6 q 47= olpq$4 6q .5q5
5 .vhq +
7 qfrv q s 5
48= olpq$4 qvhq+ q , 49= olpq$4 + 78qq7.9
.8+4,q
,+ q . ;q q,
s s s 5
+ q7 .6q.5q , frv +q$,
4:= olpq$4 q5 . 6q q5 . 5q . 5 4;= olpq$4 q.q$
4<= olpq$4 5qq.4 vhq+ q , .+5q4,
5
53= olpq$4 4.6.8.:. 5q5
54= olpq$4 +7.49.69. .+5q,5, 55= olpq$4 + q45 . q55 . q65 . qq54 ,
q6
56= olpq$4 +q.4,+qq.5,+
6
q.6, 57= olpq$4 ^ 4.6.8.: +5q.4, 5q.4
q.46
.+4, q.4 q.4 5 ..8
q
58= olpq$4 qq . 5 5q .6 59= olpq$4 4.8.8 8.8
5
q
+4,q .6q q .q
41 Vhd dq @ Sq / grqgh Sq hv ho shuðphwur gh xq sroð jrqr uhjxodu gh q odgrv lqvfulwr hq xqd flufxqihu0
hqfld gh udglr u
51 Vhd dq @ Dq / grqgh Dq hv ho äuhd hqfhuudgd sru ho sroð jrqr gh q odgrv gho sureohpd dqwhulru
61 Vhd dq @ q / grqgh q hv ho äqjxor irupdgr hqwuh orv odgrv dg|dfhqwh gho sroðjrqr uhjxodu gho
sureohpd dqwhulru
71 Vhd dq @ {4 +q, . {5 +q, grqgh {4 +q, | {5 +q, vrq odv vroxflrqhv gh od hfxdflöq gh vhjxqgr judgr
q{5 . e{ . f @ 3 frq e> f frqvwdqwhv | {4 A {5
41 Vl +{q , hv xqd vxfhvlöq frq xqd vxevxfhvlöq {qn dfrwdgd/hqwrqfhv hood wdpelìq or hv1
:1 Vhd {q |q ;q hqwrqfhv
Vl +{q , hv fuhflhqwh +|q , wdpelìq or hv1
Vl +|q , hv ghfuhflhqwh +{q , wdpelìq or hv1
Vl +|q , hv dfrwdgd/ +{q , wdpelìq or hv1
Vl +{q , hv qr dfrwdgd +|q , wdpelìq qr or hv1
549 FKDSWHU 61 VXFHVLÖQ
Hmhuflflr 566 Vhd +{q , frqyhujhqwh | <Q 5 Q | wdo txh {q d ;q 5 Q> q A Q hqwrqfhv olpq$4 {q d
Hmhuflflr 567 Vh ghqh oðplwh lqihulru +olp lqi {q , | oðplwh vxshulru +olp vxs {q , gh xqd vxfhvlöq +{q ,
dfrwdgd/ gh od vljxlhqwh irupd
Vhd Dq ho vljxlhqwh frqmxqwr
Frpr +{q , hv xqd vxfhvlöq dfrwdgd/ ho frqmxqwr Dq wdpelìq or hv | sru d{lrpd gh frpsohwlwxg hq U h{lvwh
Hmhuflflr 568 d, Wrpdu +|q , gho sureohpd dqwhulru/ hqfrqwudu xqd vxevxfhvlöq gh |q frqyhujhqwh +qrwh
txh |q qr frqyhujh,
e, Wrgd vxfhvlöq dfrwdgd +{q , srvhh xqd vxevxfhvlöq frqyhujhqwh +Pxhvwuh hvwd dupdflöq, D|xgd=
Sxhgh wrpdu xqd {qn $ olp vxs {q +r olp lqi {q ,
Oðplwhv gh Ixqflrqhv
; % A 3 / +Ys> % isj, _ D 9@ !=
ö
; % A 3 <d 5 D / 3 ? md sm ? %=
Ho frqmxqwr ghulydgr gh D/ ghqrwdgr sru D3 / hv ho frqmxqwr gh wrgrv orv sxqwrv gh dfxpxodflöq gh
D/ hv ghflu/
Hmhpsor 56: Vhd D @ `6> :`1 Frpr wrgd yhflqgdg gh 6 lqwhuvhfwd d D vh wlhqh txh 6 hv xq sxqwr gh
dfxpxodflöq gh D +hv ghflu/ 6 5 D3 ,1 Hq irupd iäflo vh sxhgh yhu txh D3 @ ^6> :`1
Hmhpsor 56; Vhd D @` 4> 5^^i7j ^ ^8> :^1 7 qr hv sxqwr gh dfxpxodflöq gh D sxhv h{lvwh Y @`6> 8^
yhflqgdg gh 7 wdo txh +Y i7j, _ D @ !1
Xqd irupd gh ylvxdol}du orv sxqwrv gh dfxpxodflöq/ hvwä gdgd hq od vljxlhqwh sursrvlflöq
Ghprvwudflöq= + + , Wulyldo
+ , , Vl wrpdprv yhflqgdghv gh od irupd Ys> q4 @ Yq + hv ghflu/ frq % @ q4 ,1 Sdud q @ 4 h{lvwh
{4 5 D _ +Y4 isj, | h{lvwh q5 5 Q wdo txh m{4 sm A q45 1 Sdud q5 h{lvwh {5 5 D _ +Yq5 isj, | h{lvwh
q6 5 Q wdo txh m{5 sm A q46 / hwf1
54:
54; FKDSWHU 71 OÐPLWHV GH IXQFLRQHV
wrgrv sxqwrv gh D1
Hmhpsor 56< D @ i q4 = q 5 Qj
Fodudphqwh vh yh txh 3 5 D3 / päv dýq D3 @ i3j
E @ i5j
3
Hmhpsor 574 F @ ivhq +{, = 3 ? { ? 7 j @ vhq +`3> @7^,
s
F 3 @ ^3> 55 `
Hmhpsor 577 Vhd J @ ]1 Fodudphqwh vh yh txh qlqjýq sxqwr gh ] hv sxqwr gh dfxpxodflöq |d txh
wrpdqgr/ s 5 ]/ yhflqgdg Ys> 47 / hood vöor wlhqh xq sxqwr hq frpýq frq ]/ | vl s 5 U ] vlhpsuh h{lvwh
xqd yhflqgdg txh qr frqwlhqh sxqwrv gh ]1 Oxhjr whqhprv J3 @ !1
Ghqlflöq 717 Xq sxqwr s hq D vh glfh dlvodgr/ vl h{lvwh xqd yhflqgdg gh s/ Ys / wdo txh +Ys isj,_D @ !
Hq ho hmhpsor dqwhulru ] hvwä irupdgr vöor sru sxqwrv dlvodgrv/ or plvpr rfxuuh frq Q | frq i q4 = q 5 Qj
Revhuydflöq= Vl s 5 D3 / whqhprv od fhuwh}d txh duelwuduldphqwh fhufd gh s vlhpsuh kd| hohphqwrv gh D/
hvwr qr rfxuuh vl s hv xq sxqwr dlvodgr gh D1
Qrwdflöq=
olp i+{, @ O ö olp i +{, @ O ö i +{, $ O
{$s s
{$s
Od ghqlflöq dqwhulru hv qhfhvdulr hvfuleluod hq xq ohqjxdmh txh qrv shuplwd rshudu frq hood1
Frpr odv yhflqgdghv gh O vrq gh od irupd YO> % / od iudvh sdud wrgd yhflqgdg gh O htxlydoh d wrpdu
fxdotxlhu % A 3 ö +; % A 3,> or plvpr rfxuuh frq odv yhflqgdghv gh s/ Ys> / hq hvwh fdvr ho fxdqwlfdgru hq
od ghqlflöq hv h{lvwh/ < A 3
4 Vh hqwlhqgh txh i ED ' i ED K Grp i /|d txh d orv hohphqwrv gh D txh qr hvwdq hq ho Grp i> i ohv kdfh qdgd1
7141 OÐPLWHV GH IXQFLRQHV 54<
Iljxud QQ
Dkrud uhfrugdqgr txh
vh sxhgh hvfulelu=
Ghqlflöq Wudglflrqdo=
olp i +{, @ O
{$s
vl | vöor vl
+; % A 3,+ < A 3,++3 ? m{ sm ? a { 5 Grpi , , mi +{, Om ? %,=
Dvð/ ghprvwudu txh olps i+{, @ O frqvlvwh hq= hqfrqwudu xq A 3 sdud xq % A 3 gdgr +duelwudulr, |
txh yhultxh od lpsolfdflöq
+3 ? m{ sm ? a { 5 D, , mi +{, Om ? %
3 ? m{ 4m ? +, 3 ? m{ 4m ? 6%
+, 3 ? 6m{ 4m ? %
+, 3 ? m6{ 6m ? %
+, 3 ? m6{ . 5 8m ? %
+, 3 ? mi+{, 8m a mi+{, 8m ? %
Dvð/
%
; % A 3 < @ / +3 ? m{ 4m ? , mi +{, 8m ? %,=
6
553 FKDSWHU 71 OÐPLWHV GH IXQFLRQHV
i +Y4> i4j, Y8> % ö i +`4 > 4 . ^, `8 %> 8 . %^ +vdoyr i +4, ,
r htxlydohqwhphqwh
8 % 6+4 , . 5 a 6+4 . , . 5 8 . %
gh or fxdo whqhprv
% 6 a 6 %=
Dvð/ sdud % gdgr/ exvfdgr gheh fxpsolu 6% +fxdotxlhu srvlwlyr phqru r ljxdo txh 6% ,
Hmhuflflr 579 Vhd j+{, @ {{6< / +Yhu jxud päv dedmr,1 Ghprvwudu txh
5
olp j+{, @ 9=
{$6
Vroxflöq= Qrwdu txh Grpj @ U i6j1 Ho oðplwh hv fruuhfwr |d txh or vljxlhqwh hv yhugdghur=
Sdud fdgd % A 3 h{lvwh > @ % wdo txh= 3 ? m{ 6m ? , mj+{, 9m ? %1
Od lpsolfdflöq dqwhulru hv yhugdghud sru od vljxlhqwh fdghqd=
3 ? m{ 6m ? +, 3 ? m{ . 6 9m ? %
+, 3 ? m+{ . 6, {{
6 9m ? % =
6
+, 3 ? mj+{, 9m ? %
| @ { . 6 /j+{, @ {{6<
5
3 ? m{ 4m ? , m{ 4m ? 6% a m{ 4m ? 4
, m{ 4m ? 6% a m{ . 4m ? 6
, m{ 4mm{ . 4m ? 6 6% @ %
7141 OÐPLWHV GH IXQFLRQHV 554
hv ghflu/
3 ? m{ 4m ? , 3 ? m+{ . 4,+{ 4,m ? %
, 3 ? m{5 4m ? %
, 3 ? m{5 . 5 6m ? %
, 3 ? mk+{, 6m ? %
Dvð/ ; % A 3 < @ plqi4> 6% j+3 ? m{ 4m ? , mk+{, 6m ? %,1
Od suhjxqwd qdwxudo hv= Sdud % A 3 BcFxäo wrpdu +föpr vh rewlhqh xq , dsursldgr sdud txh wrgr
txhgh frpr od ghqlflöq wudglflrqdoB Od wìfqlfd frqvlvwh hq exvfdu xqd uhodflöq hqwuh %> / hvwd vh frqvljxh
exvfdgr xqd uhodflöq hqwuh
m{ sm | mi +{, Om
Hq ho hmhpsor 578 vh frqvlghud m{ 4m | m6{ . 5 8m> Gdgr txh m6{ . 5 8m @ m6{ 6m @ 6m{ 4m/ vl
txhuhprv m6{ . 5 8m ? % +hvwr htxlydoh d 6m{ 4m ? %,/ qhfhvlwdprv hqwrqfhv wrpdu m{ 4m ? 6% hv ghflu/
qhfhvlwdprv wrpdu m{ 4m ? frq 6% 1
Hq ho hmhpsor 579 vh frqvlghud m{ 6m | m {{6< 9m1 BcFöpr hvwä uhodflrqdgr m{ 6m frq od vhjxqgd
5
m{ 4m ?
, 4 ? { 4 ? 4
, 4?{.4?6
, m{ . 4m ? 6
Sru or wdqwr m{ 4m ? 4 , m{ 4mm{ . 4m ? 6m{ 4m | vl 6% | d od yh} 4 + @ plqi4> 6% j, vh wlhqh
%
m{ 4m ? a m{ . 4m ? 6
6
Sru or wdqwr
%
m{ 4mm{ . 4m ? 6@ %
6
Hvwd wìfqlfd vh xvd jhqhudophqwh fxdqgr m{ sm dsduhfh vöor frpr xq idfwru hq mi+{, Om | wdo
surfhglplhqwr hv oodpdgr dfrwdplhqwr1
Yhdprv dkrud xq fdvr päv frpsolfdgr sdud xq hvwxgldqwh txh whqjd sureohpdv frq odv ghvljxdogdghv
hqwuh lqyhuvrv1 Ho hmhpsor vh yhuä glihuhqwh do dqwhulru shur vöor xvduhprv od wìfqlfd gh dfrwdplhqwr1
s
Hmhuflflr 57; Ghprvwudu s olp{$3 { @ 31
Qrwhprv txh vl i+{, @ { hqwrqfhv Grpi @ U. 3
Sru or wdqwr s
+;% A 3,+< A 3,+{ 5 Grpi a 3 ? m{m ? $ m {m ? %,=
s s
Revhuydflöq= Hq jhqhudo/ vh sxhgh ghprvwudu txh vl d 5 U. 3 > olp{$d {@ d
Hmhuflflr 57< L, Ghprvwudu txh olp{$4 {{ 6 @ 5
Ghwhuplqh vl od vljxlhqwhv dupdflrqhv vrq yhugdghudv r idovdv
5
Frpr
{6 { 6 5+{ 5, m { . 4m m{ 4m
m 5m @ m m@ @
{5 {5 m{ 5m m{ 5m
hqwrqfhv ghehprv dfrwdu m{ 4
5m
sru xq qýphur
Vl m{ 4m ? 6 vh wlhqh txh=
4
46 ? { 4 ? 4
6
+, 76 ? { 5 ? 56
, 5
6
? m{ 5m ? 7
6
, 4
m{5m ? 6
5
e, 3 ? m{ 4m ? ? 56% , m{ 4m ? 6
7{ . 4 4
5{ 4 8 =
\d txh
7{ . 4 4 53{ . 8 5{ . 4 4;{ . 9 9m6{ . 4m
5{ 4 8 @ 8+5{ 4, @ 8+5{ 4, @ 8m5{ 4m
4
n
m5{ 4m
vh whqguðd
7{ . 4 4 9m7{ . 4m 9n 4;n m6{ . 4m
5{ 4 8 @ 8m5{ 4m 8 m6{ . 4m @ 8 6
dvð/ edvwduðd wrpdu @ 4;n | vh rewhqguðd
8%
m{ . 4@6m ? 986%n a 5{44 n
, m{ m
9 6 .4
?%
m { m
85 4
.4 4
, 57{{4
8 ? %
m{ . 4@6m ? 4 +, 4 ? { . 4@6 ? 4
+, 7@6 ? { ? 5@6
+, 5+7@6, 4 ? 5{ 4 ? 5+5@6, 4
+, 44@6 ? 5{ 4 ? 4@6 ? 44@6
, m5{ 4m ? 44@6
Dvð/ vl m5{ 4m 9@ 3 vh wlhqh m5{44m A 6@44 qr hv dfrwdgr vxshulruphqwh1 Ho sureohpd hq hvwh fdvr hv txh
od yhflqgdg wrpdgd hq wruqr do 4@6 lqfox|h do ydoru { @ 4@5 txlìq dqxod d m5{ 4m1 Od yhflqgdg gheh
h{foxlu d 4@5 | fhufdqr d ìo1
Sru hmhpsor od yhflqgdg gdgd sru 4@43
4 4 48
m{ . 4@6m ? ? , ?
43 m5{ 4m 55
557 FKDSWHU 71 OÐPLWHV GH IXQFLRQHV
| dghpäv
, m{.4@6m ? 48 8 %
m5{4m @
55 4;+48 55,
4
, 75{{
4 8 ? %
4
Ho dfrwdplhqwr uhdol}dgr hq hvwh sureohpd frqvlvwlö uhdophqwh hq ghwhuplqdu hq txì frqmxqwr vh hq0
fxhqwud ho uhfruulgr gh od ixqflöq j+{, @ m5{44m sdud ydoruhv fhufdqrv d 4@61 Dqdol}dqgr ho juäfr gh
j+{,/ sdud xqd yhflqgdg dsursldgd gho 4@6 vh wlhqh qdwxudophqwh txh j+{, vhuä dfrwdgd> vl od yhflqgdg hv
judqgh frpr sdud frqwhqhu d 4@5 qr vhuä dfrwdgd vxshulruphqwh j+{, |d txh hv lqqlwdphqwh judqgh fhufd
gh 4@5 +yhu jxud ,
j+{, @ 4
m5{4m
whqguhprv txh dfrwdu m{ 4m hq xqd yhflqgdg gho sxqwr 51 Yhdprv hvwr juäfdphqwh hq od jxud txh vljxh
7141 OÐPLWHV GH IXQFLRQHV 558
j+{, @ m{ 4m
1 grqgh j+{, @ m{ 4m
Qdwxudophqwh txh j+{, hv dfrwdgr/ wrpdqgr xqd yhflqgdg gh 5 gh udglr 4 hv ghflu/ 4 ? { ? 6 vh wlhqh
sru ho juäfr txh
j+4, ? j+{, ? j+6, +, 3 ? j+{, ? 5
hv ghflu/ vl Y @ i{ 5 U = m{5m ? 4j/ hqwrqfhv vh wlhqh txh= ;{ 5 Y> m{4m ? 5 | m8{+{6,.43m ? 85m{4m1
Gh hvwd irupd/ gdgr % A 3/ h{lvwh ? 43% | ? 4 wdo txh
m{ 5m ? , m{ 4m ? 5 +|d txh ? 4 , { 5 Y ,
m{ 5m ? %,
, m{ 4m ? 43% +|d txh ? 43
m{ 5m ? , m{ 4m ? 5 a m{ 5m ? 43%
Dvð/
m{ 4mm{ 5m ? 5 43% @ 8%
, 8m{ 4mm{ 5m ? %
, m8{+{ 6, . 43m ? %
Sru or wdqwr
; % A 3> < A 3> +m{ 5m ? , m8{+{ 6, . 43m ? %,
Whruhpd 719 +gh xqlflgdg, Ho oðplwh gh xqd ixqflöq +hq xq sxqwr, hv ýqlfr
Vhd D U> i = D $ U ixqflöq > d 5 D3 1 Vl h{lvwh ho oðplwh gh i fxdqgr { $ d hqwrqfhv olp{$d i+{, hv
ýqlfr1 Hv ghflu/
Hv fodur txh E @ D _ +Y5 idj, _ +Y4 idj, 9@ ! +hv lpsrvleoh txh vhd ydfðd od lqwhuvhfflöq |d txh
dpedv vrq yhflqgdghv gh d | d hv xq sxqwr gh dfxpxodflöq gh D
i++Ys isj, _ D, YO
olp j+{, @ :
{$6
j @ i m`5>4^ | k @ im`lqiw|>5^
Hmhpsor 587 Hq irupd dqdorjd vh suxhed od qr h{lvwhqfld gh olp{$3 i +{,/ grqgh i +{, @ vhq+ {4 ,/ { 5
U i3j
Vhd
4 4
D@i = q 5 Qj> E @ i = q 5 Qj
5q 5q . @5
dperv wlhqhq d 3 frpr sxqwr gh dfxpxodflöq
Vxsrqjdprv txh olp{$3 i +{, @ O/ sru or wdqwr
olp i m @ O aolp i m @ O+sru whruhpd 71:,
{$3 D {$3 E
Shur imD +d, @ vhq + d4 ,> d 5 D/ | vhq+ d4 , @ vhq 44 @ vhq +5q, @ 3> ;q 5 Q
sru or wdqwr
5q
olp i m @ olp 3 @ 3> dvð O @ 3 +715,
{$3 D {$3
Sru rwud sduwh/ imE +e, @ vhq+ 4e ,> e 5 E | frpr e @ 5q. 4
@5 /hqwrqfhv
4
vhq @ vhq +5q . @5, @ vhq@5 @ 4=
e
Dvð i mE +e, @ 4> ;e 5 E gh grqgh O @ 4/ or txh frqwudglfh 715
{5 49
d, olp i+{, @ olp 5
{$7 {$7 { . :{ . 45
+{ . 7,+{ 7,
@ olp
{$7 +{ . 6,+{ . 7,
{7
@ olp
{$7 { . 6
;
@
4
@ ;
6 Hq fdvr frqwudulr/ qr h{lvwh ho oðplwh +r qr vh sxhgh fdofxodu,1
55; FKDSWHU 71 OÐPLWHV GH IXQFLRQHV
{5 . 9{ . ; +{ . 5,+{ . 7,
e, olp i +{, @ olp @ olp . @ olp . { . 5 @ 5
{$7. {$7. {.7 {$7 {.7 {$7
Sru d, | e, vh wlhqh olp{$7 i+{, 9@ olp{$7. i +{, oxhjr olp{$7 i+{, qr h{lvwh1
s
Hmhpsor 589 Frqvlghuhprv od ixqflöq i +{, @ { s
Khprv ylvwr hq xq hmhpsor dqwhulru txh olp{$3 { h{lvwh | vx ydoru hv 31 Vlq hpedujr qr srghprv
dupdu txh dperv oðplwhv odwhudohv h{lvwdq1 Hq hvwh fdvr/ gho Grpi @ U. 3 / oxhjr i qr hvwd ghqlgd hq
wrgr xq lqwhuydor delhuwr txh frqwhqjd d 31 Revhuydprv od ghprvwudflöq gho hmhpsor 57; hv fodur txh
s s
olp { @ olp. { @ 3
{$3 {$3
Vreuh ho oðplwh odwhudo l}txlhugr vh wlhqh txh od sursrvlflöq
s
+; % A 3,+< A 3,+{ 5 Grpi a ? { ? 3 , m { Om ? %,
hv yhugdghud sdud wrgr O +O 5 U, |d txh qr s h{lvwh { hq U txh fxpsoh { 5 Grpi a ? { ? 31
Gh hvwd irupd dsduhqwdphqwh olp{$3 { @ O sdud wrgr O 5 U
Shur 3 qr hv xq sxqwr gh dfxpxodflöq gh ` 4> 3^_Grpi @ !1
Sru or wdqwr ho oðplwh odwhudo l}txlhugr hq { @ 3 qr vh sxhgh fdofxodu +qr wlhqh vhqwlgr od h{suhvlöq,1
Revhuydflöq= Hq wìuplqrv gh > % od ghqlflöq gh oðplwh odwhudo ghuhfkr | odwhudo l}txlhugr hv=
olp i+{, @ O +,
{$d.
+; % A 3,+< 4 A 3,++3 ? { d ? 4 a { 5 Grpi, , mi+{, Om ? %, +716,
olp i+{, @ O +,
{$d
+; % A 3,+< 5 A 3,++ 5 ? { d ? 3 a { 5 Grpi, , mi+{, Om ? %, +717,
Dkrud/ vxsrqjdprv txh h{lvwhq | vrq ljxdohv orv oðplwhv odwhudohv gh xqd ixqflöq i hq { @ d/ hv ghflu/
olp i +{, @ olp i+{, @ O
{$d {$d.
Hqwrqfhv srghprv dupdu txh olp{$d i +{, h{lvwh | olp{$d i +{, @ O1
Hq hihfwr= Gdgr txh h{lvwhq orv oðplwhv odwhudohv hqwrqfhv vh wlhqh 716 | 7171
Vhd % A 3 | frqvlghuhprv @ plqi 4 > 5 j hqwrqfhv vh wlhqh
{ 5 Grpi a 3 ? { d ? ? 4 , mi +{, Om ? %
{ 5 Grpi a 5 A A { d A 3 , mi +{, Om ? %
gh grqgh=
+; % A 3,+< A 3,+{ 5 Grpi a ? { d ? a { 9@ d, , mi+{, Om ? %
Khprv ghprvwudgr gh hvwd irupd ho vljxlhqwh whruhpd1
Whruhpd 71< Vl orv oðplwhv odwhudohv hq { @ d h{lvwhq +vh sxhghq fdofxodu, | dperv vrq ljxdohv d O
hqwrqfhv vh wlhqh txh olp{$d i+{, h{lvwh | olp{$d i+{, @ O1
Hmhpsor 58: Vhd +
{6 4 {?4
i +{, @ s
{4
<{ {4
Ghwhuplqhprv vl h{lvwh olp{$4 i+{,1
Frpr olp{$4 i +{, @ olp{$4 {{44 @ olp{$4 {5 . { . 4 @ 6
6
s
| olp{$4. i+{, @ olp{$4. <{ @ 6 hqwrqfhv olp{$4 i+{, @ olp{$4. i +{, @ 61
Oxhjr/ sru whruhpd dqwhulru olp{$4 i+{, @ 61
7151 OÐPLWHV ODWHUDOHV 55<
l, olp{$3. m4{m
4
{ @ 31
Vroxflöq=
Hmhpsor 593
4 m4 {m 4 m4 {m
olp @ olp. @4
{$3 { {$3 {
oxhjr
4 m4 {m 5{
olp 9@ olp
{$3 { {$3 {
Qrwh txh 4 { fdpeld gh vljqr fhufd gho sxqwr 4 | do wrpdu { whqglhqwh d fhur hvwdprv wrpdqgr
sxqwr fhufd gh fhur grqgh 4 { wlhqh ho ydoru srvlyr1
lll, Yhugdghur1 olp{$4. ^{` @ 4> olp{$4 ^{` @ 3/ oxhjr olp{$4. ^{` 9@ olp{$4 ^{`1
olp i +{, @ 4
{$4
s7 5 s5 s
ly, Idovr1 olp{$3 { {.{ @ olp{$3 m{m {{ .4 @ olp{$3 m{{m {5 . 41 Fdofxodqgr orv oðplwhv odwhudohv
s s
whqhprv olp{$3. {{ {5 . 4 @ olp{$3. {5 . 4 @ 4 | sru od l}txlhugd
s s
olp{$3 {{ {5 . 4 @ olp{$3 {5 . 4 @ 4
{5 m{ dm d5
O @ olp h{lvwd
{$d m{ dm
563 FKDSWHU 71 OÐPLWHV GH IXQFLRQHV
{5 m{ dm d5 {5 d5 . +{ d,
O @ olp @ olp
{$d m{ dm {$d +{ d,
{ d5 . +{ d,
5
@ olp
{$d +{ d,
+{ d,+{ . d . 4,
@ olp
{$d +{ d,
@ olp +{ . d . 4,
{$d
@ +5d . 4,
5d 4 @ 5d 4
olp{$s i +{,
olp +i @j,+{, @
{$s olp{$s j+{,
Ghprvwudflöq= Xvdu uhvxowdgr gh dojheud gh oðplwhv gh vxfhvlrqhv | whruhpd gho hqodfh/ txh yhuhprv
srvwhulruphqwh1
Revhuydflöq= Hq sduwlfxodu gh +e, vh ghgxfh txh
Vl 5 U hqwrqfhv olp{$s i +{, @ olp{$s i +{,1
Revhuydflöq= Hv lpsruwdqwh hqidwl}du txh sdud dsolfdu ho dojheud gh oðplwhv/ ghehprv hvwdu vhjxurv gh
txh vh yhultxhq odv klsöwhvlv1 Vl qr hv dvð srghprv rewhqhu frqwudglfflrqhv frpr yhuhprv d frqwlqxdflöq1
Hv fodur txh olp{$5 {{
5 @ olp{$5 4 @ 41
5
| dsolfdprv ho dojheud gh oðplwhv vlq dvhjxuduqrv gh txh dpedv oð plwhv h{lvwdq srghprv ghflu htxlyrfdgd0
phqwh txh1
4 4 4
olp +{ 5, @ olp +{ 5, olp @ 3 olp @3
{$5 { 5 {$5 {$5 { 5 {$5 { 5
Hv ghflu/ txh i hv dfrwdgd vxshulruphqwh sru O . 4 hq od yhflqgdg Ys isj | wdpelìq dfrwdgd lqihul0
ruphqwh sru O 4 hq ho plvpr frqmxqwr1
Whruhpd 7144 +Dfrwdplhqwr, Vhd D U> s 5 D3 > i> j> k = D $ U1 Vhd Y xqd yhflqgdg gh s wdo txh
4, ;{ 5 +Y isj, _ D vh wlhqh= i+{, j+{, k+{,
| dghpäv
5, olp{$s i+{, @ olp{$s k+{, @ O/
hqwrqfhv
olp j+{, @ O
{$s
565 FKDSWHU 71 OÐPLWHV GH IXQFLRQHV
;{ 5 Y _ i{ = m{ sm ? i a m{ sm ? k j
vh wlhqh
Sru or wdqwr/
Sru or wdqwr
olp j+{, @ O
{$s
Or vljxlhqwh hvwä uhodflrqdgr frq od jxud 1 Fxdqgr vh ghqh jhrpìwulfdphqwh od ixqflöq vhq +{, |
frv +{, vh xwlol}d od flufxqihuhqfld gh udglr 4 frpr hq od jxud / hv dvð txh odv frrughqdgdv gho sxqwr S
vrq S @ +frv+{,> vhq+{,, grqgh { hvwd phglgr hq udgldqhv1
7151 OÐPLWHV ODWHUDOHV 566
Iljxud
Sru rwud sduwh/ shqvdqgr hq od ghqlflöq gh odv ixqflrqhv wuljrqrpìwulfdv xvdqgr xq wuläqjxor uhfwäq0
jxor/ vh wlhqh txh7
fdwhwr rsxhvwr GV
wdq { @ @
fdwhwr dg|dfhqwh RV
Gh hvwd irupd/ odv frrughqdgdv gho sxqwr G vrq +4> wdq+{,,
Sru ho khfkr txh od flufxqihuhqfld wlhqh udglr 4 | ho äqjxor { hvwä gdgr hq udgldqhv/ vh wlhqh txh ho dufr
gh flufxqihuhqfld gh S d V> gS V hv od orqjlwxg {1
Qrwd= hq od jxud ho äqjxor { vdwlvidfh 3 { ? 5 / shur fodudphqwh vh sxhgh yhu txh vl { hv qhjdwlyr
| pd|ru txh 5 / vöor kd| txh whqhu fxlgdgr frq ho vljqr hq odv uhodflrqhv txh d frqwlqxdflöq gdprv sdud
{/ { 5` 5 > 5 ^1
g
S V @ m{m
SF @ m vhq+{,m
m vhq+{,m m{m |d txh S F g
SV
olp vhq { @ 3
{$3
Wdpelìq xvdqgr od jxud vh sxhgh yhu txh fxdqgr { wlhqgh do äqjxor fhur/ od klsrwhqxvd gho
wuläqjxor RFS / RS wlhqgh do fdwhwr dg|dfhqwh RF/ gho plvpr wuläqjxor/ shur frpr RS hv vlhpsuh ljxdo
d 4 | RF @ frv+{, vh wlhqh txh
olp frv+{, @ 4>
{$3
oðplwh txh mxvwlfduhprv gh rwud irupd pdv dghodpwh1
7 Qrwdflöq DE lqglfd od glvwdqfld hqwuh D E
| r orqjlwxg gho wud}r gh uhfwd gh D E
d 1
567 FKDSWHU 71 OÐPLWHV GH IXQFLRQHV
vhq+{,
4
frv+{,
{
ghvljxdogdg yäolgd sdud { 9@ 3 | { 5` 5 > 5 ^ + |d txh od ixqflöq vhq+{, | { vrq ixqflrqhv lpsduhv | vx
fxrflhqwh hv sdu,1
Gh hvwd irupd sru whruhpd 7144 | xwlol}dqgr txh frv+{, $ 4 fxdqgr { $ 3 rewhqhprv
vhq+{,
olp @4
{$3 {
Hmhuflflr 598 Fdofxodu
vhq { 5{
olp
{$3 6{ . 7vhq{
Vroxflöq=
vhq { 5{ vhq { 5{ 4@{
O @ olp @ olp
{$3 6{ . 7vhq{ {$3 6{ . 7 vhq { 4@{
vhq {
5
@ olp { vhq {
{$3 6 . 7 {
Frpr
vhq { vhq {
olp 6 . 7 @ olp 6 . 7 olp @ 6 . 7 @ : 9@ 3=
{$3 { {$3 {$3 {
|
vhq { vhq {
olp 5 @ olp olp 5 @ 4 5 @ 4=
{$3 { {$3 { {$3
hqwrqfhv sru dojheud gh oðplwhv O @ 4 1
:
Dvð/
d
m{m { vhq + , m{m=
{
Frpr olp{$3 m{m @ 3 | olp{$3 m{m @ 3 hqwrqfhv sru whruhpd gho dfrwdplhqwr vh wlhqh olp{$3. m{ vhq {d m @
3
Hvwh ýowlpr fdvr vh sxhgh jhqhudol}du d ixqflrqhv dfrwdgdv1
Uhfrughprv txh xqd ixqflöq i vh glfh dfrwdgd hq D vl h{lvwh n 5 U. wdo txh=
mi+{,m n
Whruhpd 7145 +Fhur Dqltxlod, Vhd i xqd ixqflöq dfrwdgd hq xqd yhflqgdg gh s> Ys +qr qhfhvduld0
phqwh ghqlgd hq s,1 Vl olp{$s j+{, @ 3 hqwrqfhv olp{$s j+{,i+{, @ 3
Ghprvwudflöq= Frpr mi+{,m n vh wlhqh
mj+{,i+{,m nmj+{,m
hv ghflu/
nmj+{,m j+{,i+{, nmj+{,m
| sru whruhpd gh dfrwdplhqwr vh rewlhqh or uhtxhulgr1
Hmhpsor 59: Ghprvwudu
5
olp +{ 4, frv @3 +71;,
{$4 {4
Hq hihfwr olp{$4 { 4 @ 3 | od ixqflöq i +{, @ frv+ {
5
, hv dfrwdgd/ oxhjr sru whruhpd fhur dqltxlod/
vh wlhqh 71;1
4
4 ,
Vroxflöq= O @ olp{$6 6 @ olp
6 +{ 6, vhq {6 1
vhq + {
4
{6
{ $ 4
r htxlydohqwhphqwh
e { { e e
4
d d d { d
sxhvwr txh olp{$3. de {d @ olp{$3. de @ de hqwrqfhv sru whruhpd gh dfrwdplhqwr
{ e e
olp. @
{$3 d { d
41 olp{$3 @{ @ 41
@{,
vhq +4
4
51 olp{$7 +{ . 7,^{` @ 31
61 olp{$3 vhq{ { @ 31
71 olp{$ vhq{ { @ 41
81 olp{$3 frv{ { @ 31
Vroxflöq=
51 Yhugdghur1 Od ixqflöq i +{, @ ^{` hv dfrwdgd hq xqd yhflqgdg gho 7/ hv ghflu/
olp +{ . 7,^{` @ 3=
{$7
91 Yhugdghur1 Vxsrqguhprv txh olp{$3 frv+ { h{lvwh | vx ydoru hv O1 Gdgr txh olp{$3 { h{lvwh sru
{,
frv +{,
olp { @ olp frv+{, @ 4
{$3 { {$3
| sru dojheud gh oðplwhv
frv+{, frv+{,
olp { @ olp olp { @ O 3 @ 3
{$3 { {$3 { {$3
or fxdo hv xqd frqwudglfflöq sru od xqlflgdg gho oðplwh1 Sru or wdqwr ho ydoru O qr h{lvwh1
:1 Yhugdghur19 Vdehprv sru +4, txh> olp{$3 { vhq +4@{, h{lvwh +| vx ydoru hv fhur, | olp{$3 frv{ { qr
h{lvwh sru +9,
Oxhjr
frv {
olp +{ vhq 4@{ . , qr h{lvwh=
{$3 {
|d txh gh h{lvwlu wdpelìq ghehuðd h{lvwlu +sru oðplwh gh od vxpd,
frv {
olp +{ vhq 4@{ . { vhq+4@{,,
{$3 {
| hvwr ýowlpr hv idovr sru +9,1
;1 Idovr1 Vhdq i +{, @ vhq {> j+{, @ {4 >
olp{$3 i+{,j+{, h{lvwh | vx ydoru hv 4/ dghpäv olp{$3 i +{, h{lvwh | vx ydoru hv fhur/ shur olp{$3 j+{,
qr h{lvwh1
<1 Idovr1 Vhdq i +{, @ {4 | j+{, @ {4 oxhjr olp{$3 +i . j, h{lvwh | vx ydoru hv fhur/ shur olp{$3 i+{, @
olp{$3 {4 qr h{lvwh | olp{$3 j+{, @ olp{$3 {4 qr h{lvwh1
Hmhpsor 5:5 Vhd i +{, @ {/ od ixqflöq lghqwlgdg hq U1 Vh vdeh txh olp{$s i +{, @ s1
Xvhprv ho whruhpd dqwhulru sdud suredu txh =
d, olp{$s {5 @ s5 1
e, olp{$s {n @ sn grqgh 5 U |
f, olp{$s t+{, @ t+s,/ grqgh t+{, @ 3 . 4 { . 5 {5 . . q {q
Dvð/ olp{$s {5 @ s5
e, Hvwd vh kduä xvdqgr lqgxfflöq hq n1
Sdud n @ 4 hv flhuwr |d txh olp{$s { @ olp{$s olp{$s { @ s
Vxsrqguhprv dkrud txh hv yäolgr sdud n | ghprvwuduhprv txh hv yäolgr sdud n . 4
Vxsrqjdprv txh ho oðplwhv hv yäolgr sdud q @ n ghprvwuduhprv txh hv yäolgr sdud n . 41 Xvdqgr
dojheud gh oðplwhv vh wlhqh=
olp . 4 { . . n {n @ 3 . 4 s . . n sn
{$s 3
dghpäv sru hmhuflflr dqwhulru
olp {n.4 @ n.4 sn.4
{$s n.4
oxhjr
olp . 4 { . . n {n . n.4 {n.4 @ 3 . 4 s . . n sn . n.4 sn.4
{$s 3
Sru frqvljxlhqwh
olp t+{, @ t+s,
{$s
1
Vroxflöq= Frpr olp{$5 { . 4 @ 6 9@ 3 | olp{$5 {5 . 6{ . 4 @ 44/ hqwrqfhv sru dojheud gh oðplwhv +f,
{5 . 6{ . 4 olp{$5 {5 . 6{ . 4
olp @
{$5 {.4 olp{$5 { . 4
44
@
6
Revhuydflöq= Qrwdu txh qr vh wxhgh dsolfdu ho dojheud gh oðplwhv1 Vl { wlhqgh d 41
Hq orv vljxlhqwhv h mhuflflrv wdpsrfr srghprv xvdu ho dojheud gh oð plwhv gluhfwdphqwh/ shur hvr qr
vljqlfd txh ho oðplwhv qr h{lvwh/ frpr vh yhud d frqwlqxdflöq1
s s
Hmhuflflr 5:7 Vdelhqgr txh olp{$s t+{, @ t+s,/ vl t+s, A 31
Fdofxodu s
6 5{ . 4
olp
{$7 {5 49
Vroxflöq=
s s s
6 5{ . 4 6 5{ . 4 6 . 5{ . 4
O @ olp @ olp s
{$7 {5 49 {$7{5 49 6 . 5{ . 4
< +5{ . 4,
@ olp 5 s
{$7 +{ 49,+6 . 5{ . 4,
5+7 {,
@ olp s
{$7 +{ 7,+{ . 7,+6 . 5{ . 4,
5
@ olp s =
{$7 +{ . 7,+6 . 5{ . 4,
s s
{ { ;
olp i +{, @ olp s s
{$5. {$5. { 5
s s s s
+{ { ;,+ { 5
@ olp s s s s
{$5. + { 5,,+ { . 5,
s s s s
{5 . { 5{ ; { 49
@ olp
{$5. {5
s s
+{ 7, . +{ 5{ 5 5{,
5
@ olp
{$5. {5
s
+{ 5,+{ . 5, . +{ 5,+ 5{,
@ olp
{$5. {5
s
+{ 5,+{ . 5 . 5{,
@ olp
{$5. {5
s
@ olp { . 5 . 5{=
{$5.
573 FKDSWHU 71 OÐPLWHV GH IXQFLRQHV
s s
Frpr olp{$5. { @ 5> olp{$5 5 @ 5> olp{$5 5{ @ 5 5 @ 5/ hqwrqfhv sru dojheud gh oðplwh vh wlhqh
olp i+{, @ 5 . 5 . 5 @ 9=
{$5.
Sru rwud sduwh olp{$5 i+{, @ olp{$5 d{ . 4 @ 5d . 4/ oxhjr olp{$5 i+{, h{lvwh vl | vöor vl 5d . 4 @ 9/
gh grqgh d @ 85 1
Vxsrqjdprv txh olp{$d +i . j, h{lvwh/ oxhjr sru dojheud gh oðplwhv/ gdgr txh olp{$d i h{lvwh hqwrqfhv
olp{$d +i . j, i h{lvwh/ shur i . j i @ i or txh frqwudglfh od qr h{lvwhqfld gh olp{$d j1
41 olp{$3 {4
51 olp{$3 +{ . {4 ,1
Vroxflöq=
Hmhuflflr 5:< 41 Vxsrqjdprv txh olp{$3 {4 h{lvwh | vx ydoru ydoru hv O1 Gdgr txh olp{$3 { h{lvwh/
hqwrqfhv sru dojheud gh oðplwhv/ h{lvwh ho oðplwh gho surgxfwr/ hv ghflu/ olp{$3 {4 { h{lvwh
4 4
olp { @ olp olp { @ O 3 @ 3=
{$3 { {$3 { {$3
Sru rwud sduwh
4
olp { @ olp 4 @ 4>
{$3 { {$3
oxhjr sru xqlflgdg gho oðplwhv vh wlhqh txh 3 @ 4 or txh hv xqd frqwudglfflöq1
51 Frpr olp{$3 { h{lvwh | olp{$3 {4 qr h{lvwh/ hqwrqfhv sru hmhuflflr 5:: vh wlhqh
4
olp { . qr h{lvwh
{$3 {
Revhuydflöq= Hq jhqhudo/ vh sxhgh ghprvwudu sru ho pìwrgr gho devxugr txh=
Vl olp{$d i+{, @ f 9@ 3 | olp{$d j+{, @ 3 hqwrqfhv olp{$3 ij++{{,, qr h{lvwh1 Hq hvwh fdvr vh glfh txh ho
oðplwh olp{$d ij++{{,, hv gh od irupd 3f
d5 . d . 6dk5 5
i +k, @
k5
Ghwhuplqhprv sdud txì ydoru gh d 5 U/ ho oðplwh olpk$3 i +k, h{lvwh1
7151 OÐPLWHV ODWHUDOHV 574
Gdgr txh olpk$3 k5 @ 3/ hqwrqfhv olpk$3 d .dk6dk sxhgh h{lvwlu vl: olpk$3 d5 . d . 6dk5 5 @ 3
5 5 5
5
+vl olpk$3 d . d . 6dk 5 9@ 3 hqwrqfhv olpk$3 qr h{lvwh,1
5 5 d5 .d.6dk5 5
k5
Dkrud>
olp d5 . d . 6dk5 5 @ 3 +, d5 . d 5 @ 3
k$3
+, +d . 5,+d 4, @ 3
+, d @ 5 b d @ 4
Vroxflöq= Vhd x @ 7{1 Vl { $ 3 hqwrqfhv x $ 3/ +dghpäv 7{ 9@ 3 sdud { hq xqd yhflqgdg gho fhur vlq
wrpdu ho fhur, hqwrqfhv/
6{ 6 x 6 4 6 olpx$3 4 6
olp @ olp @ olp x @ 7 olp vhq x @ =
{$3 vhq 7{ x$3 7 vhq x 7 x$3 vhq
x x$3 x 7
sru whruhpd gh vxvwlwxflöq/ dvð
6{ 6 x 6
olp @ olp @
x$3 vhq+7{, x$3 7 vhq x 7
Frurodulr 7147 Vhdq [> \ U | i = [ $ U/ j = \ $ U | i +[, \ 1
Vhd s 5 [ 3 a e 5 \ _ \ 3 a olp{$s i +{, @ e a olp{$e j+{, @ j+e, hqwrqfhv olp{$s +j i ,+{, @ j+e,=
Ghprvwudflöq= Vhd j+e, @ f
[ $ i +[, \ $ U
s :$ e : $ j+e,
Sdud xqd yhflqgdg gh f> Yf / sxhvwr txh olp{$e j+{, @ f/ h{lvwh xqd yhflqgdg gh e> Ye / wdo txh j+Ye
iej, Yf 1
Sru rwud sduwh/ frpr olp{$s i +{, @ e sdud od yhflqgdg Ye h{lvwh xqd yhflqgdg gh s wdo txh i+Ys isj,
Ye 1
Sru or wdqwr j+i+Ys isj,, j+Ye ,1
Dvð/ sdud xqd yhflqgdg Yf / h{lvwh xqd yhflqgdg gh s> Ys wdo txh +j i ,+Ys isj, Yj+e, / hv ghflu/
Hmhpsor 5;8 s t s
olp {5 . 7 @ olp {5 . 7 @ 7 @ 5> +71<,
{$3 {$3
s s s
sxhvwr txh= Vl wrpdprv j+{, @ { | i +{, @ {5 . 7 | gdgr txh olp{$7 j+{, @ olp{$7 { @ 7 @ 5 |
olp{$3 i +{, @ olp{$3 {5 . 7 @ 7/ hqwrqfhv sru ho frurodulr dqwhulru vh wlhqh 71<
Hmhpsor 5;9 Vdelhqgr txh olp{$d h{ @ hd 1
Surehprv txh vl h{lvwh olp{$e i+{, hqwrqfhv
olp hi +{, @ holp{$e i +{,
{$e
Vroxflöq= Vhd j+{, @ h{ frpr +j i,+{, @ hi +{, | sxhvwr txh olp{$d h{ @ hd / hqwrqfhv olp{$e +j i ,+{, @
j+olp{$e i +{,, @ holp{$e i +{, 1
Dvð whqhprv sru hmhpsor=
s6 {4
olp h {4 @ h4@6
{$4
s
Hq hihfwr1 Vhd x @ {1 Vl { $ 4 hqwrqfhv x $ 4 |
6
s
6{4 x4
olp @ olp 6
{$4 { 4 x$4 x 4
x4
@ olp
x$4 +x 4,+x5 . x . 4,
4
@ olp 5
x$4 x . x . 4
4
@ =
6
7151 OÐPLWHV ODWHUDOHV 576
Oxhjr
s6 {4 s6 {4
olp h {4 @ holp{$4 {4 @ h4@6 =
{$4
Sdud dsolfdu ho whruhpd dqwhulru/ ghehprv dvhjxuduqrv txh vh fxpsodq od klsöwhvlv1 Gh qr kdfhuor
srghprv rewhqhu frqwudglfflrqhv1
s
4 . {5 4
d, olp
s{
{$3
4 6 4 5{
e, olp
{$3 {
s s
4 . {5 6 4 5{
f, olp
{$3 {
Vroxflöq= d,
s s s
4 . {5 4 4 . {5 4 4 . {5 . 4
olp @ olp s
{$3 { {$3 { 4 . {5 . 4
4.{ 4
5
@ olp s
{$3 {+ 4 . {5 . 4,
{
@ olp s
{$3 4 . {5 . 4
@ 3
f,
s s
4 . {5 6 4 5{
olp
{$3 { s s
4 . {5 4 . 4 6 4 5{
@ olp
{$3 {
s s
4 . {5 4 4 6 4 5{
@ olp{$3 .
{ {
5
@ 3.
6
5
@ =
6
Hv qhfhvdulr uhfrugdu/ sdud ho fäofxor gh oðplwh wuljrqrpìwulfrv dojxqdv lghqwlgdghv1
41 frv5 { . vhq5 { @ 4
51 frv+5{, @ 4 5 vhq5 {
61 frv+5{, @ 5 frv5 { 4
Vroxflöq= Edvwd ghprvwudu txh olp{$d +vhq { vhq d, @ 31 Shur xvdqgr od lghqwlgdg wuljrqrpìwulfd
{d {.d
vhq { vhq d @ 5 vhq+ , frv+ ,
5 5
Hmhpsor 5<4 Xvdqgr dojheud gh oðplwh | lghqwlgdghv wuljrqrpìwulfdv fdofxodu ho oðplwh gh od vljxlhqwh
ixqflöq hq d
i+{, @ wdq { > d 9@ 5 . q > q 5 Q
7151 OÐPLWHV ODWHUDOHV 578
Vroxflöq=
vhq+{,
olp wdq+{, @ olp
{$d {$d frv+{,
olp{$d vhq+{,
@
olp{$d frv+{,
vhq+d,
@
frv+{,
@ wdq+d,
olp frv+{, @ 4
{$3
Vroxflöq= Hq xqd yhflqgdg gh 3 vh wlhqh od lghqwlgdg
s
frv+{, @ 4 vhq5 {
6
olp + 6{, wdq { @ 6 olp + {, wdq {
{$@5 5 {$@5 5
vhq +@5 x,
@ 6 olp x+ ,
x$3 frv +@5 x,
frv x
@ 6 olp x+ ,
x$3 vhq x
x
@ 6 olp frv x+ ,
x$3 vhq x
x
@ 6 olp frv x olp + ,
x$3 x$3 vhq x
@ 644@6
Hmhpsor 5<8 Fdofxodu
5 5 frv +{ 4,
olp
{$4 +{ 4,5
Vroxflöq= Vhd x @ { 4 vl { $ 4 hqwrqfhv x $ 3 oxhjr/
4 frv +{ 4, 4 frv x
olp 5+ , @ 5 olp + ,
{$4 +{ 4,5 x$3 x5
vhq5 x
@ 5 olp + 5 ,
x$3 x +4 . frv x,
4 vhq x 5
@ 5 olp olp
x$3 4 . frvx x$3 x
4
@ 5 4@4
5
Hmhuflflr 5<9 Fdofxodu +vl h{lvwh, olp{$4 i +{,/ olp{$3 i +{,1
Vl +
4{5
4?{?5
i +{, @ vhq +{s
,
s
dufvhq +{@ 5,
{ 5 ? { ? 4 a { 9@ 3
Vroxflöq=
d, Frpr i hvwä ghqlgd hq xqd yhflqgdg gh 4/ srghprv fdofxodu orv oðplwhv odwhudohv1
l,
4 {5 +4 {,+4 . {,
O4 @ olp. i+{, @ olp. @ olp
{$4 {$4 vhq +{, {$3 vhq+{,
Vhd x @ 4 { vl { $ 4. hqwrqfhv x $ 3 +sxhv 4 { ? 3,
x+5 x,
O4 @
olp
x$3 vhq++4 x,,
x
@ olp +5 x,
x$3 vhq+x,
4 x
@ olp +5 x,
x$3 vhq+x,
4 x
@ olp olp +5 x,
x$3 vhq+x, x$3
|d txh olpx$3 vhq+
x @ olp w @ 4 vh wlhqh txh oðplwh dqwhulru hv
x, w$3 vhq+w,
4 5
O4 @ 45 @
7151 OÐPLWHV ODWHUDOHV 57:
x
olp i+{, @ olp s
{$3 x$3 5 vhq+x,
4 x
@ s olp
5 x$3 vhq +x,
4
@ s 4=
5
Whruhpd 7148 +gho Hqodfh, Vhd [ U> i = [ $ U ixqflöq s 5 [ 3 Hqwrqfhv whqhprv od vljxlhqwh
htxlydohqfld
Ghprvwudflöq= +,, Vhd +{q , vxfhvlöq frq {q 9@ s | {q $ s1 Sru ghprvwudu txh olpq$4 i +{q , @ O1
Edvwd wrpdu ho frqmxqwr E [> E @ i{q = q 5 Qj1 Frpr {q $ s vh wlhqh txh s 5 E 3 | xvdqgr ho
whruhpd 71: vh wlhqh olp{$s i mE @ O/ hv ghflu/
olp i +{q , @ O
q$4
++, Ghprvwudflöq sru ho devxugr/ hv ghflu/ vxsrqguhprv txh sdud wrgr +{q ,4 q@4 txh vdwlvidfh od klsöwhvlv
vh wlhqh txh
olpq$4 i +{q , @ O | qr vh wlhqh olp{$s i +{, @ O1
Sru hvwr ýowlpr/ h{lvwh xqd yhflqgdg gh O> YO> % wdo txh sdud wrgd Ys> +hvwr hv or plvpr txh ghflu
sdud wrgr , vh wlhqh txh ^i +Ys> isj, YO> % `/ hv ghflu/ sdud fdgd q @ q4 h{lvwh do phqrv xq sxqwr
{q 5 Ys>q isj wdo txh i+{q , 95 YO> % 1
Dvð/ khprv ideulfdgr xqd vxfhvlöq +{q ,4
q@4 1 Frpr q $ 3/ {q $ s | dghpäv i +{q , 9$ O +|d txh i+{q ,
hvwä do phqrv % ohmrv gh O sxhvwr txh i+{q , 95 YO> % , or txh frqwudglfh ho khfkr wrgd vxfhvlöq% gh odv
shglgdv> oxhjr i+{q , $ O1
Gho whruhpd dqwhulru/ vh rewlhqh xqd khuudplhqwd px| ýwlo sdud suredu od qr h{lvwhqfld gh dojxqrv
oðplwhv1
716 Frqwlqxlgdg
Ghqlflöq 714: Vhd D U> s 5 D/ gluhprv txh i hv frqwlqxd hq ho sxqwr s vl sdud wrgd yhflqgdg gh
i+s,> Yi +s,> % h{lvwh xqd yhflqgdg gh s> Ys> wdo txh
< Qrwh txh qr qhfhvduldphqwh Ys> a D ' Grp i / or lps ruwdqwh hv txh orv { txh wrpd od ixqflöq i / hv ghflu/ orv { M Ys>
whqjdq lpdjhq hood hvwh fhufdqd d i Es
583 FKDSWHU 71 OÐPLWHV GH IXQFLRQHV
Vl sdud od yhflqgdg dqwhulru gh i+6,/ h{lvwlhud xqd yhflqgdg gh 6> `6 %> 6 . %^ hvwd ghehuðd fxpsolu
hv ghflu/
i+`6 > 6 . ^`9 %> 9 . %^
shur frpr i hv fuhflhqwh/ whqhprv
9 % ? 9 5 a 9 . 5 ? 9 . % >
hv ghflu/
5 ? % a 5 ? % >
Sru or wdqwr/ sdud od yhflqgdg Yi +6,> % h{lvwh do phqrv xqd yhflqgdg gh 6 |d txh edvwd wrpdu 5 ? %
+hv ghflu/ ? %@5, wdo txh i +Y6> , Y9> % 1 Yhu jxud dqwhulru
Vroxflöq= Gdgd xqd yhflqgdg gh i +6,> Y5> % / ghehuðd h{lvwlu xqd yhflqgdg gh 6> Y6> / + hv ghflu/ h{lvwh
A 3 , wdo txh i +Y6> , Y5> %
Or dqwhulru hv htxlydohqwh d
; % A 3> < A 3> i +Y6> , Y5> %
7161 FRQWLQXLGDG 584
ö
i+`6 > 6 . ^, `5 %> 5 . %^
Dvð/ ghehuðd rfxuulu
; % A 3> < A 3 wdo txh i+Y6> , @ i5> 5=34j `5 %> 5 . %^>
; A 3 i+Ys> , @ i8j
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|d txh
i+Ys> , @ i8j `8 %> 8 . %^ > ; % A 3
41 Vl s hv xq sxqwr gh dfxpxodflöq gh D | s 5 D1
51 Vl s hv xq sxqwr gh dfxpxodflöq gh D | D frqwlhqh xqd yhflqgdg gh s1
61 Vl s qr hv xq sxqwr gh dfxpxodflöq | s 5 D1
71 Fdudfwhul}dflöq sru vxfhvlrqhv1
Vroxflöq= Qrwhprv txh Grpi @ D @ ^4> 4^/ | dtxð ylhqh qdwxudophqwh od htxlyrfdgd frqfoxvlöq
i qr hv frqwlqxd hq s @ 4 |d txh olp{$s i +{, qr h{lvwh%/ frpr vh h{ljh hq 5f1
Revhuydflöq= Qr srghprv xvdu od fdudfwhul}dflöq 51 sxhv qr vh fxpsoh od klsrwìvlv gh txh D
frqwhqjd xqd yhflqgdg gh 41
Hq fdpelr/ vl srghprv xvdusod fdudfwhul}dflöq 4/ sxhv
s 4 hv xqd
ssxqwr gh dfxpxodflöq gh D | 4 5 D/
hqwrqfhv gdgr txh olp{$4 { 4 h{lvwh | olp{$4 { 4 @ 4 4 @ 3 @ i +4,1 vh wlhqh txh i hv
frqwlqxd hq 41
585 FKDSWHU 71 OÐPLWHV GH IXQFLRQHV
Yhdprv txì frqglflöq gheh fxpsolu sdud txh hvwd ýowlpd lqfoxvlöq vhd yäolgd1
Frpr Y4> @`4 > 4 . ^ | i hv fuhflhqwh +yhu jxud,
y 2
1.5
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0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5
s
x
i +{, @ {4
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61 Vl s 5 D qr hv xq sxqwr gh dfxpxodflöq +s hv xq sxqwr dlvodgr, vh wlhqh txh i hv frqwlqxd hq s1
Ghprvwudflöq= Frpr s qr hv xq sxqwr gh dfxpxodflöq/ h{lvwh xqd yhflqgdg gh s> Ys> +hv ghflu/
h{lvwh A 3, wdo txh
Ys> _ D @ isj
r htxlydohqwhphqwh
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sru or wdqwr/ i +Ys> , @ i+isj, @ ii +s,j `i +s, %> i+s, . %^
Od lqfoxvlöq ýowlpd rfxuuh sdud wrgr % A 3> gh hvwd irupd whqhprv od vljxlhqwh dupdflöq1
Sdud wrgd yhflqgdg gh i +s,> Yi +s,> % / h{lvwh xqd yhflqgdg gh s> Ys> +od wrpdgd do lqlflr, wdo txh
i +Ys> , Yi +s,> %
Hmhpsor 63; Wrgdv odv vxfhvlrqhv {q = Q $ U vrq frqwlqxdv/ |d txh wrgr sxqwr gh Q hv sxqwr gh
dlvodgr1
Hq od suäfwlfd/ qr vh hqfxhqwudq pxfkrv grplqlrv frq sxqwrv dlvodgrv/ shur vl dsduhfhq hq vlwxd0
flrqhv hvshfldohv | sru hvh prwlyr or khprv ghvduuroodgr hq ghwdooh dtxð/ dpìq txh ohv idflolwduä ho/
hqwhqglplhqwr gho frqfhswr gh frqwlqxlgdg hq yduldv yduldeohv1
71 Ghqlflöq wudglflrqdo1
i hv frqwlqxd hq s> s 5 Grpi @ D vl
BcHv frqwlqxd hq 3 B
4
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71615 Frphqwdulrv
41 Frphqwdulrv lqwxlwlyrv44
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txh hvwäq vxshu fhufd gh i+s,1
ll, Xqd ixqflöq frqwlqxd hq s qr sxhgh whqhu xq vdowr hq s/ qr sxhgh hvwdu fruwdgd hq s1
51 Frphqwdulr Uhgxqgdqwh
l, Fodudphqwh i qr hv frqwlqxd hq xq sxqwr s vl s 95 Grpi
ll, Gh od iudvh Xqd ixqflöq hv glvfrqwlqxd hq xq sxqwr s% qr vh sxhgh frqfoxlu txh qr wlhqh oðplwh
|d txh shuihfwdphqwh od glvfrqwlqxlgdg sxhgh ghehuvh d txh
d, s 95 Grpi r d txh
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5
ho fdvr +d,
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Hvwd ýowlpr qrv glfh txh od frqwlqxlgdg hq ho sxqwr s ghshqgh vöor gh orv sxqwrv txh hvwäq fhufd/ |
hvwr hv or txh vh vxhoh oodpdu frqfhswr orfdo1 Dvð frqwlqxlgdg hv xq frqfhswr orfdo% do ljxdo txh oðplwh1
Orv vljxlhqwhv whruhpdv vrq xwlohv sru ho khfkr txh qrv vluyhq sdud ideulfdu qxhydv ixqflrqhv frqwlqxdv
r sdud ylvxdol}du txh xqd ixqflöq hv frqwlqxd1
4 4 Hvwr qr vluyh sdud qdgd hq odv ghprvwudflrqhv/ s hur vl sdud ylvxdol}du1
4 5 Uhfxhugh txh i\
hv od ixqflöq uhvwulfflöq gh [ \
d
7161 FRQWLQXLGDG 588
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hq s 5 [ _ \ hqwrqfhv
l, i . j> i j> i j vrq frqwlqxdv hq s
ll, Vl j+s, 9@ 3 hqwrqfhv i@j hv frqwlqxd hq s
41 vhq {1
51 frv {1
61 wdq { vl { 9@ 5 . n> n 5 ]1
71 vhq { . 5 frv {1
81 6 frv { . fvf {1
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| pxfkdv rwudv frpelqdflrqhv gh ixqflrqhv wuljrqrpìwulfdv | srolqrplfdv txh vhd rshudflrqhv dojh0
eudlfdv hqwuh ixqflrqhv eävlfdv frpr vhq +{,> frv +{, | d{1
Hvwh whruhpd qrv d|xgd d prvwudu txh odv vljxlhqwhv ixqflrqhv vrq frqwlqxdv+hq wrgr U,1
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Hmhuflflr 647 l, Vhd { ? 3/ hqwrqfhv i +{, @ {5 frv+4@{,1 Sru frpsrvlflöq | surgxfwr gh ixqflrqhv
frqwlqxd/ i hv frqwlqxd hq ` 4> 3^1
589 FKDSWHU 71 OÐPLWHV GH IXQFLRQHV
{6 {5
olp. i+{, @ olp. @ olp. { @34@3
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5 vhq {5
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41 Hq qlqjxq sxqwr gh ^d> e` kd| vdowrv/ |d txh vl orv kxelhud vdowr orv olplwhv odwhudohv vrq glvwlqwrv
jxud gh pdv dedmr
r elhq ho oðplwh gh od ixqflöq hq ho sxqwr qr frlqflgh frq ho ydoru gh od ixqflöq hq ho sxqwr yhu od
vljxhqwh jxud
7161 FRQWLQXLGDG 58:
51 Wdpsrfr od ixqflöq sxhgh lu d lqqlwr hq dojýq sxqwr gh ^d> e` / yhu jxud txh vljxh/ |d txh hq hvh
fdvr oðplwh qr h{lvwh
61 Wdpsrfr sxhgh rvflodu hq xq sxqwr {3 +yhu jxud txh vljxh, |d txh ho oðplwh qr h{lvwluld1
58; FKDSWHU 71 OÐPLWHV GH IXQFLRQHV
Dvð whqhprv +lqwxlwlydphqwh, txh od juäfd gh xqd ixqflöq frqwlqxd hq xq lqwhuydor fhuudgr | dfrwdgr
^d> e` gheh vhu gh wdo irupd txh xqr od sxhgh judfdu vlq ohydqwdu ho oäsl} hpsh}dqgr hq +d> i+d,, |
whuplqdqgr hq +e> i+e,,1
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vrodphqwh xqd fxhugd qr lqqlwd txh xqh orv sxqwrv +d> i+d,, | +e> i+e,,1
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7161 FRQWLQXLGDG 58<
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d, i +{, @ s { 5 . 5s { s
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71 Idovr= H{lwhq i +{, @ ^{` | j+{, @ { ^{` ixqflrqhv ghqlgdv hq xqd yhflqgdg gh d @ 4 wdo txh i hv
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e, Vhd i4 +{, @ {6 frv + {45 , sdud { ? 3 frpr i4 hv surgxfwr gh ixqflrqhv frqwlqxdv hq ` 4> 3^ hqwrqfhv
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59; FKDSWHU 71 OÐPLWHV GH IXQFLRQHV
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@ olp frv+d, . olp vhq+d,
x$3 x x$3 x
Fdofxodqgr sru vhsdudgr orv oðplwh whqhprv
vhq+x, frv+d, vhq+x,
olp @ frv+d, olp @ frv+d,
x$3 x x$ 3 x
|
frv+x, 4 frv+x, 4
olp vhq+d, @ vhq+d, olp
x$3 x x$3 x
+frv+x, 4,+frv+x, . 4,
@ vhq+d, olp
x$3 x+frv+x, . 4,
frv5 +x, 4
@ vhq+d, olp
x$3 x+frv+x, . 4,
vhq+x, vhq+x,
@ vhq+d, olp olp
x$3 x x$3 frv+x, . 4
@ vhq+d, 4 3 @ 3=
Oxhjr sru dojheud gh oðplwhv
vhq+x, frv+x, 4
O @ olp frv+d, . olp vhq+d,
x$3 x x$3 x
vhq+x, frv+x, . 4
@ frv+d, olp . vhq+d, olp
x$3 x x$3 x
@ frv+d,
5:3 FKDSWHU 71 OÐPLWHV GH IXQFLRQHV
e, Frpr od shqglhqwh gh od uhfwd wdqjhqwh d od juäfd gh | @ vhq+{, hq fxdotxlhu sxqwr +d> vhq+d,, hvwä
gdgd sru
vhq+{, vhq+d,
p @ olp
{$d {d
| sru +d, whqhprv txh p @ frv+d,/ uhhpsod}dqgr d @ 5 rewhqhprv txh p @ frv+ 5 , @ 3 | dvð od uhfwd
wdqjhqwh hv>
| 4 @ p+{ 5 ,
+, |4@3
+, |@4
Vroxflöq=
i+{, i+{3 ,
p @ olp
{${3 { {3
d{5 . e{ . f +d{53 . e{3 . f,
@ olp
{${3 { {3
d{5 d{53 . e{ e{3
@ olp
{${3 { {3
d+{ {53 , . e+{ {3 ,
5
@ olp
{${3 { {3
d+{ {3 ,+{ . {3 , . e+{ {3 ,
@ olp
{${3 { {3
+{ {3 ,+d+{ . {3 , . e,
@ olp
{${3 { {3
@ olp d+{ . {3 , . e
{${3
@ 5d{3 . e
Hmhuflflr 664 Xq htxlsr gh lqjhqlhurv gh fdplqrv glvhôd xq wudpr gh fduuhwhud txh gheh frqhfwdu xqd
dxwrslvwd krul}rqwdo frq rwud gh shqglhqwh p @ 4@8 1 Ho hqodfh gheh/ uhdol}duvh vreuh xqd glvwdqfld
krul}rqwdo gh ;33 slhv xvdqgr xqd fxuyd sdudeöolfd sdud xqlu orv sxqwrv D | E1 Rewhqjd xqd hfxdflöq gho
wlsr | @ d{5 . e{ . f sdud od sduäerod uhvshfwlyd | ghwhuplqh odv frrughqdgdv gh E1
Vroxflöq= Odv frrughqdgdv gh D vrq +3> 3, | orv gh E vrq +;33> |3 , grqgh |3 @ d+;33,5 .e+;33,.f/ dghpäv
frpr +3> 3, wdpelìq shuwhqhfh d od sduäerod/ gheh vdwlvidfhu od hfxdflöq gh hood/ dvð3 @ d 3 . e 3 . f/
gh grqgh f @ 31 sru hmhuflflr dqwhulru/ rewxylprv txh od shqglhqwh gh | @ d{5 . e{ . f hq +{3 > |3 , hv
p @ 5d{3 . e/ oxhjr hq {3 @ ;33 hv p @ 5d ;33 . e | hq {3 @ 3 hv p @ e1 Dghpäv sdud frqhfwdu od
dxwrslvwd gh shqglhqwh 4@8 frq od sduäerod/ gheh rfxuulu txh
e@3 +7146,
Hq frqvhfxhqfld d @ ;3334
> e @ 3> f @ 31 Sru rwud sduwh E @ +;333> |3 , shuwhqhfh d od sduäerod/ oxhjr
vdwlvidfh vx hfxdflöq/ hv ghflu
4
|3 @ +;33,5 @ ;3
;333
Sru or wdqwr odv frrughqdgdv gh E vrq +;33> ;3,1
Vroxflöq= d, Gdgr txh i hvwä ghqlgd hq xqd yhflqgdg gh { @ 3/ | 3 5 Grpi vh gheh fxpsolu txh=
{5
olp i +{, @ olp
{$3. {$3. vhq+{,
{
@ olp. {
{$3 vhq+{,
{
@ olp. { olp.
{$3 {$3 vhq+{,
@ 3 4 @ 3=
i +{, i +3, {5 {
olp @ olp. @ olp @ 4>
{$3. {3 {$3 { vhq+{, {$3. vhq+{,
5:5 FKDSWHU 71 OÐPLWHV GH IXQFLRQHV
Gdgr txh orv oðplwhv odwhudohv vrq glvwlqwrv whqhprv txh qr h{lvwh
i+{, i+3,
p @ olp >
{$3 {3
oxhjr qr h{lvwh uhfwd wdqjhqwh d od fxuyd | @ i+{, hq ho sxqwr S s
@ +3> 3,1
f, i hvwä ghqlgd hq xqd yhflqgdg s gh { @ 7 sxhv i +{, @ { sdud { | ? 7> dghpäv +7> 5,
shuwhqhfh d od fxuyd | @ i +{,/ sxhv 7 @ 51 Frpr od shqglhqwh exvfdgd hv
s
i+{, i+7, {5 {7 4
olp @ olp @ olp s @
{$7 {7 {$7 { 7 {$7 +{ 7,+ { . 7, 7
4
| 5 @ +{ 7,
7
Hq ho fdvr gho sxqwr +4> 5, whqhprv txh ìo qr shuwhqhfh d od fxuyd | @ i +{, sxhv
s s
i+{, @ 6 ; 4 @ 6 < 9@ 5
Hmhuflflr 666 Xvdqgr dojheud gh oðplwh | lghqwlgdghv wuljrqrphwulfdv fdofxodu ho oðplwh gh odv vljxlhqwhv
ixqflrqhv hq d
91 i+{, @ 5 {
4 frv
{ d@3
Hmhuflflr 667 Vhd [ U> s 5 [ 3 > i> j = [ $ U ixqflrqhv wdohv txh olp{$s i +{, @ O | olp{$s j+{, @ P
frq O ? P pxhvwuh txh h{lvwh xqd yhflqgdg gh s> Ys wdo txh
Hmhuflflr 669 Vhd i +{, j+{,> ;{ 5 [> { 9@ s a olp{$s i +{, @ O a olp{$s j+{, @ P 1 Pxhvwuh txh
OP
D|xgd= Xvdu whruhpd gho dsuhwöq d +j i ,+{,
Hmhuflflr 66: Vhd D U> i = D $ U> s 5 D | vxsrqjdprv txh h{lvwh olp{$s i+{, hqwrqfhv <Ys | N 5 U
wdo txh
mi +{,m ? N > ;{ 5 +Ys isj, _ D
+hv ghflu/ i hv dfrwdgd hq xqd yhflqgdg gh s,
Ghulydgd
814 Ghulydgd
Ghqlflöq 814 Vhd L U> i = L $ U | vhd s xq sxqwr gh dfxpxodflöq
Gluhprv txh i hv ghulydeoh hq ho sxqwr s fxdqgr ho vljxlhqwh oðplwh h{lvwh
i +{, i +s,
olp
{$s {s
Hq ho fdvr txh ho oðplwh h{lvwd/ ho ydoru gh ho vh ghqrwd sru i 3 +s,/ lqglfdqgr gh hvwd irupd txh ho ydoru
ghshqgh gho sxqwr s1 Ho ydoru i 3 +s, hv oodpdgr od ghulydgd gh i hq ho sxqwr s | vh xvdq odv vljxlhqwh
qrwdflrqhv1
gi gi gi
i 3 +s,> +s,> m{@s > ms
g{ g{ g{
Revhuydflöq=
4, i 3 +s, sxhgh vhu fdofxodgr gh rwud irupd |d txh=
d, Wrpdqgr k @ { s vh wlhqh
i+k . s, i +s,
i 3 +s, @ olp
k$3 k
txh hv rwud gh odv irupdv txh dsduhfh od ghqlflöq gh od ghulydgd hq dojxqrv oleurv1
e, Xvdqgr xqd fdudfwhul}dflöq gh oðplwh yld vxfhvlrqhv vh wlhqh/ txh i hv ghulydeoh hq s vl vöor vl sdud
fxdotxlhu vxfhvlöq +{q ,> +{q , 5 L isj frq olpq$4 {q @ s vh wlhqh txh h{lvwh ho vljxlhqwh oðplwh
i +{q , i+s,
i 3 +s, @ olp
q$4 {q s
f, Jhqhudol}dqgr or dqwhulru/ whqhprv txh wdpelìq whqhprv
i +j+|,, i+s,
i 3 +s, @ olp
|$e j+|, s
grqgh j = [ $ L/ olp|$e j+|, @ s +reyldphqwh e 5 [ 3 , | j+|, 9@ s ;|> | 9@ e
5, i hv ghulydeoh hq s vl sdud od juäfd gh i h{lvwh od uhfwd wdqjhqwh> lqyhuvdphqwh vh sxhgh ghflu= Vl od
ixqflöq hv ghulydeoh hq s vh wlhqh txh od uhfwd wdqjhqwh d od juäfd gh i hq +s> i +s,, h{lvwh1 Vl Xg1 frpsdud
odv ghqlflrqhv gh uhfwd wdqjhqwh | ghulydgd/ vh sxhgh shufdwdu txh hv or plvpr1
6, Sru surslhgdg gh oðplwh vh wlhqh txh vl h{lvwh i 3 +s,/ ìo hv ýqlfr/ sru hvwr vh sxhgh xvdu ho duwðfxor
od hq od ghulydgd/ rod uhfwd wdqjhqwh1
Gh od revhuydflöq 5 vh frqfox|h txh |d whqhprv ydulrv hmhpsorv gh ixqflrqhv ghulydeohv/ hoodv vrq odv
gh orv hmhpsorv | hmhuflflrv gh uhfwdv wdqjhqwhv/ dghpäv srghprv qrwdu iäflophqwh txh od shqglhqwh p gh
od uhfwd wdqjhqwh d i+{, hq ho sxqwr s4 vdwlvidfh
4 Fruuhfwdphqwh glfkr hq ho sxqwr Es> i Es1
5:8
5:9 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
p @ i 3 +s,
Sru or wdqwr> vl i hv ghulydeoh hq s vh wlhqh txh od hfxdflöq gh od uhfwd wdqjhqwh d od juäfd gh i hq ho
sxqwr s hv
| i +s,
@ i 3 +s,
{s
| @ +i 3 +s,,{ . i+s, i 3 +s,s
Xvdqgr wuljrqrphwuðd vh wlhqh txh ho äqjxor txh irupd od uhfwd wdqjhqwh d od juäfd gh i hq s +hv ghflu/
hq +s> i+s,,,frq ho hmh gh odv { hvwd gdgr sru=
@ dufwdq+i 3 +s,,
Vl uhshwlprv orv sdvrv dqwhulruhv xq sxqwr mr s +shur duelwudulr, gh U. rewhqguhprv txh
4 4
k3 +s, @ olp s s @ s
x$s x . s 5 s
Xwlol}dqgr od juäfd gh k> yhu jxud txh vljxh/ qrwhprv txh od shqglhqwh gh O5 hv pd|ru txh od shqglhqwh
gh O4 | d phglgd txh wrphprv s päv fhufd gho ruljhq rewhqguhprv shqglhqwhv/ fdgd yh} pd|ruhv/ khfkr
txh srghprv frpsuredu wdpelìq hq od ghulydgd gh k txh k3 +s, hv xqd ixqflöq ghfuhflhqwh hq s +s 5 U. ,/
k3 +s, hv od ixqflöq txh do vhu hydoxdgd hq s qrv gä od shqglhqwh gh odv uhfwdv wdqjhqwhv d od juäfd gh od
udð} fxdgudgd1
Ho hmhpsor dqwhulru qrv lqgxfh d ghqlu od ixqflöq ghulydgd% sru dexvr gh ohqjxdmh vh dfrvwxpeud
oodpdu vlpsohphqwh od ghulydgd1
Ghqlflöq 815 5
Vhd i = L $ U xqd ixqflöq ghulydeoh hq wrgr sxqwr gh M1 Vh ghqh od ixqflöq ghulydgd
gh i frpr
i3 = M $ U
s :$ i 3 +s,
Gh od ghqlflöq whqhprv txh M L1
Qrwh txh hq ho ýowlpr fdvr k+3, h{lvwh/ shur k3 +3, qr h{lvwh/ hv ghflu/ M L1
vhq+k . s, vhq+s,
i 3 +s, @ olp @ frv+s,
k$3 k
5 Xq s r fr pdv dghodqwh hq yh} gh ghflu od ixqflöq ghulydgd gh i/ gluhprv vhqfloodphqwh od ghulydgd gh i1
5:; FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
Hmhpsor 676 Vhd i +{, @ m{ 7m1 Fdofxohprv vx ghulydgd hq wrgr sxqwr txh h{lvwd1
i 3 = U i7j $ U
4 {A7
{ :$ i 3 +{, @
4 { ? 7
Qrwdu txh i hv frqwlqxd hq { @ 71
Revhuydflöq= Gh or dqwhulru/ srghprv dupdu txh vl i hv frqwlqxd hq xq sxqwr s/ qr qhfhvduldphqwh
i hv ghulydeoh hq d1 Vlq hpedujr ho vljxlhqwh whruhpd qrv dupd txh vl i hv ghulydeoh hq xq sxqwr s/
hqwrqfhv i hv frqwlqxd hq s1
Revhuyh txh ho whruhpd dqwhulru hv gh od irupd s , t/ od ixqflöq i +{, @ m{ 7m txh ylprv hq ho hmhpsor
676 txh qr hv ghulydeoh hq { @ 7/ vlq hpedujr hood hv frqwlqxd hq { @ 7/ qrv vluyh gh frqwudhmhpsor sdud
od dupdflöq txh= frqwlqxlgdg hq xq sxqwr lpsolfd ghulydelolgdg hq ho sxqwr1
Qrwdflrqhv=
Od ghulydgd gh i hq d hv ho oðplwh
i +d . k, i+d,
i 3 +d, @ olp
k$3 k
ho oðplwh odwhudo l}txlhugr gh i 3 +d,/ hv ghflu/ olpk$3 i + d.k,
k
i +d, hv oodpdgd ghulydgd odwhudo l}txlhugd hq d
| vh ghqrwd sru i 3 +d,1 Wdpelìq vh ghqh od ghulydgd odwhudo ghuhfkd hq d txh fruuhvsrqgh do oðplwh odwhudo
ghuhfkr | vh ghqrwd sru i. 3 +d,1
Hmhuflflr 677 Fdofxodu od ghulydgd gh i+{,/ grqgh
;
A
A +{ 5,6 {A5
? 5
{ 7{ . 7 4 ? { 5
i+{, @
A
A < { @ 4
=
vhq+{ . 4, { ? 4
Fodudphqwh orv sxqwrv frq lfwlyrv vrq { @ 5 | { @ 4 |d txh hq yhflqgdghv gh hoodv/ i wlhqh glvwlqwr
frpsruwdplhqwr | hvwh khfkr wudmr glfxowdghv hq ho hmhpsor dqwhulru1
d, Yhdprv hq sulphu oxjdu vl i hv ghulydeoh hq s @ 5/ sdud hoor qhfhvlwdprv fdofxodu ho vljxlhqwh oðplwh
+vl hv txh h{lvwh,=
i +{, i +5,
olp @ i 3 +5,
{$5 {5
Hvwh oðplwh ghehprv fdofxoduor phgldqwh orv oðplwhv odwhudohv
i +{, i +d,
i 3 +d, @ olp
{$d {d
+{ 5,6 +d 5,6
@ olp
{$d {d
^+{ 5, +d 5,`^+{ 5,5 . +{ 5,+d 5, . +d 5,5
@ olp
{$d {d
@ olp +{ 5,5 . +{ 5,+d 5, . +d 5,5 @ 6+d 5,5
{$d
6 Sdud
q
suredu hvwr edvwd wrpdu od vxfhvlöq { ' 3 n 2q
q
{ < 3 q
> i E{ glyhujh1 Qrwdu txh ho oðplwh hv gh od irupd
f
f
frq f ' f
1
5;3 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
vhq+{ . 4, vhq+d . 4,
i 3 +d, @ olp
{$d {d
vhq+x . d . 4, vhq+d . 4,
@ olp
x$3 x
vhq+x, frv+d . 4, . vhq+d . 4, frv+x, vhq+d . 4,
@ olp
x$3 x
vhq+x, frv+x, 4
@ olp +frv+d . 4, . vhq+d . 4, ,
x$3 x x
vhq+x, frv+x, 4
@ +frv+d . 4,, olp . vhq+d . 4, olp ,
x$3 x x$3 x
@ frv+d . 4,
Gh hvwd irupd/ od ixqflöq ghulydgd +txh frqvhjxlprv sru sduwh | dqdol}dprv hq orv sxqwrv frq lfwlyrv,
hv
;
A
A 6+{ 5,5 {A5
?
3 {@5
i 3 +{, @
A
A 5{ 7 4 ? {?5
=
frv+{ . 4, { ? 4
Dkrud fdofxohprv dojxqdv ghulydgdv gh ixqflrqhv eävlfdv/ hq ho vhqwlgr txh srvwhulruphqwh qrv d|xgduäq
d rewhqhu od ghulydgd gh rwudv ixqflrqhv1
Hmhpsor 678 Phgldqwh ho fäofxor gh odv ixqflrqhv ghulydgdv1 Mxvwltxh ho vljxlhqwh olvwdgr1
41 Vl i+{, @ n frqvwdqwh hqwrqfhv i 3 +{, @ 3
51 Vl i+{, @ { hqwrqfhv i 3 +{, @ 4
61 Vl i+{, @ vhq+{, hqwrqfhv i 3 +{, @ frv+{,
71 Vl i+{, @ frv+{, hqwrqfhv i 3 +{, @ vhq+{,
s
81 Vl i+{, @ { hqwrqfhv i 3 +{, @ 5s4 { / vl { A 3
51
i +{, i +d,
i 3 +d, @ olp
{$d {d
{d
@ olp
{$d { d
@ olp 4 @ 4
{$d
Sru or wdqwr od ixqflöq lghqwlgdg i +{, @ { wlhqh frpr ixqflöq ghulydgd i 3 +{, @ 41
71
i+d . k, i+d,
i 3 +d, @ olp
k$3 k
frv+d . k, frv+d,
@ olp
k$3 k
frv+d, frv+k, vhq+d, vhq+k, frv+d,
@ olp
k$3 k
frv+d,+frv+k, 4, vhq+d, vhq+k,
@ olp
k$3 k k
@ +frv+d,,3 +vhq+d,,4 @ vhq+d,
Gh hvwd irupd g{
g frv+{, @ vhq+{,
91
i +d . k, i +d,
i 3 +d, @ olp
k$3 k
+d . k,q dq
@ olp
k$3 k
S q
dq . qn@4 dqn kn dq
n
@ olp
k$3 k
Sq q
kqd q . n@5 dqn kn
n
4
@ olp
k$3 k
[q
q
@ olp qd q 4
. dqn kn4
k$3 n
n@5
@ qdq4 . 3
g {q @ q{q4 vl q 5 Q
Dvð/ g{
Hvwd iöupxod wdpelìq hv yäolgd sdud srwhqfldv glvwlqwdv gh xq qýphur qdwxudo shur od ghprvwudflöq
khfkd hv vöor yäolgd sdud q 5 Q
5;5 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
:1
i+d . k, i+d,
i 3 +d, @ olp
k$3 k
hd.k hd
@ olp
k$3 k
hk 4
@ h olp
d
k$3 k
@ hd 4 @ hd
Gh hvwd irupd gh
g{ m{@d @ h
{ d
Ghprvwudflöq=
gi i+d . k, i+d,
m{@d @ olp
g{ k$3 k
i +d . k, i+d,
@ olp + ,
k$3 k
i +d . k, i +d,
@ olp
k$3 k
Frpr i hv ghulydeoh/ ho ýowlpr oðplwh hv vlpsohphqwh od ghulydgd gh i hq ho sxqwr d1 Dvð/
gi gi
m{@d @ m{@d
g{ g{
txh hv or plvpr txh
+i ,3 +d, @ ++i ,3 +d,,
Hmhpsor 679 Xvdqgr hvwh whruhpd | orv uhvxowdgrv dqwhulruhv whqhprv txh
51 g{
g +:{7 , @ : g +{7 , @ :+7{6 , @ 5;{6
g{
61 g{
g + frv+{,, @ g +frv+{,, @ + vhq+{,, @ vhq+{,
g{
71 g{
g +<h{ ,m
{@oq+6, @ < g{ +h ,m{@oq+6, @ <h
g { oq+6,
@ < 6 @ 5:
g +;s{,m
81 g{ g s
{@< @ ; g{ + {,m{@< @ ; 5s< @ 6
4 7
g gi gj
+i . j,+d, @ +d, . +d,
g{ g{ g{
Ho whruhpd glfh txh od ghulydgd gh od vxpd hv od vxpd gh odv ghulydgdv1
8141 GHULYDGD 5;6
Ghprvwudflöq=
g +i . j,+d . k, +i . j,+d,
+i . j,+d, @ olp
g{ k$3 k
i +d . k, . j+d . k, i+d, j+d,
@ olp
k$3 k
Vhsdudqgr orv vxpdqgrv | djuxsäqgrorv sdud irupdu ho oðplwh txh ghqh od ghulydgd +gh fdgd ixqflöq, vh
wlhqh
i+d . k, . j+d . k, i +d, j+d,
+i . j,3 +d, @ olp
k$3 k
i+d . k, i +d, j+d . k, j+d,
@ olp . olp
k$3 k k$3 k
@ i 3 +d, . j 3 +d,
txh hv vlpsohphqwh ho uhvxowdgr shglgr/ vöor txh hvwä hvfulwr hq rwud qrwdflöq1
Hmhpsor 67: Xvdqgr hvwh whruhpd whqhprv txh vrq ghulydeohv odv ixqflrqhv>
s
41 i +{, @ { . vhq+{,
Whruhpd 819 Vl i | j vrq ghulydeohv hq d/ wdpelìq or vrq i j | i @j/ +sdud hvwd ýowlpd j+d, qr qxor,
gi j gi gj
+d, @ +d, j+d, . i +d, +d,
g{ g{ g{
| ho fxrflhqwh
g+i @j, gi gj 4
md @ + md j+d, i+d, md ,
g{ g{ g{ j5 +d,
5;7 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
+i j,+d . k, +i j,+d,
+i j,3 +d, @ olp
k$3 k
i +d . k,j+d . k, i +d,j+d . k, . i +d,j+d . k, i+d,j+d,
@ olp
k$3 k
+i +d . k, i +d,, j+d . k, j+d,
@ olp j+d . k, . i +d,
k$3 k k
Frpr j hv frqwlqxd hq d rewhqhprv or exvfdgr
Sdud od rwud sduwh ghmduhprv do ohfwru exvfdu hq fxdotxlhu oleur gh fäofxor eävlfr1
Revhuydflöq= Qrwhprv txh ho whruhpd qr glfh txh od ghulydgd gho surgxfwr hv ho surgxfwr gh odv
ghulydgdv vlqr txh hv dojr edvwdqwh glvwlqwr/ hvwr wdpelìq rfxuuh frq od ghulydgd gho fxrflhqwh1
Vroxflöq=
41
51
3
vhq+{, +vhq+{,,3 frv+{, vhq+{,+frv+{,,3
i 3 +{, @ @
frv+{, +frv+{,,5
frv+{, frv+{, vhq+{,+ vhq+{,,
@
+frv+{,,5
frv+{, frv+{, . vhq+{, vhq+{,
@
+frv+{,,5
4
@ @ vhf5 +{,
frv5 +{,
61
3
frv+{, +frv+{,,3 vhq+{, frv+{,+vhq+{,,3
i 3 +{, @ @
vhq+{, +vhq+{,,5
vhq+{, vhq+{, frv+{, frv+{,
@
+vhq+{,,5
vhq+{, vhq+{, . frv+{, frv+{,
@
+vhq+{,,5
4
@ 5 @ fvf5 +{,
vhq +{,
:1
s s s s
+8{: 6 {,3 +< { 7{8 , +8{: 6 {,+< { 7{8 ,3
i 3 +{, @ s
+< { 7{8 ,5
s s
+68{9 5s6 { ,+< { 7{8 , +8{: 6 {,+ 5s< { 53{7 ,3
@ s
+< { 7{8 ,5
Hq uhvxphq vh wlhqh
5;9 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
Dojheud gh ghulydgdv1
Vl i | j vrq ixqflrqhv ghulydeohv hq d hqwrqfhv i / i . j/ i j vrq ghulydeohv hq d | vl j+d, 9@ 3 hqwrqfhv
i @j hv ghulydeoh hq d1 Dghpäv
Frurodulr 81: Vhd j ixqflöq ghulydeoh hq d/ j+d, 9@ 3 hqwrqfhv od ixqflöq 4@j hv ghulydeoh hq d |
g g +j,+d, 4 j 3 +d,
+4@j,+d, @ g{ r + ,3 +d, @ 5
g{ +j+d,,5 j j +d,
Hmhpsor 67< Frq hvwh frurodulr fdofxohprv od ghulydgd gh i +{, @ {4q > q 5 Q
gi q{q4 q
+{, @ q 5 @ q.4 =
g{ +{ , {
Vroxflöq=
vhq+vhq +{,, vhq+vhq +d,,
i 3 +d, @ olp
{$d {d
vhq+vhq +{,, vhq+vhq +d,, vhq +{, vhq +d,
@ olp
{$d vhq +{, vhq +d, {d
vhq +x, vhq +e, vhq +{, vhq +d,
@ olp olp frq x @ vhq { | e @ vhq +d,
x$vhq d xe {$d {d
@ frv +e, frv +d, frq e @ vhq d
@ frv+vhq +d,, vhq +d,
Revhuydflöq= Yhuhprv d frqwlqxdflöq xq uhvxowdgr od uhjod gh od fdghqd txh qrv shuplwluä fdofxodu
hvwd | rwudv ghulydgdv +gh xqd ixqflrq frpsxhvwd, gh xqd pdqhud päv vlpsoh1
8141 GHULYDGD 5;:
Fdofxoh +j i ,3 +4,1
Oxhjr
+j i ,3 +4, @ j 3 +i +4,, i 3 +4, +814,
shur i 3 +4, @ 46 h4 @ h | j3 +{, @ s5+{.4,5 1
5
5 +{.4, .6
gh grqgh j 3 +i+4,, @ j 3 +3, @ 5s
5
@ 4
1
Sru or wdqwr/ uhhpsod}dqgr hq 814
7 5
4 h
+j i ,3 +4, @ h@
5 5
Hmhpsor 687 Vhd j+{, @ vhq+vhq {, grqgh j @ i i frq i +{, @ vhq { hqwrqfhv j3 +{, @ i 3 +i+{,,i 3 +{, @
frv+vhq {, frv {1
s
Hmhpsor 688 Vhd i +{, @ 6{7 . frv+{, . <> { 5 U
41 hvhq{
s
51 h {.frv {
Vroxflöq=
Ghprvwudu txh
i +{,3
++i +{,,j+{, ,3 @ +i+{,,j+{, +j3 +{, oq+i +{,, . j+{, , ;{ 5 G
i+{,
Vroxflöq= Vdehprv sru surslhgdg gho orjdulwpr txh
i 3 +{,
+j+{, oq i+{,,3 @ j3 +{, oq+i +{,, . j+{,
i +{,
Dvð uhhpsod}dqgr hq 816
i +{,3
++i +{,,j+{, ,3 @ +i+{,,j+{, +j 3 +{, oq+i +{,, . j+{, , ;{ 5 G
i+{,
Revhuydflöq= Gh or dqwhulru vh rewlhqh=
+ui +{, ,3 @ ui +{, i 3 +{, oq u vl u hv xqd frqvwdqwh srvlwlyd
+i+{,u ,3 @ ui +{,u4 i 3 +{, vl i +{, A 31
5<3 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
51 j+{, @ 5{ {
5
.frv
Vroxflöq=
s
41 i+{, @ h { oq+{ .5, oxhjr dsolfdqgr ho hmhuflflr dqwhulru
5
s s
i 3 +{, @ h { oq+{ .5, + { oq+{5 . 5,,3
5
s 4 s 5{
@ +{5 . 5, { + s oq+{5 . 5, . { 5 ,
5 { { .5
Frphqwdulrv
41 Yhdprv jhrpìwulfdphqwh sru txì ghehprv xvdu od uhjod gh od fdghqd/ sdud hvr xvduhprv odv ixqflrqhv
i+{, @ vhq { | j+{, @ vhq+7{,1
gj @ frv 7{/ dvð hq @5/ gj m
Vl qr xvdprv od uhjod frphwhprv ho wðslfr huuru gh dupdu txh g{ g{ @5 @
frv 5 @ 41
Dqdol}dqgr orv juäfrv gh i | j hq od jxud txh vljxh/ srghprv qrwdu txh O/ uhfwd wdqjhqwh d od
juäfd gh j qr wlhqh od plvpd shqglhqwh txh P / uhfwd wdqjhqwh d i sxhvwr txh odv rqgxodflrqhv gh
j+{, +iuhfxhqfld gh rqgd, vrq päv uäslgd txh odv gh i/ reoljdqgr hvwr d whqhu pd|ru shqglhqwh O txh
P1
gj @ 7 frv 7{/ yhdprv yld od ghqlflöq frpr vh rewlhqh hvwh uhvxowdgr1
51 Sru uhjod gh od fdghqd g{
gj j+d . k, j+d,
md @ olp
g{ k$3 k
vhq+7+d . k,, vhq +7d,
@ olp
k$3 k
vhq+7d . 7k, vhq +7d,
@ olp
k$3 k
Iljxuh 814=
Hq ho fdvr txh xqd ixqflöq wlhqh päv gh xqd yduldeoh +sru hmhpsor i+{> |> }, @ |5 vhq { . } 6 , vh
C| d fdpelr gh g| /
dfrvwxpeud d lqglfdu od ghulydflöq frq uhvshfwr d od yduldeoh | sru hmhpsor/ frpr Ci gi
C} lqglfd od ghulydgd gh i frq uhvshfwr d od yduldeoh } vrodphqwh/ txhgdqgr odv rwudv yduldeohv
dvð/ Ci
frpr frqvwdqwh +hv ghflu/ vh frpsruwhq frpr qýphur sdud ho prphqwr gh ghulydu1
5<5 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
Ci
@ | 5 frv { . 3
C{
Ci
@ 5| vhq { . 3
C|
Ci
@ 3 . 6} 5
C}
CY CY
@ 5uo @ u5
Cu Co
Hmhpsor 699 Vhd j+{> |> }, @ 6{5 . :{6 vhq | hqwrqfhv whqhprv txh
Cj
@ 9{ . 54{5 vhq |
C{
Cj
@ 3 . :{6 frv |
C|
Cj
@ 3
C}
Wrphprv dkrud od ixqflöq i @ 8{5 .vhq {1 Fodudphqwh whqhprv/ sru or dqwhulru/ txh Ci
C{ @ 43{.frv {
| txh C| @ 3 |d txh hq hvwh ýowlpr fdvr ghehprv shqvdu txh od yduldeoh hv |/ shur i vh frpsruwd
Ci
frpr frqvwdqwh uhvshfwr d hvwd yduldeoh dvð txh vx ghulydgd hv fhur
41 g{
g +{7 | 6 , @ {7 6| g| . 7{6 |6
g{
51 g{
g +{ vhq |, @ vhq | . { frv | g|
g{
61 g{ +wj {|, @ +vhf +{|,,+| . { g{
g 5 g| ,
71 g{
g +5{| 6 . { vhq+{|,, @ 5| 6 . 9{| 5 g| . vhq +{|, . { frv+{|,+| . { g| ,
g{ g{
8141 GHULYDGD 5<6
g +s|, @
81 g{ g|
s4 | g{
5
g +s|, @
91 g| s4 |
5
:1 g{
g +vhq | . |6 , @ frv | g| . 6| 5 g|
g{ g{
;1 g{ +vhq | . | , @ frv | . 6|
g 6 5
<1 g}
g +vhq | . | 6 , @ 31
sru or wdqwr i.
3 +3, @ 3
Sru rwud sduwh
Ghwhuplqhprv od ghulydgd gh i 1
Vroxflöq=
d, Hv fodur txh sdud { ? 3 od ixqflöq i +{, @ {6 frv+4@{5 , hv ghulydeoh sru dojheud | frpsrvlflöq gh
ixqflrqhv ghulydeohv/ oxhjr xvdqgr odv uhjodv gh ghulydflöq whqhprv
4 4 5
i 3 +{, @ 6{5 frv+ , . {6 + vhq+ 5 ,,+ 6 ,
{5 { {
s
e, Dqäorjdphqwh sdud { A 3> i+{, @ {5 . 5{6 hv ghulydeoh sru frpsrvlflöq gh ixqflöqhv ghulydeohv/
oxhjr
4
i 3 +{, @ s +5{ . 9{5 ,
5 { . 5{6
5
f, Sdud { @ 3/ ghehprv dqdol}du i 3 +3, phgldqwh od ghqlflöq/ |d txh i wlhqh glvwlqwr frpsruwdplhqwr
hq wruqr do fhur/ hv ghflu/ ghehprv fdofxodu
i +{, i +3,
i 3 +3, @ olp
{$3 {3
s
i+{, i +3, {5 . 5{6
i 3 +3, @ olp @ olp. @4
.
{$3. {3 {$3 {
| ho rwur oðplwh odwhudo
i 3 +{, @
= s{{.6 {5
5 .5{6 {A3
Hmhpsor 6:4 BcHq txì sxqwrv gho lqwhuydor ^4> 5^ od ixqflöq i +{, @ ^{` . m{ 4m hv ghulydeohB
Vroxflöq= Vhsdudqgr ho grplqlr gh i dsursldgdphqwh rewhqhprv od vljxlhqwh ixqflöq ghqlgd sru sduwhv1
;
A
A { 4 { ? 3
A
A
?
i +{, @ 4{ 3{?4
A
A
A
A
=
{ 4{?5
Fdofxohprv dkrud vx ghulydgd
d, Vl 4 ? { ? 3/ i hv ghulydeoh | i 3 +{, @ 4/ dqäorjdphqwh sdud 3 ? { ? 4 | 4 ? { ? 5 vh vdeh txh i
hv ghulydeoh | i 3 +{, @ 4 sdud 3 ? { ? 4 |
i 3 +{, @ 4 sdud 4 ? { ? 51
3 +4, +vl h{lvwh, txh sru ghqlflöq hv od ghulydgd gh i hq
e, Hq { @ 4/ vöor wlhqh vhqwlgr ghwhuplqdu i.
41
3 +4, @ {5 . e +6 . d,
i. olp
{4
{$4.
{ . 5 . d +6 . d,
5
@ olp
{$4. {4
{5 4
@ olp
{$4. { 4
@ olp. { . 4 @ 5
{$4
3 +4, @ i3 +4, +, d @ 5/ oxhjr e @ d . 5 @ 71
Dvð i.
Revhuydflöq= Vl olp{$4. {5 . e +6 . d, @ f frq f 9@ 3 hqwrqfhv olp{$4 { .e{+6. d, / hv gh od irupd f
5
Rwud irupd gh uhvroyhu ho sureohpd/ hv ghwhuplqdu frqglflrqhv sdud txh i vhd frqwlqxd +Vl qr or ixhud
i qr vhuðd ghulydeoh,/ gh grqgh
Rewhqhprv>
olp i +{, @ olp i +{, @ i+4,
{$4. {$4
or txh htxlydoh d ghwhuplqdu od frqglflöq
e@5.d
| oxhjr fdofxodu i +4, | i. +4, xvdqgr od frqglflöq e @ 5 . d1
3 3
Hmhuflflr 6:6 Vhd
{8 . {5 . 9 {?3
i+{, @
D+frv+6{, . 6 vhq {, . E+{ . 4, { 3
Ghwhuplqdu D | E hq U sdud txh i vhd ghulydeoh hq { @ 31
Vroxflöq= Sulphur ghwhuplqhprv frqglflrqhv sdud txh i vhd frqwlqxd hq { @ 3
olp i+{, @ olp i+{, @ olp i+{, @ i +3,
{$3. {$3 {$3
olp i+{, @ olp D+frv+6{, . 6 vhq {, . E+{ . 4,
{$3. {$3.
@ D . E @ i+3,
olp i+{, @ olp {8 . {5 . 9 @ 9
{$3 {$3
Sru or wdqwr D . E @ 9
Fdofxohprv i 3 +3, sru ghqlflöq
i +{, i +3, {8 . {5 . 9 +D . E,
i 3 +3, @ olp @ olp
{$3 { {$3 {
{8 . {5 . 9 9
@ olp sxhv D . E @ 9
{$3 {
{8 . {5
@ olp
{$3 {
@ olp {+{6 . 4, @ 3
{$3
8141 GHULYDGD 5<:
@ 6D +4, 3 @ 3
l, Ghwhuplqdu i 3 +{,1
Vroxflöq=
e, Vhd 4 ? { ? 4 hqwrqfhv i+{, @ 8{7 7{5 1 Sru dojheud gh ixqflrqhv ghulydeohv/ whqhprv i 3 +{, @
53{6 ;{1
f, Vhd { A 4 hqwrqfhv i+{, @ 7{5 frv+{ 4, . 6{ 91 Sru dojheud gh ixqflrqhv ghulydeohv whqhprv
Sru or wdqwr i.
3 +4, @ ; . 6 @ 44
Xqd khuudplhqwd ýwlo | vlpsoh sdud ghwhuplqdu vl xqd ixqflöq hv ghulydeoh hq dojýq sxqwr hv od vljxlhqwh
sursrvlflöq txh vh sxhgh ghprvwudu hq edvh do whruhpd gh O*Krslwdo txh yhuhprv päv dghodqwh1
d, Vl orv oðplwhv olp{$d. i 3 +{,/ olp{$d i 3 +{, h{lvwhq | vrq ljxdohv d O 5 U hqwrqfhv i hv ghulydeoh hq
d | i 3 +d, @ O1
e, Vl orv oðplwhv olp{$d. i 3 +{, / olp{$d i 3 +{, h{lvwhq +vrq qýphurv uhdohv, | vrq glihuhqwhv hqwrqfhv
i qr hv ghulydeoh hq d1
shur olp{$4. i 3 +{, 9@ olp{$4 i 3 +{, oxhjr vhjýq od sursrvlflöq dqwhulru i qr hv ghulydeoh hq { @ 41
Vlq hpedujr> i hv ghulydeoh hq { @ 4 sxhv
i hv frqwlqxd hq { @ 3 vl D . E @ 91 Dghpäv
3 8{7 . 5{ {?3
i +{, @
D+6 vhq+6{, . 6 frv {, . E {A3
g+i ,4 4
me @ gi
g{ g{ md
Hv ghflu/ od ghulydgd gh od ixqflöq lqyhuvd i 4 hq e vh fdofxod xvdqgr ho lqyhuvr pxowlsolfdwlyr gh od
ghulydgd gh i hq d +uhfrughprv txh i 3 +d, hv qýphur uhdo qr qxor,1
Ghprvwudflöq= Vh vdeh txh i i 4 +{, @ { | txh od ghulydgd gh { hq wrgr sxqwr hv 4/ xvdqgr od uhjod
gh od fdghqd
+i i 4 ,3 +e, @ 4
i 3 +i 4 +e,, +i 4 ,3 +e, @ 4
Frpr i+d, @ e
i 3 +d, +i 4 ,3 +e, @ 4
|d txh i 3 +d, hv qr fhur srghprv rewhqhu od ljxdogdg | hq
4
+i 4 ,3 +e, @
i 3 +d,
r fdpeldqgr gh qrwdflöq
gi 4 4
me @ 3
g{ i +d,
dufwdq+wdq+{,, @ { | { @ wdq+dufwj+{,,
Gh hvwd irupd
635 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
g dufwdq 4 4
+{,m{@e @ @ 5
g{ wdq5 +d, . 4 e .4
Frpr e hud vöor xq uhsuhvhqwdqwh/ whqhprv
4
dufwdq3 +{, @
{5 . 4
Dqäorjdphqwh vh sxhgh suredu txh
4
duffrwj3 +{, @
{ .4
5
vöor txh dtxð gheh xwlol}du rwud lghqwlgdg wuljrqrpìwulfd1 + fvf5 { @ fwj 5 { . 4,
Revhuydflöq= Dkrud txh khprv orjudgr xqd wìfqlfd sdud hqfrqwudu ghulydgd gh ixqflrqhv lqyhuvdv
fuhhprv txh hv exhqr kdfhu qrwdu or txh hv ho uhvxowdgr gho whruhpd gh od ixqflöq lqyhuvd1
Whruhpd 8144 +Ixqflöq lqyhuvd, Vhd i = L $ U/ xqd ixqflöq/ L xq yhflqgdg gh d wdo txh i vhd ghulydeoh
hq d frq ghulydgd qr qxod +i 3 +d, 9@ 3,1
Hqwrqfhv h{lvwh K yhflqgdg gh d+K L, | M yhflqgdg gh i +d, wdo txh i = K $ M hv lqyhuwleoh frq
lqyhuvd glihuhqfldeoh i 4 = M $ K yhulfd od vljxlhqwh ljxdogdg
gi 4 4
me @ 3 4
g{ i +i +e,
hv ghflu
gi 4 4
me @ +i 4 ,3 +e, @ 3 > grqgh d @ i 4 +e,
g{ i +d,
Revhuydflöq= Vxsrqjdprv txh i | j vrq ixqflrqhv ghulydeohv | txh +i j, @ Lg hqwrqfhv qhfhvduldphqwh
vxv ghulydgdv vrq qr qxodv1
Sru uhjod gh od fdghqd vh wlhqh
i 3 +j+{,,j 3 +{, @ 4
| frpr vh wudwd gh od pxowlsolfdflöq gh grv qýphurv uhdohv/ dperv ghehq vhu qr qxorv/ pdv dýq/ xqr gheh
vhu ho lqyhuvr pxowlsolfdwlyr gho rwur1
Uhfrughprv txh vhqr hv xqd ixqflöq gh U hq U txh qr hv lq|hfwlyd | wdpsrfr hv vreuh|hfwlyd/ frpr
vroxflöq d hvwr ýowlpr srguðdprv frqvlghuduod frpr vhq = U $ ^4> 4`/ shur ho sureohpd gh od lq|hfwlylgdg
dýq shupdqhfh1 Hq ghqlwlyd qr vh sxhgh shqvdu txh vhq whqjd lqyhuvd gh ^4> 4` hq U/ shur gg{ vhq
+{,m{@ @
4 txh hv glvwlqwr gh 3/ oxhjr ho whruhpd gh od ixqflöq lqyhuvd qrv jdudqwl}d od h{lvwhqfld gh xqd lqyhuvd1
BcFxäo hv od frqwudglfflöq hqwuh hvwdv ýowlpdv grv iudvhvB
Qlqjxqd/ sxhvwr txh ho whruhpd gh od ixqflöq lqyhuvd qr kdeod gh xqd ixqflöq lqyhuvd gh vhq frq grplqlr
hq ^4> 4` | uhfruulgr U/ vlqr txh qrv jdudqwl}d od h{lvwhqfld gh xqd lqyhuvd orfdo1 Hvwr vljqlfd txh h{lvwh
M yhflqgdg gh i +d, | K yhflqgdg gh d wdo txh i = K $ M wlhqh lqyhuvd1 Hq ho fdvr gh i+{, @ vhq { h{lvw M
yhflqgdg gh fhur grqgh i+, @ 3 | K yhflqgdg gh wdo txh vhq = K $ M wlhqh lqyhuvd1
Frq ho whruhpd gh od ixqflrq lqyhuvd srghprv orjudu yduldu lqyhuvdv orfdohv |d txh edvwd wrpdu sxqwrv
{3 txh vdwlvidjdq od klsrwhvlv
g vhq {
m{3 9@ 3
g{
Hq orv sxqwrv grqgh vh dqxod od ghulydgd gh vhqr +sru hmhpsor hq @5, hv lpsrvleoh hqfrqwudu xqd
lqyhuvd orfdo gh hood/ |d txh sdud wrgr lqwhuydor delhuwr txh frqwhqjd ho sxqwr/ vhqr vlhpsuh vhuä qr
lq|hfwlyd1
\d txh khprv kdeodgr gh od ixqflöq i +{, @ vhq {/ fdofxohprv od ghulydgd gh
i 4 +{, @ dufvhq {/ sdud { dsursldgr hq ho hmhuflflr txh vljxh
Vroxflöq= Vhd i +{, @ vhq+{, grqgh vhq =` @5> @5^$` 4> 4^ hqwrqfhv frvd A 3 vl d 5` @5> @5^ |
+i 4 ,3 +e, @ frv4 d
s
Vhd } @ frv d hqwrqfhv } 5 @ frv5 d @ 4 vhq5 d1 oxhjr } @ 4 vhq5 d sxhv } A 3 shur d dufvhq e oxhjr
s s
} @ 4 vhq+dufvhq+e,, } @ 4 e5
Sru or wdqwr
4
dufvhq3 { @ s
4 {5
Hq fdpelr vl frqvlghudprv vhq =`@5> 6@5^$` 4> 4^ hqwrqfhv frv d ? 3 vl d 5`@5> 6@5^ | +i 4 ,3 @ 4
d
shur
frv
s s
frv d @ 4 vhq5 d @ 4 vhq+dufvhq e,,
sru or wdqwr vl frqvlghudprv i 4 sru dufvhq {/ vh whqguä
4
+dufvhq,3 +{, @ s
4 {5
frqvlghudqgr vhq =`@5> 6@5^$` 4> 4^=
Revhuydflöq= Vh dfrvwxpeud d uhvhuydu dufvhq d od lqyhuvd gh od ixqflöq vhqr ghqd hq vx udpd sulqflsdo/
hv ghflu
vhq =` @5> @5^$` 4> 4^
|
4
+dufvhq,3 +{, @ s
4 {5
Dqäorjdphqwh vh fdofxod odv ghulydgd gh odv lqyhuvdv gh frvhqr/ frwdqjhqwh/ vhfdqwh | frvhfdqwh/ ghqlgd
hq vx udpd sulqflsdo rewhqlhqgr=
4 4
+dufvhq,3 +{, @ s +duffrv,3 +{, @ s
4 {5 4 {5
4 4
+dufwj,3 +{, @ +duffrwj,3 +{, @
4 . {5 4 . {5
4 4
+dufvhf,3 +{, @ s +duffrvhf,3 +{, @ s
{ {5 4 { {5 4
gi +{,
@ 45{6 . 43 vhq { frv { @ j+{,
g{
Srghprv qrwdu txh j wdpelìq hv ghulydeoh | wlhqh frpr ghulydgd d
gj +{, @ 69{5 . 43 frv5 { 43 vhq5 { @ k+{,/ qxhydphqwh srghprv fdofxodu od ghulydgd gh hvwd | rewhqhu
g{
gk +{,=
g{
gi od ixqflöq k hv od ghulydgd gh vhjxqgr rughq
Vh glfh txh j hv od ghulydgd gh sulphu rughq | vh dqrwd g{
gh i | vh dqrwd g{
gi / gk fruuhvsrqgh d od ghulydgd gh whufhu rughq gh i | vh dqrwd gi 6 1
5
5 g{ g{6
Ghqlflöq 8145 Vhd i xqd ixqflöq ghulydeoh hq `d> e^ | vhd g{gi vx ghulydgd/ vh ghqh od ghulydgd gh
vhjxqgr rughq gh i hq f 5`d> e^ frpr
gi +f . k, gi +f,
olp g{ g{
k$3 k
637 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
Vh glfh txh i wlhqh ghulydgd gh rughq 5 hq `d> e^ vl i wlhqh ghulydgd gh vhjxqgr rughq hq fdgd sxqwr gh
`d> e^1
H{lvwlhqgr od ghulydgd gh vhjxqgr rughq gh i hq `d> e^ vh sxhgh ghqlu hq irupd dqdorjd od ghulydgd gh
whufhu rughq hq f 5`d> e^ frpr ho vljxlhqwh oðplwh +vl hv txh h{lvwh ,1
g5 i +f . k, g5 i +f,
olp g{ g{5
5
k$3 k
dqäorjdphqwh vh ghqh od ghulydgd gh rughq q . 4 frpr ho oðplwh txh lqyroxfud od ghulydgd gh rughq q |
vh dqrwduä sru gg{q.4i +f,1
q.4
Qrwdflrqhv=
g5 i g6 i gq i
G5 i +f, @ i 33 +f, @ +f,> G6 i +f, @ i 333 +f, @ +f,> Gq i+f, @ i +q, +f, @ +f,=
g{6 g{6 g{q
Vh ghqhq orv vljxlhqwhv frqmxqwrv
F 3 `d> e^ @ ii =`d> e^$ U = i hv frqwlqxd hq `d> e^j
F 4 `d> e^ @ ii =`d> e^$ U = i hv ghulydeoh hq`d> e^ frq ghulydgd frqwlqxdj
F 5 `d> e^ @ ii =`d> e^$ U = i hv grv yhfhv ghulydeoh hq`d> e^ frq ghulydgd frqwlqxd j
F q `d> e^ @ ii =`d> e^$ U = i hv q yhfhv ghulydeohv hq`d> e^frq ghulydgd frqwlqxdj
Frq hvwrv frqmxqwrv srghprv ghqlu od vljxlhqwh ixqflöq/ oodpdgd rshudgru glihuhqfldeoh1
G = F q `d> e^ $ F q4 `d> e^
i :$ Gi +{, @ g{
gi +{,
Dvð
41 vl i +{, @ 6{5 . vhq {/ Gi +{, @ 9{ . frv {
s
51 vl j+{, @ oq+{ . 4, . { . 4/ Gj+{, @ {.4 4
. 5
s4{.4 1
s
61 vl k+{, @ {5 . {6 / Gk+{, @ 56 {4@6 . 6{5 1
6
Qrwhprv txh od ixqflöq j 5 F 4 `3> 5^ shur Gj 95 F 4 ` 5> 5^1 Dqdorjdphqwh vh sxhgh ghqlu ho rshudgru
glihuhqfldo gh rughq n/ Gn
Dvð
41 vl i +{, @ vhq 8{/ hqwrqfhv G7 i +{, @ 87 vhq 8{
51 vl i +{, @ h{ / hqwrqfhv G53 i +{, @ h{ 1
61 vl i +{, @ {8 / hqwrqfhv G: i +{, @ 3 | G8 i +{, @ 8$1
71 vl i +{, @ h5{ hqwrqfhv G: i+{, @ 5: h5{ 1
Frpr G3 > G4 > G5 > G6 > G7 > G8 > ===/ vrq ixqflrqhv/ vh sxhgh ghqlu od vxpd | pxowlsolfdflöq sru hvfdodu
gh hoodv rewhqlhqgrvh rwud ixqflrqhv/ sru hmhpsor1
;G3 . 6G . :G8 7G6 = F q `d> e^ $ F q4 `d> e^
i :$ ;i . g{ +{, . : gg{i6 +{, gg{i6 +{,
gi 8 6
Hmhuflflr 6:; Vhd O @ 6G5 . G . 7G3 | i+{, @ {6 . :{ vhq {/ j+{, @ 8{5 . frv {/ k+{, @ oq { . wj {1
Fdofxoh Oi> Oj> Ok1
41
g5 i gi
Oi @ 6 . . 7i
g{5 g{
g
Oi @ 6^9{ . +: vhq { . :{ frv {,` . 6{5 . :vhq{ . :{ frv { . 7{6 . 5;{ vhq {
g{
@ 4;{ . 6^: frv { . : frv { :{ vhq {` . : vhq { . :{ frv { . 7{6 . 5;{ vhq {
@ 4;{ . 7{6 . +75 . :{, frv { . +: . :{, vhq {
51
g5 j gj
Oj @ 6 . . 7j
g{5 g{
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@ 63 . 53{5 . frv { . 43{ vhq {
61
g5 k gk
Ok @ 6 . . 7k
g{5 g{
g 4 4
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g{ { {
6 4
@ 5 . 9 vhf { wj { . . vhf5 { . 7 oq { . 7 wj {
5
{ {
41 Vhd i +{, @ 8{7 . 7 vhq {> j+{, @ wj { vhf {> k+{, @ dufvhq {
Fdofxoh O P+i , @ O+P +i ,,> P O+i ,> Q+i, Frpsduh orv wuhv uhvxowdgr | gljd vl vrq ljxdohv r
glvwlqwrv1
Uhslwh or dqwhulru shur hvwd yh} xvh odv ixqflrqhv j | k1
51 Wrph xqd ixqflöq jìqhulfd i 5 F 5 `d> e^ | suxheh txh
61 Vhd K @ G . 5/ suxheh txh K K K @ G6 . 9G5 . 45G . ;G3 1
g5 vhq {
. vhq { @ vhq { . vhq { @ 3
g{5
Pxhvwuh txh odv ixqflrqhv j+{, @ frv {/ k+{, @ 6 frv {/ o+{, @ : vhq { | hq jhqhudo fxdotxlhu ixqflöq
q+{, @ vhq { . frv {/ grqgh > 5 U/ vrq vroxflrqhv gh od hfxdflöq
g5 i gi
5d . d5 i @ 3 d frqvwdqwh
g{ 5 g{
639 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
51 Pxhvwuh txh k+{, @ hd{ . {hd{ hv wdpelìq vroxflöq gh od hfxdflöq +fxdotxlhu vhd > 5 U,1
Hmhuflflr 6;5 41 Pxhvwuh txh 5{6 oq {/ {6 > {5 +5 oq { 4, ixqflrqhv gh F 5 `3> 4^ vrq vroxflrqhv gh od
hfxdflöq
g5 i gi
{5 8{ . <i @ 3
g{ g{
+4 {5 ,G5 i 5{Gi . 5i @ 3
Hmhuflflr 6;6 Pxhvwuh txh i +{, @ +5 . 5{ . {5 . fh{ ,4 hv vroxflöq gh od hfxdflöq gh Ehuqrxool
gi
. i @ +{i,5
g{
Hmhuflflr 6;7 Pxhvwuh txh | @ fwj { hv vroxflöq gh od hfxdflöq gh Ulffdwl
|
| 3 vhq5 {| 5 . . frv5 { @ 3
vhq { frv {
Hmhuflflr 6;8 Pxhvwuh txh wrgdv odv ixqflrqhv fxelfdv | @ +{ . f,6 vrq vroxflrqhv gh od hfxdflöq
|3 @ 6| 5@6
s s
Hmhuflflr 6;9 Pxhvwuh txh orv dufrv gh flufxorv |4 @ f5 {5 h |5 @ f5 {5 vrq vroxflrqhv gh od
hfxdflöq
g| {
@
g{ |
{5 | 5
@4
7 <
wlhqh frpr uhsuhvhqwdflöq juäfd xqd klsìuerod txh wlhqh frpr hmh sulqflsdo ho hmh { | yìuwlfhv +3> 5, |
+3> 5,1
Vl uhfrugdprv od pdwhuld gh ixqflrqhv srghprv dupdu txh wrpdqgr dojxqrv vhfwruhv gh od klsìuerod
vh sxhgh ghqlu ixqflrqhv/ sru hmhpsor/ u
{5
|@6 4
7
frq { 5 ^5> 4^ r od plvpd h{suhvlöq shur wrpdqgr { hq ho frqmxqwr ` 4> 5` od fxdo vh rewlhqh wdpelìq do
ghvshmdu | shur hvwd yh} wrpdqgr ho ydoru qhjdwlyr +edmr ho hmh { , | ho lqwhuydor ` 4> 5` +udpd l}txlhugd
gh od klsìuerod,1
Dvð frpr hq ho fdvr gh od ixqflöq lqyhuvd/ ho remhwlyr gh hvwd sduwh qr hv ghwhuplqdu hq irupd wdq h{soðflwd
od r odv srvleohv ixqflrqhv txh vh sxhghq ghqlu d sduwlu gh xqd uhodflöq txh lqyroxfuh grv yduldeohv +frpr
ho fdvr gh od klsìuerod, |d txh pxfkdv yhfhv qr hv srvleoh frqvhjxlu xq ghvshmh gh xqd gh odv yduldeohv
sdud yhuod hq irupd h{soðflwd frpr ixqflöq ghshqglhqwh gh od rwud1 Ho whruhpd gh od ixqflöq lpsolflwd gä
uhvsxhvwd d odv suhjxqwdv=
410 BcGdgd xqd uhodflöq hqwuh { h |/ I +{> |, @ 3/ hv srvleoh hqfrqwudu xqd ixqflöq |+{,B
510 BcVh sxhgh jdudqwl}du od h{lvwhqfld gh wdo ixqflöq |+{,1 Fxäo hv od ghulydgd gh hoodB
Qrwh txh od sulphud suhjxqwd qr glfh txh |+{, vh rewlhqh h{soð flwdphqwh hq wìuplqrv gh {/ vöor kdeod
gh od h{lvwhqfld/ hq fdpelr od vhjxqgd suhjxqwd qrv shuqlwh fdofxodu vxv ghulydgd1
8161 IXQFLRQHV GHILQLGDV LPSOÐFLWDPHQWH 63:
Kdvwd ho prphqwr khprv wudedmdgr frq ixqflrqhv gh od irupd | @ i+{,/ hv ghflu/ | frpr ixqflöq
gh {% grqgh od yduldeoh ghshqglhqwh | hvwä ghvshmdgd txhgdqgr xqd h{suhvlöq hq wìuplqrv gh od yduldeoh
lqghshqglhqwh {/ hvwr vh dfrvwxpeud d ghflu txh | hv xqd ixqflöq h{soðflwd hq od yduldeoh {%1
Shur hq od suäfwlfd vh gäq fdvrv gh ixqflrqhv qr gdgdv h{soð flwdphqwh1 Yhdprv ho vljxlhqwh hmhpsor
Xqd lqgxvwuld ghvhd ideulfdu wduurv gh frqvhuyd frq yroxphq mr gh 533 fp6 BcFýdohv vrq odv glphqvlrqhv
gho wduurB
Uhvsxhvwd= Qdwxudophqwh ho wduur hv xq flolqgur1 Vl wrpdprv frpr k od dowxud | u ho udglr gh wdo
flolqgur whqhprv txh
ku5 @ 533
Hv fodur txh ghshqglhqgr gho udglr u txh ghflgd wrpdu ho k txhgd wrwdophqwh ghwhuplqdgr/ | hq irupd
ýqlfd/ dvð whqhprv od ixqflöq u $ k+u,> ;u 5 ^3> 4^1
Vxsrqjdprv dkrud txh ho suhflr gh od hwltxhwd hvwd gdgr sru
gk
S @ 83 . 43u
gu
gu 1
Hqwrqfhv qhfhvlwdprv fdofxodu gk
Hq hvwh fdvr hv srvleoh ghvshmdu h{soðflwdphqwh k ghvgh od irupxod gho yroxphq/ shur hvwr qr vlhpsuh
rfxuuh
Yhdprv xqr gh hvwrv fdvrv
Frqvlghuhprv 5 hvshflhv gh shfhv txh frpsduwhq xq plvpr kdelwdw +xq odjr gho vxu gh Fkloh,1
Vxsrqhprv txh od hvshflh { +phglgd hq wrqhodgdv, vh dolphqwd gh od hvshflh päv shtxhôd | +phglgd hq
wrqhodgdv,/ dghpäv txh dperv frpsduwhq orv qxwulhqwhv gho odjr1 Vxsrqhprv txh ho dsruwh gh od hvshflh
shtxhôd yduðd qrwruldphqwh vlhqgr rvflodwrulr hq ho dôr1
Frpr ho odjr wlhqh xqd fdsdflgdg sdud dolphqwdu 433 ploorqhv gh wrqhodgdv whqhprv txh
{ . | @ 43;
| frpr od { vh dolphqwd gh od hvshflh shtxhôd | ho dsruwh gh hvwd yduðd rvflodwruldphqwh/ whqhprv txh {
vdwlvidfh
{ @ dhe vhq+f|{, . n{
grqgh d> e> f | n vrq frqvwdqwhv1
Sru or wdqwr odv elrpdvdv hvwdq uhodflrqdgd hq od hfxdflöq
dhe vhq+f|{, . n{ . | @ 43; +817,
Ho hpsuhvdulr h{sorwdgru gh od elrpdvd gho odjr/ prwlydgr sru orv suhflrv hq ho phufdgr ghvhd frqrfhu
odv wdvd gh fuhflplhqwr uhodwlyr gh odv sreodflrqhv g{
g| > g{ 1
g|
Vh yh hq od hfxdflöq 817 txh hv lpsrvleoh rewhqhu | frpr ixqflöq h{soðflwd gh { r { frpr ixqflöq
h{soðflwd gh |1
BcFöpr rewhqhu hqwrqfhv g{ g| B
Yhdprv hvwr xq xq frqwh{wr sxudphqwh pdwhpäwlfr1
Vxsrqjdprv txh whqhprv xqd ixqflöq uhdo gh grv yduldeohv ghqlgd hq U5 1 Sru hmhpsor=
I = U5 # U
+{> |, :$ I +{> |, @ | 5 { 4
Frqvlghuhprv od hfxdflöq I +{> |, @ 3/ hv ghflu/ od hfxdflöq
|5 { 4 @ 3
fx|d juäfd hv xqd sduäerod frq hmh gh vlpìwuld ho hmh {1
Qrwhprv txh do ghvshmdu | hq wìuplqrv gh {/ rewhqhprv sru hmhpsor odv vljxlhqwhv ixqflrqhv fx|dv
juäfdv hvwäq hq od jxud l}txlhugd | fruuhvsrqgh d glvwlqwrv vhfwruhv gh od sduäerod1
s
| @ i +{, @ {.4 { 5 ^4> 4^
63; FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
y y
1.25 1.25
0 0
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x x
-1.25 -1.25
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s s
i +{, @ {.4 j+{, @ { . 4
s
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s
| @ k+{, @ s{ . 4 4 { 3
{.4 3?{
k+{, | i +{,
Dxqtxh hvwdv ixqflrqhv vrq glihuhqwhv wrgdv vh fdudfwhul}dq sru vdwlvidfhu od hfxdflöq I +{> |, @ 3 |d
txh/
i +{,5 { 4 @ 3 { 5 ^4> 4^
j+{,5 { 4 @ 3 { 5 ^4> 4^
k+{,5 { 4 @ 3 { 5 ^4> 4^
Odv ixqflrqhv i> j> k vh glfhq hvwdu ghqlgdv lpsoðflwdphqwh sru od hfxdflöq
I +{> |, @ 3
Ghqlflöq 8146 Xqd hfxdflöq I +{> |, @ 3 ghqh lpsoðflwdphqwh d | frpr ixqflöq gh { vl | vöor vl h{lvwh
xq lqwhuydor delhuwr7 L wdo txh
I +{> i +{,, @ 3 ;{ 5 L Grpi
7 Qr qhfhvduldphqwh gheh frqvlghuduvh xq lqwhuydor shur sdud qxhvwur remhwlyr hvwd frqglflöq vlpsolfd orv fdvrv od h{ljlu
Od hfxdflöq | 5 { 4 @ 3 ghwhuplqd pxfkdv ixqflrqhv lpsoðflwdv shur qrv lqwhuhvdq dtxhoodv glihu0
hqfldeohv hq dojýq lqwhuydor/ sru hmhpsor i | j ghqlgdv hq 818 vrq ixqflrqhv lpsoðflwdv glihuhqfldeohv hq
wrgr lqwhuydor delhuwr frqwhqlgr hq vx grplqlr/ hq fdpelr k hv xqd ixqflöq ghqlgd lpsoðflwd shur qr hv
frqwlqxd hq { @ 3 oxhjr qr hv glihuhqfldeoh hq fxdotxlhu lqwhuydor delhuwr txh frqwhqjd do { @ 31
Edmr txì frqglflrqhv h{lvwh xqd ixqflöq | @ i +{, glihuhqfldeoh ghqlgd lpsoðflwdphqwh sru xqd hfxdflöq
I +{> |, @ 3
| BcFýdo hv vx ghulydgdB
Ho whruhpd gh od ixqflöq lpsoðflwd qrv hqwuhjd frqglflrqhv sdud jdudqwl}du od h{lvwhqfld gh wdo ixqflöq
glihuhqfldeoh/ shur dqwhv frqvlghuhprv ho sureohpd gh hqfrqwudu od ghulydgd gh i edmr ho vxsxhvwr txh vx
ghulydgd h{lvwd1
Hmhpsor 6;: Vxsrqjdprv txh od hfxdflöq
|5 { 4 @ 3 +819,
ghqh lpsoðflwdphqwh d xqd ixqflöq | @ i +{, glihuhqfldeoh hq dojýq lqwhuydor1 Ghwhuplqduhprv | 3
ghulydqgr frq uhvshfwr d { dperv odgrv gh od hfxdflöq 819 frqvlghudqgr d | frpr ixqflöq gh {1
|5 { 4 @ 3
g
+, +i +{,,5 { 4 @ 3 m
g{
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4
, i 3 +{, @ vlhpsuh txh i+{, 9@ 3
5i+{,
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hvwh khfkr | txh | 3 lqglfd od ghulydgd gh hvd ixqflöq/ dvð srghprv ghulydu gh od vljxlhqwh irupd>
g
|5 { 4 @ 3 m
g{
+, 5| |3 4 @ 3
4
, |3 @ | 9@ 3
5|
Hvwh surfhglplhqwr vh ghqrplqd ghulydflöq lpsoðflwd1
Qrwh txh or fuxfldo hq hvwd ghulydflöq lpsoðflwd hv vxsrqhu txh | hv ghshqglhqwh gh {/ gh qr vhu dvð
g|5 @ 3/ shur hq hvwh fdvr | ghshqgh gh {/ oxhjr ghehprv dsolfdu od uhjod gh od fdghqd
g{
g| 5 g|
@ 5| =
g{ g{
Sru or wdqwr/ vl txhuhprv ghwhuplqdu od hfxdflöq gh od uhfwd wdqjhqwh d od sduäerod fxuyd | 5 { 4 @ 3
hq ho sxqwr S @ +3> 4,/ ghehprv
410 Yhulfdu txh ho sxqwr S shuwhqhfh d od fxuyd/ hv ghflu/ txh fxpsod frq od hfxdflöq I +{> |, @ 31
510 Hydoxdu od ghulydgd | 3 hq ho sxqwr S sdud rewhqhu od shqglhqwh> p @ g{ g| m @ i 3 +{ , grqgh S @
S 3
+{3 > |3 , @ +3> 4,
Dvð od uhfwd wdqjhqwh d od fxuyd 819 hq ho sxqwr S @ +3> 4, hvwä gdgd sru od hfxdflöq
| |3 @ p+{ {3 ,
grqgh p @ g{
g| m @ 4 / dvð od hfxdflöq exvfdgd hv | 4 @ 4 {1
S 5 5
Hmhpsor 6;; Vxsrqjdprv txh | @ i+{, hq xqd ixqflöq ghqlgd lpsoðflwdphqwh sru od hfxdflöq I +{3 > |3 , @
3 | txh i hv glihuhqfldeoh hq dojýq lqwhuydor1
Ghwhuplqhprv | 3 @ g{g| sdud fdgd xqd gh odv vljxlhqwhv hfxdflrqhv | sdud ydoruhv { h | dsursldgrv
643 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
41 {| 7 . {5 | . 6{6 | . 5 @ 3
51 | 6 @ oq+{|, . wdq+| 5 , . 4
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vh sxhgh fdofxodu gh grv irupdv/ xvdqgr uhjod gh od fdghqd/ xvdqgr ghulydflöq lpsoðflwd1
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| { @ hoq | @ h{ oq |
{
oxhjr
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lpsoðflwd1
Vhd x @ {| frpr x hv ixqflöq txh ghshqgh gh { +sxhv | @ i+{,,/ dsolfdqgr orjdulwpr qdwxudo/ oq / |
ghulydqgr lpsoðflwdphqwh frq uhvshfwr d { whqhprv/
g
oq x @ | oq { m
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Qrwhprv txh vl hvfulelprv {| frpr h| oq { hqwrqfhv xvdqgr od uhjod gh od fdghqd wdpelìq rewhqhprv
g | |
+{ , @ {| +| 3 oq { . ,
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g
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Hmhuflflr 6;< Xvdqgr ghulydflöq lpsoðflwd fdofxoh g+i +{g{,, / grqgh i +{, | j+{, vrq ixqflrqhv ghulydeohv
j+{,
d, Uhjod gh od fdghqd1
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v+w, v+w3 ,
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d orv w vhjxqgrv hvwä gdgd sru
4
v+w, @ w5 . ;w phwurv
8
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d, hq ho prphqwr gh od vdolgd
e, d orv 8 vhjxqgrv gh od vdolgd
f, do fux}du od phwd
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y+3, @ olp
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4
V+w, @ 433 +, w5 . ;w @ 433 +, w @ 43
8
sru or wdqwr d orv 43 vhj ho dwohwd kd fux}dgr od phwd | vx yhorflgdg hv
5
y+43, @ 43 . ; @ 45p@vhj
8
Hmhpsor 74: Grv fduuhwhudv vh fux}dq irupdqgr hq xq äqjxor gh 78 1 Vdelhqgr txh hq xq lqvwdqwh w3
grv dxwrpöylohv D | E glvwdq gho fuxfh 433 npv/ ho dxwrpöylo D dohmäqgrvh frq xqd udslgh} gh ;3 np@kuv
| E dohmäqgrvh frq xqd udslgh} gh 93 np2kuv1
Ghwhuplqh od udslgh} frq txh vh vhsdud xqr gho rwur hq ho lqvwdqwh w3 1 +jxud BB,
Vroxflöq= Vhd {+w, od glvwdqfld ghvgh ho fuxfh do dxwrpöylo D hq ho lqvwdqwh w/ |+w, od glvwdqfld ghvgh ho
fuxfh do dxwrpöylo E/ | v+w, od glvwdqfld hqwuh D | E/ dghpäv yD +w3 ,> yE +w3 , yhorflgdg gh orv dxwrpöylo
D/ E uhvshfwlydphqwh hq ho lqvwdqwh w3 1
Sru klsöwhvlv {+w3 , @ |+w3 , @ 433npv / yD +w3 , @ {3 +w3 , @ ;3np2kuv | yE +w3 , @ | 3 +w3 , @ 93np2kuv1
Qrvrwurv exvfdprv gv
gw +w3 ,1
9 Wr grv orv prylplhqwr vrq frqvlghudgrv uhfwlolqhr1
8181 DSOLFDFLRQHV GH OD GHULYDGD 65<
gv g{ g| s g{ s g|
5v
@ 5{ . 5| 5| 5{ = +814;,
gw gw gw gw gw
Hydoxdqgr hq w3 od h{suhvlöq 814: rewhqhprv od glvwdqfld hqwuh orv dxwöprylohv hq ho lqvwdqwh w3 1
t s
v+w3 , @ {5 +w3 , . | 5 +w3 , 5{+w3 ,|+w3 ,
t s
v+w3 , @ 4335 . 4335 54335
t s
v+w3 , @ 433 5 5
Dvð/ xvdqgr: hvwr hq 814; rewhqhprv od yhorflgdg uhtxhulgd
s s
gv 4 5 5
mw@w3 @ s s +433 ;3 . 433 93 433 ;3 433 93,
gw 433 5 5 5 5
s t
gv 473 :3 5 s
mw@w3 @ s s @ :3 5 5
gw 5 5
s s
Oxhjr orv dxwrpöylohv hq ho lqvwdqwh w3 vh vhsdudq d xqd yhorflgdg gh :3 5 5np2kuv1
sRwud irupd gh gdu hvwd uhvsxhvwd hv= Oxhjr orv dxwrpöylohv hq ho lqwdqwh w3 vh vhsdudq d ud}öq gh
s
:3 5 5np2kuv1
Vh dfrqvhmd do ohfwru d sodqwhdu vlhpsuh orv sureohpdv gh hvwh wls r hq yduldeohv/ vlq hydoxdu kdvwd ghvsxìv gh ghulydu1
663 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
Hmhpsor 74; Ho yroxphq Y +hq slh6 , gh xqd shtxhôd uhsuhvd gxudqwh od ìsrfd gh ooxyld/ hvwä gdgr sru
Y @ 8333+w . 4,5
grqgh w vh plgh hq phvhv | 3 w 61 Od wdvd gh fdpelr gho yroxphq frq uhvshfwr do wlhpsr hv ho xmr
lqvwdqwäqhr kdfld od uhsuhvd1 Fdofxoh ho xmr hq orv wlhpsrv w @ 3 | w @ 5 Bc Fxäo hv ho ydoru gho xmr
fxdqgr ho yroxphq hv gh 44=583slh6 B
Vroxflöq= Sru ghqlflöq od wdvd gh fdpelr gho yroxphq frq uhvshfwr do wlhpsr hv gY gw 1
Hq hvwh sureohpd gY uhsuhvhqwd ho xmr kdfld od uhsuhvd/ hqwrqfhv ghulydqgr od ixqflöq Y uhvshfwr gho
wlhpsr whqhprv
gw
gY
@ 43=333+w . 4,
gw
hydoxdqgr hq w @ 3 | w @ 5 rewhqhprv ho xmr>
gY
mw@3 @ 43=333slh6 @phvhv
gw
gY
mw@5 @ 63=333slh6 @phvhv
gw
Vl ho yroxphq Y @ 44=583 slh6 hqwrqfhv
Vroxflöq=
41 Vxvwlwx|hqgr w @ 5> k @ 3=68 hq od ghqlflöq vh rewlhqh txh od wdvd phgld gh fdpelr gh W hq ^5> 5=68`
hv
W +5=68, W +5,
6=:
3=68
51 Sru ghqlflöq od wdvd gh yduldflöq gh W +w, frq uhvshfwr do wlhpsr hv
6
W 3 +w, @ 7
+w . 4,5
Dvð/
6 6
W 3 +5, @ 7 W 3 +<, @ 7
+5 . 4,5 +< . 4,5
Hmhpsor 753 Orv h{wuhprv gh xq deuhydghur gh 6 pw gh odujr wlhqhq od irupd gh wuläqjxor htxloäwhur frq
odgrv gh 93fp +shuo,1 Vh vxplqlvwud djxd do deuhydghur d ud}öq gh 53 O2plq1 BcFxäo hv od udslgh} gh
fdpelr r yduldflöq gho qlyho gho djxd fxdqgr od surixqglgdg hv gh 53fpB +4O+olwur,@ 4333fp6 ,
8181 DSOLFDFLRQHV GH OD GHULYDGD 664
Vroxflöq= Vhd k+w, ho qlyho gho djxd hq ho lqvwdqwh w/ Y +w, ho yroxphq gho djxd hq ho lqvwdqwh w/ u+w, od
orqjlwxg txh vh pxhvwud hq od jxud BB
Oxhjr ho yroxphq Y +w, hvwä gdgr sru
Y +w, @ 633k+w,u+w,
shur sru whruhpd gh Wkdohv/ hq ho wuläqjxor FGE/ vh wlhqh
63 u+w,
s @
63 6 k+w,
s
grqgh 63 6 hv od dowxud gho wuläqjxor htxloäwhur DFE1 Oxhjr u+w, @ ks+w6, | Y +w, @ 633 ks+6w, 1
5
Hmhpsor 754 Od rulood gh xqd slvflqd hv xq uhfwäqjxor gh 93 slh gh odujr | 63 slh gh dqfkr1 Vx surixq0
glgdg dxphqwd xqliruphphqwh gh 7 d < slh hq xq wudpr krul}rqwdo gh 73 slh | ghvsxìv frqwlqýd do plvpr
qlyho orv 53 slh uhvwdqwhv frpr vh loxvwud hq od jxud BB/ od fxdo uhsuhvhqwd xqd vhfflöq wudqvyhuvdo1 Od
slvflqd vh hvwä oohqdqgr d ud}öq gh 833 jdo2plq gh djxd1 Fdofxoh dsur{lpdgdphqwh od udslgh} gh fdpelr
gho qlyho gho djxd hq ho prphqwr hq txh>
Vroxflöq=
41 Hq ho hmhpsor 43: gho fdsðwxor gh ixqflrqhv rewxylprv txh od ixqflöq yroxphq hq wìuplqr gh k hv
933k . 453k5 3?k?8
Y +k, @
933k . 6333 . 4533+k 8, 8 k <
grqgh k hv ho qlyho gho djxd hq ho odgr päv surixqgr1 Oxhjr sdud fdofxodu od udslgh} gh fdpelr
gho qlyho gho djxd frq uhvshfwr do wlhpsr fxdqgr k @ 7 slh frqvlghudprv od ixqflöq yroxphq sdud
3 ? k ? 8>
Y +k, @ 933k . 453k5
Dvð/ ghulydqgr frq uhvshfwr do wlhpsr/ sru +uhjod gh od fdghqd, whqhprv
gY gk gk
@ 933 . 453 5k
gw gw gw
sru or wdqwr
gk gY 4
@
gw gw 933 . 573k
665 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
gk 4
mk@7 @ 833 3=466: 3=375<slh6 @plq
gw 933 . 573 7
Dvð od udslgh} gh fdpelr gho qlyho gho djxd hq ho lqvwdqwh hq txh ho qlyho gho djxd hv 7 slhv hv
dsur{lpdgdphqwh 3=375<slh@plq1
51 Sdud fdofxodu od ud}öq gh fdpelr fxdqgr k @ 9 vh surfhgh gh pdqhud dqäorjd d od sduwh +d, frq0
vlghudqgr
Y +k, @ 933k . 6333 . 4533+k 8,
sxhv hvwd ixqflöq hvwä ghqlgd sdud 8 k <1
61 hmhuflflr sdud ho ohfwru
Hmhpsor 755 Xq wdqtxh föqlfr gh 45 slh gh dowxud | ; gh gläphwur hq od wdsd/ vh oohqd frq djxd d xqd
ud}öq frqvwdqwh1 Do hqfrqwudu ho qlyho d phgld dowxud/ od ud}öq gh fdpelr gh hvwd dowxud hv gh 4slh2plq1
Bc Fxäqwr wdugduðd hq oohqduvh ho wdqtxhB
Vroxflöq= Vhd k od dowxud gho qlyho gh djxd | u od orqjlwxg gho udglr gho frqr fxdqgr od dowxud hv k +yhu
jxud BB,1
Frpr gY gw @ n grqgh n frqvwdqwh hqwrqfhv Y @ nw . F1 Frpr Y @ 3 hq w @ 3 hqwrqfhv F @ 3 Oxhjr
Y @ nw +814<,
shur
4
Y @ u5 k
6
oxhjr
4 5
Y @ nw @ u k +8153,
6
shur gho wuläqjxor DEF vh wlhqh
7 u
@
45 k
gh grqgh u @ 46 k1 Dvð uhhpsod}dqgr hq + 8153, whqhprv
4 4
nw @ + ,5 k6
6 6
ghulydqgr frq uhvshfwr d w whqhprv
4 gk
n@ 6k5 +8154,
5: gw
shur do hqfrqwudu ho qlyho gho djxd d phgld dowxud/ hv ghflu/ fxdqgr k @ 9 vh wlhqh>
gk
mk@9 @ 4
gw
Dvð hydoxdqgr od h{suhvlöq + 8154, fxdqgr k @ 9>
n @ 95 4 @ 7
<
Sru or wdqwr
Y @ 7w
Sru rwud sduwh ho wdqtxh hvwä oohqr fxdqgr Y @ 46 75 45 @ 97/ hv ghflu ho wdqtxh vh oohqd fxdqgr 7w @ 97
gh grqgh w @ 491
Dvð ho hvwdqtxh wdugduðd hq oohqduvh 49 plqxwrv1
Qr wdq vöor lqwhuhvd odv ud}rqhv gh fdpelr frq uhvshfwr do wlhpsr/ vlqr wdpelìq frq uhvshfwr d rwudv
yduldeohv1
8181 DSOLFDFLRQHV GH OD GHULYDGD 666
i+{ . k, i +{,
k
8 gI
4@
< gF
gh grqgh od ud}öq gh fdpelr gh I frq uhvshfwr d F hv
gI <
@
gF 8
Hmhpsor 757 Ghpxhvwuh txh od wdvd gh fdpelr gho yroxphq gh xqd hvihud frq uhvshfwr do udglr hv ljxdo
do äuhd gh od vxshuflh
Vroxflöq= Ho yroxphq | ho äuhd gh xqd hvihud hvwäq gdgrv sru odv iöupxodv
7
Y @ u6 > D @ 7u5
6
grqgh u hv ho udglr1 Hv fodur txh vl ghulydprv Y frq uhvshfwr d u whqhprv
gY 7
@ 6u5 @ 7u5 @ D>
gu 6
hv ghflu/ od wdvd gh fdpelr gho yroxphq hv ljxdo do äuhd gh od vxshuflh1
Hmhpsorv wðslfrv
Sureohpd gh od vrpeud
pwv
Sdxolqd/ gh 4> 5 phwurv gh dowr/ fruuh hq od qrfkh dohmdqgrvh gh xq srvwh d od yhorflgdg gh 8 > ho irfr
vhj
gho srvwh txh loxplqd d Sdxolqd hvwd d :> 8 phwurv gh dowxud1 D phglgd txh vh dohmd gho srvwh od vrpeud
gh ohood fuhfh +Áhv yhugdgB r Áuhdophqwh ghfuhfhB,1
Frqwhvwhprv odv vljxlhqwhv suhjxqwdv
d10 ÁD txì yhorflgdg fdpeld ho odujr gh od vrpeud gh Sdxolqd B
e10 Ho h{wuhpr gh od vrpeud vh dohmd wdpelìq gho srvwh/ od yhorflgdg gh hvwh dohmdplhqwr Á hv od plvpd
yhorflgdg gh od qlôdB r Áhv od plvpd yhorflgdg gdgd frpr uhvsxhvwd d od suhjxqwd dqwhulruB1
667 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
Vhd=
g{+w,
Hqwrqfhv od yhorflgdg gh od qlôd hv | hq wìuplqr gh hvwdv yduldeohv/ or txh exvfdprv sdud frqwhvwdu
gw
gv+w,
od sulphud suhjxqwd hv
gw
Or txh ghehprv kdfhu hv hqfrqwudu xqd uhodflöq hq grqgh dsduh}fd v+w, | ghvsxìv ghulydu1
Frpr orv wuläqjxorv DEF | GHE vrq vhphmdqwhv +wlhqhq orv plvprv äqjxorv,/ vh gd od vljxlhqwh uhodflöq
hqwuh orv odgrv
DF DE
@
GH GE
| gh hvwd irupd whqhprv
:> 8 {+w, . v+w,
@
4> 8 v+w,
Txh hv or plvpr txh
Vl Shgulwr plgh 468fp> ÁD txì yhorflgdg ho h{wuhpr gh od vrpeud vh dohmd gho srvwhB
Sureohpd gh od hvfdohud
Xqd hvfdohud gh phwdo frq uxhgdv hq vx edvh hvwd dsr|dgd hq xqd pxudood gh wdo irupd txh vx h{wuhpr
vxshulru hvwd d 6pwv gho vxhor1 Ho eortxhr gh vxv uxhgdv oh lpslgh pryhuvh1 Od hvfdohud plgh 7pwv gh
odujr | hv shvdgd gh prgr wdo txh fxdqgr vh ghveortxhdq odv uxhgdv od hvfdohud vh ghvol}d hq od pxudood
pw
prylhqgrvh vx h{wuhpr vxshulru d od yhorflgdg gh 433 = Fxdqgr hvwd d xq phwur gho vxhor Ád txì
vhj
yhorflgdg vh pxhyhq odv uxhgdv hq hvh lqvwdqwhB
Sdud frqwhvwdu hvd suhjxqwd qhfhvlwdprv ghqlu dojxqdv yduldeohv | kdfhu xq gldjudpd gho sureohpd
Ho gldjudpd gho sureohpd hv=1
Vhdq=
gk pw gu
Sru or wdqwr +w, @ 433 | or txh exvfdprv hv hq w3 txh hv ho lqvwdqwh hq txh od hvfdohud hvwä
gw vhj gw
d 4phwur gho vxhor/ hv ghflu/ k+w3 , @ 4 phwur1
Frpr vh yh/ od pxudood frq od hvfdohud | ho vxhor hq wrgr wlhpsr w irupdq xq wuläqjxor uhfwäqjxor dvl
whqhprv ho whruhpd gh Slwäjrudv/
gk+w, gu+w,
5k+w, . 5u+w, @3
gw gw
gu+w, k+w, gk+w,
@
gw u+w, gw
gu k+w3 , gk 4 pw
+w3 , @ +w3 , @ 433 Q
gw u+w3 , gw u+w3 , vj
Iljxuh 815=
s
u+w3 , @ 48
gu 4 pw pw
+w3 , @ s 433 58> ;53
gw 48 vj vj
Vhd
6 s+w, . v+w,
@
4> < v+w,
+6 4> <,v+w, @ 4> <s+w,
gv+w, 4> < gs+w,
@
gw +6 4> <, gw
gv gs
+w3 , @ 4> :5: 6 +w3 ,
gw gw
gs
Sru or wdqwr qhfhvlwdprv frqrfhu +w3 ,= Frpr DI F irupd xq wuläqjxor uhfwäqjxor/ whqhprv
gw
ghulydgr
gs gh
5s+w, @ 5h+w,
gw gw
dvl/ hq ho lqvwdqwh w3
gs h+w3 , gh 46 pw
+w3 , @ +w3 , @ 4> 6
gw s+w3 , gw s+w3 , vj
gs 46 pw
Gh hvwd irupd orjudprv +w3 , @ s 4> 6 > | dvð/
gw 646 vj
gv 46 pw pw
+w3 , @ 4> :5: 6 s 4> 6 4> 983 3
gw 646 vj vj
Ho jorer gh Shgulwr
np
Hq xqd fduuhwhud xq dxwr yd d <3 > hq ho lqwhulru yd Shgulwr frq xq jorer frq kholr1 Shgulwr vxhowd
ku
pw
ho jorer | hvwh vxeh hq irupd shushqglfxodu d 43 = Yhdprv d txì yhorflgdg vh vhsdud Shgulwr gho jorer
vj
ghvsxìv gh : vhjxqgrv1
Hvtxhpd gho sureohpd
Vhd w @ 3 ho lqvwdqwh txh Shgulwr vxhowd ho jorer | vhd {+w, @ DE od glvwdqfld hqwuh ho jorer | ho dxwr/
j+w, @ FE od glvwdqfld gho jorer do vxhor/ d+w, @ DF od glvwdqfld gho dxwr do sxqwr gh F / grqgh vh irupd
xq äqjxor uhfwr1
g{
ÁTxì exvfdprvB1 Uhvsxhvwd = +:,
gw
gj pw gj pw
ÁTxì whqhprvB1 Uhvsxhvwd = +w, @ 43 > hq sduwlfxodu +w3 , @ 43 >
gw vhj gw vhj
gd
+w,> ho fxdo hvwd hq nloöphwurv sru krud/ dvl txh ghehprv fdpelduod d phwurv vhjxqgrv
gw
gd np 4333phwurv phwurv
+w, @ <3 @ <3 @ 58
gw krudv 6933vhjxqgrv vhjxqgrv
Frpr DEF irupd xq wuläqjxor uhfwäqjxor
Od Whohwöq
Ho fðufxor gh od jxud uhsuhvhqwd xq hvfhqdulr uhgrqgr/ gh udglr 6 phwurv/ xelfdgr do fhqwur gho Hvwdglr
Qdflrqdo | txh jlud d 3> 8 uhyroxflrqhv sru plqxwrv1 Grq Iudqflvfr fdplqd ghvgh ho fhqwur gho hvfhqdulr
+sxqwr R, hq irupd uhfwd kdvwd ho sxqwr P xelfdgr d od rulood gho hvfhqdulr Od uhfwd RP irupd xq äqjxor
@ frq od uhfwd txh xqh R frq od xelfdflöq gh Sdxod txh hvwd hq od jdohuld +sxqwr S , d grflhqwrv phwurv
7
gho fhqwur1
pw
ÁD txh yhorflgdg yduld od glvwdqfld hqwuh Grq Iudqflvfr | Sdxod vl Grq Iudqflvfr fdplqd d 3> 5 B1
vhj
Vhd {+w, od glvwdqfld hqwuh Grq Iudqflvfr | Sdxod hq ho wlhpsr w>
gp pw
p+w, od glvwdqfld gh Grq Iudqflvfr do fhqwur gho hvfhqdulr hq ho wlhpsr w> dvl +w, @ 3> 5
gw vhj
+w, ho äqjxor txh irupd od uxwd gh Grq Iudqflvfr hq ho hvfhqdulr frq od uhfwd RS1
g{
Or txh exvfdprv hv +w3 ,> grqgh w3 hv ho lqvwdqwh txh Grq iudqflvfr oohjd d P=
gw
Frpr od xelfdflrq gh Grq Iudqflvfr/ Sdxod | ho fhqwur gho hvfhqdulr hq wrgr wlhpsr w irupdq xq
wuläqjxor/ xvduhprv od oh| gho frvhqr
{5 +w3 , @ p5 +w3 , . 5335 5p+w3 , 533 frv++w3 ,, @ 65 . 5335 5 6 533 frv+ ,
u 7
4s
{+w3 , @ 73 33< 4533 5
5
ghulydqgr hq dperv odgrv +qr roylgdu od ghulydgd gho surgxfwr | od uhjod gh od fdghqd,whqhprv
g{ g{ g
5O 3 @ 5{+w, +w, . 5U 3 5 +w,U frv +w, . 5{+w,U vlq +w, +w,
gw gw gw
8181 DSOLFDFLRQHV GH OD GHULYDGD 674
g{ g
+w, ^5U frv +w, 5{+w,` @ 5{+w,U vlq +w, +w,
gw gw
g{
+w, ^5U frv +w, 5{+w,` @ 9{+w,U vlq +w,
gw
g{ 6{+w,U vlq +w,
+w, @
gw U frv +w, {+w,
ÁTxì uhodflöq ghehq fxpsolu U | OB
ÁHq txh srvlflöq gho äqjxor vh wlhqh pd|ru yhorflgdgB
ÁHq txh prphqwr vh wlhqh yhorflgdg 3 B
Frq xq plvpr = Odv yhorflgdgghv dxphquwdq r glvplqx|hq vl od uxhgd hv pdv judqghB1
Sureohpd gh duhqd
Hq xq hvwdqtxh hq irupd gh frqr flufxodu uhfwr gh udglr U | dowxud K vh ghmd fdhu duhqd gh wdo irupd
txh d phglgd txh vh oohqd ho hvwdqtxh vh irupd grv frqrv ljxdohv1
p6
Vl vh ghmd fdhu D ÁFrq txì yhorflgdg vxeh ho h{wuhprv gh vxshulru gh od slod gh duhqd fxdqgr vh
vhj
khfkd ho pä{lpr gh duhqdB
Vhd k+w, ho qlyho gh od duhqd hq od sduhg gho flolqgur hq ho wlhpsr w/ u+w, ho udglr gh orv frqrv dvrfldgrv
do qlyho k+w,=
g5k
Gdgd hvwdv qrwdflrqhv/ vh sxhgh ghflu txh exvfdprv +w3 ,> grqgh w3 hv ho lqvwdqwh txh vh oohqd ho
gw
hvwdqtxh / hv ghflu/ k+w3 , @ K=
Vl Y +w, ghqrwd ho yroxphq gh od duhqd hq ho wlhpsr w> frpr ho yroxphq wrwdo gh duhqd hq ho wlhpsr w
hv grv yhfhv ho yroxphq gho frqr uhfwr gh dowxud k+w, | udglr u+w,> vh wlhqh
4
Y +w, @ 5 k+w,u5 +w,
6
g5k
Gh hvwd uhodflöq vh sxhgh rewhqhu +w3 , yld ghulydflöq/ shur wdpelìq dsduhfhuðd od ghulydgd gh u+w,/
gw
frpr vh yh dfrqwlqxdflöq
gY 4 gk 4 gu
+w, @ 5 +w,u5 +w, . 5 k+w,5u+w, +w, v
gw 6 gw 6 gw
Shur vl yhprv ho wuläqjxor glexmdgr do odgr gho frqr +frpr prghor pdwhpäwlfr,/ yhprv grv wuläqjxorv
vhphmdqwhv/ sru or wdqwr whqhprv od vljxlhqwh uhodflöq hqwuh vxv odgrv
U K
@
u+w, k+w,
675 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
| sru or wdqwr
U gu U gk
u@ k | +w, @ +w,
K gw K gw
uhhpsod}dqgr hq v whqhprv
5 % 5 &
4 gk U 4 U gk gk 5 U 7 U
D@5 +w, k+w, . 5 k+w,5u+w, +w, @ +w, k+w, . k+w,u+w,
6 gw K 6 K gw gw 6 K 6 K
gk D 4 D
+w3 , @ 5 @
gw 5 U 7 U 5 U5
K . KU
6 K 6 K
ÁFxdqgr ho qlyho vxeh päv uäslgr/ fxdqgr od dowxud gh od duhqd hv päv srfd fxdqgr hvwä fhufd gh KB
Ghqlflöq 814< Vhd i = D U $ U/ gluhprv txh i +d, hv ho ydoru pä{lpr gh od ixqflöq i +ö Ydoru
Pä{lpr devroxwr gh i r vlpsohphqwh ho pä{lpr gh i, vl sdud wrgr hohphqwr { 5 D vh fxpsoh i +{, i +d,
Hq irupd wrwdophqwh dqäorjd vh ghqh pðqlpr devroxwr r pð qlpr1 i +d, hv ho ydoru pðqlpr devroxwr
hq D vl
i +d, i+{, ;{ 5 D
Qrwh txh qhfhvduldphqwh ho ydoru pä{lpr +ho ydoru pðqlpr, hv od lpdjhq gh xq sxqwr d 5 D @ Grpi>
Vh glfh hq d hvwä ho pä{lpr gh i +hq d hvwä ho pðqlpr gh i%,1
Vl i qr hv lq|hfwlyd/ sxhgh h{lvwlu ydulrv rwurv hohphqwrv gh D grqgh i dofdqfh ho ydoru pä{lpr r ho
ydoru pðqlpr/ vlq hpedujr ho ydoru pä{lpr r ho ydoru pðqlpr devroxwr vl h{lvwhq vrq ýqlfrv1
Sru hmhpsor od ixqflöq i +{, @ vhq { qr hv lq|hfwlyd/ ho ydoru pä{lpr gh i hv 4 | ho ydoru pðqlpr gh i
hv 4 | hvwrv ydoruhv vrq dofdq}dgrv hq päv gh xq sxqwr1
Kd| rwur frqfhswr gh pä{lpr +r pðqlpr, gh i txh hv phqrv h{ljhqwh/ hvwh hv pä{lpr orfdo r uhodwlyr
+pðqlpr orfdo r uhodwlyr,1
Hq ho juäfr gh yhqwdv gh xq surgxfwr hq ho dôr/ xqd pxowlwlhqgd wlhqh grv judqghv phvhv gh yhqwdv
Pdu}r | Glflhpeuh +yhu juäfr vljxlhqwh,
8191 PÄ[LPR \ PÐQLPR 676
Hmhpsor 758 Vhd i = ^d> e` $ U xqd ixqflöq frqwlqxd frq juäfd gdgd hq od jxud
1 Fodudphqwh i +g, hv ho pä{lpr devroxwr/ d glihuhqfld gh orv ydoruhv i +d,> i +o, txh vrq vrodphqwh
pä{lpr uhodwlyr | gh orv ydoruhv i +h,> i+e, txh vrq pðqlprv uhodwlyrv xqlfdphqwh +i +g,> i +f, vrq wdpelìq
uhodwlyrv,
Ghqlflöq 8154 Gluhprv txh xq ydoru i +d, frq d 5 D hv xq ydoru h{wuhpr gh i hq D vl hv ho pä{lpr
r pðqlpr gh dojxqd hvshflh hq D | sxqwr h{wuhpr do sxqwr d grqgh dofdq}d ho ydoru h{wuhpr1
677 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
Hq hvwrv grv ýowlprv hmhpsorv vh sxhgh ylvxdol}du or ýwlo txh uhvxowd whqhu od lqirupdflöq uhodwlyd do
ghfuhflhqwr r fuhflhqwr gh xqd ixqflöq1
Frqvlghuhprv od jxud I
Iljxud I
Vxsrqjdprv txh hood uhsuhvhqwd od juäfd gh xqd ixqflöq frqwlqxd hq ^d> e` | glihuhqfldeoh hq `d> e^
Qrwhprv txh hq ho lqwhuydor `d> f^/ grqgh od ixqflöq hv fuhflhqwh/ od shqglhqwh gh od wdqjhqwh d od juäfd
gh i hq +x> i +x,, hv srvlwlyd/ sru or wdqwr g{ gi +x, A 3 Hvwr rfxuuh sdud fxdotxlhu x 5`d> f^/ dvð i 3 +{, A 3
sdud wrgr { hq `d> f^1
Or plvpr rfxuuh hq ho lqwhuydor `g> e^/ hv ghflu/ i hv fuhflhqwh dkð | wdpelìq i 3 +{, A 3 hq `g> e^1
Vlq hpedujr hq ho lqwhuydor `f> g^ od ixqflöq hv ghfuhflhqwh | od uhfwd wdqjhqwh wud}dgd hq +y> i+y,, wlhqh
shqglhqwh qhjdwlyd/ dvð i 3 +{, ? 3 vl { 5`f> g^1
Ilqdophqwh/ xvdqgr jxud I vh wlhqh txh odv wdqjhqwhv d od juäfd hq orv sxqwrv h{wuhprv f | g wlhqhq
shqglhqwh fhur/ hv ghflu>
i 3 +f, @ 3 a i 3 +g, @ 3
8191 PÄ[LPR \ PÐQLPR 678
Qrwh txh i +d,> i+e, vrq wdpelìq h{wuhprv shur odv ghulydgdv ghuhfkdv h l}txlhugd; %/ gh h{lvwlu qr vrq
qxodv1
Frpr frqfoxvlöq gho fdvr dqwhulru whqhprv txh orv h{wuhprv vh sxhghq hqfrqwudu grqgh od ghulydgd vh
dqxod/ grqgh qr h{lvwh od ghulydgd r hq orv h{wuhprv gho lqwhuydor1
Yhdprv d frqwlqxdflöq dojxqrv hmhpsorv grqgh hvwrv fdvrv rfxuuh1
Iljxud
Whruhpd 8155 Vhd i ghulydeoh hq d 5 D Grpi / D yhflqgdg gh d | i +d, xq pðqlpr uhodwlyr hqwrqfhv
i 3 +d, @ 31
Gh hvwd irupd
i +d . k, i +d, 3
Dvð/ vl k A 3
i +d . k, i +d,
3
k
| vl k ? 3
i +d . k, i +d,
3
k
; od i in
Ed ' *4k<f.
i Ednk3i Ed i olpk<f i Ednkk3i Ed 1
ghulydgd ghuhfkd gh hq d hv
k | od ghulydgd l}txlhugd gh hv
679 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
oxhjr
3 +d, @ olp i+d . k, i +d, 3 +d, @ olp i+d . k, i+d, 3
i. 3 a i
k$3. k k$3 k
| frpr i hv ghulydeoh hq d vl wlhqh rewhqhprv od vljxlhqwh fdghqd
3 +d, @ i 3 +d, @ i 3 +d, 3
3 i .
gh grqgh vh frqfox|h txh i 3 +d, @ 3
Frqfoxvlöq= Vl i hvwd ghqlgd hq xqd yhflqgdg gh s | i 3 +s, @ 3 +sru or wdqwr hv ghulydeoh hq s, hqwrqfhv
sxhgh rfxuulu txh=
Hmhpsor 766 Vh ghvhd frqvwuxlu xq rohrgxfwr gh xq sxqwr D d rwur sxqwr E txh glvwdq 8np | vh hq0
fxhqwudq hq ulehudv rsxhvwdv gh xq uðr gh fdxfh uhfwr gh 6np gh dqfkr1 Ho rohrgxfwr luä edmr ho djxd gh D
d xq sxqwr S hq od ulehud rsxhvwd | oxhjr vreuh ho vxhor gh S d E1
Ho frvwr sru nloöphwur gh wxehuðd edmr ho djxd hv ho fxäguxsoh gho frvwr vreuh wlhuud1 Fdofxoh od srvlflöq
gh S txh plqlpl}duä ho frvwr +ghvsuhflh od shqglhqwh gh ohfkr gho uðr,1
Vroxflöq= Vhd {od glvwdqfld +hq npv, gho sxqwr Rdo sxqwr S yhu jxud
8191 PÄ[LPR \ PÐQLPR 67:
jxud
1
Sru Slwäjrudv hq ho wuläqjxor DREvh wlhqh
5
RE . 65 @ 85
oxhjr RE @ 7/ gh grqgh S E @ 7 {1
Dghpäv/ hq ho wuläqjxor DRS / vh wlhqh
5 s
DS @ 65 . {5 , DS @ < . {5
Vhd f ho frvwr sru np gh wxehuðd vreuh wlhuud/ hqwrqfhv ho frvwr sru np gh wxehuðd edmr ho djxd hv 7f
Oxhjr od ixqflöq txh uhsuhvhqwd ho frvwr gh frqvwuxflöq gho rohrgxfwr hv
s
F+{, @ 7f < . {5 . f+7 {,
grqgh 3 { 71
Frpr F+{,hv xqd ixqflöq frqwlqxd hq ^3> 7`| ghulydeoh hq `3> 7^ hqwrqfhv F+{,dofdq}d vx pä{lpr hq
dojýq sxqwr d grqgh i 3 +d, @ 3r hq orv erughv gho lqwhuydorv ^3> 7`1
7f{
F 3 +{, @ s f
< . {5
s
Frpr F 3 +{, @ 3 +, { @ 848s5`3> 7^/
hydoxdqgr od ixqflöq F+{, hq { @ 848 | hq orv sxqwrv { @ 3 | { @ 7 vh wlhqh>
s
48 s
F+3, @ 49f F+7, @ 53f F+ , @ 6 48f . 7f
8
s
Frpr f A 3 | +6 48 . 7,f ? 49f ? 53f/
s s48
hqwrqfhv ho pðqlpr frvwr hv +6 48 . 7,f | od srvlflöq gho sxqwr S gheh vhu 7 8 npv gho sxqwr E1
Hmhpsor 767 Xq fdpsr shwurohur wlhqh rfkr sr}rv txh surgxfhq xq wrwdo gh 4933 eduulohv gh fuxgr do gðd1
Sru fdgd sr}r qxhyr txh vh wlhqh/ od surgxfflöq phgld sru sr}r glvplqx|h hq 43 eduulohv gldulrv BcFxäqwrv
sr}rv dglflrqdohv vh ghehq irupdu sdud rewhqhu od pd|ru surgxfflöq gh fuxgr do gðdB
Vroxflöq= Vhd {= ho qýphur gh sr}rv dglflrqdohv> { 3> { 5 ]1 Vl vh wlhqh ; sr}rv txh surgxfhq xq wrwdo
gh 4933 eduulohv hqwrqfhv od surgxfflöq phgld sru sr}r hv 533 eduulohv gldulrv1 Sru fdgd sr}r qxhyr txh
vh wlhqh od surgxfflöq phgld sru sr}r glvplqx|h hq 43 eduulohv oxhjr/ od surgxfflöq phgld sru sr}r hv
533 43{
67; FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
Frpr S hv xqd ixqflöq frqwlqxd hq ho lqwhuydor fhuudgr ^3> 53` | ghulydeoh hq `3> 53^/ S dofdq}d vx
pä{lpr hq dojýq sxqwr d grqgh i 3 +d, @ 3 r hq orv erughv gho lqwhuydor1
oxhjr>
S 3 +{, @ 3 +, { @ 9 5`3> 53^=
Hmhpsor 768 Ho surslhwdulr gh xq kxhuwr gh pdq}dqd/ fdofxod txh vl vlhpeud 57 äuerohv sru dfuh/ hqwrqfhv
fdgd äuero dgxowr gduä 933 pdq}dqdv do dôr1
Sru fdgd wuhv äuerohv päv txh vh sodqwhq sru dfuh ho qýphur gh pdq}dqdv txh surgxfh fdgd äuero
glvplqx|h hq 45 do dôr1 BcFxäqwrv äuerohv vh ghehq sodqwdu sru dfuh sdud rewhqhu ho pd|ru qýphur srvleoh
gh pdq}dqdv do dôrB
Vroxflöq= Vhd 6{ ho qýphur gh äuerohv txh vh sodqwdq +vreuh orv 57 äuerohv, sru dfuh1
Sxhvwr txh sru fdgd wuhv äuerohv päv txh vh sodqwhq sru dfuh ho qýphur gh pdq}dqdv txh surgxfh fdgd
äuero glvplqx|h hq 45 do dôr/ hqwrqfhv vl vh sodqwdq +57 . 6{, äuerohv sru dfuh ho qýphur gh pdq}dqdv txh
surgxfh fdgd äuero vhuä 933 45{/ oxhjr od surgxfflöq gh pdq}dqdv do dôr vhuä>
Oxhjr
S 3 +{, @ 6+933 45{, . +57 . 6{,+45,
S 3 +{, @ 3 +, { @ 54=
Gdgr txh S hv frqwlqxd hq ^3> 83` | ghulydeoh hq `3> 83^ hqwrqfhv hydoxdqgr hq orv sxqwrv { @ 3> { @
54> { @ 83 whqhprv
S +3, @ 47733 S +54, @ 635:9 S +83, @ 3
oxhjr od pä{lpd surgxfflöq gh pdq}dqd vh rewlhqh fxdqgr vh sodqwdq 96 äuerohv päv sru dfuh hv/ hv ghflu/
;: äuerohv sru dfuh1
8191 PÄ[LPR \ PÐQLPR 67<
Iljxud I
Ghqlflöq 8157 Xq sxqwr f 5 Grpi/ vh glfh txh hv xq sxqwr fuðwlfr gh i vl rfxuuh xqd gh odv vljxlhqwhv
srvlelolgdghv>
i 3 +f, @ 3 ö elhq i 3 +f, qr h{lvwh
Iljxud KI
Ghprvwudflöq= <
d, Vl od ixqflöq hv frqvwdqwh hq ^d> e`/ vx ghulydgd hv fhur hq `d> e^/ hv ghflu i 3 +{, @ 3> ;{ 5`d> e^
e, Vl qr rfxuuh or dqwhulru/ i qr hv frqvwdqwh | whqhprv grv fdvrv/ +l, h{lvwh xq lqwhuydor grqgh od ixqflöq
fuhfh | oxhjr ghfuhfh r elhq +ll, i ghfuhfh hq xq lqwhuydor sdud oxhjr fuhfhu +|d txh i+d, @ i +e,,1
Hq ho sulphu fdvr vh rewlhqh xq pä{lpr orfdo i +f, | hq ho vhjxqgr xq pðqlpr orfdo i +f, hq dperv fdvr
od wdqjhqwh hq hvrv sxqwrv vhuä gh shqglhqwh fhur i 3 +f, @ 31 Gh hvwd irupd f hv xq sxqwr fuð wlfr 1
Xqd jhqhudol}dflöq hq hvwh whruhpd hv ho whruhpd gh ydoru phglr txh vh sxhgh prwlydu gh od vljxlhqwh
irupd1
Frqvlghuhprv xq dxwr +xq mhhs sdud hvwdu hq rqgd, txh sduwh gh Ylôd d odv 44=63 krudv | oohjd d xqd
sduwh fhufdqd d Vdqwldjr d odv 46=33 krudv1 Vl uhfruuh 463 nlorphwurv/ hqwrqfhv od yhorflgdg surphglr r
phgld hv
+463 3,nloöphwurv 463
@ @ ;9> 9np@k=
+44 = 63 46 = 33,krudv 4> 8
Hvwr vljqlfd txh do phqrv dojýq prphqwr gh vx yldmh ho yhorfðphwur pdufö ;9> 9np@k/ hv ghflu/ od yhorflgdg
lqvwdqwäqhd hq dojýq prphqwr hqwuh 44=63 | odv 46=33 krudv ixh gh ;9> 9np@k1
Hq od jxud KI vh kd judfdgr od uhfwd O txh lqglfd od yhorflgdg phgld +uhfwd vhfdqwh d od juäfd
gh od ixqflöq v+w, txh qrv gä od glvwdqfld uhfruulgd sruho pöylo hq ho wlhpsr
w 5`44 = 63> 46 = 33^,
< Frpr i hv frqwlqxd/ od juäfd gh i hv frpr xqd fxhugd txh xqh orv sxqwrv Ed> i Ed> Ee> i Ee1 Frpr hvwrv sxqwrv hvwdq
do plvpr qlyho/ r elhq od fxhugd hvwd whqvd +frqvwdqwh, r elhq wlhqh rqgxodflrqhv +kd| pä{lpr |2r pðqlpr orfdohv,1
8191 PÄ[LPR \ PÐQLPR 684
Odv uhfwdv O4 > O5 > O6 vrq sdudohodv d O/ oxhjr wlhqh od plvpd shqglhqwh gh od uhfwd vhfdqwh> hoodv hvwäq
gdgdv sru odv ghulydgdv hq ho sxqwr/ hq hvwh fdvr rewhqhprv od shqglhqwh gh od vhfdqwh
v+e, v+d,
ed
txh hv ljxdo odv shqglhqwh gh odv wdqjhqwhv hq f4 > f5 / f6 / hv ghflu/ d orv ydoruhv v3 +f4 ,/ v3 +f5 ,/ v3 +f6 ,1
Dvð whqhprv od h{lvwhqfld d or phqrv gh xq sxqwr f 5`d> e^ hq hvwh fdvr +f @ f4 > f @ f5 > f @ f6 , wdo txh
v+e, v+d,
v3 +f, @
ed
Whruhpd 8159 +Whruhpd gho Ydoru Phglr, Vhd i xqd ixqflöq ghqlgd hq D/ ^d> e` D wdo txh
i +e, i+d,
i 3 +f, @
ed
Ghprvwudflöq= Od ixqflöq
i+e, i+d,
j+{, @ i+{, ^i +d, . +{ d,`
ed
vdwlvidfh odv klsöwhvlv gho whruhpd gh Urooh sru or wdqwr h{lvwh f 5`d> e^ wdo txh j3 +f, @ 3 r i 3 +f, i +ee,
d @ 3
i +d,
Revhuydflöq= Or txh glfh hv txh od uhfwd wdqjhqwh vhfdqwh txh sdvd sru orv sxqwrv +d> i +d,,> +e> i +e,,
hv sdudohod do phqrv d xqd gh odv uhfwdv wdqjhqwhv d od juäfd gh i hqwuh orv sxqwrv phqflrqdgrv1
Od dsolfdflöq päv gluhfwd gh hvwh whruhpd hv hq od ghprvwudflöq gho vljxlhqwh whruhpd
whqhprv i 3 +{, ? 3 hq `6> 7^/ sru or wdqwr i+{, hv hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh dool/ or plvpr rfxuuh hq ho
lqwhuydor ^8> 4^1
Hmhpsor 773 Vhd i+{, @ h{ / frpr i 3 +{, @ h{ hv srvlwlyd sdud wrgr ydoru {/ vh frqfox|h txh i hv hvwulf0
wdphqwh fuhflhqwh/ vlq hpedujr j+{, @ h6{ / j3 +{, @ 6h6{ / sru or wdqwr j hv hvwulfwdphqwh ghfuhflhqwh1
Hmhpsor 774 Vhd i +{, @ orjd +{,> { A 3> 3 ? d 9@ 4/ frpr
g 4
orjd +{, @
g{ { oqd +{,
| od yduldeoh { hv srvlwlyd/ vh wlhqh txh oq d ghwhuplqd ho vljqr gh od ghulydgd gh i sru or wdqwr whqhprv
txh=
41 Vl d A 4/ i hv hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh
51 Vl d ? 4/ i hv hvwulfwdphqwh ghfuhflhqwh
Hmhpsor 775 Vdh i +{, @ oq+ {{ 4
,/ yhdprv hq txh lqwhuydorv i hv ghfuhflhqwh
Ho grplqlr gh od ixqflöq hv ` 4> 5^^`4> 4^/ | vx ghulydgd od rewhqhprv xwlol}dqgr uhjod gh od fdghqd
.5
| od ghulydgd gh xq fxrflhqwh
{ . 5 +{ . 5, +{ 4,
i 3 +{, @ + ,+ ,
{4 +{ . 5,5
6
@
+{ 4,++{ . 5,
Frpr i 3 +{, A 3 hq vx grplqlr vh frqfox|h txh i hv hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh hq od fdgd lqwhuydor +qr
srghprv ghflu txh hv fuhflhqwh hq od xqlöq,1
Huuöqhdphqwh srguldprv ghflu txh i 3 +{, ? 3 hq lqwhuydor ` 5> 4^/ od ud}öq gho huuru hv txh od ixqflöq
qr hvwd ghqlgd hq hvwh lqwhuydor/ dvð txh hv lpsrvleoh txh i 3 +{, hvwh ghqlgd hq xq frqmxqwr pd|ru1
8191 PÄ[LPR \ PÐQLPR 686
Hmhpsor 776 Vhd y+w, @ w6 85w . 9w . ; od yhorflgdg gh xq pöylo hq ho wlhpsr w/ w 5 ^3> ;`1
6 5
Ghwhuplqhprv orv lqwhuydorv gh wlhpsr grqgh ho pöylo hvwd dxphqwdqgr gh yhorflgdg +dfhohudqgr, | hq
txh prphqwr hvwä glvplqx|hqgr vx yhorflgdg +iuhqdqgr r dfhohudflöq qhjdwlyd,
Whruhpd 815; +Fulwhulr gh od sulphud ghulydgd, Vhd i frqwlqxd hq ^d> e` @ D | ghulydeoh hq `d> e^
qr qhfhvduldphqwh hq s 5 D
d, Vl h{lvwh A 3 wdo txh i 3 +{, A 3 hq `s > s^ | i 3 +{, ? 3 hq `s> s . ^ hqwrqfhv i wlhqh xq pä{lpr
uhodwlyr hvwulfwr hq { @ s
e, Vl h{lvwh A 3 wdo txh i 3 +{, ? 3 hq `s > s^ | i 3 +{, A 3 hq `s> s . ^ hqwrqfhv i wlhqh xq pðqlpr
uhodwlyr hvwulfwr hq { @ s
Jhqhudophqwh/ odv klsöwhvlv hq +d,/ sdud xq pä{lpr uhodwlyr/ vh hvfuleh uhvxplgdphqwh dvð
{ s s s.
i 3 +{, . 0
i+{, ( )
{ s s s.
i 3 +{, 0 .
i+{, ) (
i 3 +{, @ 9{ . : A 3 +, { A :9
i 3 +{, @ 9{ . : ? 3 +, { ? :9
Oxhjr
{ :@9
i 3 +{, 0 3 .
i +{, ) (
gh grqgh i hv hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh hq ` :9 > 4^ | hvwulfwdphqwh ghfuhflhqwh hq ` 4> :9 ^/ dvð sru
ho fulwhulr gh od sulphud ghulydgd srghprv frqfoxlu txh i + :9 , hv xq ydoru pðqlpr uhodwlyr hvwulfwr/ txh
dghpäv hv devroxwr1
Hvwh uhvxowdgr wdpelìq or srghprv rewhqhu judfdqgr od sduäerod txh uhsuhvhqwd d | @ i+{, @ 6{5 . :{
frq yìuwlfh hq + :9 > i + :9 ,,
Vroxflöq= Ghwhuplqhprv hq txì lqwhuydorv i 3 +{, A 3 | grqgh i 3 +{, ? 31 Sdud hvwr iruphprv xqd wdeod
sdud od ixqflöq i 3 txh qrv lqgltxh uhvxplgdphqwh grqgh hv srvlwlyd | grqgh hv qhjdwlyd1
5 6 8
{6 0 0 3 . .
{.5 0 3 . . .
{8 0 0 0 3 .
{ 05 6 8
i 3 +{, 0 3 . 3 0 3 .
i +{, ) 3 ( 3 ) 3 (
Gho uhvýphq vh sxhgh frqfoxlu txh i +5,> | i +8, vrq pðqlpr orfdohv hvwulfwr | i +6, hv xq pä{lpr orfdo
hvwulfwr1
{ 4
i+{, 3
i 3 +{, 0 9< .
i+{, ) (
oxhjr sru ho fulwhulr gh od sulphud ghulydgd i wlhqh xq qðqlpr hq { @ 4 txh hv wdpelìq devroxwr +qrwdu
txh ho Grpi @ U qr hv dfrwdgr,/ i qr wlhqh pä{lpr1
Hmhpsor 77: Ghwhuplqhprv vl odv vljxlhqwhv dupdflrqhv vrq yhugdghudv r idovdv1 Mxvwlfduhprv qxhv0
wudv uhvsxhvwd1
d, Vhd A 3/ od ixqflöq i+{, @ h{ / ghqlgd hq vx grplqlr pä{lpr wlhqh vöor xq ydoru h{wuhpr1
5
vhq5 +4@{, { 9@ 3
e, Od ixqflöq i+{, @ qr wlhqh h{wuhprv1
3 {@3
Vroxflöq=
8191 PÄ[LPR \ PÐQLPR 688
Sru fulwhulr gh od sulphud ghulydgd i wlhqh xq pä{lpr uhodwlyr hvwulfwr txh hv wdpelìq devroxwr +sxhv
od ixqflöq vxeh | edmd vöor xqd yh},/ | qr wlhqh pðqlpr1
e, Idovr1 Sru ghqlflöq hv fodur txh i wlhqh xq pð qlpr orfdo devroxwr hq { @ 3/ sxhv
{ 6@5 3
i +{, 0 0 3 .
i 3 +{, 0 3 . 3 .
i +{, ) ( (
Hq edvh d od lqirupdflöq txh khprv rewhqlgr kdvwd ho prphqwr/ srghprv judfdu dojxqdv ixqflrqhv
frqvlghudqgr> grplqlr/ grplqlr gh frqwlqxlgdg/ lqwhufhswrv frq orv hmhv frrughqdgrv/ lqwhuydorv gh fuhf0
lplhqwr | ghfuhflplhqwr/ pä{lprv |2r pðqlprv1
Vroxflöq=
d, Grpi @ U1
e, i hv frqwlqxd hq wrgr U +ixqflöq srolqrpldo,1
f, Lqwhufhswrv frq ho hmh | S3 @ +3>
s3, s
Lqwhufhswrv frq ho hmh { S4 @ + 4@6> 3,> S5 @ + 4@6> 3,
689 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
{ 4@6 4@6
{ 4@6 0 0 3 .
{ . 4@6 0 3 . .
i 3 +{, . 0 .
i +{, ( ) (
{ 4@6 4@6
i+{, 5@< 5@<
i 3 +{, ( 3 ) 3 (
Sru ho fulwhulr gh od sulphud ghulydgd i wlhqh xq pä{lpr uhodwlyr hvwulfwr hq { @ 4@6 | xq pðqlpr
uhodwlyr hvwulfwr hq { @ 4@61 Dvð od juäfd gh i hv dsur{lpdgdphqwh frpr od gh od jxud
Hmhpsor 77< Vhd i +{, @ vhq5 +{,1 Ghwhuplqhprv orv sxqwrv h{wuhprv | hvshflfduhprv gh txh wlsr vrq1
Vroxflöq= i 3 +{, @ 5 vhq+{, frv+{, orv sxqwrv fuðwlfrv vrq odv vroxflrqhv gh od hfxdflöq
vhq+{, frv+{, @ 3
vhq+{, @ 3 frv+{, @ 3
Xvdqgr ho vljqr gh odv ixqflrqhv vhq+{, | frv+{, hq orv fxdgudqwhv gh U5 / whqhprv txh=
Hq ho sulphu | whufhu fxdgudqwhv dpedv wlhqh ho plvpr vljqr sru or wdqwr od ghulydgd hv srvlwlyd1 hv
ghflu/
6
i 3 +{, A 3 vl { 5`3> ^^`> ^
5 5
| hq orv rwurv fxdgudqwhv vh wlhqh
6
i 3 +{, ? 3 vl { 5` > ^^` > 5^
5 5
Xvdqgr od shulrglflgdg gh vhq+{, | frv+{, vh rewlhqh ho vljqr gh i 3 +{, hq wrgd od uhfwd uhdo1
Vl
6
{ 5 ^q5] +`5q> . 5q^^`+5q . 4,> . 5q^,> i 3 +{, A 3
5 5
6
i +3, @ 3> i+5, @ 3> i + , @ 4> i + , @ 4> i +, @ 3
5 5
Frq od lqirupdflöq txh khprv rewhqlgr/ srghprv kdfhu od juäfd gh i hq irupd dsur{lpdgd1
Vdehprv txh od ixqflöq hv fuhflhqwh hq ho lqwhuydor `3> 5 ^ | txh 3 | 4 vrq pðqlpr | pä{lpr uhodwlyrv
uhvshfwlydphqwh/ frpr i hv xqd ixqflöq frqwlqxd/ od juäfd hq ^3> 5 ` fruuhvsrqgd d xqlu orv sxqwrv +3> i +3,,
| + 5 > 4, hq irupd fuhflhqwh/ d glihuhqfld gh od xqlöq gh orv sxqwrv + 5 > 4, | +> 3, txh hv hq irupd ghfuhflhqwh
Ho juäfr vh sxhgh kdfhu frpsohwr/ sru od shulrglflgdg edvwd vdehu or txh rfxuuh hq ^3> `1
y 1 y 1
0.75 0.75
0.5 0.5
0.25 0.25
0
0
-7.5 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 7.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
x x
i+{, @ vlq { 5
i+{, @ vlq {
5
Ho vljxlhqwh sureohpd gh dsolfdflöq hv qhfhvdulr rewhqhu suhyldphqwh xqd ixqflöq txh vh exvfduä ho
pä{lpr r pðqlpr | oxhjr dsolfdu dojýq fulwhulr gh rewhqflöq gh pä{lpr r gh pðqlpr1
Hmhpsor 783 Vh lqwhqwd fhufdu xq fdpsr uhfwdqjxodu frq 7 kheudv gh dodpeuh | ghvsxìv vxeglylglu ho
fdpsr hq grv sduwhv +frpr hq od jxud , frq xqd fhufd sdudohod d xqr gh orv odgrv/ xwlol}dqgr 5 kheudv
gh dodpeuh1 Ghwhuplqdu odv glphqvlrqhv gho whuuhqr gh äuhd pä{lpd1
68; FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
Vroxflöq= Vhdq { h | odv glphqvlrqhv gho whuuhqr/ hqwrqfhv ho äuhd hvwä gdgd sru od iöupxod
D @ {|
shur do glvwulexlu orv 933 phwurv gh dodpeuh vh wlhqh od hfxdflöq>
933 @ 43{ . ;|
gh grqgh | @ :8 8{@7 oxhjr>
8
D @ {+:8 {,
7
shur { A 3 | | A 3/ hv ghflu/ { A 3 | :8 7 A 3
8{
D3 +{, @ :8 {
43
oxhjr
7
D3 +{, A 3 +, :8 85{ A 3
D3 +{, A 3 +, 63 A {
D3 +{, ? 3 +, 63 ? {
Uhvxplhqgr whqhprv
{ 63
D+{,, . 4458 .
D3 +{,, . 3 0
D+{, ( )
oxhjr ho äuhd pä{lpd vh dofdq}d fxdqgr { @ 63 1
Dvð odv glphqvlrqhv gho whuuhqr vrq
{ @ 63pwv > | @ 6:> 8pwv
Revhuydflöq= Dtxð qr vh hydoýd hq orv h{wuhprv gho lqwhuydor/ sxhv qr hvwäq frqvlghudgrv hq ho grplqlr
gh od ixqflöq1
8191 PÄ[LPR \ PÐQLPR 68<
Whruhpd 815< +Fulwhulr gh od vhjxqgd ghulydgd, Vhd i xqd ixqflöq ghulydeoh hq xq lqwhuydor delhuwr
txh frqwlhqh d s wdo txh i 3 +s, @ 31 +hv ghflu/ s hv xq sxqwr fuðwlfr,1
Revhuydflöq= +4, Hv lpsruwdqwh kdfhu qrwdu txh d glihuhqfld gho fulwhulr gh od sulphud ghulydgd hvwh
fulwhulr h{ljh txh i / vhd ghulydeoh grv yhfhv hq s frq i 3 +s, @ 31
+5, Vl i%+s, @ 3 hvwh fulwhulr qr qrv gä lqirupdflöq/ | vh gheh uhfxuulu do fulwhulr gh od sulphud ghulydgd1
Hmhpsor 785 Vh ghvhd frqvwuxlu xq wdqtxh gh dfhur frq od irupd gh xq flolqgur uhfwr | vhplhvihud hq
orv h{wuhprv +yhdvh od jxud Q, sdud dopdfhqdu jdv sursdqr1 Ho frvwr gh ideulfdflöq sru slh fxdgudgr gh
orv h{wuhprv hv ho greoh do gh od sduwh floðqgulfd1 Á Txì glphqvlrqhv plqlpl}dq ho frvwr/ vl od fdsdflgdg
ghvhdgd gho wdqtxh hv gh 43slh6 B
Iljxud Q
Vroxflöq= Vhd S ho frvwr gho slh fxdgudgr gh od sduwh floðqgulfd hqwrqfhv ho frvwr gho slh fxdgudgr gh orv
h{wuhprv hv 5S 1
Sxhvwr txh hq od sduwh floðqgulfd vh wlhqh 5uk slh5 | hq orv h{wuhprv 7u5 slh5 hqwrqfhv ho frvwr gh
frqvwuxfflöq hv
F @ 5ukS . 7u5 5S
shur ho yroxphq hv
7
Y @ u5 k . u6 @ 43
6
693 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
hqwrqfhv
43 76 u6
k@
u5
| od ixqflöq frvwr hq wìuplqrv gh u hv>
43 7u
F+u, @ 5u+ ,S . 7u5 5S
u5 6
hv ghflu>
8 7u5
F+u, @ 7S + . ,
u 6
Frpr u A 3> k A 3 hqwrqfhv
43 76 u6
k@ A3
u5
t
gh grqgh u6 ? 63 / oxhjr 3 ? u ? 6 63
u
8 7u5 63
F+u, @ 7S + . , > u 5`3> ^
6
u 6 7
Dkrud ghwhuplqhprv ho pðqlpr sru ho fulwhulr gh od vhjxqgd ghulydgd +qrwhprv txh F+u, hv grv yhfhv
glihuhqfldeoh hq vx grplqlr,
8 ;u
F 3 +u, @ 7S + 5 . ,
u 6
oxhjr
8 ;u
F 3 +u, @ 3 +, . @3
u5 6
48
+, u6 @
s 7
6
48
+, u @
5
s6
Frpr 548 5 GrpF | F 3 +u, hv ghulydeoh srghprv dsolfdu ho fulwhulr gh od vhjxqgd ghulydgd1
Od ghulydgd gh F 3 +u, hv
43 ;
F%+u, @ 7S + 6 . ,
u 6
s6 s6
oxhjr F%+ 548 , A 3/ gh grqgh F wlhqh xq pðqlpr hq u @ 548 5 GrpF1
Odv glphqvlrqhv txh plqlpl}dq ho frvwr gh ideulfdflöq gho wdqtxh vrq
s s
6
48 73 7 6 48
u@ > k@ s
5 6
48 9
81: Frqfdylgdg
Ghqlflöq 8163 Vhd i = L $ U/ L xq lqwhuydor
41 Gluhprv txh od ixqflöq i hv frqyh{d r frqfdyd kdfld duuled hq L vl ;d> e> { 5 L wdo txh d ? { ? e
ho sxqwr +{> i +{,, +gh od juäfd gh i , hvwä dedmr gh od uhfwd vhfdqwh txh xqh orv sxqwrv +d> i+d,, |
+e> i+e,, jxud^_ juäfr l}txlhugr1
81:1 FRQFDYLGDG 694
51 Gluhprv txh od ixqflöq i hv frqfdyd r frqfdyd kdfld dedmr hq L vl ;d> e> { 5 L wdo txh d ? { ? e
ho sxqwr +{> i+{,, +gh od juäfd gh i , hvwä vreuh od uhfwd vhfdqwh txh xqh orv sxqwrv +d> i +d,, |
+e> i +e,, jxud ^_ juäfr1 ghuhfkr
Iljxud ^_
41 Gluhprv txh i hv frqfdyd kdfld duuled r frqyh{d hq ho sxqwr +{> i+{,, vl h{lvwh xqd yhflqgdg L @`d> e^
wdo txh { 5 L Grpi | od ixqflöq i mL hv frqfdyd kdfld duuled hq L1
51 Gluhprv txh i hv frqfdyd kdfld dedmr r frqfdyd hq ho sxqwr +{> i +{,, vl h{lvwh xqd yhflqgdg L @`d> e^
wdo txh { 5 L Grpi | od ixqflöq i mL hv frqfdyd kdfld dedmr hq L1
Revhuydflöq=
Hq ho fdvr gh whqhu xqd ixqflöq hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh hq ho lqwhuydor L @ ^d> e` vh sxhgh whqhu txh
i vhd frqfdyd hq L r frqyh{d hq L r hq xq vhfwru frqfdyd | hq rwur frqyh{d +yhu jxud ,/ or plvpr
vh sxhgh ghflu gh xqd ixqflöq hvwulfwdphqwh ghfuhflhqwh1
695 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
Iljxud
51 Frpr od hfxdflöq gh od uhfwd vhfdqwh txh sdvd sru orv sxqwrv +d> i +d,,/ +e> i +e,, hv
i +d, i+e,
|@ +{ d, . i +d,
de
r
i+d, i +e,
|@ +{ e, . i +e,
de
Ghflu txh sdud d ? { ? e/ ho sxqwr hvwd ghedmr gh od vhfdqwh vljqlfd sru or wdqwr
i +d, i+e,
i +{, ? +{ d, . i +d, +8155,
de
| txh
i +d, i +e,
i +{, ? +{ e, . i +e, +8156,
de
i+d, i +e,
i +{, i +d, ? +{ d,
de
dkrud rshudqgr hq od ghvljxdogdg 8156
Xvdqgr odv ýowlpdv ghvljxdogdghv vh wlhqh txh i hv frqfdyd kdfld duuled vl | vöor vl d ? { ? e vh wlhqh
61 Kd| xqd fdudfwhul}dflöq jhrpìwulfd pdv fodud sdud ho fdvr gh xqd ixqflöq txh vhd ghulydeoh hq xq
sxqwr {3
+d, Od juäfd gh i hv frqfdyd kdfld duuled hq ho sxqwr +{3 > i +{3 ,, vl h{lvwh xq lqwhuydor L txh
frqwlhqh d {3 / wdo txh od juäfd gh imL hvwä sru hqflpd gh od uhfwd wdqjhqwh hq +{3 > i +{3 ,, jxud
/ juäfd l}txlhugd
81:1 FRQFDYLGDG 696
Iljxud
1
+e, Od juäfd gh i hv frqfdyd kdfld dedmr hq +{4 > i+{4 ,, vl h{lvwh xq lqwhuydor L txh frqwlhqh d
{4 wdo txh od juäfd gh imL hvwd sru dedmr gh od uhfwd wdqjhqwh hq +{4 > i +{4 ,, jxud > juäfd
ghuhfkd
Iljxud RK
71 Hq od jxud RK l}txlhugd whqhprv od juäfd gh xqd ixqflöq ghulydeoh frqfdyd kdfld duuled hq ho
lqwhuydor L/ hq hood khprv glexmdgr glvwlqwdv uhfwdv wdqjhqwhv/ odv shqglhqwhv gh hvwdv uhfwdv dxphqwdq
d phglgd txh qrv pryhprv gh l}txlhugd d ghuhfkd1 Frpr odv shqglhqwhv hvwdq ghwhuplqdgd sru odv
ghulydgdv vh frqfox|h txh i 3 +{, hv fuhflhqwh1 Vl od ixqflöq i 3 +{, hv wdpelìq ghulydeoh vh frqfox|h txh
i %+{, hv srvlwlyd r fhur sru ho khfkr txh i 3 +{, hv xqd ixqflöq fuhflhqwh1
Hq od jxud RK ghuhfkr khprv glexmdgr yduldv uhfwdv wdqjhqwhv d od juäfd gh i/ fx|dv shqglhqwhv
vrq orv ydoruhv gh odv ghulydgdv gh i/ i 3 1 i 3 +{, hv ghfuhflhqwh |d txh odv shqglhqwhv gh odv wdqjhqwhv
glvplqx|h d phglgd txh fdpeldq gh sxqwrv gh l}txlhugd d ghuhfkd hq od juäfd gh od ghuhfkd gh
jxud RK1
Frpr od ixqflöq i 3 +{, hv ghfuhflhqwh/ gh vhu hood ghulydeoh/ vx ghulydgd hv qhjdwlyd r fhur/ hv ghflu/
i %+{, 3> ;{ 5 L1
Whruhpd 8165 Vhd i = L $ U/ grv yhfhv ghulydeoh hq ho lqwhuydor delhuwr L
41 i hv frqfdyd kdfld duuled hq L +, i %+{, 3 sdud wrgr { 5 L1
51 i hv frqfdyd kdfld dedmr hq L +, i %+{, 3 sdud wrgr { 5 L1
Od irupd frpr jhqhudophqwh vh dsolfd hvwh whruhpd hv= xvdqgr od lqirupdflöq gh od vhjxqgd ghulydgd
vh rewlhqh od frqfdylgdg r frqyh{lgdg gh od juäfd
697 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
Frurodulr 8166 Vhd i = L $ U> {3 5 L> i ghulydeoh hq L | vxsrqjdprv txh h{lvwh gg{i5 +{3 ,1
5
Frq hvwh frurodulr txhgd delhuwr ho fdvr txh od vhjxqgd ghulydgd vh dqxoh1
Ghqlflöq 8167 Xq sxqwr +{3 > i +{3 ,, gh od juäfd gh i vh glfh txh hv xq sxqwr gh lq h{lrq vl h{lvwh
xq delhuwr L wdo txh sdud wrgr { 5 L i{3 j/ i %+{, h{lvwh | dghpäv i%+{, fdpeld gh vljqr hq {3 1
Hmhpsor 787 Vhd i+{, @ 6{5 . 9{ . ; xqd sduäerod1 Frpr vh glmr dqwhulruphqwh hv ho hmhpsor päv
vlpsoh gh frqfdyd kdfld duuled/ i %+{, @ 9 A 31
Hmhpsor 788 Vhd i +{, @ 9{5 . 9{ . ;/ i%+{, @ 9 txh hv qhjdwlyd/ sru or wdqwr od juäfd gh i +od
sduäerod, hv frqfdyd kdfld dedmr1
Orv grv hmhpsorv dqwhulruhv oh ghehuldq shuplwlu uhfrugdu fxdo hv ho vljqr gh od vhjxqgd ghulydgd h{ljlgr
sdud frqfdylgdg | fxdo hv h{ljlgr sdud frqyh{lgdg1
Hq orv grv hmhpsorv dqwhulruhv qr whqhprv sxqwrv gh lq h{löq/ d frqwlqxflöq yhuhprv xqr
Hmhpsor 789 Vhd i +{, @ 5{6 . 8{5 . 47;@5:/ yhdprv vl i wlhqh sxqwrv gh lq h{löq1
{ 8@9
i%+{,, 0 .
juäfd gh i Frqfdyd Lq h{löq Frqyh{d
Dkrud xvdqgr od sulphu ghulydgd srghprv kdfhu xqd wdeod uhvxphq txh qrv shuplwluä judfdu i frq
pd|ru suhflvlöq
{ 8@6 8@9 3
i 3 +{, . 3 0 0 3 .
i %+{, 0 0 3 . .
i+{, ( ) ) (
juäfd gh i Frqfdyd Frqfdyd Frqyh{d Frqyh{d
{ 8@6 8@9 3
i 3 +{, . 3 0 0 3 .
i %+{, 0 0 3 . .
i +{, ) ( ( )
_ _ ^ ^
81:1 FRQFDYLGDG 698
Dvð/ od juäfd gh i ghehuðd vhu od xqlöq gh odv sxqwrv +8@6> i +8@6,, / +8@9> i+8@9,,/ +3> i +3,,
frpr vh lqglfd hq od ýowlpd olqhd gh od wdeod/ rewhqhprv gh hvwd irupd ho juäfr gh od jxud
Hmhpsor 78: Ho hmhpsor dqwhulru qrv srguðd oohydu d shqvdu txh orv sxqwrv gh lq h{löq vlhpsuh vh rewlhqh
gh od hfxdflöq i%+{, @ 31 Do ljxdo txh hq ho fdvr gh ydoruhv h{wuhprv hvwrv qr vh rewlhqh vlhpsuh gh od
hfxdflöq i 3 +{, @ 31 Hvwh hmhpsor qrv pxhvwud hq txh rwurv fdvrv dsduhfhq orv sxqwrv gh lq h{löq1
Vhd i +{, @ +{ 7,8@6 . :1 Ho grplqlr gh i +{, hv U | vxv ghulydgdv gh rughq 4 | gh rughq 5 vrq
uhvshfwlydphqwh1
8 43
i 3 +{, @ +{ 7,5@6 i %+{, @ +{ 7,4@6
6 <
Fodudphqwh i%+{, @ 3 qr qrv duurmd vroxflöq/ shur vl srghprv qrwdu txh i %+{, qr h{lvwh hq { @ 7 |
txh vx i%+{, fdpeld gh vljqr hq 7 sru or wdqwr +7> i +7,, @ +7> :, hv xq sxqwr gh lq h{löq
{ 7
i %+{,, 0 9< .
juäfd gh i frqfdyd frqyh{d
i +{, @ +{ 7,8@6 . :
i 3 +{, @ 3 +, { @ 7
{ 7
i 3 +{, 0 3 .
i %+{, 0 <2 .
i +{,
Hmhpsor 78; Judtxhprv od ixqflöq i+{, @ +{45,7 / lqglfdqgr lqwhuydor gh fuhflplhqwr/ gh ghfuhf0
lplhqwr/ frqfdylgdg | frqfdylgdg kdfld duuled/ | vl orv kxelhuh/ ydoruhv h{wuhprv | sxqwr gh lq h{löq1
Vroxflöq= Qrwhprv hq sulphu oxjdu txh Grpi @ U i5j/ Uhfi @ U. sru or wdqwr od juäfd hv vreuh
hmh {1
5,8 | i %+{, @ +{5,9 1
Odv ghulydgdv vrq i+{, @ +{7 53
{ 5
i 3 +{, . 9< 0
i%+{, . 9< .
i+{, ^ 9< ^
Vhjýq orv hmhpsorv dqwhulruhv ghehuldprv xqlu sxqwrv gh odv juäfdv frpr vh lqglfd hq od ýowlpd olqhd
gh od wdeod/ shur qr hv srvleoh |d txh qr kd| wdohv sxqwrv +Qrwd +4> i +4,,/ +5> i+5,,/ +4> i +4,, qr vrq
sxqwrv gh od juäfd, shur srghprv yhu d txh ydoruhv wlhqghq fxdqgr { $ 5 / { $ 4 | fxdqgr { $ 4
i qr wlhqh sxqwrv gh lq h{löq |d txh ho ýqlfr fdqglgdwr d wdo hud +5> i+5,,/ shur qr shuwhqhfh d od juäfd
gh i + i +5, qr h{lvwh, dpìq gh txh i%+{, qr fdpeld gh vljqr hq { @ 51
Hmhpsor 78< Gh xqd sodqfkd phwäolfd gh 433 fp 5 pwv vh ghvhd frqvwuxlu grv wxerv gh 5 phwurv gh
odujr xqr frq vhfflöq wudqvyhuvdo xqd flufxqihuhqfld | rwur vhfflöq fxdgudgd BcFrpr vh gheh fruwdu od
sodqfkd d or odujr gh wdo irupd txh od vxpd gh orv yroýphqhv lqwhulruhv vhd pä{lpr1 BcFxdqgr hv pðqlprB
Vroxflöq= Vxsrqjdprv txh od sodqfkd vh fruwdq hq {fp5pwv | +433 {, fp5pwv/ frq od sulphud
kduhprv ho flolqgur gh udglr u/ hqwrqfhv 5u @ { | frq od vhjxqgd ho wxer frq vhfflöq fxdgudgd/ hv ghflu/
fdgd odgr hv gh + 4337{ ,fpv1
Ho yroxphq gho flolqgur hv
{
u5 5333fp6 @ + ,5 5333fp6
5
Ho yroxphq gho rwur wxer hv
433 { 5
+ , 5333fp6
7
69; FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
g{5
g i
410 Vl +, A 3 vh frqfox|h txh hq kd| xq pðqlpr uhodwlyr/ hvwh hv i +,
5
g{5
g i
510 Vl +, ? 3 vh frqfox|h txh hq kd| xq pä{lpr uhodwlyr/ hvwh hv i +,
5
g{5
g5 i
Frpr sxhghv qrwdu vl +, @ 3> qr vh glfh qdgd/ srguðd rfxuulu fxdotxlhu frvd frpr vh sxhghq yhu
g{5
hq odv ixqflrqhv
i+{, @ {6 hq xq lqwhuydor fhuudgr fhufd gho fhur qr wlhqh pä{lpr ql pðqlpr hq fhur/
i+{, @ {7 > wlhqh xq pðqlpr hq fhur |
i+{, @ 5{7 wlhqh xqd pä{lpr hq fhur
Revhuydflöq= Hvwr gh srqhu xq lqwhuydor fhuudgr hv vöor sdud jdudqwl}du od h{lvwhqfld gh ydoruhv h{0
wuhprv/ shur ho whvw hv dsolfdeoh hq rwurv fdvrv |d txh vh gheh fxpsolu odv klsöwhvlv hq xqd yhflqgdg gho
sxqwr fuðwlfr1
Uhfxhugh txh wdpelhq sxhgh kdehu pä{lpr r pðqlprv hq oxjduhv txh od ixqflöq qr hv ghulydeoh/ dvl
phqrv vhuä grv yhfhv ghulydeoh | hq hvh fdvr vöor qrv txhgd ho whvw gh od sulphud ghulydgd1
43 Sru or wdqwr |d vdehprv txh hood wlhqh pä{lpr | plqlpr
81:1 FRQFDYLGDG 69<
Revhuydflrqhv Lpsruwdqwhv
4, Wrgd ho dojheud gh oðplwhv vh fxpsoh hq hvwh wlsr gh oð plwhv
5, Ho Whruhpd gh vxvwlwxflöq wdpelìq
6, Vhdq s+{, @ d3 .d4 {. .dq {q > t+{, @ e3 .e4 {. .eo {o srolqrplr gh judgr q | o uhvshfwlydphqwh
hqwrqfhv dq
s+{, eq q @ o
olp @
{$4 t+{, 3 q?o
Ghprvwudflöq= Fdvr +4, vxsrqjdprv txh q @ o1
s+{, d3 . d4 { . . dq {q 4@{q
olp @ olp
{$4 t+{, {$4 e3 . e4 { . . eq {q 4@{q
d3 . d4 . . d
@ olp {e3
q {q4 q
=
{$4 q . qe44 . . eq
{ {
Sru hmhpsor dqwhulru vh wlhqh txh orv q sulphurv oðplwhv gho qxphudgru | orv q sulphurv oðplwhv gho
ghqrplqdgru vrq qxorv/ dvð
s+{, dq
olp @
{$4 t+{, eq
Fdvr+5, q ? o
s+{, d3 . d4 { . . dq {q 4@{o
olp @ olp
{$4 t+{, {$4 e3 . e4 { . . eo {o 4@{o
d3 . d4 . . dq
o4 {oq
@ olp { e3 { e4
o
{$4 o . o4 . . eo
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3.3..3
@ @3
3 . 3 . . eo
olp @ olp {
{$4 8{5 . 9{ . : {$4{5 .9{.:
5
8
t {
6 ; {9 . : {5 . 5
{9 {9 {9
@ olp
{$4 8 . { . {:
9
s6;.3.3 5
@ @
8.3.3 8
Hmhpsor 798 Fdofxohprv
frv {6
olp
{$4 {6
81:1 FRQFDYLGDG 6:4
4 frv {6 4
6
{6 {6 {
| frpr dghpäv olp{$4 {46 @ 3 xvdqgr dfrwdplhqwr vh rewlhqh
frv {6
olp @3
{$4 {6
Hmhpsor 799 Xq pdwhuldo udglr dfwlyr hq ho wlhpsr w wlhqh xqd pdvd p+w, @ nhw grqgh n> 5 U. 1
Pxhvwuh txh od pdvd wlhqgh d ghvdsduhfhu fxdqgr w $ 4
hw 4 . w 3> ;w 5 U.
Dvð/
n n
3 olp w olp @3
w$4 h w$4 4 . w
81:16 Dvðqwrwdv
Dvlqwrwdv Krul}rqwdohv
Vhd i ghqlgd hq U. | frq olp{$4 i +{, @ O1
Frpr olp{$4 i +{, @ O vh wlhqh txh sdud wrgr % A 3/ h{lvwh Q 5 Q wdo txh vl
{ A Q> mi+{, Om ? %/ shur hvwr ýowlpr hv htxlydohqwhphqwh d O % ? i+{, ? O . %/ ;{ A Q 1
Wrpdprv od uhfwd | @ O/ uhfwd krul}rqwdo/ vh wlhqh txh d phglgd txh { vh dfhufd do lqqlwr i vh dfhufd
d hvwd uhfwd frpr od jxud1
Dvðqwrwd Krul}rqwdo
6:5 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
Hq ho fdvr gh olp{$4 i+{, @ O rfxuuh or plvpr sdud ixqflrqhv ghqlgdv hq grplqlr txh frqwhqjd
lqwhuydor gh od irupd ` 4> Q `/ |d txh
Dvðqwrwd Krul}rqwdo
Ghqlflöq 816: Vhd i = D U $ U ixqflöq wdo txh D frqwlhqh xq lqwhuydor gho wlsr `Q> 4^1 Gluhprv
txh od uhfwd | @ O hv xqd dvðqwrwdv krul}rqwdohv gh i vl
:{5 . 8{
i +{, @
7{5 . 5{ 7
s
oxhjr | @ 8 5 hv xqd dvðqwrwd krul}rqwdo1
t
8 4 . {75 s
8 5 . 3 s
olp i+{, @ olp @ @ 8 5
{$4 {$4 { .6
{ 4.3
s
+Uhfxhugh txh {5 @ m{m,1
s
Sru or wdqwr | @ 8 5 hv rwud dvðqwrwd krul}rqwdo1
Dkrud hvwxglduhprv oðplwhv txh ydq d lqqlwr/ frpr hv ho fdvr gh
4 4
olp r olp
{$3 m{m {$< m{ <m
Ghqlflöq 816;
4, Gluhprv txh ho oðplwhv gh i fxdqgr { wlhqgh d s hv lqqlwrv +| or ghqrwdprv sru olp{$s i+{, @ 4,
vl sdud wrgd yhflqgdg gh lqqlwr/ Y4>Q / h{lvwh xqd yhflqgdg gh s> Ys> wdo txh
i +Ys> , Y4> %
i +Ys> , Y4> %
Vroxflöq=
4
olp @4
{$3 m{mn
4
olp @ 4
{$3 {
Frpr {4n ? {4 vl 4 ? { ? 3/ n lpsdu/ vh wlhqh
4
olp n @ 4
{$3 {
ly,
4 4
olp @ olp @ 4
{$s +{ s,n x$3 xn
Frpr 4 / 4 qr vrq qýphurv uhdohv/ qr vh sxhgh xwlol}du ho dojheud gh oðplwhv |d txh qr wlhqh
vhqwlgr h{suhvlrqhv gho wlsr 6 . 4/ 4 4/ 7 41
41 olp{$s +i . j,+{, @ 4
51 Sdud A 3
i
olp +ij,+{, @ 4 olp +{, @ 4
{$s {$s j
61 Sdud ? 3
i
olp +i j,+{, @ 4 olp +{, @ 4
{$s {$s j
71 olp{$s ij +{, @ 3
81:1 FRQFDYLGDG 6:8
{5 . 7
olp @4
m{5 7m
Dvðqwrwdv Yhuwlfdohv
Ghqlflöq 8173 Vhd i ghqlgd hq xqd yhflqgdg gh s vdoyr hq s1 Gluhprv txh i wlhqh frpr dvðqwrwd
yhuwlfdo d od uhfwd s vl
olp i +{, @ 4 r olp i +{, @ 4
{$s. {$s.
olp i +{, @ 4 r olp i +{, @ 4
{$s {$s
yhu jxud
Dvlqwrwdv Reolfxdv
Vroxflöq=
6{5 43{ . :
olp mi +{, 6{ 5m @ olp m 6{ 5m
{$4 {$4 {7
6{5 43{ . : 6{5 . 45{ 5{ . ;
@ olp m m
{$4 {7
48
@ olp m m@3
{$4 { 7
Hmhpsor 7:8 Vhd i +{, @ 6{ . 8 . 7h{ Ghwhuplqh wrgdv odv dvðqwrwdv reolfxdv
Sursrvlflöq 8175 Vhd i xqd ixqflöq wdo txh ho grplqlr gh i frqwlhqh d xq frqmxqwr gho wlsr `Q> 4^ r
` 4> Q^ hqwrqfhv
Od uhfwd | @ d{ . e hv xqd dvðqwrwd gh i vl | vöor vl
i +{,
olp @ d | olp i+{, d{ @ e
{$ 4 { {$ 4
81:1 FRQFDYLGDG 6::
Hmhpsor 7:9 Vhd i +{, @ 8{ :{{.5.vhq { / Pxhvwuh txh | @ 8{ 5 hv xqd dvðqwrwdv reolfxd1
5
4
Vroxflöq= mi+{, +8{ 5,m @ m vhq
{4 m1 vhq {
{
Frpr olp{$4 m {4 m @ 3 | olp{$4 m +{4, m @ 3 vh wlhqh txh | @ 8{ 5 hv xqd dvðqwrwd reolfxd
vhq {
Hmhpsor 7:: Pxhvwuh txh odv dvðqwrwdv gh od klsìuerodv |e5 {d5 @ 4 vrq | @ de { / | @ de {1
5 5
u
e {5 e
m| {m @ me 4 . 5 {m
d d d
u
{5 {
@ em 4 . 5 m
d d
5 5
4 . {d5 {d5
@ et
m 4 . {d5 . {d m
5
e
@ t
m 4 . {d5 . {d m
5
u
e {5 e
m| . {m @ m e 4 . 5 . {m
d d d
u
{5 {
@ em 4 . 5 m
d d
5 5
4 . {d5 {d5
@ et
m 4 . {d5 . {d m
5
e
@ t
m 4 . {d5 . {d m
5
Judfdflöq
Sdud judfdu i qhfhvlwdprv kdfhu orv vljxlhqwhv sdvrv
41 Frqrfhu ho grplqlr gh i 1
51 Fdofxodu sxqwrv fuðwlfrv +grqgh i 3 qr h{lvwh r grqgh i 3 vh dqxod,
61 Ghwhuplqdu orv lqwhuydorv gh fuhflplhqwr | ghfuhflplhqwr +vljqr gh i 3 ,1
6:; FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
i%+{, @ {5 . { 9 @ +{ 5,+{ . 6,
{ s
6 6 66
6 3 5
6.6
s 66
i 3 +{, 0 3 . . . 3 0 0 3 .
7 7
i %+{, . . . 3 0 0 3 . . .
i+{, ) ( ( ) ) (
i+{, ^ ^ ^ _ _ ^
625
500
375
250
125
0
-10 -5 0 5 10
7 6
i+{, @ {45 . {9 6{5
s s45<
Vroxflöq= i 3 +{, @ 6 6 .7,+{5. 6 .7, | i%+{, @ ;9 6 1
6+ { 45<
+{7, +{.7,
{ s
45 45<
7
45.
s 45<
i 3 +{, 0
6 6
i%+{, .
i +{,
i +{,
81:1 FRQFDYLGDG 6:<
5 8
i+{, @ 6{{.7
Vroxflöq=
41 Grpi @ U
| 3 @ i 3 +{, @ h{ . {h{ @ h{ +4 . {,
i 3 +{, A 3 +, 4 . { A 3 +, { A 4
4
4.{ 0 3 .
h{ . . .
3
i +{, 0 3 .
i +{, ) (
Hq hvwh fdvr i 33 hv srvlwlyd hq ho lqwhuydor ` 5> 4^ | qhjdwlyd hq ` 4> 5^1 Hvwr vh uhvxphq hq od
wdeod vljxlhqwh
5
5.{ 0 3 .
h{ . . .
33
i +{, 0 3 .
i +{, _ ^
gh grqgh i hv frqfdyd hq ` 4> 5^ | frqyh{d hq ` 5> 4^1 dghpäv ho sxqwr +5> i +5,, hv xq sxqwr
gh lq h{löq gh i 1
Slqi @ +5> i +5,,
91 Dvðqwrwdv
Sxhvwr txh i hvwä ghqlgd hq wrgr U/ hv fodur txh i qr wlhqh dvðqwrwdv yhuwlfdohv1
Ghwhuplqdu odv srvleohv dvðqwrwdv reolfxdv x krul}rqwdohv1
Vhd | @ p{ . e sdud { A 3
i+{, {h{
p @ olp @ olp @ olp h{ @ 4
{$4 { {$4 { {$4
oxhjr qr h{lvwh dvðqwrwdv sdud { A 31
Vhd | @ p{ . e sdud { ? 31
i +{, {h{
p @ olp @ olp @ olp h{ @ 3
{$4 { {$4 { {$4
Sru or wdqwr p @ 3
{
e @ olp i +{, p{ @ olp {h{ @ olp {
{$4 {$4 {$4 h
shur olp{$4 { @ 4 | olp{$4 h{ @ 41
oxhjr olp{$4 h{{ hv gh od irupd 4
4 1 Dsolfdqgr O*Krslwdo
{ 4
olp @ olp @3
{$4 h{ {$4 h{
Sru or wdqwr | @ 3 hv xqd dvðqwrwd krul}rqwdo sdud { ? 31 Frq wrgd hvwd lqirupdflöq/ srghprv kdfhu
xq hver}r gh od juäfd gh | @ {h{ 1+yhu jxud ,
0
-5 -3.75 -2.5 -1.25 0
i+{, @ {h{
81:1 FRQFDYLGDG 6;4
41 Ghwhuplqh Grpi1
51 Fdofxoh olp{$3.
91 Judtxh | @ i +{,/
Vroxflöq=
41 Grpi @ i{ 5 U m 4 . {4 A 3 j
4 4.{
4. A 3 +, A 3 +, { 5` 4> 4^^`3> 4^
{ {
oxhjr Grpi @ U ^4> 3`1
shur
oq+4 . 4@{,
olp { oq+4 . 4@{, @ olp.
{$3. {$3 4@{
| hvwh ýowlpr oðplwh hv gh od irupd 4 / oxhjr dsolfdqgr O*Krslwdo vh wlhqh
4
oq+4 . 4@{,
@{ {5
4 4
olp @ olp
+4.4 ,
{$ . 4@{ {$ . 5 4
3 3
{
{
@ olp @3
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Sru or wdqwr olp{$3. i +{, @ h3 1
Hvwr vljqlfd txh vl { wlhqgh d 3 sru od ghuhfkd/ od lpdjhqhv gh i +{, wlhqghq d 41
61 Dvðqwrwdv1
i +{, +4 . 4@{,{
p @ olp @ olp
{$4 { {$4 {
Vhd x @ 4@{/ vl { $ 4 hqwrqfhv x $ 3.
+4 . 4@{,{
olp @ olp x+4 . x,4@x
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@ olp. x olp. +4 . x,4@x
x$3 x$3
@ 3h@3
Sru or wdqwr p @ 31
6;5 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
71 Ho lqwhufhswr
{
4
e @ olp i +{, @ olp 4. @h
{$4 {$4 {
Revhuyhprv txh vl { $ 4 vh wlhqh wdpelìq txh p @ olp{$4 i +{{, | e @ olp{$4 i+{, @ h1 Sru
6, | 7, vh wlhqhq txh | @ h hv xqd dvðqwrwd krul}rqwdo sdud i
Hvwr vljqlfd txh i wlhqh xqd dvðqwrwd yhuwlfdo hq { @ 4 +fxdqgr { wlhqgh d 4 sru od l}txlhugd/
odv lpdjhqhv wlhqghq d lqqlwr,1
91 Gh od juäfd gh | @ i 3 +{, vh revhuyd txh i 3 +{, A 3 hq ` 4> 4^ | hq `3> 4^/ oxhjr i hv hvwulfwdphqwh
fuhflhqwh hq hvwrv lqwhuydorv1 Dghpäv i 3 hv fuhflhqwh hq `4> 4^ | ghfuhflhqwh hq`3> 4^/ dvð i %+{, A 3
hq ` 4> 4^ | i %+{, ? 3 hq `3> 4^
Sru or wdqwr i hv frqyh{d hq ` 4> 4^ | frqfdyd hq `3> 4^1 Hq uhvxphq vh wlhqh od vljxlhqwh wdeod
4 3
i3 . <2 .
i% . <2 0
i ( (
^ _
| @ i+{,
Vroxflöq= Gh od juäfd vh wlhqh txh od ixqflöq i 3 hv srvlwlyd hq orv lqwhuydorv ` 4> 4^ | `4> 4^ | qhjdwlyd
hq ` 4> 4^1
Dghpäv i 3 hv hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh hq or lqwhuydorv ` 4> 3^ | `4> 4^ | hvwulfwdphqwh ghfuhflhqwh hq
`3> 4^/ hv ghflu/ i %+{, A 3 hq ` 4> 3^ | hq `4> 4^/ | i %+{, ? 3 hq `3> 4^1
Sru or wdqwr vh wlhqh od vljxlhqwh wdeod uhvxphq1
4 3 4
i3 0 . . .
i% . . 0 .
i ) ( ( (
^ ^ _ ^
41 Idovr1
51 Idovr1
61 Idovr1
71 Idovr1
81 Idovr1
Vroxflöq= Gh od juäfd gh i 3 vh rewlhqh txh i 3 hv srvlwlyd hq orv lqwhuydorv ` 4> 4^ | ` 4> 6@5^ | hv
qhjdwlyd hq ho lqwhuydor `6@5> 4^1 Dghpäv i 3 hv hvwulfwdphqwh ghfuhflhqwh hq ` 4> 4^ | hq `3> 4^ | hv
hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh hq ` 4> 3^/ hv ghflu i%+{, A 3 hq ` 4> 3^ | i %+{, ? 3 hq `4> 4^ | hq `3> 4^1
Gh or dqwhulru vh wlhqh od vljxlhqwh wdeod
6;7 FKDSWHU 81 GHULYDGD
4 3 4
i3 . . . 0
i% 0 . 0 0
i ( ( ( )
_ ^ _ _
Gh grqgh vh wlhqh od vljxlhqwh lqirupdflöq i wlhqh xq pä{lpr uhodwlyr hvwulfwr hq { @ 6@5/ qr wlhqh
pðqlpr +txh sdvd vl vh uhvwuljh d xq lqwhuydor fhuudgr,/ wuhv sxqwrv gh lq h{löq
Uhodflrqhv
+d, Fdgd hohphqwr gh G gheh whqhu lpdjhq hq H> hvwr hv/ ho frqmxqwr gh sduwlgd gh U gheh vhu
ljxdo d GrpU1
+e, Vl { 5 G/ vx lpdjhq hq H hv ýqlfd/ hq hvwh fdvr vh kdeod gh od% lpdjhq gh { +vhjýq U,1
Hmhpsor 7;9 Vhd G ho frqmxqwr irupdgr sru orv doxpqrv gh Fäofxor 4 | H ho frqmxqwr gh odv doxpqdv
gh Fäofxor 41 Gluhprv txh xq hohphqwr { gh G hvwä uhodflrqdgr frq xq hohphqwr | gh H/ {U| vl vöor vl
{ dqgd frq |1
Fodudphqwh vh yh txh GrpU 9 G | txh UhfU 9 H1 Whöulfdphqwh ho grplqlr | ho uhfruulgr wlhqhq
ljxdo fdqwlgdg gh hohphqwrv1
Revhuydflöq= Od uhodflöq
s= U5 $ U
+{> |, $ { |
hv xqd ixqflöq txh/ hq ho frqwh{wr gh od d{lrpäwlfd gh U/ vh oodpd xqd rshudflöq1 Hq hvwh fdvr/ vh wlhqh
txh= gdgrv orv qýphurv uhdohv { h |
= J5 $ J
+d> e, $ d e
Hq orv fdvrv hq txh qr hv ixqflöq/ jhqhudophqwh idood od fodxvxud/ sru hmhpsor/ vl L hv ho frqmxqwr gh orv
qýphurv luudflrqdohv
= L5 $ L
+d> e, $ d e
srghprv dupdu vöor txh hv xqd uhodflöq |d txh idood od fodxvxud gh od pxowlsolfdflöq hq L1
Revhuydflöq= Qrwhprv txh xqd uhodflöq U gh G hq H +U = G $ H, hvwä irupdgd sru orv sduhv
rughqdgrv +{> |, 5 G H grqgh { hvwä frqhfwdgr d | sru od fruuhvsrqghqfld dqwhulru1 Dvð/ xqd uhodflöq
hv vlpsohphqwh xq vxefrqmxqwr U gh G H
U @ i+{> |, 5 G H = | 5 @ {5 j
@ i+{> |, 5 G H = | @ { b | @ {j
| hq ho hmhpsor 7;8
5 ] ghqrwd ho frqmxqwr gh orv qýphurv hqwhurv1
6 Hq hvwh fdvr qr wlhqh vhqwlgr i E1 Hvwd qrwdflöq vöor hv fruuhfwd fxdqgr i hv ixqflöq/ |d txh vlhqgr dvði E whqguðd xq
vöor ydoru1
D141 UHODFLRQHV EÄVLFDV 6;:
4
j @ i+{> |, 5 U i3j ] = | @ j
{
4
@ i+ > q, = q 5 ]j
q
Hmhpsor 7;; Vhd
U5 @ i+{> |, 5 U5 = { @ | 5 j
U5 hv xqd uhodflöq/ vlq hpedujr qr hv ixqflöq sxhv { @ 4/ qr wlhqh lpdjhq | hq U1 Sru rwud sduwh { @ 7
wlhqh grv lpäjhqhv/ 5 | 51
O @ i+{> |, 5 U5 = { @ fj
hv xqd uhfwd txh fruwd do hmh { shushqglfxodu hq ho sxqwr +f> 3, +jxudI 0 d,1
jxudv I d/e | f
Ho grplqlr gh O hv ifj | ho uhfruulgr hv U1 D glihuhqfld gh O/ +od fxdo qr hv ixqflöq,/ whqhprv odv rwudv
uhfwdv txh vð vrq ixqflrqhv/ wrgdv dtxhoodv ghqlgdv sru odv hfxdflrqhv | @ p{.e r htxlydohqwhphqwh
{ . | . @ 3 frq 9@ 3 +jxudv I 0 e | I 0 f,1
7 Do frqmxqwr i vh oh ghqrplqd juäfd gh i vhjýq yhuhprv hq od vhfflöq 516 +hq hvh frqwh{wr/ vh gd ìqidvlv d od uhsuhvhqwdflöq
gh hvwh frqmxqwr,1
6;; DSSHQGL[ D1 UHODFLRQHV
51 Od Flufxqihuhqfld
Od flufxqihuhqfld fhqwudgd hq ho ruljhq | udglr u hv od uhodflöq gdgd sru
F @ i+{> |, 5 U5 = {5 . |5 @ u5 j
|d txh hohphqwr gho GrpF @ ^u> u` wlhqh grv lpäjhqhv +sru hmhpsor +3> u, | +3> u, 5 F1
61 Od Sduäerod
Orv frqmxqwrv
S @ i+{> |, 5 U5 = | @ {5 j
T @ i+{> |, 5 U5 = { @ |5 j
uhsuhvhqwdq sduäerodv1 S hv xqd ixqflöq | T qr or hv1 Dperv frqmxqwrv vrq juäfdv vlpìwulfdv/ or
txh vh gheh d od srwhqfld fxdguäwlfd +jxudv 0 d | 0 e,1
Iljxudv d | e
D141 UHODFLRQHV EÄVLFDV 6;<
{5 | 5
. 5 @4
d5 e
ghqh xqd uhodflöq H/ frq H U5 +txh qr hv ixqflöq,1
{5 | 5
H @ i+{> |, 5 U5 = . 5 @ 4j
d5 e
Ghelgr d odv srwhqfldv fxdgudgdv hvwd uhodflöq hv xqd jxud vlpìwulfd/ frq hmhv gh vlphwuðd orv hmhv
frrughqdgrv + jxud },
Iljxud }
81 Od Klsìuerod
Sdud d> e 5 U. mrv vh ghqh odv uhodflrqhv
{5 |5
5 @ 4 |
d5 e
|5 {5
5 @ 4
e5 d
Qxhydphqwh vh wlhqh frpr juäfd jxudv fx|rv hmhv gh vlphwuðd vrq orv hmhv frrughqdgrv1
Hq od jxud vh uhsuhvhqwdq hoodv frqmxqwdphqwh frq 5 uhfwdv/ oodpdgdv dvðqwrwdv +uhfwdv sxqwhdgdv,
Ho grplqlr gh od sulphud klsìuerod hv U` d> d^ | gh od vhjxqgd hv U1 Orv uhfruulgrv gh hoodv vrq
U | U` e> e^ uhvshfwlydphqwh1 Qlqjxqd gh ìvwdv hv xqd ixqflöq1
6;; DSSHQGL[ D1 UHODFLRQHV
Iljxud
Dsshqgl{ E
Jhrphwuðd Dqdoðwlfd
4 Hvwdv frrughqdgdv oh shuplwluäq hqwhqghu göqgh vh hqfxhqwud ho hqhpljr hq odv shoðfxodv gh jxhuud/ shur vx xvr hv pxfkr
päv jhqhudo1 Frq vhjxulgdg Xg1 odv rfxsduä hq rwurv äpelwrv päv surgxfwlyrv1
6;<
6<3 DSSHQGL[ E1 JHRPHWUÐD DQDOÐWLFD
{@x.k | @y.n
Iljxud v
Hmhpsor 7;< Vxsrqjdprv txh ho ruljhq gho vlvwhpd RX Y wlhqh frrughqdgdv +6> 8, hq ho vlvwhpd R[\ /
| txh orv vlvwhpdv wlhqhq orv hmhv sdudohorv hqwuh vð1
Ho sxqwr S gh frrughqdgdv +5> :, hq ho vlvwhpd RX Y wlhqh frrughqdgdv +5 . 6> : 8, hq ho vlvwhpd
R[\
+x . 6,5 . +y 8,5 @ 7
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frqmxqwr gh sxqwrv +{> |, gh U5 txh hvwäq d od glvwdqfld u gho sxqwr S / hv ghflu/
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g++{> |,> S , @ u hv htxlydohqwh d +{ k,5 . +| n,5 @ u>
vh wlhqh txh
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od uhodflöq gh U5 ghqlgd frpr vljxh=
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E1716 Holsvh
Vhd I4 > I5 grv sxqwrv gho sodqr1
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wdohv txh od vxpd gh odv glvwdqfldv gh ìo d orv sxqwrv irfrv vhd frqvwdqwh%1
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Iljxud
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vhfxqgdulr + d> 3, | irfrv +3> s, grqgh s5 @ e5 d5
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yìuwlfhv Y4>5 @ +k d> n, Y6>7 @ +k> n e,
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s frpr
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734
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61 Grpk @ i+{> |, 5 U5 = | 7 {5 j
81 Grpn @ i+{> |, 5 U5 = {| 3j
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xwlol}dgrv hq ho äojheud gh ixqflrqhv,/ wdpelìq vh ghqhq sdud ixqflrqhv gh grv r päv yduldeohv/ shur qr hv
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757 DSSHQGL[ H1 HMHUFLFLRV SURSXHVWRV
t s
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s s
d4 @ 5 dq @ 5dq4 =
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dowxud vh dohmd gho srvwhd xqd yhorflgdg gh 7slh@vhj
BcFrq txì udslgh} vh pxhyh ho h{wuhpr gh vx vrpeud fxdqgr ìo vh hqfxhqwud d 4; slh gho srvwhB
{ {
Hmhuflflr 8<< Hq od ulehud gh xq uðr gh 6 np gh dqfkr kd| xqd sodqwd hoìfwulfd/ hq od rwud ulehud 7 np
fruulhqwh duuled kd| xqd iäeulfd1 Ho frvwr gh whqghu xq fdeoh sru wlhuud +oðqhd dìuhd, hv gh ' 63 sru phwur
| gh ' 83 sru phwur/ vl vh wlhqgh edmr ho djxd +fdeoh vxepdulqr,1 Ghwhuplqdu fxdqwr fdeoh gh vhu whqglr
hq irupd vxepdulqd gh prgr txh ho frvwr gho whqglgr vhd pðqlpr1
+D|xgd= Ghwhuplqh od ixqflöq frvwr gho whqglgr gh fdeoh gh od sodqwd hoìfwulfd d od iäeulfd hq ixqflöq
gh {/ grqgh { uhsuhvhqwd od orqjlwxg gho fdeoh whqglgr hq irupd vxepdulqd1,
Hmhuflflr 933 Vh ghvhd frqvwuxlu xqd fdmd vlq wdsd frq edvh uhfwdqjxodu d sduwlu gh xqd krmd uhfwdqjxodu
gh fduwöq gh 49 fp gh dqfkr | gh 54 fp gh odujr/ uhfruwdqgr xq fxdgudgr hq fdgd hvtxlqd | greodqgr orv
odgrv kdfld duuled1 Hqfxhqwuh odv glphqvlrqhv txh plqlplfh od fdqwlgdg gh pdwhuldo qhfhvdulr1 +D|xgd=
H{suhvdu Y +yroxphq gh od fdmd, frpr xqd ixqflöq gh od yduldeoh {/ grqgh { hv od orqjlwxg gho odgr gho
fxdgudgr,1 Yhu jxud1
a
a aa{
aa aaa
a a aa
a a aa
{ a
Hmhuflflr 934 Vh ghvhd frqvwuxlu xq ghsövlwr delhuwr gh edvh fxdgudgd | sduhghv yhuwlfdohv frq P fp5 gh
pdwhuldo1 Ghwhuplqdu od orqjlwxg gh xqd dulvwd gh prgr txh ho yroxphq vhd pä{lpr
+D|xgd= Ghwhuplqh od ixqflöq yroýphq hq wìuplqrv gh {/ grqgh { lqglfd od orqjlwxg gh xq odgr gh od
edvh,1
775 DSSHQGL[ H1 HMHUFLFLRV SURSXHVWRV
Hmhuflflr 935 Ghwhuplqdu odv glphqvlrqhv gh xq flolqgur flufxodu uhfwr gh udglr u | dowxud k hvwä lqvfulwr
hq xq frqr gh dowxud 45 | udglr gh od edvh 7 gh prgr txh vx yroxphq vhd pä{lpr1
+D|xgd= H{suhvh ho yroýphq Y gho flolqgur frpr xqd ixqflöq gh u1,
Hmhuflflr 936 Vh ghvhd frqvwuxlu xq uhflslhqwh flolqgulfr gh phwdo vlq wdsd txh whqjd xqd fdsdflgdg gh
op6 1 Hqfxhqwuh odv glphqvlrqhv txh gheh whqhu sdud txh od fdqwlgdg gh pdwhuldo vhd pðqlpd/ vxsrqlhqgr
txh qr vh ghvshuglfld qdgd hq od frqvwuxfflöq1
Hmhuflflr 937 Xqd yhqwdqd wlhqh od irupd gh xq uhfwäqjxor frurqdgr sru xq vhplflufxor1 Kdooh odv gl0
phqvlrqhv gh od yhqwdqd txh shuplwhq dgplwlu päv ox}/ vxsrqlhqgr txh ho shulphwur gheh vhu gh 8p1
Hmhuflflr 938 Vh ghvhd txh od säjlqdv gh xq oleur whqjdq xq äuhd gh <33fp5 frq pdujhqhv gh 518fp dedmr
| d orv odgrv/ | gh 418fp duuled 1 Ghwhuplqdu odv glphqvlrqhv gh od säjlqd txh gduäq od pd|ru äuhd srvleoh
sdud ho wh{wr1
Hmhuflflr 939 Xq krwho txh freud ';3 +groduhv, gldulrv sru kdelwdflöq/ gd suhflrv hvshfldohv d juxsrv txh
uhvhuyhq hqwuh 63 | 93 kdelwdflrqhv1 Vl vh rfxsdq päv gh 63 fxduwrv/ ho suhflr glvplqx|h hq '4 sru fdgd
fxduwr duuled gh orv 631 Hq hvwdv frqglflrqhv Bcod rfxsdflöq gh fxäqwdv kdelwdflrqhv sru xq juxsr surgxfhq
ho lqjuhvr qhwr pä{lpr1B
Hmhuflflr 93: Fdofxoh ho yroxphq gho frqr flufxodu uhfwr päv judqgh txh vh sxhgh lqvfulelu hq xqd hvihud
gh udglr U1
Hmhuflflr 93; Grv srvwhv yhuwlfdohv gh 6 | 7 phwurv vh kdoodq fodydgrv hq xq vxhor d qlyho | vxv edvhv
glvwdq 8 phwurv1 Fdofxoh od orqjlwxg pðqlpd gh fdeoh txh vh qhfhvlwdq sdud whqhu grv wudprv uhfwrv ghvgh
od sxqwd gh xqr gh orv srvwhv kdvwd xq sxqwr hq ho vxhor | gh dkðkdvwd od sxqwd gho rwur srvwh1
Hmhuflflr 93< Od vxpd txh vh jdvwd hq ho frpexvwleohv sdud od fdoghud gh xq edufr hv sursruflrqdo do
fxer gh od yhorflgdg1 Hv vdelgr txh vl ho edufr pdufkd d 43np sru krud/ vh jdvwäq 63 groduhv sru krud gh
frpexvwleohv1 Orv ghpäv jdvwrv txh qr ghshqghq gh od yhorflgdg vrq gh 7;3 groduhv sru krud1
Bc D txì yhorflgdg gho edufr hv pðqlpd ho jdvwr wrwdo sru xq nlorphwurB
Hmhuflflr 943 Vh ghvhd frqvwuxlu xq vlor sdud dopdfhqdu judqr frq xqd fdsdflgdg gh u@61 Ho vlor kd gh
whqhu od irupd gh xq flolqgur uhpdwdgr sru xqd eryhgd vhplhvihulfd1 Vl ho frvwr gh frqvwuxfflöq sru phwur
fxdgudgr hv ho wulsoh hq od sduwh vhplhvihulfd txh hq od sduwh flolqgulfd1 Fdofxoh odv glphqvlrqhv gho vlor
txh kdfh pðqlpr ho frvwr gh frqvwuxfflöq1
Hmhuflflr 944 Vh ghvhd frqvwuxlu xqd fdmd gh edvh fxdgudgd gh yroxphq 585 fp6 1
Ghwhuplqdu odv glphqvlrqhv gh od fdmd sdud txh ho frvwr gh ideulfdflöq vhd pðqlpr/ vl vh vdeh txh=
Ho frvwr gh odv wdsd hv ' 5 sru fp5
Ho frvwr gh od edvh hv ' 8 sru fp5
Ho frvwr gh orv odgrv hv ' 6 sru fp5 1
Sureohpdv gh Fhuwdphqhv
Fdsðwxor 4
L10 Ghwhuplqh fxdo gh odv vljxlhqwhv dupdflrqhv vrq yhugdghudv r idovdv1 Mxvwltxh
41 +;{> | 5 U,+{ . | 9@ 3 , s
{ s 54 5 ,
{ |
+ . , {5 .|5 { .|
s
51 +;{ 5 U,+ 7{5 @ 5m{m,
71 +;{,+;|,+{> | 5 U. ,+ {|
4
{4 ,
91 i{ 5 U @ m{m
m {m
4
A 4j @ i{ 5 U @ m{m A m4 {mj
:1 +;{ 5 U i3j, +{ ? 43 , 4
43
? {4 ,
s
;1 +;d 5 U i3j,+;e 5 U,+ d d.e 4,
5 5
481 i{ 5 U @ m{m
m {m
5
A 4j @ i{ 5 U @ m{m A m5 {mj
776
777 DSSHQGL[ H1 HMHUFLFLRV SURSXHVWRV
LL Frpsohwdflöq=
61 Od lqhfxdflöq
4
6 + ,8{.5{ <d{ 5{
5 5
6
wlhqh frpr vroxflöq ho frqmxqwr gh orv U vl d 51111111111111
71 Ho frqmxqwr vroxflöq gh od lqhfxdflöq
u
4
m{ 4m hv11111111111111
{ 5{ . 4
5
81 Od lqhfxdflöq
8{.5.{5
4
6 <d{ 5{
5
6
wlhqh frpr vroxflöq ho frqmxqwr gh orv U vl d 511111111111111111111111
91 Ho frqmxqwr vroxflöq gh od lqhfxdflöq
+{5 . :{ . 43,+{5 6{ . 7,
? 3 hv 11111111111111111111
m{ . 6m
778
451 Od sursrvlflöq
+ . 4,{5 7{ . + 4, A 3
hv yhugdghud vvl 5111111111111111
471 Grv wxehuldv wdugdq 9 krudv hq oohqdu xqd slvflqd1 Xqd vöod od oohqduðd 8 krudv päv gh sulvd txh
od rwud hqwrqfhv fdgd wxehuld wdugduðd lqglylgxdophqwh hq oohqdu od slvflqd 111111111111111 | 1111111111111111
uhvshfwlydphqwh
LLL10 Ghvduuroor
41 Vl ho udglr gho flolqgur uhfwr glvplqx|h hq xq 43( plhqwudv txh vx dowxud dxphqwd hq xq 45(1
hq txh wdqwr sru flhqwr yduðd>
d, ho yroxphq gho flolqgur Yf @ u5 k
e, ho äuhd odwhudo gho flolqgur1 Df @ uk
51 Uhvroyhu
{5 | 5 @ 5+{| 6,
5+6 {|, @ +{5 | 5 ,
6{ | 9{ | 6 @ 3
5
Fdsðwxor 5
L10 Ghwhuplqh fxdo gh odv vljxlhqwhv dupdflrqhv vrq yhugdghudv r idovdv1 Mxvwltxh
s
61 5 orj 5 . +4 . 54{ , orj 6 orj + { 6 . 5:, @ 3/ od hfxdflöq dqwhulru qr wlhqh vroxflöq srvlwlyd
81 i{ 5 Um 4
orj5 + {, A 4j @ i{ 5 Um 4 A orj5 +{,j
91 Sdud wrgr d> e 5 U. i4j vh wlhqh orje +d5 , orje +d6 ,1
s
:1 vxsi{ 5 U@{7 . {5 9 @ 3j @ 5
<1 Od lqhfxdflöq
orj4@5 +d{5 . 4, ? orj4@5 +d,
wlhqh frpr frqmxqwr vroxflöq wrgrv orv uhdohv vvl d 5`3> 4^
LL Frpsohwdflöq=
51 Od sduäerod {5 5{ d| 5d . | @ 6/ frq fhqwur hq +4> 5, vh deuh kdfld duuled vl | vöor vl
d 51111111111111
61 Od hfxdflöq gh od uhfwd txh sdvd sru ho fhqwur gh od holsvh 5{5 7{ . 6|5 . 9| @ 7 | hv sdudohod d
od uhfwd 5{ . 6| @ 4 hv 11111111111111
81 Vhd DEFG ho uhfwäqjxor frq odgrv sdudohorv d orv hmhv lqvfulwr hq od holsvh 49{5 . 7|5 @ 971 Hqwrqfhv
od ixqflöq txh uhsuhvhqwd ho äuhd gho uhfwäqjxor hq ixqflöq gh { hv= 11111111111111111
{
i = ` 5> 4^i7j $ U
{ :$ m{m
4
7
451 Vhd i = G $ ^h5 > h4 ^> i +{, @ + 5:4h ,6{4 hqwrqfhv ho grplqlr pä{lpr gh i hv 111111111111
461 Vhd i +{, @ orj +{, | j+{, @ {5 . e{ e ixqflrqhv/ hqwrqfhv ho frqmxqwr gh wrgrv orv e 5 U wdo txh
ho grplqlr gh i j hv ydflr hv 11111111111111111
s
471 Vhd i+{, @ orj++{ 6,5 , | j+{, @ 7 {/ hqwrqfhv ho grplqlr pä{lpr gh j i hv 111111111
541 Vhd i = U i4j $ U i4j xqd ixqflöq el|hfwlyd hqwrqfhv i 4 +{, hv ljxdo d 1111111111111111
{ :$ {.4
4{
551 od ixqflöq i+{, @ 5{ m{m ghqlgd hq ^5> 8` wlhqh xq pä{lpr devroxwr hq { @11111111111 | xq ydoru
pðqlpr devroxwr ljxdo d 11111111111
561 Od ixqflöq txh uhsuhvhqwd ho yroxphq +hq ixqflöq gh k, gho flolqgur flufxodu uhfwr lqvfulwr hq xq frqr
gh 53fp gh dowxud | 8fp gh udglr/ hv i +k, @1111111111111 | vx grplqlr hv 11111111111111111
LLL10 Ghvduuroor
41 Od rulood gh xqd slvflqd irupd xq uhfwäqjxor gh 73 slhv gh odujr | 53 slhv gh dqfkr1 Vx surixqglgdg
dxphqwd xqliruphphqwh gh 6 d : slhv hq xq wudpr krul}rqwdo gh 57 slhv | ghvsxìv frqwlqýd do plvpr
qlyho orv uhvwdqwhv 48 slhv/ frpr vh loxvwud hq od jxud/ od fxdo pxhvwud xqd vhfflöq wudqvyhuvdo1 Vl od
slvflqd vh hvwä ydfldqgr/ dofdq}dqgr xq qlyho k hq ho odgr päv surixqgr1 Ghwhuplqh ho yroxphq Y +k,
gho djxd hq ixqflöq gh od dowxud k/ hvshflfdqgr vx grplqlr1
51 Od frpsdôld gh duulhqgr gh dxwrv Mlphqh}%/ duulhqgd fkhyhwwh d ' 431833 sru gðd | 73 shvrv sru
nloöphwur uhfruulgr/ plhqwudv txh od frpsdôld Dudqfleld% duulhqgd ho plvpr wlsr gh dxwr d ' ;<33
sru gðd | d 93 shvrv sru nloöphwur1
Fdsðwxor 6
L10 Ghwhuplqh fxdo gh odv vljxlhqwhv dupdflrqhv vrq yhugdghudv r idovdv1 Mxvwltxh
LL Frpsohwdflöq=
;1 Ho oðplwh
olp h q6 4 @ ============
+ ,
q5 .4
q$4
s s
431 Ho oðplwh olpq$4 +q+ <q5 . 6 <q5 . 8,, hv 111111111111
LLL10 Ghvduuroor
41 Vhd
i = `4> 4^ $ U
s j = U i3j $ U
{ 4
{ :$ orj8 + { 4, { :$ 8{ 8{
8
783 DSSHQGL[ H1 HMHUFLFLRV SURSXHVWRV
Fdsðwxor 7
L10 Ghwhuplqh fxdo gh odv vljxlhqwhv dupdflrqhv vrq yhugdghudv r idovdv1 Mxvwltxh
431 Sdud ghprvwudu txh olp{$5 {5 @ 7> gdgr srvlwlyr/ edvwd wrpdu @ m{.5
/ dvl vh wlhqh m{ 5m ? ,
m
m{5 7m ? 1
441 Vhd
6{ . : { 4
i +{, @
{5 .8{.7 { ? 4
{ 4
5
LL Frpsohwdflöq=
;
? 6{5 . 8 { A 4
;1 Vhd i+{, @ { . 5 { @ 4 Hqwrqfhv orv ydoruhv gh | txh shuplwhq txh od ixqflöq i +{,
=
46{ . { ? 4
vhd frqwlqxd hq { @ 4 vrq @11111111111 | @ 111111111111
785 DSSHQGL[ H1 HMHUFLFLRV SURSXHVWRV
LLL10 Ghvduuroor
; 4frv+{@6,
A
A >{ ? 3
A
A
{
?
41 i+{, @ 5{ . 5d . 4 > { @ 3 grqgh d> e vrq qýphurv uhdohv mrv=
A
A
A
A
= ds{5 .{6
{ .e >{ A 3
Fdsðwxor 8
L10 Ghwhuplqh fxdo gh odv vljxlhqwhv dupdflrqhv vrq yhugdghudv r idovdv1 Mxvwltxh
| @ dufvhq+{|,
hq ho sxqwr +4@5> 3, hv 5{ 5| @ 41
LL Frpsohwdflöq=
vhq{ . e { A 3
{$3
vhf { . wdq { 3 ? { ? @5
81 Frqvlghuh j+{, @ s ho ydoru gho oðplwh
{ @5 { @5
:1 Vl ; 6
A
A { . oq+{, { A 4
A
A
?
i +{, @ 5{ . 4 {@4
A
A
A
A
=
frv+5{, {?4
hqwrqfhv i 3 +{, @ 111111111111111
s
;1 Od ghulydgd gh j+{, @ + {,frv { . dufvhq
s6 {7+{ , hv j3 +{, @11111111111111111111
6
787 DSSHQGL[ H1 HMHUFLFLRV SURSXHVWRV
<1 Vl ;
A
A 5{ frv +{, {?3
A
A
?
i +{, @ 6{ {@3
A
A
A
A
= s 6
{ . 7{5 {A3
hqwrqfhv i 3 +{, @ 111111111111111
431 Od ghulydgd gh s
6 vhf +{, h{
5
i +{, @
orj8 +{6 . 4,
hv 11111111111111
441 Od ghulydgd gh
i +{, @ vhq+{5 . 4,dufwdq+{.5,
hv 1111111111111111
451 Od ghulydgd gh
vhq+{ 5, { A 5
i +{, @
{5 {4
461 Vhd i +{, @ orj6 { hqwrqfhv ho grplqlr gh od ghulydgd gh i +{, hv Grpi 3 @ 111111111111111
471 Vhd i xqd ixqflöq frq ghulydgd g{gi @ 5{ . 4 | j+{, @ frv5 { . vhq{/ hqwrqfhv ho ydoru gh +i j,3 +,
hv 11111111111111111111
s
481 Vhd K+{, @ 6 i +hd{ oq+{,,/ frq i +{, xqd ixqflöq ghulydeoh hq U/ hqwrqfhv K 3 +{, hq U. hv 1111111111111111
491 Vhd i +{, @ +{5 . 4,vhq +{, / hqwrqfhv i 3 +{, hv 11111111111
{.d {A3
4:1 Vhd i +{, @ hqwrqfhv ho ydoru d txh kdfh ghulydeoh od ixqflöq i hq @7 hv
vhq+{, { 3
111111111111111
4;1 Vhd i +{,@ +{5 . 47,dufvhq +{ hqwrqfhv g{
gi m @
6
.4,
{@4
s6
4<1 Vhd i +{, @ +vhq+{7 . 5 ,, { .8 sdud { 5` @;> @;^ hqwrqfhv g{
gi hv ljxdo d111111111111111
571 Vhd 6{5 | 5 . wdq+| 6 , @ 4/ hqwrqfhv hq xq frqmxqwr dsursldgr od ghulydgd gh | frq uhvshfwr d { hv=
g{ @1111111111111
g|
s
581 Gdgd od uhodflöq vhq+ 7 frv+{6 , . | 5 7, @ 5
hood ghqh fhufd gho fhur xqd ixqflöq ghulydeoh i /
hqwrqfhv od ghulydgd gh g{gi m
{@3 hv1111111111
5
591 Vhd K+{, @ {I 4 +{, frv+I 4 +{,,/ frq I 3 +{, 9@ 3 sdud wrgr { hqwrqfhv od ghulydgd gh K+{, hv
K 3 +{, @1111111111111
5:1 Orv odgrv gh xq wuläqjxor gh shuðphwur pðqlpr frq äuhd md D/ dvð frpr wdpelìq md vx edvh e vrq
1111111111111111
651 Od ghulydgd gh xqd ixqflöq i +{, hv i 3 +{, @ 6{ . :vhq+{ 4,+{ 5, . ; | i +4, @ 5> i+5, @ 6 hqwrqfhv
+i 4 ,3 +5, @111111111111111
661 Vhd i +{, @ vhq+6{, frv+5{, . 4/ frq { 5` @;> @;^/ hqwrqfhv od ghulydgd gh od ixqflöq lqyhuvd hq ho
sxqwr 4/ hv ghflu/ gig{ +4, hv 1111111111111111
4
671 vhd i +{, @ 5vhq+{, frv+{,> { 5`@7> 6@7^ hqwrqfhv od ghulydgd gh od ixqflöq lqyhuvd hq ho sxqwr
3/+ gig{ +3,, hv 111111111111111111
4
681 Ho oðplwh
4
olp + ,wdq+{,
{$3. {
hv 111111111111111111
6;1 Gdgd od fxuyd {| . | 6 {5 @ 4 hq irupd lpsoðflwd1 Fxdqwrv sxqwrv gh od ixqflöq | @ i +{, wlhqh uhfwd
wdqjhqwh sdudohod d hmh { 111111111111111
6<1 Xq mduglq hv glvhôdgr frq od irupd gh xq vhfwru flufxodu gh äqjxor | udglr u frpr hq od jxud1 Ho
mduglqhur fxhqwd frq vhploodv vhpeudu Dp5 1 Sdud ghwhuplqdu odv glphqvlrqhv gho mdugðq gh wdo irupd
txh vh jdvwh or phqrv srvleoh hq fhufdor hqwrqfhv od ixqflöq d pðqlpl}du hq od yduldeoh u hv 111111111111111
731 Ho uhfwäqjxor DEFG gh äuhd pä{lpd lqvfulwr hqwuh od juäfd gh | @ {6 / ho hmh R[ +xq odgr vreuh
hvwh hmh, | od uhfwd { @ 5 wlhqh äuhd ljxdo d 11111111111111
741 Ho uhfwäqjxor DEFG gh äuhd pä{lpd lqvfulwr hqwuh od sduäerod | @ 7{5 / ho hmh R[ +xqr gh orv odgrv
hq hvwh hmh, | od uhfwd { @ 9 wlhqh äuhd ljxdo d 111111111111111
751 Vhd s+{, @ {6 . d{5 . e{ . f xq srolqrplr frq frhflhqwhv d> e| f/ hqwrqfhv s+{, wlhqh xq pä{lpr
orfdo hq { @ 4 | xq pðqlpr orfdo hq { @ 6 vl vxv frhflhqwhv vrq ljxdohv d 11111111111111111111
789 DSSHQGL[ H1 HMHUFLFLRV SURSXHVWRV
761 Grv wuhqhv vh dohmdq gh xq fuxfh txh irupd xq äqjxor gh <3 d yhorflgdghv gh 493np@k | 453np@k1
Fxdqgr ho sulphu wuhq hvwd d ;3np gho fuxfh hqwrqfhv od yhorflgdg frq txh vh hvwdq dohmdqgr orv
wuhqhv hv gh 111111111111111
771 Odv dvðqwrwdv yhuwlfdohv gh i +{, @ {+{65,vhq {
.{5 9{
vrq +hv, 1111111111111111
791 Od juäfd gh i+{, @ {5 wlhqh lqqlwdv uhfwdv wdqjhqwhv +xqd sru fdgd sxqwr,1 Grv gh hvwd uhfwdv
wdqjhqwh sdvd sru ho sxqwr +4> 3,/ xqd gh hood hv od wdqjhqwh d rwur sxqwr1 Ho sxqwr hv 11111111111
7:1 Od juäfd gh od ixqflöq i +{, @ +{5 4,7 wlhqh sxqwrv gh lq h{löq hq 1111111111111
7;1 Od juäfd gh i +{, @ +{5 4,7 hv 11111111111111111111
841 Od hfxdflöq gh od uhfwd wdqjhqwh d od fxuyd | @ i+{, ghqlgd lpsolflwdphqwh sru od uhodflöq
s
wdq+{|7 , 5 oq+ |, @ 3
hq +3> 4, hv 1111111111
851 Od hfxdflöq gh od uhfwd wdqjhqwh d od fxuyd +5{ . 6|,5 +6{ 5|,5 @ 57 hq +4> 4, hv 11111111111111111
861 Od ixqflöq i+{, @ { hv hvwulfwdphqwh fuhflhqwh hq 11111111111111111
871 Od ixqflöq | @ +vhq{,5 . { ghqlgd hq ^3> ` wlhqh xq pä{lpr hq { @ 111111111111111111111
881 Od ixqflöq i+{, @ {5 h{ hv hvwulfwdphqw ghfuhflhqwh vöor hq ho lqwhuydor 1111111111111
891 Od yhorflgdg gh ghvydorul}dflöq gh xq htxlsr sru ho xvr gho plvpr hv sursruflrqdo hq fdgd prphqwr
d vx frvwr uhdo |1 Od h{suhvlöq txh uhsuhvhqwd ho hqxqfldgr dqwhulru grqgh n hv xqd frqvwdqwh srvlwlyd
| w hv ho wlhpsr hv 1111111111111
LLL10 Ghvduuroor
41 Ghulyh
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